Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1982 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1982 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Contents 

Page 

Summary ................................ 1 

Communications ..................... 2 

Earth's Resources and Environment ...... 3 

Space Science ........................ 3 

Aeronautics .......................... 5 

Space Transportation .................. 5 

Space Energy ........................ 7 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration ... ....... 1 .. 9 

Space Transportation .................. 15 

Space Research and Technology ......... 19 

Space Tracking and Data Systems ........ 2 1 

Aeronautical Research and Technology ... 22 

Space Activities ....................... 27 

Aeronautical Activities ........ Space and Aeronautical Su 

Department of Defense .......... 27 

Cooperation with NASA . ........ 39 

Department of Commerce .................. 41 

Space Systems ........................ 41 

Other Uses of Satellites 

Space Support Activitie 

Space and Atmospheric Research ........ 50 

Aeronautical Programs ................. 52 

Department of Energy ..................... 53 

Space Applications of Nuclear Power 

Nuclear Waste Disposal ....... 

Nuclear Test Detection ................. 54 

Remote Sensing of the Earth ... 

Department of the Interior 

............ 56 

International Activities ................. 59 

Department of Agriculture .................. 61 

Agriculture and Resources Inventories .... 61 

Aerial Crane for Logging ............... 61 

Federal Communications Commission .... 63 

Communications Satellites 

Experiments and Studies . Department of Transportation .............. 65 

Aviation Safety ....................... 65 

Environmental Research ............... 66 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 67 

Environmental Protection Agency ........... National Science Foundation ................ 

Atmospheric Sciences .................. Smithsonian Institution ............... 

....................... 

Space Sciences ..... ............ Planetary Science . 

History of Space Sc 

Department of State ... 

Activities within the United Nations ...... Communications Satellites .............. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ...... 

Multilateral Discussions on Space Arms 

Control ........................... 

UNISPACE '82 ....................... 

Space Conference ..................... 

United States Information Agency ........... Space Shuttle ......................... 

UNISPACE '82 ....................... 

Other Programs ...................... 

Space Policy ......................... 

Appendixes 

A.1 . U.S. Spacecraft Record ............... 

A.2 . World Record of Space Launches 

Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or 

Beyond ........................... 

A.3 . Successful U.S. Launchings- 1982 ...... 

B-1 . U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 

B.2 . U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

B.3 . U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1982 

C . U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

D . U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ........... 

E.1 . Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

Historical Budget SummaryBudget Authority .................. 

E.2 . Space Activities Budget ................ E.3 . Aeronautics Budget ................... F . United States Space Policy ............. G . Aeronautical Research and 

Technology Policy .................. 

1977-1982 ........................ 

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1961-1982 ........................ 

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Aerospace Events of 1982 

Postlanding processing begins on Space Shuttle Columbia (above) after 

touchdown 16 November at Dryden Flight Research Facility, California, to 

complete the first operational mission (flight STS 5) of the Space Transportation 

System. Uncommon rainwater has turned the usually dry lake bed into a mirror. 

During STS 5, the Satellite Business System’s SBS 3 communications satellite (at 

left) was spun out of Columbia’s cargo bay 11 November in the first satellite 

launch from the Shuttle. Beyond the open SBS 3 cradle, Telesat Canada’s stillenclosed Anik C-3 awaits launch into its orbit the next day. 

President and Mrs. Reagan greet astronauts 

Ken Mattingly (left) and Henry Hartsfield 

on Columbia’s 4 July landing after the STS 4 

test mission. The first four orbital test flights 

proved the Space Transportation System was 

ready for operations. 
Orbiting satellites continue to monitor the earth: A 

40-km-wide area (at right) of the Death Valley 

region of California and Nevada was imaged by 

Landsat 4‘s new thematic mapper on 17 November, 

showing vegetation-sparse terrain, snow, rock 

types, geological structures, and mineralization in 

detail. A GOES 4 weather satellite photo (above) 

taken on 23 November shows Hurricane Iwa 240 

km southwest of Kauai, Hawaii, accelerating rapidly northeastward. Iwa passed Kauai a few hours 

later, with winds in excess of 160 km per hour. 

The Air Force’s inertial upper stage (IUS) 

“pathfinder” test vehicle (at left) is mounted in the 

Shuttle support cradle. An expendablr upper stage, 

the IUS will transfer payloads lrhm the Shuttle’s 

low earth orbit to higher mission orbits. As an upper stage on the ‘I’itan launch vehicle in 1982, it 

placed two DSCS communications satellitrs in orbit 

for the Department of Defense. Above, stand tests 

of a large-scale model at Ames Research Ccntcr investigate characteristics of a turbofan-powered, 

subsonic V/STOL concept in a joint NavyNASA-Gruinman Aerospace research program 
Three orbital flights of the Space Shuttle Columbia in 

1982 lifted the U.S. space program’s reusable Space 

Transportation System from flight testing into operations. The five-day STS 5 flight in Novembermanned by four astronauts for the first time and 

following the eight-day STS 3 and seven-day STS 

4 -delivered two commercial satellites to orbit on the 

Shuttle’s first operational mission, promising returns 

on the nation’s investment in flexible, routine, roundtrip access to space.’ 

Other orbiting spacecraft sharpened our observation 

of the earth, expanded the increasingly important 

civilian and military communications and weather networks, and advanced our knowledge of the atmosphere, the interstellar medium, and the sun’s effects on the earth. A new thematic mapper on Landsat 

4, launched into orbit by a Delta launch vehicle in 

July, began producing data of even higher quality than 

expected, for geophysical sciences, mapping, and 

monitoring the earth’s resources. 

The year’s 18 U.S. space launches included the 3 

launches of the reusable Space Shuttle and 15 of expendable vehicles, 9 of them by NASA and 6 by the 

Department of Defense (DoD). Because DoD launched 

two satellites on one vehicle, total payloads placed in 

orbit by expendable vehicles reached 16. The 3 Shuttle 

flights, plus the 2 satellites placed in separate orbits 

from one of those flights, added 5 payloads to the 

count, for a total of 21 U.S. payloads launched into orbit during 1982. Among these, NASA launched 10 

communications satellites - all reimbursable launches 

for private or international users-and 1 earth 

resources satellite, Landrat 4, to be turned over to the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) in 1983. DoD launched 2 communications 

satellites, 1 weather satellite, and 4 other military 

satellites. Shuttle flights also carried experiments into 

orbit and back to earth for atmospheric and earth 

observations, materials processing, life sciences, and a 

DoD mission. 

On 4 July, the day Columbia landed after its fourth 

flight - its second 1982 mission - President Reagan 

issued a statement on United States space policy for the 

next decade (see appendix F). The president reaffirmed the national commitment to exploration and 

use of space for the national well-being and “by all nations for peaceful purposes and the benefit of 

mankind.” He declared the United States was committed to maintaining world leadership in space transportation, space science, applications, and technology. 

Among objectives was exploration of needs and concepts for permanent space facilities. The president also 

reaffirmed the principle of two separate, interacting, 

civil and military U.S. space programs. He stated the 

basic goals of U.S. space policy are to: 

-strengthen the security of the United States; 

-maintain United States space leadership; 

-obtain economic and scientific benefits through the 

exploitation of space; 

-expand United States private-sector investment and 

space-related activities; 

-promote international cooperative activities in the 

national interest; and 

-cooperate with other nations in maintaining the 

freedom of space for activities which enhance the 

security and welfare of mankind. 

In aeronautics, NASA completed two large windtunnel test facilities. DoD and NASA projects made 

advances in testing new aircraft wing designs, fuelefficient engines, composite structures, digital fly-bywire controls, vertical or short takeoff and landing aircraft, supersonic technology, and rotorcraft. DoD 

awarded development contracts for the modernized 

multirole B-1B bomber and began studies for an advanced tactical fighter for the 1990s. NASA and the 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) experimented 

with new technology and materials to reduce hazards 

to aircraft from lightning, wind shear, fire, and icing. 

In November, the president’s Office of Science and 

Technology Policy issued an aeronautical policy statement recognizing that a strong aeronautical industry is 

essential to the nation’s security and economy and that 

the federal government’s role in providing basic 

technology is important to the nation’s leadership in 

aviation (the findings and recommendations are 

reproduced in appendix G). 

UNISPACE ’82, the second United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space, held in Vienna in August, emphasized international cooperation and further extension of space 

science and technology to developing countries. The 

United States proposed a number of initiatives, including U.S.-sponsored conferences on global disaster 

monitoring and early warning and on rural satellite 

communications. 

1 
Communications 

Communications satellites again dominated U. S. 

launch numbers in 1982, accounting for 12 of the 21 

payloads orbited during the year. NASA launched 5 

for the ever-growing U.S. domestic industry, using 

both expendable launch vehicles and the reusable 

Shuttle. It launched 1 for India, 2 for Canada, and 2 

for the International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT). DoD launched 2 satellites 

for communications support to worldwide military 

forces. Both NASA and DoD programs emphasized 

new technology, with NASA research refocusing on 

high-risk technology to maintain U.S. preeminence in 

the field. U.S. industry continued as the dominant 

supplier of communications satellites for the world 

community. 

Operational Space Systems 

INTELSAT. Annual growth rate of INTELSAT 

revenues and circuit use continued at more than 24 

percent during 1982. The fourth and fifth of the Intelsat V series of satellites were launched into orbit in 

March and September, upgrading the global network, 

and the sixth was scheduled for early 1983 launch, with 

up to four more to follow. INTELSAT placed orders 

for six Intelsat V-A spacecraft for 1984 and 1985 

launch, each to provide some 25 percent greater 

capacity than that of the Intelsav V. It awarded a contract for the design and construction of the nextgeneration Intelsat VI series, which will be compatible 

with Space Shuttle launch. 

Domestic Communications Satellites. The launch of five 

commercial domestic satellites expanded the U.S. 

communications network, and at the end of the year 

domestic satellites served the nation from 15 locations. 

New technology increased economic benefits and improved service. The Federal Communications Commission prepared to release a plan at the beginning of 

1983 for reduced orbital spacing to accommodate the 

increasing number of domestic satellites through the 

1980s. The FCC also issued permits for construction of 

direct-broadcast satellites offering direct-to-home 

television service. 

Military Communications Satellites. DoD began major 

improvements in the operational Defense Satellite 

Communications System (DSCS) for command and 

support forces with the launch of the first DSCS I11 

satellite in October. The dual launch also put a DSCS 

I1 satellite into orbit. The new DSCS I11 system includes antijamming and other protection. Four 

FLTSATCOM satellites continued worldwide service 

for tactical-peacetime and mixed-management needs 

of the Navy and unified and specified commands, as 

well as for the strategic forces. Three additional 

satellites are planned. Fabrication of the Navy's leased 

satellite (LEASAT) progressed toward scheduled 1984 

Space Shuttle launch. 

INMARSA T. The International Maritime Satellite 

Organization in February 1982 began operations in 

the maritime-mobile satellite service, using capacity 

that includes the Marisat satellites. Communications 

Satellite Corporation is the U.S. signatory in INMARSAT. At the end of 1982, the global system served 

1309 ship and 38 land stations, including 292 U.S. ship 

and 17 U.S. land stations. Ship stations were increasing at a rate of nearly five percent a month. 

Military Navigation Satellites. Congress approved, and 

the Air Force began, multiyear procurement of 28 

satellites for the joint-service Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS), which will improve weapon 

delivery, worldwide rapid-deployment, and reconnaissance capabilities. With a developmental system of 

five Navstar satellites already in use, an 18-satellite 

operational system is to be deployed by late 1988, providing accurate positioning and velocity data and accurate time synchronization. Contractors delivered 

models of GPS user equipment in November for field 

testing, and North Atlantic Treaty Organization nations began demonstrations using GPS. 

Space Communications Experiments 

Experimental Satellites. NOAA-E, first of NOAA's Advanced Tiros N environmental satellites (to be named 

NOAA 8 when launched into orbit in early 1983), will 

carry instruments to participate with the Soviet 

COSPAS 1 (launched in June 1982) in a 15-month 

evaluation of the international COSPAS-SARSAT 

satellite search and rescue project. The project already 

has assisted in a number of accidents by pinpointing 

positions of ships and aircraft in distress. 

NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) completed a successful demonstration of 

satellite communications in the Gulf of Mexico. Information on fish and shrimp was transmitted through 

NASA's ATS 3 satellite and the ARGOS data collection system on NOAA's polar-orbiting satellites, 

speeding information to users. 

Communications Research. NASA's restructured communications program concentrated on advanced 

technology usable in multiple-frequency bands and in 

a wide range of future systems, such as the Advanced 

Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) to test 

high-gain multibeam antennas in orbit. DoD concept 

validation studies concluded in September 1982 with a 

request for proposals for engineering development of 

the MILSTAR satellite, to operate in the 44- and 

20-GHz bands for worldwide, jam-resistant communications for all the military services. A Defense 

Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) and 

Navy program continued to develop technology for 

laser communications from space to submarines, 

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beginning spacecraft design and laser spaceworthiness 

engineering for Submarine Laser Communications 

Satellites (SLCSATs). 

Earth's Resources and Environment 

New sensors on Space Shuttle and satellites returned 

increasingly refined data on the earth's surface, 

resources, weather, and atmospheric composition, as 

applications of this information for man's use continued in 1982. 

Inventorying and Monitoring 

Analyses found that the Shuttle's first scientific 

payload, OSTA 1 on the November 1981 flight, obtained remote-sensing data contributing to the study of 

continental geology, atmospheric chemistry, 

oceanography, meteorology, and marine biology. The 

imaging radar-A (SIR-A) obtained clear images of the 

earth's surface through clouds and darkness and even, 

in some very dry areas, of features beneath the surface. 

Landsat 4, launched 16 July 1982 to replace Landsat 3 

in monitoring the earth's resources and environment, 

introduced new technology for remote sensing with its 

thematic mapper. The experimental sensor has sent 

back images exceeding expectations, promising greatly 

improved information for such users as farmers, urban 

planners, foresters, and oil companies. NOAA 

prepared to take over operational responsibility for the 

Landsat program in January 1983. Cooperative projects with private industry meanwhile continued to 

validate the usefulness of remote sensing for resource 

management, and sales of remotely sensed data in 

1982 totaled $4.6 million, almost $2 million from the 

Landsat program. 

AgRISTARS, the multiagency Agriculture and 

Resources Inventory Surveys through Aerospace 

Remote Sensing, was reduced in scope, focusing on 

Department of Agriculture's priority needs. The 

department will continue the program through 1986, 

to use and assess data from Landsat 4's thematic mapper. First analysis verified greatly improved 

agricultural information from the mapper. NASA will 

phase out its participation in the program by 1984. 

The Navy began the Geodetic/Geophysical Satellite 

program in 1982, planning a 1984 launch of Geosat to 

improve accuracy of the marine geoid and to detect 

hazards to underwater navigation. 

Environmental Analysis and Protection 

Weather Satellite Operations. During 1982, NOAA's 

two polar-orbiting satellites, NOAA 6 and 7 (launched 

in 1979 and 19Sl), and two geostationary satellites, 

GOES 4 and 5 (launched in 1980 and 1981), provided 

continuous data for national and international weather 

prediction and warning. Customers for Department of 

Commerce weather services increased, and weather 

broadcasts expanded. The new weather satellite 

NOAA-E (NOM 8) will have enlarged payload 

capability for environmental monitoring, as well as 

search and rescue instruments, when launched in 1983. 

An operational demonstration program assessing the 

visible-infrared, spin-scan radiometer (VISSR), atmospheric sounder (VAS) on GOES 4 and 5 continued 

into November, imaging the entire earth's surface and 

cloud cover and measuring atmospheric temperature 

and moisture. Water-vapor images already have 

revealed atmospheric circulation patterns valuable for 

weather detection and forecasting over oceans and 

other areas with sparse conventional weather data. 

VAS data have been immediately useful for maritime 

and aviation support. The VAS on GOES 4 failed in 

November, but the program was to resume after 

launch of GOES-F in 1983. 

DoDs Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP) also continued. Data, merged with Department of Commerce satellite data for weather forecasts 

and warnings, supported U.S. military services around 

the world. 

Atmospheric Research. SME, NASA's Solar 

Mesosphere Explorer launched in 1981, supplied data 

during 1982 that gave insights into the physical and 

chemical processes of the earth's stratosphere and 

mesosphere and the results affecting man. A 

November 1982 Space Shuttle experiment made the 

first global measurements of carbon monoxide 

distribution in the atmosphere. Cooperative NASA 

and Environmental Protection Agency studies made 

progress in investigations of air pollution causes, duration, effects, and relation to meteorological conditions 

and also examined movement of ozone into the 

troposphere. 

NOAA's Space Environmental Service Center provided warnings and forecasts for Space Shuttle missions, with specific support to solar payloads, including 

an experiment observing polarized hard x-ray emission 

from solar flares. It also provided radiation forecasts 

for launch and in-orbit operation, including crew protection. 

Materials Processing 

Among several materials processing experiments 

flown on the Space Shuttle during the year, a commercially funded apparatus on the fourth STS mission 

used the low gravity of space to improve separation of 

biological materials. It produced 460 times as much of 

the experiment material as can be produced on the 

earth, with 5 times the purity. 

Space Science 

Space science programs use satellites and space 

probes, Space Shuttle missions, suborbital vehicles, 

3 
and ground faciliites to investigate the origin and 

evolution of life, the earth, the solar system, and the 

universe. They also take advantage of the space environment to study medicine and biology. 

Sun-Earth Studies 

Eight Explorer satellites launched from 1973 

through 1981 -including DE I and 2 Dynamics Explorers launched last year - continued studying solar 

interactions with the earth‘s atmosphere and magnetic 

field. DE I furnished spectacular images of the entire 

auroral oval while DE 2 provided correlating 

measurements of particles and fields, for studying the 

generation of auroras and influx of energy from high 

altitudes. Plans proceeded well for cooperative projects 

on the European International Solar Polar Mission 

(ZSPM) to study the sun in 1986. 

Study of the Planets. 

Five spacecraft launched into deep space during the 

past 10 years-Pioneer 10 and 11, Pioneer-Venus I orbiter, and Voyager I and 2-continued to follow their 

first dramatic discoveries about Jupiter, Saturn, and 

Venus by returning data on interplanetary space. 

Voyager 2, which transmitted quantities of valuable data 

and images from its Saturn flyby in 1981, is due to 

meet Uranus in 1986 and Neptune in 1989, while 

Voyager 1 flies out toward the heliospheric boundary. 

Plans proceeded for 1986 launch of the Galileo mission 

in cooperation with Germany, to reach Jupiter in 

1988. 

Study of the Universe. 

Manufacturing, assembly, and testing began on the 

Space Telescope, scheduled to become-in the mid1980s-our first major observatory in orbit. A 

cooperative project with the European Space Agency, 

it will image astronomical bodies with at least 10 times 

finer resolution than is possible through the earth‘s atmosphere, perhaps changing our understanding of the 

universe. 

Analyses of data received 1978-1981 from the 

HEAO 2 and 3 High Energy Astronomy Observatories 

added to knowledge of supernova remnants and the 

nature of the interstellar medium. Smithsonian Institution scientists studying HEAO 2 findings discovered a 

new class of x-ray galaxies, developed a classification 

scheme for galaxies based on x-ray emission, and 

found evidence for evolution of the luminosity of quasistellar objects. They also found a rapidly blinking 

x-ray pulsar in a supernova remnant that supports the 

theory that massive explosions of stars leave behind 

compact cores of the original stars. The Gamma Ray 

Observatory (GRO), planned for 1988 launch, will extend the study of supernova remnants, observe the 

center of our galaxy, and make nuclear-chemistry 

studies of astrophysical objects and the origins of 

gamma-ray bursts. 

Preparations went ahead for a mission to repair the 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) in orbit by using a 

manned maneuvering unit and the Shuttle’s remote 

manipulator system to capture the satellite and redeploy it after exchanging a module. Three SMM instruments that continued to operate returned evidences 

of changes in the heat output of the sun, coinciding 

with the closing of the period of peak solar activity, and 

also detected new nuclear reactions in solar flares. The 

Explorer-class Infrared Astronomy Satellite (ZRAS), to 

be launched early in 1983, will survey the whole sky to 

identify celestial sources of infrared emissions. Development began on the Cosmic Background Explorer 

(COBE), to be launched in 1989 to study diffuse background radiation in the universe. 

Life Sciences 

Integration of subsystems was in process for a fall 

1983 Shuttle launch of the first Spacelab, a multidisciplinary mission. Spacelab 1 will measure coarse radiation inside the Shuttle-borne laboratory, study adaptation of plants and the human body to weightlessness, 

and examine effects of weightlessness on red blood cells 

and on the body’s immunity to disease. The European 

Space Agency, which developed Spacelab, is also sponsoring six life sciences experiments on SL 1. 

Plant experiments on the third Shuttle mission, as 

well as research on the ground, contributed to plant 

science and future cultivation of plants in space. Plants 

grown in the mini-greenhouse on STS 3 showed a 

number of changes, including serious chromosome 

damage. Research into biochemical mechanisms are 

shedding light on the responses to gravity. 

Spacelab 2 and 3, planned for 1984, will test 

research facilities for carrying plants and animals on 

the fourth Spacelab mission, in 1985, which will include some 25 life science experiments. The United 

States will participate in a German mission, Spacelab 

D-1, ‘scheduled for 1985 to continue research in space 

motion sickness, and will take part in the Soviet 

Union’s 1983 biological satellite mission, which will fly 

rats and two monkeys in space for a week. NASA was 

also accelerating research in new technology and procedures to assist in human adaptation to spaceflight. 

Research from the Ground. 

Astronomers making observations from the ground, 

sponsored by the National Science Foundation, found 

a pulsating white dwarf star, advanced ability to probe 

the interiors of white dwarfs, studied the center of our 

own Milky Way galaxy, and recorded the first 

evidence that the sun’s magnetic field partially controls 

the energy flow over the sun’s entire surface. In programs of other agencies, sounding rocket and balloon 

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observations contributed to studies of the stars, the 

earth’s atmosphere, and the sun’s corona and its effects 

on the earth. 

Space Transportation 

The United States conducts extensive research and 

development for new space transportation systems and 

for improving operation, economy, and versatility of 

existing systems. 

Space Transportation System (STS) 

The Space Transportation System began operational flights in 1982, after completing the last flights of 

the four-flight orbital test program. Test flights had 

demonstrated the Space Shuttle could provide the nation flexible, efficient transportation into space and 

back for people, equipment, scientific experiments, 

and commercial and military payloads. 

Space Shuttle. The Shuttle orbiter flew three orbital 

missions during the year- two test missions and the 

first operational mission - returning after each flight to 

land like an aircraft and fly again. On each test flight, 

Columbia satisfied increasing performance demands besides carrying experiments into orbit. STS 3 in March 

conducted scientific and applications experiments, 

tested prolonged exposure of the orbiter to extremes of 

heat and cold, and extended the length of flight to eight 

days. STS 4 in July carried the first military, commercial, and get-away-special payloads. Although hardware problems canceled planned astronaut activities 

outside the orbiter, STS 5 met its operational objectives of delivering two communications satellites to orbit -SBS 3 for Satellite Business Systems and Anik C-3 

for Telesat Canada. 

At the end of the year, the second Space Shuttle orbiter, Challenger- delivered in July- was being prepared for its first mission, to fly early in 1983. Columbia 

was being modified for the first Spacelab mission, 

scheduled for late 1983. NASA signed launch service 

agreements with 10 users in 1982 and continued 

negotiations with 14 others. 

Spacelab. An important milestone in the Spacelab 

program, the cooperative activity including Europe’s 

major contribution to STS, was reached in July 1982 

with European Space Agency delivery of three Spacelab pallets for exposing instruments in Shuttle orbit 

and a container for the operating electronics. With the 

1981 delivery of the Spacelab laboratory module, the 

July shipment leaves an instrument-pointing system 

still to be provided under ESA’s commitment. The 

laboratory module will fit into the Shuttle’s cargo bay 

to offer a pressurized, shirtsleeve environment for 

engineers and scientists in orbit. System and payload 

integration and crew training continued in preparation 

for the first dedicated Spacelab mission, planned for 

the fourth quarter of 1983. This mission will include 40 

international experiments and both European and 

U.S. scientists in the flight crew of six. 

Two complements of Spacelab equipment already 

have flown on the Shuttle, OSTA 1 in 1981 and OSS 1 

in March 1982, testing the environment around the orbiter and making scientific observations of the earth 

and atmosphere. 

Shuttle Stuges. DoD continued full-scale development 

of the inertial upper stage (IUS), designed to boost 

DoD and NASA payloads from the Shuttle’s low earth 

orbit to higher orbits. NASA also began joint development with DoD of a short, wide-body Centaur upper 

stage and a NASA-funded long, wide-body Centaur 

for use with the Shuttle. The industry-developed spinning-solid upper stage SSUS-D (also called payload 

assist module, PAM-D) completed tests during 1982 

and launched the two communications satellites from 

the Shuttle’s cargo bay into geosynchronous orbit during STS 5. PAM-D also served as the third stage on expendable Delta launch vehicles for launches of six commercial satellites. 

Advanced Programs. NASA continued to study 

requirements and concepts for expanding the Space 

Transportation System toward a permanent presence 

in space. Design-definition studies and advanced 

development of free-flying, unmanned, low-earthorbit platforms were completed with private industry. 

Complementary studies were made in a number of 

other countries. Other programs included advanced 

development for a Tethered Satellite System (TSS), to 

be a cooperative effort with Italy, and preliminary concept studies of a teleoperator maneuvering system (a 

remotely piloted orbital service vehicle). 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

The year’s 15 launches on expendable vehicles included a perfect record, with NASA’s 9 launches putting 9 satellites into orbit, 8 of them reimbursable (in 

addition to the 2 put into orbit by the Shuttle). DoD’s 6 

launches included 2 communications satellites on 1 

vehicle, for a total of 7 payloads in orbit. (See table of 

1982 launches in appendix A-3.) 

Aeronautics 

Improvement of Operational Systems 

Civilian and military aeronautical development programs made a number of advances in 1982, to improve 

U.S. operational airborne and airway systems. 

Aircrafi and Airborne System. Among government 

agencies, the Department of Defense has responsibility 

for operational aircraft. 

BOMBER AIRCRAFT. The four major associate contractors received full-scale development contracts for 

the modernized, multirole B-1B bomber, part of President Reagan’s strategic program announced in 1981. 

5 
Rollout for the first production B-1B was scheduled for 

October 1984, with the first flight in March 1985. 

FIGHTER AIRCRAFT. Full-scale development was 

essentially completed on the multimission F/A-18 

Hornet, a naval strike fighter to replace the F-4 fighter 

and A-7 attack aircraft. The Air Force began studies 

for an advanced tactical fighter for the 1990s with increased mission flexibility, including short takeoff and 

landing, greater agility, greater speed and altitude, increased range and payload, better vehicle and weapon 

integration, and improved reliability. 

TRANSPORT AIRcR.4FT. The Air Force awarded a 

low-level development contract for the C- 17 transport, 

including investigation of externally blown flap 

systems on swept supercritical wings, direct thrust 

reversers for the entire engine flow, work load for a 

three-man crew, and a two-pilot cockpit. The project 

will lay ground work for a follow-on aircraft in the earREMOTELY PILOTED VEHICLE (RPV). The Army’s 

small unmanned air vehicle flew its first flight in July 

1982. Four flights demonstrated computer-controlled 

launch, recovery, and navigation, as well as telemetry 

to the ground control station. The RPV will perform 

target-acquisition, designation, aerial-reconnaissance, 

and artillery-adjustment missions. 

HELICOPTERS. The Air Force began a program to 

develop the HH-60D Night Hawk for combat rescue 

and special operations forces. The helicopter will make 

long-range, unescorted flights at night and in bad 

weather. In the Army program to improve operational 

characteristics of the medium-lift helicopter, three prototype CH-47Ds had flown some 2200 test hours by the 

end of the year. Deliveries of the first production aircraft were to begin in 1983. The Army also completed 

development flight testing of the AH-64 Apache advanced attack helicopter, which will have laserequipped antitank missiles and sights for day, night, 

and bad-weather operations. 

V/STOL AND V/TOL. The Navy completed the first 

stages of operational test and evaluation of the AV-8B, 

an improved, vectored-thrust, vertical or short takeoff 

and landing aircraft that will double the range and 

payload performance of the AV-8A. A joint technology 

assessment reviewed concepts for the planned JVX, a 

multimission, vertical takeoff and landing vehicle to 

meet the needs of all the services. 

Airway Systems. The Federal Aviation Administration 

of the Department of Transportation - responsible for 

the nation’s airways - conducts development programs 

to improve the safety of the airways and airports, increase efficiency of air navigation and traffic control, 

and ensure the compatibility of air operations with the 

environment. Many programs are conducted with 

other agencies, including the Department of Commerce, NASA, and DoD. 

AIR SAFETY. FAA, NASA, and the British Royal 

Aircraft Establishment continued development of an 

ly 1990s. 

antimisting fuel additive to reduce postcrash jet transport fires, and FAA tested devices for detecting explosives in air cargo and baggage. NASA completed 

development of an aviation safety reporting system, 

which it manages for FAA. NASA and FAA also 

cooperated in research into lightning hazards, wind 

shear, icing, and advanced fire-resistant materials. 

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL. FAA in January issued a 

plan for modernizing its air traffic control and navigation system over the next two decades, using higher 

levels of automation, consolidating facilities, incorporating new surveillance and communication radar 

systems, and installing the microwave landing system. 

Aeronautical Research 

Advances in NASA and DoD aeronautical research 

and development continued in 1982, to uphold U.S. 

leadership in world air transportation and military 

aeronautics. 

Facilities. NASA completed two major wind tunnels 

for NASA, industry, and DoD aeronautical testingone at Langley Research Center in Virginia for advanced transonic testing and one at Ames Research 

Center in California for testing full-sized rotorcraft 

and V/STOL aircraft. Repairs were planned for drive 

fans damaged in a December accident at the Ames 

facility. 

Engines. NASA demonstration of advanced components in a research test-stand engine promised as 

much as 15 percent reduction in fuel consumption by 

turbofan engines. Joint Navy-Air Force programs tested advanced gas-generator and low-pressure spoolengine components and studied concepts for early prototype versions of more reliable, large, high-thrust, 

tactical aircraft engines. Navy and Grumman Aerospace pilots flew two FlOl engines on 44 flights of an 

F-14B aircraft, from mid-1981 into 1982, demonstrating reliable operation and increases in performance. 

Aerodynamics. NASA began verification testing of advanced, swept, supercritical airfoils designed to reduce 

drag and increase efficiency of long-range transport 

aircraft by improving laminar flow over wings and tail. 

Research into arrow-wing concepts, wing-fuselage 

blending, advanced aluminum and composite structures, and improved propulsion components and controls made progress toward longer range and larger 

payload capability for military supersonic cruise aircraft. Two F-16XL aircraft were flight-testing arrow 

wings. NASA also began work toward fabricating and 

ground-testing a large-scale research propeller. Windtunnel tests of turboprop wing installations with contour changes to accommodate the swirling slipstream 

gave promising results. Increased accuracy in computer computations and methods advanced the ability 

to predict aerodynamic forces and torques, facilitating 

design and testing. 

6 
The Air Force and NASA began flight-testing a 

modified F- 16 advanced-fighter-technologyintegration (AFTI) aircraft in July 1982. The test aircraft integrates triple-redundant, digital flight control 

with vertical canard surfaces for heightened agility and 

flexibility. Wings for an AFTI F-111 aircraft were being modified with variable-camber airfoil for flight 

testing in 1983. 

Materials and Structures. The joint DARPA-USAFNASA experimental forward-swept-wing X-29 proprpssed toward first flight in 1984. Advanced composite materials, aeroelastic tailoring, digital fly-bywire control, and other advanced technology in the 

X-29 will decrease aircraft size and weight, reduce 

transonic drag, improve low-speed flying, and increase 

transonic and supersonic maneuverability. NASA 

studied the roles of cobalt in superalloys for gas-turbine 

engines, seeking alternatives to rare imported 

materials. Research established technology for understanding buckling and nonlinear response of composite 

aerospace structures, for suppressing flutter, and for 

alleviating loads. 

Rotor Research. NASA's rotor systems research aircraft (RSRA) completed its first flight-research phase, 

and the NASA-Army-Navy tilt-rotor research aircraft 

continued proof-of-concept flights as well as operational demonstration flights for the military services. 

Other NASA research investigated noise prediction, 

load prediction, vibration, vortex interaction, and 

transonic flow. The Army tested a no-tail rotor 

demonstration aircraft and studied improvements in 

helicopter autorotation, curved composite fuselage 

frames, composite materials for helicopter airframes, 

and rotor noise generation. 

Powered L$t. NASA wind-tunnel tests will investigate 

promising concepts from design studies completed in 

1982 for a single-engine, supersonic, short-takeoff and 

vertical-landing, fighter-attack aircraft. In one concept, remote burning of the engine-fan air stream provides thrust; in another, an ejector provides additional 

mass airflow for vertical thrust. 

Avionics. Engineering models of two fault-tolerant 

computers delivered to NASA for evaluation promise 

highly reliable flight-control systems for future aircraft. 

The Army made progress in developing an advanced 

digital, optical control system (ADOCS) to increase 

battlefield effectiveness of helicopters. A redundant 

digital-optical system is to be as electrically passive as 

possible to avoid electrical interference. 

Space Energy 

Department of Energy-supplied nuclear-electronic 

systems have provided power for many NASA and 

DoD satellites and planetary probes. DOE continued 

research in 1982 to develop lightweight, safe, nuclear 

isotopes and reactors for higher power requirements of 

future space missions. NASA also supports DOE in 

applying aerospace expertise to energy technology for 

use on the earth. 

Energy for Use in Space 

DOE fabricated two thermoelectric converters in 

1982. The advanced general-purpose heat-source 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators (GPHS-RTGs) 

will be used for the Galileo and International Solar 

Polar Mission (ZSPM) spacecraft to study Jupiter and 

the sun. Testing of an engineering unit began. Fuel, 

iridium, and graphite components were produced. 

DOE also began testing two models of an adaptable, 

modular, isotopic thermoelectric generator promising 

substantially higher specific power than that of present 

RTGs. 

Energy for Use on Earth 

NASA developed technology for automotive gas turbines, the Stirling engine, and electric and hybrid 

motor vehicles. Wind turbines sponsored by NASA, 

DOE, and the Department of the Interior provided 

valuable data for evaluating the efficiency and 

economy of producing electrical e.nergy from the wind. 

NASA also made progress in research toward costcompetitive, long-life solar arrays and solar concentrator dishes for converting solar energy to electricity. 

7 
National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration was established in 1958 as the civilian agency 

charged with planning, directing, and conducting 

research and exploration in space and aeronautics. 

NASA cooperates with other federal, state, local, and 

foreign governments that have interests in these fields. 

Its activities with the Department of Defense are particularly extensive, since DoD is responsible for coordinating the nation’s military space and aeronautics programs. 

NASA’s goals in space are to develop technology to 

make operations more effective; to enlarge the range of 

practical applications of space technology and data; 

and to investigate the earth and its immediate surroundings, the natural bodies in our solar system, and the 

origins and physical processes of the universe. In aeronautics, NASA seeks to improve aerodynamics, structures, engines, and overall performance of aircraft, to 

make them more efficient, more compatible with the 

environment, and safer. 

Applications to the Earth 

NASA applied space research and technology to 

specific needs on earth in a broad spectrum of programs id1982. It emphasized advanced technology for 

space communications, gathered data from space on 

physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere and 

oceans, tested improved techniques for monitoring the 

earth‘s resources and its crustal and polar motion, and 

cooperated with industry to experiment in processing 

materials in space. 

Communications 

Advanced Research and Development. NASA in 1982 refocused its space communications program on highrisk technology to ensure continued U.S. preeminence 

in the field. The technology developed will be usable in 

multiple-frequency bands and in a wide range of future 

communication systems required by NASA, other 

government agencies, and U.S. industry. The proofof-concept and base research technology already under 

development in NASA’s previous program will form 

the foundation of its restructured program- including 

multibeam, frequency-reuse antennas; baseband processors; high-speed, high-bandwidth crossbar switches; 

digital and microwave integrated circuits; intersatellite 

links; and multipower transmitters. 

The first segment of the new program to be tested in 

orbit will emphasize high-gain multibeam antennas. 

Development of the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) for flight experimentation is 

planned to begin in 1984, with a launch in 1988. 

Search and Rescue. To begin a 15-month demonstration and evaluation of the international satellite-aided 

search and rescue project, COSPAS-SARSAT, the 

Soviet Union on 30 June 1982 launched Cospar 1, the 

first spacecraft carrying instruments specifically to 

determine the position of ships and aircraft in distress. 

Launch of the SARSAT spacecraft (the U.S. satellite 

NOAA-E) is scheduled for early 1983. NASA is lead 

agency for the United States, with Canada and France 

also participating. Other planned participants in evaluating the project include Norway, Sweden, the United 

Kingdom, and possibly Japan. Although not yet 

operational, the project has already aided a number of 

rescue actions, including maritime rescue of eight men 

after two boat accidents. 

Environmental Observations 

Upper Atmosphere. The Solar Mesosphere Explorer 

SME, launched in October 1981, continued to measure 

the flux of incoming solar radiation in the ultraviolet 

spectral region, ozone in the stratosphere and mesosphere, and other minor constituents, including nitrogen dioxide. The data are expected to improve understanding of physical and chemical processes in the 

earth’s stratosphere and mesosphere. 

The first year’s data from the Nimbus 7 research 

satellite, launched in October 1978, have been archived. The data-from the limb infrared monitor of 

the stratosphere, the scanning-backscattered-ultraviolet/total-ozone-monitoring spectrometer, and the 

stratospheric and mesospheric sounder - are being 

used with data from other satellites and nonsatellite experiments to improve knowledge of the earth’s stratosphere. The spectrometer and the sounder are still 

returning valuable information. 

9 
NASA reported to Congress and the Environmental 

Protection Agency in January 1982 (as required by the 

Clean Air Act amendments of 1977) an assessment of 

what is known about key processes in the stratosphere, 

especially about the effect of man-produced chemicals 

on the ozone layer. The assessment was developed 

from the findings of a workshop sponsored by NASA 

and the World Meteorologidal Organization, in which 

some 115 scientists from 13 countries participated. The 

scientists concluded that a continued release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 11 and 12 (Freon-1 1 and -12) at 

1977 rates would decrease total global ozone by five to 

nine percent by about the year 2100, but the effects of 

other changes in atmospheric composition could 

modify that result. Increasing concentrations of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and 

methane over that period must be taken into account 

before effects of the CFCs can be predicted with 

greater confidence. 

The SAM I1 instrument on Nimbus 7 observed 

stratospheric clouds during recent Arctic and Antarctic 

winters. Previous reports of stratospheric clouds and 

haze have been rare, but these measurements show the 

clouds to be far more abundant than had been assumed. They are observed when stratospheric 

temperatures are very low, at altitudes up to about 23 

kilometers. These clouds are now believed to affect 

radiation distribution significantly at stratospheric 

altitudes and to serve as a major sink for polar water 

vapor. 

Lower Atmosphere. The measurement of air pollution 

from satellites (MAPS) experiment, a gas-filter 

radiometer for remote detection of carbon monoxide in 

the atmosphere, acquired 32 hours of data between 

38ON and 38OS on the second flight of the Space Shuttle in November 1981. Preliminary analysis suggests 

that MAPS provided excellent observations of the 

global distribution of carbon monoxide, a key trace 

constituent of the earth‘s troposphere. 

Global Weather. The first global experiment of the 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) yielded global temperature profiles, sea and land surface 

temperatures, cloud heights, cloudtop temperatures, 

fractional cloud-cover, and sea-ice extent for a twomonth period. These global fields, along with operational temperature retrievals and cloud-tracked winds, 

significantly increased the accuracy of numerical 

weather forecasting. Preliminary indication is that 

temperature retrievals are the largest contributor to 

this improvement. 

Oceanic Processes. The Seasat Data Utilization Project, 

completed in 1982, converted all data into geophysical 

units (ocean wave height, topography, surface wind 

speed, sea surface temperature, etc.) and archived 

them with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Environmental and Data Service. 

NASA began an extensive oceanographic research program using these rich data. The Seasat project demonstrated for the first time that we can produce global 

data on winds, waves, and temperature. The Pilot 

Ocean Data System began operation at Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory, giving the oceanic research community 

easy access to data from GEOS 3, Nimbus 7, and Seasat 

satellites. 

Development began in 1982 on in situ instruments 

to provide subsurface oceanic observations complementing observations from space. Techniques include 

surface and subsurface drifting buoys; subsurface, 

acoustic and optical plankton measurements. 

Measurements will aid in determining the general circulation of the ocean and its effect on global climate 

and in measuring the primary (plant) productivity of 

the global ocean and its effect on the food chain. 

Resource Observations 

Observations from the Shuttle. The Space Shuttle’s first 

scientific payload -called OSTA 1 for NASA’s former 

Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications - was carried into orbit on the Shuttle orbiter Columbia’s second 

test flight, in November 1981. Analyses in 1982 found 

that it obtained useful remote-sensing data for the 

study of continental geology, atmospheric chemistry, 

physical oceanography, meteorology, and marine 

biology. The radar experiment obtained more than 10 

million sq km of surface imagery. The two multispectral sensors designed to map chlorophyll concentrations in the open ocean and to detect chemical variations of geological materials in land areas performed 

flawlessly. A fourth instrument made the first global 

survey of carbon monoxide abundance in the earth‘s 

atmosphere (see “Lower Atmosphere,” above). 

The Shuttle imaging radar-A (SIR-A) not only obtained clear, detailed imagery of the earth‘s surface 

through cloud cover and darkness, but also returned 

images of features beneath the surface in some very 

arid areas. SIR-A penetrated the dry, almost featureless Selima Sand Sheet in the eastern Sahara Qesert to 

reveal previously hidden river channels and geologic 

structures. Some subsurface features may be up to 50 

million years old. Ancient, now-vanished river systems 

may help explain present-day features, and the new 

radar tool may aid the search for water and other 

resources in this area. The radar imagery also uncovered new linear features associated with regional 

faulting in Indonesia, China, and the eastern United 

States; significant structural detail beneath forest cover 

in remote areas of western Guyana; and composition 

of the surface layer in the Great Kafir Salt Desert of 

Iran. 

Three experiments compromised by the shortened 

STS 2 mission were rescheduled for later flights. 

Analysis of OSTA 1 radar imagery indicated a need to 

change the look angle of the radar’s antenna to image 

other features of interest. Equipment flown on OSTA 

1, modified to provide that capability, is scheduled to 

fly on the Shuttle in late 1984. Before the advent of the 

10 
Shuttle, recalibration, modification, or upgrading of 

experimental sensors that had orbited the earth was not 

possible. The Shuttle’s ability to carry instruments into 

space routinely and return them to the ground has the 

potential to accelerate remote-sensing research and 

promote eventual commercialization of the 

technology. 

Renewable Resources: AgRISTARS. NASA participates 

in the multiagency Agricultural and Resources Inventory Surveys through Aerospace Remote Sensing to 

develop and test spectral analysis of remotely sensed 

data acquired from experimental sensors such as the 

Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) and the thematic 

mapper. Designed primarily to meet information 

needs of the Department of Agriculture but also for 

global assessments for other agencies and scientists, the 

program made technical progress in all projects during 

1982. The most significant developments were in 

rapid, large-scale crop identification and area 

measurements and in continued development of 

models of the greenness profile. The models calculate 

the rate of crop greenup from all four Landsat multispectral-scanner bands over a growing cycle (two or 

more acquisitions) and have facilitated identification of 

the crop and its stage of growth. Software improvements reduced analyst time for analyzing 9- by 1 1-km 

segments from 5 hours to 15 minutes and centralprocessing-unit time from 1 hour to 13 minutes. Present results obtained from simulated thematic-mapper 

data promise much improved distinction of corn from 

soybeans at earlier stages of growth, with fewer data 

acquisitions, and accommodation of a wider range of 

agricultural conditions. NASA participation in 

AgRISTARS will be phased out by 1984. However, 

NASA plans to continue fundamental remote-sensing 

research and development of techniques for extracting 

information from remotely sensed data. 

Renewable Resources Research. Research continued in 

remote-sensing science and discipline science. 

Discipline science focused on developing techniques 

for using the thematic-mapper simulator (TMS) and 

Landrat 4 thematic mapper (TM) in vegetation 

monitoring, hydrology, and geography, seeking to 

determine new capability and improvements over the 

MSS and identify the contributing sensor 

characteristics. Three discipline science research projects were completed: Irrigated Land Assessment for 

Water Management, Monitoring Insect Defoliation of 

Hardwood Forests, and Crop Classification Employing Soil Data. Eight projects will be continued, seven 

of them developing thematic-mapper techniques and 

one with Japan in hydrology. Research in techniques 

for large-scale vegetation monitoring and biomass 

assessment is being conducted with the NOAA 7 advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR), 

with test sites in Africa and Brazil. 

Nonrenewable Resources Research. Emphasis in the nonrenewable resources program was on extracting different kinds of geological information from remotesensing measurements in different spectral regions. 

Analysis of experimental data collected during the 

November 1981 Shuttle flight was completed. The 

Shuttle multispectral infrared radiometer (SMIRR) 

experiment showed that narrowband spectral 

measurements in shortwave infrared can detect subtle 

differences in clay minerals, distinguishing clay 

minerals produced by normal weathering from those 

commonly associated with subsurface deposits of base 

and precious metals. 

Landsat Operations. Landsat 4, launched 16 July 1982, 

replaced the aging Landsat 3 for remote sensing of earth 

resources, pollution, topography, and geology from 

space and is also testing a new sensor, the thematic 

mapper. Images received have exceeded the expectations of engineers and scientists. The new satellite’s 

success to date introduces a new chapter in remotesensing technology, a technology rapidly becoming of 

prime importance to farmers, foresters, urban planners, and oil companies. The spacecraft continues the 

work of the earlier Landsats and also advances remotesensing technology, testing improved spatial resolution, new and narrower spectral bands, and improved 

radiometric resolution. The instrumentation built into 

Landsat 4‘s thematic mapper will be compared with the 

flight-proved multispectral scanner used on earlier 

Landsats and also carried on Landsat 4. Information 

from the two instruments will be analyzed in a variety 

of studies. 

Land-Remote-Sensing Test and Evaluation. NASA seeks 

to determine the viability of experimental remotesensing techniques for resource management in diverse 

test settings and to provide information on them for 

further research and development. New technology in 

remote sensing has been validated as producing useful 

management tools through cooperative projects with 

private industry, state and local governments, and 

universities. The program has tested experimental 

techniques pertinent to resource management issues of 

national concern and carried out projects in cooperation with technically advanced user organizations. 

During the past year, six land-remote-sensing test 

and evaluation projects were completed: Olympic National Park fire assessment and fire-behavior rnodeling, electric-utility transmission-line siting, Appalachian lineaments analysis to identify and map 

Devonian-shale gas deposits, subarctic land-capability 

analysis, critical-area management of subtropical 

water resources, and nuclear-power-plant siting and 

power forecasting. In addition, nine state and regional 

applications projects were completed in fields as 

diverse as wildlife habitat assessment, water demand of 

irrigated lands, forest resource assessment, and planning for coastal-zone development. These projects 

transferred NASA remote-sensing technology to some 

30 states in the past six years. 

11 
Geodynamics. Since 1979, NASA, NOAA, U.S. 

Geological Survey, National Science Foundation, and 

Defense Mapping Agency have cooperated in studying 

the crustal motion of the earth and researching earthquakes. The program uses laser ranging to satellites 

and the moon, microwave interferometry with astronomical radio sources, and radio transmission from 

satellites (such as those in the Global Positioning 

System) for precise measurements of crustal motion 

and rotational dynamics of the earth. A principal 

aspect is the study of crustal deformation in the continental United States and Alaska, focusing on the San 

Andreas Fault in California. Studies of the tectonic 

plates and the earth’s global gravity and magnetic fields 

also seek understanding of dynamic processes in the 

solid earth. 

During 1982, the program obtained significant new 

information about the earth. Studies on regional, continental, and intercontinental scales are helping to 

elucidate basic scientific questions regarding tectonic 

processes and their relationship to crustal hazards such 

as earthquakes. In the long term, such studies contribute to social and economic considerations related to 

forecasting earthquakes and to national security (70 

percent of the U.S. semiconductor industry is in earthquake-prone areas of southern California.) The U. S. 

activity has led to similar studies in some 20 countries 

and international scientific organizations. Some countries-such as the Federal Republic of Germany, The 

Netherlands, Japan, and Italy- have or are acquiring 

similar measurement systems through commercial 

sources in the United States. 

The study of variations in the earth‘s polar motion, 

length of day, and the gravity and magnetic fields are 

contributing to understanding the structure and motion in the earth‘s interior. Recently, changes in day 

length have been correlated with changes in the total 

angular momentum of the atmosphere, and changes in 

day length and the magnetic field’s rate of westward 

drift have been related to long-term climatic change. 

The interaction of the solid earth with the earth‘s atmosphere and with changes in solar energy provide intriguing possibilities - once they are understood - for 

forecasting weather and climate. The earth‘s gravity 

and magnetic fields offer two of the few ways available 

to “look into the earth” for scientific purposes. Studies 

are providing new practical information that contributes to the assessment of the earth‘s natural resources, to navigation, and to operations in space. 

Materials Processing in SpaGe 

On STS 4, the United States took a big step toward 

commercial use of the low gravity of space to improve 

the separation of biological materials and to produce 

new pharmaceuticals for treating human disease. The 

experiment was the first commercially funded apparatus to fly on the Space Shuttle. McDonnell 

Douglas, which proposed and built it under a joint 

endeavor agreement with NASA, reported that all mission objectives of the test were met. 

Continuous-flow electrophoresis, which separated 

the biological materials, has been used on the earth for 

many years; but the effects of gravity, primarily sedimentation and buoyancy of the starting mixture, 

reduce efficiency. Operation in low gravity during the 

Shuttle flight yielded a 460-fold increase in processed 

material over the amount that can be produced on the 

earth, as well as a 5-fold increase in purity. On the 

sixth flight, an increase in applied voltage is expected 

to increase the processing volume 560 times over that 

of an earth-based unit. Samples used for these tests 

consisted of different concentrations of albumin mixtures (difficult to separate on the earth) and several 

concentrations of a typical cell-culture medium containing products of commercial interest. 

Science 

Space science investigates the origin and evolution 

of the universe, of the solar system, and of life in the 

universe, as well as the processes that shape the environment of the earth. Use of space technology and 

the space environment advances knowledge in medicine and biology. 

Study of the Sun and Its Earth Effects 

Solar-terrestrial physics investigations seek an 

understanding of the processes controlling the nearspace environment. Energy from the sun, arriving in 

the vicinity of the earth as electromagnetic energy and 

the plasma flow of the solar wind, influences the atmosphere, ionosphere, and magnetosphere, as well as the 

earth‘s weather, climate, auroral display, and radio 

disturbances. 

Three atmosphere explorers -Explorer 51, launched 

in 1973, and Explorer 53 and 54, launched in 1976-are 

studying the interaction of solar ultraviolet energy with 

the earth‘s atmosphere, an interaction that produces 

the ionosphere. The International Sun-Earth Explorers ISEE 1, 2, and 3, launched in 1978, study the 

interaction of the solar wind with the outermost parts 

of the earth‘s magnetic field, an interaction that fills the 

outer magnetosphere with “hot” plasma. Dynamics Explorers DE 1 and 2, launched in 1981, are studying the 

interaction between the “cool” plasma of the ionosphere 

and the hot plasma of the magnetosphere. 

DE 1 is furnishing spectacular pictures of the entire 

auroral oval in several wavelengths. The details revealed correlate with the particles and fields directly 

measured by DE 2, permitting thorough study of the 

generation of the aurorae and the influx of energy from 

high altitudes. A Fabry-Perot interferometer measures 

the altitude profiles of large-scale winds that affect the 

distribution of energy and chemical constituents in the 
earth‘s environment. Close relationships between the 

measured electric and magnetic fields will eventually 

help us understand some of the large-scale dynamo and 

motor effects that have been theoretically postulated, 

but could not be systematically studied till now. 

Communication with Helios 1, lost in August, was 

restored in November. The spacecraft’s approach 

nearer the sun increased solar-cell power sufficiently to 

sustain the signal. Launched in 1974 as a joint U.S.- 

West German mission, Helios 1 investigates the closein solar environment and the sun itself. 

Study Ofthe Planets 

NASA’s deep-space vehicles in other parts of the 

solar system continued to work well and return data. 

These included Pioneer 10 and 11 (launched in 1972 

and 1973), the Pioneer-Venus 1 orbiter (launched in 

1978), and Voyager 1 and 2 (launched in 1977)-which 

have all already made valuable discoveries about the 

planets. Voyager 2 will encounter the planets Uranus in 

January 1986 and Neptune in 1989, while Voyager 1 

will continue on a trajectory out toward the heliospheric boundary. Plans to launch the Galileo spacecraft in a cooperative project with Germany and the 

European International Solar Polar Mission (ZSPM) in 

cooperation with the European Space Agency (ESA) 

are proceeding well despite changes in launch years 

from 1984 to 1986 for Galileo and from 1985 to 1986 for 

ZSPM. Galileo will reach Jupiter late in 1988. ZSPM will 

acquire data about the sun from above the ecliptic 

plane. 

In the near term, the planetary exploration program 

faces a hiatus in the return of major new scientific information between 1982 and 1988. However, the 

reflight of the OSS 3 payload on the Shuttle in 1985 to 

observe Halley’s Comet, U.S. participation in the 

European Giotto mission to observe that comet, the 

ground-based International Halley Watch activities, 

and the retargeting of ISEE 3 for an encounter with the 

short-period comet Giacobini-Zinner will make 

valuable scientific contributions. 

Study of the Universe 

The NASA astrophysics program investigates the 

physical nature of the universe, from our own sun outward to the most distant quasars. It seeks to determine 

the laws that govern cosmic phenomena, to understand 

the sun as a star, and to learn how the universe began 

and how it will end. Many observations cannot be 

made through the earth‘s atmosphere, and so we must 

carry the instruments into space. 

Space Telescope. The Space TeIescope will be our first 

major observatory in orbit. Being developed for launch 

in the mid-l980s, it will permit us to see farther into 

the universe than ever before and is expected to have a 

revolutionary influence on our understanding of the 

universe. The Space Telescope will image astronomical 

bodies with at least 10 times finer resolution than can 

be achieved by telescopes observing through the earth‘s 

atmosphere, and it will detect objects 50 times fainter 

than can the largest ground-based observatories. 

Development of the telescope and its focal-plane 

instruments during 1982 shifted from design to manufacturing, assembly, and testing. Fabrication of flight 

hardware began. The primary mirror, whose surface 

departs from a perfect figure by no more than a few 

millionths of an inch, was completed. The secondary 

mirror was ground, polished, and coated. This mission 

is also a cooperative project with ESA. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories. The study of 

supernova remnants in 1982 benefited greatly from 

analyses of observations made by HEAO 2 and HEAO 

3 satellites (operating from 1978 and 1979 into 1981, 

more than twice their designed lives). Remnants are 

portions of supernovas that are violently ejected into 

space and subsequently interact with, and heat, the 

ambient interstellar medium. HEAO 2 x-ray images of 

supernova remnants revealed a complex and asymmetric structure at the shock front, indicating strong 

non-uniformities in the interstellar medium. Both 

broadband and high-resolution spectral observations 

by HEAO 2 showed a wealth of x-ray emission lines 

that yielded valuable information on the elemental 

components, the temperature, and the equilibrium 

state of the expanding shell of ejecta plus swept-up 

medium. HEAO 3 cosmic-ray measurements gave additional information on the production of heavy elements released during the supernova explosion. The 

relative abundances of elements measured with the 

heavy-nuclei experiment on HEAO 3 indicate that the 

“r process,” in which heavy elements are produced in a 

rapid nucleosynthesis episode during the supernova explosion, is inconsistent for the synthesis of elements 

through nuclear charge 40 for zirconium. 

Gamma Ray Observatory. One of the instruments 

planned for launch on the GRO satellite will extend the 

study of supernova remnants to the search for gammaray line emission from radioactive nuclei ejected in the 

initial explosion. GRO is proceeding toward expected 

launch readiness by May 1988. It will make observations in the center of our galaxy, as well as nuclear 

chemistry studies of astrophysical objects and the 

origins of gamma-ray bursts. TRW completed the extended definition study in September. The phase D 

development contract award was planned for early 

1983. Considerable emphasis has been placed on instrument development, and electronics design is 50 to 

80 percent complete on the four instruments. 

Solar Maximum Mission. With receipt of approval of 

the Solar Maximum Repair Mission, activities are going ahead rapidly to perform this mission in early 

1984. The repair will include an in-orbit exchange of 

the attitude-control-system module of the multimission 

modular spacecraft that carries SMM, as well as three 
repairs of the science instruments. This mission will 

test several important capabilities of the Space Shuttle, 

including use of the manned maneuvering unit and the 

remote manipulator system for capture and redeployment of the SMM spacecraft. Meanwhile, the three 

operating instruments on SMM continue to return exciting data. The radiometer experiment has discovered 

the first definite evidence for changes in the heat output of the sun, observing a very small drop in solar output over the two-year lifetime of SMM so far. This 

drop coincides with a drop in the sunspot number, as 

we pass out of the period of peak solar activity, and will 

lead to many studies of the relation between sunspots 

and solar heat output. The gamma-ray instrument has 

also made important discoveries about solar flares, including detection of many new nuclear reactions in 

flares and the first observations of neutrons, one of the 

basic constituents of all matter, created in flares. 

Explorers. The Infrared Astronomy Satellite ZRAS, 

an Explorer-class satellite to be launched in January 

1983, will make an all-sky survey to identify the 

important infrared emitters in the universe spanning 

the wavelength range of 8-120 micrometers. A 

cooperative effort of the United States, Netherlands, 

and United Kingdom, the program will publish a 

catalog of the celestial sources identified, giving their 

position and fluxes. 

Development began during fiscal 1982 on the 

Cosmic Background Explorer COBE, with a launch 

planned for 1989. The mission is to make a definitive 

exploration of the diffuse radiation of the universe between the wavelengths of l micrometer and 13 millimeters. This band includes the 3-kelvin cosmic background radiation thought to be the remnant from the 

hot Big Bang that is assumed to have started the expansion of the universe. The infrared band (1 -300 micrometers) may contain the dominant portion of the 

universe’s energy content, including radiation from 

primeval galaxies. 

Suborbital Observations. In addition to standard sounding rocket and balloon payloads, NASA is developing a 

carrier for sounding rocket payloads that will use the 

Space Shuttle. The “Shuttle payload autonomous 

research tool for astronomy” (SPARTAN) will provide 

experiment flight times of up to 40 hours at costs comparable to those of present sounding rocket missions. 

Three of these payloads are already on manifests for 

STS missions. 

The NASA balloon program makes extensive use of 

the National Scientific Balloon Facility at Palestine, 

Texas, funded and managed by the National Science 

Foundation. NASA and NSF signed an agreement 

under which NASA assumed funding and management for the facility beginning in fiscal 1983. 

Advanced TechnoloD Development and Long-Range Planning. Advanced technology development continued on 

the Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF 

satellite) with contracts to Perkin-Elmer and Itek Corporation for development of advanced x-ray mirrors. 

Contract work by Perkin-Elmer also continued on advanced technology development of the Solar Optical 

Telescope (SOT), to be carried on several future Space 

Shuttle flights. The National Academy of Sciences, advising NASA, published an assessment of future needs 

in its Astronomy and Astrophysics for the 1990’s (NAS, 

1982). This third decennial study of the subject by 

NAS was addressed to both NASA and NSF and proposed priorites for new programs ranging across all 

disciplines in those fields. 

L#e Sciences 

Operational Medicine. Biomedical studies of flight 

crews on operational Space Shuttle flights, which 

began in November 1982, will provide information on 

effects of repeated and prolonged spaceflight, human 

adaptability, human environmental needs, and health 

maintenance. Experiments will also fly on shared 

Spacelab missions on the Shuttle, and Spacelab 4 will 

be dedicated entirely to life science investigations. 

Spacelab 1, scheduled for October 1983, will include 

NASA measurements of cosmic radiation inside 

Spacelab, as well as studies of space motion sickness 

and sensory motor adaptation to weightlessness, spinal 

reflexes and posture changes during weightlessness, 

space effects on the body’s immune response (ability to 

resist disease), and mass changes in red blood cells. 

NASA will also study plant growth in space to see if 

circadian rhythms persist and to see how very low 

gravity affects growth movements. The European 

Space Agency (ESA) is sponsoring six complementary 

experiments on Spacelab 1. 

The Spacelab D-1 mission, scheduled for 1985, is a 

German mission with some U.S. life sciences participation. Vestibular research on motion sickness will 

continue on that mission. Spacelab 2 and 3, both 

planned for 1984, will flight-test plant-growth units. 

and animal holding facilities in preparation for the 

1985 flight of Spacelab 4. Some 25 experiments will fly 

on the dedicated life sciences SL 4 mission, investigating gravitational biology, vestibular adaptation 

and motion sickness, cardiovascular and cardiopulmonary adaptation, fluid-electrolyte adaptation, 

red-cell mass loss in blood, muscle and bone degradation, and immunological changes. Research animals 

(rats, mice, small monkeys) will be a part of the inflight 

experiments. 

Integration of subsystems in preparation for SL 1 

was under way at Kennedy Space Center in 1982. Mission planning and preparation for the next four flights 

intensified. Principal investigator contracts were 

negotiated, with final selection for SL 4 due early in 

1983. Hardware development began. Ground facilities 

at the NASA centers were completed in 1982, and 

most of the design for a data-collection and handling 

facility was completed. 

14 
Biomedical Research. Half the crew members flying on 

the Shuttle orbiter have experienced space motion sickness, a self-limiting vestibular disorder marked by 

nausea and occasional vomiting. Symptoms usually occur shortly after crews enter weightlessness, increase 

over several hours, and then gradually subside over the 

next two or three days. Because Shuttle flights are 

short, motion sickness may prevent completion of mission tasks. Present medication appears helpful but not 

adequate. Ground tests are not yet able to make useful 

predictions as to who will become ill. NASA therefore 

is planning to form a Vestibular Program Office to accelerate and focus research. The first two-year phase of 

testing new technology and procedures on Shuttle 

flights seeks to improve management of motion sickness by 10 to 15 percent. 

Space Biology. Plant experiments flown on the third 

Shuttle mission and ground-based research with 

recently developed scientific techniques and instruments are providing a foundation for cultivating plants 

in space. They also have contributed significantly to 

plant science. Plants grown in the mini-greenhouse 

flown on STS 3 were markedly disturbed in orientation, showed reduced root-cell division, and suffered 

serious chromosome damage. Ground research found 

that a complex biochemical mechanism including 

calcium movement, an ion gradient, and a plant hormone (auxin) modifies plant response to gravity. 

Understanding the mechanism in physiological, morphological, and behavioral responses is now within our 

grasp. Experiments on the Shuttle missions should 

rapidly advance research. The effects on plants of 

gravitational changes doubtless affect harvest and biomass yield, factors of importance to cultivating plants 

both in space and on the earth. No one has yet succeeded in growing a plant from seed to seed in space but, 

for a closed-loop, water-oxygen-nutrition system in a 

space station, growing plants in space will be critical. 

Preparations continued during 1982 for NASA’s 

participation in the Soviet Union’s Cosmos biological 

satellite mission now scheduled for launch in late 1983. 

The Soviet spacecraft will fly two rhesus monkeys for 

approximately one week in space, and U.S. scientists 

will assist in cardiovascular and biorhythm measurements of the primates, as well as postflight data 

analysis. U.S. specialists also plan to participate in 

studies of calcium metabolism, vestibular system, and 

behavior of laboratory rats, also to be flown on the 

Cosmos mission. 

Global Biology. A new program began studying the 

influences of biological processes on global biogeochemical cycles. Biological processes dominate in the 

production and removal of many constituents of the 

biosphere, and understanding these processes is critical 

to understanding the consequences of environmental 

perturbations. Analytical modeling will be used to 

specify needs for new field research, remote-sensing 

observations, and further analyses of existing data. 

Progress in these research areas will progressively 

refine models of interactions between the biota and the 

biosphere. In 1982, the program began to develop 

methodologies for recognizing ecosystem borders and 

estimating biomass in selected regions using remotesensing data. Other research - on biogenic methane 

production in selected wetland regions - indicated that 

these ecosystems can act as both major sources and 

sinks of atmospheric methane as determined by 

seasonal temperature and precipitation variability. 

Spacelab Flight Program 

The third flight of the Shuttle orbiter Columbia, in 

March 1982, carried a Spacelab pallet of scientific instruments, designated OSS 1 for the former Office of 

Space Science. The instruments measured the environment of the orbiter, electromagnetic and particulate 

contamination surrounding it, and solar polarization 

and irradiance. Detailed information obtained will 

help to perfect operation of a more powerful electron 

accelerator for studies on later Shuttle flights. Detection of electronic and ionospheric characteristics 

proved that the orbiter’s electronic emissions would not 

prevent sensitive scientific measurements planned for 

later missions. 

Integration and testing of Spacelab 1 payload components began at Kennedy Space Center in 1982. 

Spacelab’s long module and pallet, built by the European Space Agency, were delivered in December 1981. 

During the first half of 1982, scientific instruments for 

studies in astronomy and solar physics, space plasma 

physics, atmospheric physics and earth observations, 

life sciences, and material sciences were delivered to 

KSC . Instrument testing began in August. Integration 

of the assembled Spacelab module into the Shuttle 

would begin in early 1983 for a fall launch. 

Space Transportation 

Space Shuttle 

NASA, with DoD participation, is developing the 

national Space Transportation System (STS) to provide the United States an economic and efficient 

capability for moving personnel, equipment, supplies, 

and scientific, commercial, and other payloads into 

and out of space. The Space Shuttle- the first reusable 

earth-to-orbit vehicle - made three flights in 1982. The 

first two missions, STS 3 and STS 4, completed the 

four-flight orbital-test program, which began in 198 1 

and demonstrated the Shuttle’s readiness for routine 

space operations. STS 5, the Shuttle’s fifth flight and 

the third in 1982, introduced the STS operational era. 

STS 3 completed an eight-day mission in March. 

The mission achieved its objectives of demonstrating 

performance of the Shuttle orbiter under conditions 

more demanding than in the earlier flights, conducting 
long-duration thermal-soak tests (prolonged exposure 

to extremes of heat and cold by turning different surfaces of the craft toward the sun), and extending the 

length of orbital flight. The orbiter Columbia landed at 

the White Sands Test Facility because heavy rains had 

made the primary landing site at Dryden Flight 

Research Facility unusable. A severe windstorm 

delayed the landing one day and wind-blown gypsum 

dust following the landing necessitated disassembly of 

some of the orbiter’s reaction-control vernier engines 

for cleaning before the next mission. Columbia was 

returned atop its 747 carrier aircraft to Kennedy Space 

Center to begin processing for STS 4. 

Launched in June, STS 4 carried the first military, 

commercial, and get-away-special payloads, moving 

the Shuttle closer to a national space transportation 

system capable of fulfilling government-wide and other 

user requirements. All systems performed satisfactorily 

except the solid-fueled rocket boosters’ recovery 

systems, which permitted the boosters to sink in the 

ocean on their reentry. Achievement of mission objectives, similar to those for STS 3, further demonstrated 

orbiter performance under increasingly demanding 

conditions. After the seven-day STS 4 mission, Columbia touched down at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 4 July 1982, making its first landing on a concrete runway. The three prior landings were on drylake-bed runways that permitted long ground runs if 

needed. President and Mrs. Reagan watched the landing and welcomed the two returning astronauts. Columbia was ferried to KSC for its next flight. 

The five-day STS 5 mission, the first operational 

flight of the Space Shuttle, was completed in 

November. For the first time Columbia was manned by 

four astronauts, instead of two, Touchdown was again 

at Edwards Air Force Base. The mission achieved its 

operational objective of delivering two commercial 

communications satellites to low earth orbit for subsequent boost into geosynchronous orbit. A planned 

EVA demonstration test was canceled because of 

spacesuit hardware problems. 

During 1982, the mission control center and Shuttle 

mission simulation at Johnson Space Center supported 

the STS missions, including NASA, DoD, and commercial payload operations. 

Orbiter. The Space Shuttle orbiter flew its three 1982 

missions with no major problems. Each mission expanded the flight envelope further, testing more fully 

the capabilities and characteristics of the orbiter. The 

time required to prepare Columbia for its next mission 

decreased with each test flight. Another major milestone in 1982 was delivery of orbiter OV-099, 

Challenger, lighter than Columbia and incorporating 

more crew and passenger space as well as changes developed from Columbia’s missions. Challenger, delivered 

to KSC on schedule in July, was to make its first flight 

in early 1983. 

Following its fourth flight, Columbia was modified at 

KSC for the November operational flight and, at the 

end of the year, was being modified again for the first 

Spacelab mission, now scheduled for September 1983. 

Main_ Engine. The Shuttle orbiter’s three highperformance hydrogen-oxygen main engines each 

have a rated vacuum thrust of 2000 kilonewtons 

(470 000 pounds). A major advance in propulsion 

technology, the engines are designed to provide a long 

operating life (7.5 hours, 55 starts), and the thrust can 

be throttled over a wide range (65 to 109 percent of 

rated power level) as required. 

An electronic digital controller - the first to be used 

in a rocket engine-accepts commands from the orbiter for engine start, shutdown, and throttle-setting 

changes and monitors engine operation. It automatically adjusts performance and can shut down the 

engine safely should specific failures arise. 

The engines performed flawlessly during the first 

five flights of Columbia. Postflight inspection revealed 

no significant discrepancies. A higher-thrust version of 

the engine (109 percent of the present rated power 

level) had been tested for more than 35 000 seconds by 

the end of 1982. Flight-certification testing of the fullpower-level design was scheduled for completion by 

February 1983. 

External Tank (EV. The external tank carries 

700 000 kilograms of liquid-hydrogen and liquidoxygen propellants for the orbiter’s three main engines. 

The tank, 46.8 meters long and 8.4 meters in diameter 

and the only expendable portion of the Space Shuttle 

system, separates from the orbiter before orbit insertion and breaks up during descent over a remote ocean 

area. The external tanks performed well in the three 

1982 launches. During the year, four tanks were delivered to KSC, including the last tank (ET-6) of the 

original configuration and the first lightweight tank 

(LWT-1). LWT-1, 3600 kilograms lighter than the 

earlier models, was delivered in September, ahead of 

schedule. Eight other lightweight tanks are in production at the Michoud Assembly Facility. 

Solid Rocket Booster (SRB). Two solid-fueled rocket 

boosters burn for about two minutes’in parallel with 

the orbiter’s main propulsion system to provide thrust 

for initial ascent. The two boosters provide a combined 

thrust of 23 600 kilonewtons (5.3 million pounds). 

They are 4.5 meters in diameter, 45.5 meters long, 

and together weigh 583 600 kilograms at launch. 

Flight performance of the SRBs for STS 3, 4, 5 was 

within specification. Descent and recovery were as 

planned in STS 3 and 5. The STS 5 aft skirts, 

strengthened by modifications of the internal stiffener 

rings, suffered less damage when they struck the water 

than did skirts on the earlier flights. In STS 4, the 

boosters struck the water with much greater force than 

they were designed to withstand, broke up, and sank. 

An investigation board concluded that one of two risers 
that attach the chutes to the SRB on each of the six 

main chutes was prematurely disconnected. The 

decelerator system, designed to release the main chutes 

at water impact to facilitate recovery, had released 

them too soon. The STS 5 recovery system was 

modified to eliminate severance of the main chutes at 

water impact. 

Development progressed on two motors that will increase the payload capabilities of the Space Shuttle. 

The first of two static firings of a high-performance 

motor (which permits a 1360-kilogram payload increase) was completed in October 1982, with a second 

scheduled in the spring of 1983. Work also began in 

1982 on design, development, and test of the filamentwound case motor (2495-kilogram payload increase) 

scheduled for its first flight in late 1985 from Vandenberg Air Force Base. Assembly of boosters for STS 3 

through STS 8 proceeded, along with the highperformance motor and refurbishing of three sets of 

hardware for future flights. A series of production 

readiness reviews continued in 1982. 

Launch and Landing. Shuttle processing and the 

launching of the third, fourth, and fifth flights of Columbia were supported by the first line of processing 

facilities at KSC while construction and activation of 

the second line were in process. Two major work stations in the second line - the Orbiter Processing Facility bay number 2 and mobile launch platform number 

2 -were completed in 1982 and processed Challenger for 

its early 1983 launch. A complete line of processing 

and launch facilities under construction at Vandenberg 

Air Force Base in California was on schedule for the 

first planned Shuttle launch from there in 1985. 

Inertial Upper Stage (IUS). Full-scale development of 

the IUS continued in 1982. Being developed by the 

Department of Defense to extend the reach of the Shuttle into higher earth orbits, the solid-propellant IUS 

and its payload will be deployed from the orbiter in low 

earth orbit, and the IUS will boost the payload to a 

higher-energy orbit. NASA and DoD will use the IUS 

primarily for geosynchronous missions. NASA is coordinating non-DoD requirements with the DoD program to ensure IUS utility for NASA and commercial 

applications. The first Shuttle/IUS was to launch a 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite in early 1983. 

Centaur. NASA initiated contracts for development 

and procurement of two wide-body Centaur upper 

stages for launching the Galileo and International Solar 

Polar (ISPM) missions in May 1986. The wide-body 

STS Centaur is a modified version of the existing Centaur upper stage, which has flown successfully as part 

of the Atlas-Centaur expendable launch vehicle program. To achieve high reliability at minimum cost, the 

wide-body version uses the same propulsion system 

and about 85 percent of the existing Centaur’s avionics 

systems. The propellant tanks are modified to add 50 

percent more capacity and to make the stage compatible with the Shuttle. 

Spinning Solid Upper Stage (SSUS). The SSUS’s are being developed and sold as commercial ventures by 

McDonnell Douglas Corporation. Called payload 

assist modules (PAMs), these upper stages are offered 

in two sizes: PAM-D for smaller spacecraft and PAMA for larger ones. PAM-D flew six commercial missions during 1982 as the third stage of the Delta expendable launch vehicle. To be used for flights on the 

Space Transportation System, PAM-D completed 

qualification and verification tests during 1982. It 

launched the Satellite Business Systems’ SBS 3 and 

Telesat Canada’s Anik C-3 from the Shuttle’s cargo bay 

during the November STS 5 flight, sending them into 

geosynchronous orbit for communications satellite 

operations. PAM-A qualification and production activities were halted during 1982, pending definition of 

spacecraft needs and launch schedules. 

Advanced Planning 

NASA investigated systems that could expand the 

Space Transportation System toward a permanent 

presence in space. Studies included innovative concepts to provide more economical payload support, to 

build and repair in space, to operate long-duration 

manned facilities, and to provide more economical 

transportation. 

Design-definition (phase B) studies and advanced 

development of free-flying, unmanned, low-earthorbit platforms, to be deployed and serviced by the 

Shuttle orbiter, were completed. Other achievements 

during 1982 included advanced development and a 

firm price offer for an innovative Tethered Satellite 

System (TSS), preparatory to a proposed program to 

start in fiscal 1984. The program is planned as a cooperative undertaking with the government of Italy, 

which would develop a spacecraft for TSS. JSC completed competitive preliminary-concept studies of 

satellite service systems that would be supplied by contracts with Lockheed and Grumman. The three-phase 

studies investigated requirements, concepts, and 

system economics. The results were made available to 

all interested NASA and DoD elements. In June 1982, 

some 350 DoD and civilian participants attended a 

satellite services workshop at JSC, for discussions of 

servicing equipment, operations, and economics; 

satellite design; berthing and docking; and fluid 

transfer. 

MSFC completed preliminary system-concept 

studies of a teleoperator maneuvering system (TMS), 

essentially a remotely piloted, mini-tug, orbital service 

vehicle. The TMS is planned to have phased capabilities for orbital placement, retrieval, maintenance and 

repair, and space debris control. 

Operation of the Space Transportation System 

The November inauguration of Space Transportation System operations with two commercial satel17 
lites - the upper-stage Delta-class payloads Anik C-3 

Canadian communications satellite and SBS 3 U.S. 

communications satellite- was particularly fitting because some 60 similar payloads are planned to be 

launched in the first five years of operations. Other 

missions in the planned use of the Space Shuttle include 16 DoD-dedicated missions, plus reservations for 

13 additional DoD payloads sharing the Space Shuttle 

flight with other users. In addition, more than 40 

NASA payloads are planned for launch in the same 

five years. The outlook for Space Shuttle launches 

through 1987 is for a variety of payloads and users, 

confirming the flexibility and accommodation potential of the new STS for all customers. 

NASA signed launch service agreements with 10 

users: INTELSAT, Satellite Business Systems, the 

governments of India and Indonesia, the West German corporation Messerschmitt-Boelkow-Blohm 

GmbH, Telesat Canada, the German Federal 

Ministry for Research and Technology for the German 

D- 1 Spacelab mission, Space Communications Co. for 

the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, the government 

of Mexico, and the Arab Satellite Communications 

Organization. Negotiations were continuing with 14 

other users at the end of the year. 

Operations Capability Developmmt. Among planned improvements to operational capability from 1983 

through 1988 are servicing equipment and techniques 

for Shuttle-compatible payloads such as the Space 

Telescope and other low-earth-orbit spacecraft. 

In 1982 NASA received approval to develop payload 

servicing components for a Space Shuttle mission to 

repair the partially disabled Solar Maximum Mission 

observatory now in earth orbit. Preparing to repair the 

spacecraft in 1984 will also provide generic hardware 

and software components for future servicing missions. 

Included are the manned maneuvering unit (MMU) to 

permit astronauts to work at some distance from the 

Space Shuttle orbiter; the manipulator foot restraint 

(MFR) to provide a mobile astronaut work station at 

the end of the remote manipulator system’s rendezvous 

radar, with associated software for the orbiter; directascent launch techniques to achieve Shuttle orbits 

significantly above the 300-kilometer standard orbit; 

and a set of astronaut tools qualified for use in space. 

The Solar Maximum Repair Mission will demonstrate 

each of these components while restoring the spacecraft 

to full operation. 

Policies and Procedures. Refinement of policies governing use of the Space Transportation System continued 

throughout 1982. Final principles for reimbursement 

of Spacelab services were applied to the launch service 

agreement negotiated with the Federal Republic of 

Germany for the D-1 mission. A reimbursement policy 

for the use of lockers in the orbiter’s mid-deck was 

drafted. A revision of the basic Shuttle policy was 

developed to comply with new pricing principles 

selected for the second three years of STS operations. 

And studies and analyses were made to assist development of offers for retrieval services for launches from 

the Eastern Test Range (ETR). 

The cargo price for Shuttle flights during the second 

three years of operations (1986-1988) was set at $38 

million (1975 dollars, subject to escalation). This price 

includes a reflight premium; no use fee will be added. 

The new price is based on the three-year average outof-pocket cost to launch (the annual average costs of 

consumables plus the additive costs for launch and 

flight support for commercial and foreign launches). 

The goal of this pricing policy is to return to full cost 

recovery annually after 1988. The $38-million (1975 

dollars) price is an 85 percent increase over the 

1982-1985 price of $18.3 million and its added use fee 

of $4.3 million (current year dollars). The new price 

remains competitive with prices for alternate forms of 

space transportation. 

Spacelab 

The Spacelab program, a joint NASA and European 

Space Agency (ESA) endeavor, achieved several significant milestones in 1982. ESA delivered the Spacelab module, which will be used as a shirtsleeves 

laboratory on selected Shuttle missions, to NASA at 

the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in December 1981. 

Vice President Bush attended a ceremony marking the 

event in February 1982. In July, NASA received the 

second delivery of Spacelab flight hardware, consisting 

of three pallets for mounting scientific instruments that 

must be exposed to space and an “igloo” (a container 

housing the electronics necessary to operate the pallet 

instruments). Except for a precision instrumentpointing system (IPS), this latest delivery basically 

completed ESA’s commitment made in the 1973 intergovernmental agreement and the memorandum of 

understanding on hardware deliveries. 

In March 1982, NASA flew its second complement 

of scientific experiments aboard the Space Shuttle. Instruments on the OSS 1 pallet measured the physical 

environment around the orbiter and used Spacelab 

equipment for science observations. This STS 3 flight 

marked the second successful flight of Spacelab equipment in space, the first having been OSTA 1 on STS 2 

in 1981 (see “Resource Observations,” above). 

In Europe in August, the critical design review for 

the instrument-pointing system essentially completed 

the IPS design phase. Late in 1982, McDonnell 

Douglas Corporation shipped the crew transfer tunnel 

to KSC. It will connect the Spacelab module to the orbiter cabin. 

The first all-up Spacelab module mission, requiring 

a dedicated Shuttle flight, is planned for the latter part 

of 1983. A cargo integration review for the mission was 

completed in June 1982. Integration of the experiments and all verification flight instrumentation into 

Spacelab will begin early in 1983 at KSC. Training of 

18 
astronaut mission specialists and European and 

American payload specialist candidates for this joint 

mission continued throughout 1982. 

NASA, responsible for operating Spacelab, is developing a number of unique facilities, including a 

Spacelab payload operations control center (POCC) at 

the Johnson Space Center in Houston. Experimenters 

at the POCC will review experiment results as they occur and converse with the orbiting payload specialists. 

Integration and testing of the POCC in the overall 

Space Shuttle mission control complex began in 1982, 

with a goal of becoming operational in mid-1983. During the year, NASA and the U.S. Air Force signed an 

agreement on use of Spacelab equipment for future 

DoD experiments. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

NASA launched nine missions on nine expendable 

launch vehicles in 1982, using seven Deltas and two 

Atlas-Centaurs. Of the nine, eight were reimbursable 

launches for other agencies or commercial customers 

and one was a NASA applications mission. NASA’s 

expendable launch vehicle family consists of the allsolid-fueled Scout, the Delta, the Atlas-E/F, and the 

Atlas-Centaur. No missions were scheduled for launch 

on Scout or Atlas-F during 1982, but launches on both 

vehicles are scheduled for 1983 and subsequent years. 

The most often used launch vehicle, Delta, supported six commercial and international communications 

missions, for which NASA was fully reimbursed: RCASatcom 4 and 5, Western Union’s Westar 4 and 5, India’s 

Znsat lA, and Canada’s Anik D. In addition, it launched 

Landsat 4 for NASA. Improved, more powerful Deltas 

were used for the Landsat and Anik D launches. An 

Aerojet engine and a larger-diameter tank increased 

the Delta weight-carrying capability by 140 kilograms 

into geostationary-transfer orbit. 

Atlas-Centaur, NASA’s largest expendable vehicle, 

launched two communications satellites for the 

INTELSAT organization. This vehicle will be used at 

least until 1987 to launch additional satellites for 

INTELSAT and for DoD FLTSATCOM communications missions. 

Space Research and Technology 

The NASA space research and technology program 

provides the advanced technology base for making 

possible and improving operational capability, 

reliability, and affordability of existing and planned 

space systems for NASA, commercial, and military applications. The program includes the key discipline 

and systems research in chemical propulsion, computer science and electronics, space data and communications, materials and structures, space energy 

conversion, and aerothermodynamics. It includes significant in-space testing and experimenting. NASA 

technology also supports energy research and applications by the Department of Energy and other agencies. 

Research and Technology Programs 

Chemical Propulsion. Technology for advanced reusable earth-to-orbit propulsion focused in 1982 on extending component life and thus extending maintenance intervals. Cooling turbine blades with hydrogen fuel proved inadequate because high heat-transfer 

rates were generated by the high-pressure, hydrogenrich, turbine-drive-gas environment. Alternate cooling 

techniques tailored specifically to rocket engines are 

being analytically evaluated. 

Rusable orbital-transfer propulsion technology continued to be directed toward an advanced, high-performance, expander-cycle engine, considered critical 

to the development of an advanced upper-stage vehicle. Conceptual designs have been developed that permit high-pressure, high-expansion-ratio operations 

leading to very high performance over a wide throttling range. The critical technology is associated with 

combustor designs permitting very efficient heat transfer through the combustor wall into the working fluid 

used both for regenerative cooling of the combustion 

chamber and for turbine gas. A number of advanced 

combustor concepts are being studied analytically before hardware testing. 

Computer Science and Electronics. Industry is making 

rapid advances in supercomputer technology, humancomputer interfaces, and artificial intelligence. In 

recognition of the significance to space programs, 

NASA established a new activity in computer science 

to adapt this technology to aerospace applications, to 

advance computing technology where NASA requirements push the state of the art, and to provide advanced computational facilities for aerospace research. 

A major commitment is the establishment of an independent Research Institute for Advanced Computer 

Science (RIACS), to be operated at the Ames Research Center by the Universities Space Research 

Association. 

A significant advance in multifunction, microwave 

technology was the development of the prototype pushbroom microwave radiometer. This multiple-beam 

radiometer uses a precision noise-injection modulation 

technique, a microwave integrated-circuit front end, 

and advanced digital-signal processing. The development will provide technology for future radiometric 

missions requiring simultaneous remote measurements 

over large areas of the earth. Such missions include 

determination of ocean salinity and soil moisture. The 

radiometer will be flown in the 1983 AgRISTARS 

flight-test program. 

Low-temperature operation of semiconductors provides the potential for very low signal loss and, therefore, substantially lower internally generated noise in 

integrated systems. Several superconducting tunnel19 
junction devices were fabricated and operationally 

validated during 1982. These devices have the potential of significantly improving the low-noise characteristics of receivers for both intersatellite and earth-tospace communications. 

Space Datu and Communications. The first 60-gigahertz, low-noise receiver was developed for spacecraft 

systems’ data transfer. Development of a solid-state, 

60-Ghz power amplifier was also completed. These 

capabilities will permit high transfer rates of large 

quantities of data in millimeter-wave, intersatellite 

communication links. Such links are an important 

characteristic of an advanced, fully integrated groundto-space communication system. 

Materials and Structures. Laboratory tests demonstrated that a new, low-cost material can increase life 

and durability of the Space Shuttle orbiter’s thermalprotection shield. The advanced, flexible, reusable surface insulation (AFRSI) is a quiltlike sandwich formed 

with silica on the outside and microquartz felt in the 

middle. The layers, sewn together in the middle to 

form a series of one-inch squares, will be used in 

temperature ranges below 650OC. The use of AFRSI 

on the lee side of the orbiter offers more tolerance to 

damage, easier maintenance, and lower installation 

cost than the tiles it replaces. 

The use of the Space Shuttle as a low-cost, routine 

transportation system requires more systematic, accurate, and cost-effective prediction of loads. Advanced analytical techniques for predicting the Shuttle 

cargo bay’s vibroacoustic environment and payload 

dynamic response were developed and validated using 

recorded flight data. New methods for analyzing 

dynamic loads reduced the time required for a complete cycle analysis of a Shuttle payload from nine 

months to less than one month. 

Space Energy Conversion. Significant improvements in 

the power per kilogram, the cost, and the efficiency of 

solar-array power systems have been achieved. A 

method of growing gallium-arsenide cells and then 

transferring the resulting films to thin, low-cost, glass 

substrates yielded 460 watts per kilogram - a sevenfold 

improvement over the best flight cell in use. In the area 

of low-cost solar arrays, a miniature Cassegrain concentrator with a concentration ratio of 100 has been 

designed, fabricated, and tested. Because the array 

features cells less than a centimeter in diameter and 

concentrators that can be fabricated like flash cubes, it 

has the potential for reducing array costs to about $30 

per watt, or one-twentieth of current costs. Concepts 

also were identified that could potentially revolutionize 

solar-cell energy conversion, increasing efficiencies 

from the present 16 percent to as much as 50 percent. 

These concepts include coupling sunlight into the electronic surface-charge density, cascading solar-cell 

junctions for selective spectral use, and exploiting the 

unique properties of the photoactive protein rhodopsin. 

Intensive work continued in high-capacity energy 

storage critical to long-duration missions. The breadboard model of a solid-polymer-electrolyte, fuel-cellelectrolysis system is being extensively tested. An alternate energy storage system based on the electrochemistry of nickel and hydrogen has demonstrated an 

efficiency of 82 percent over 100 simulated, low-earthorbit, day-night cycles. This technology could reduce 

the weight of energy storage systems by one-half. 

Aerothermodynamics. Preliminary data from flightinstrumentation and orbiter experiments on the first 

flights of the Space Shuttle confirm the value of the 

simulation at aeronautics and space ground-test 

facilities used in the orbiter design and development. 

The predictability of the ascent and descent performance of each Shuttle flight demonstrated the validity of 

the aerodynamic and aerothermodynamic design data 

base, developed by both experimental and numerical 

techniques. Measurements obtained from the orbiter 

experiments on tile-gap heating provided information 

used in improving performance and extending reusability of the thermal protection system. 

Shuttle Flight- Test Results 

Extending technology development into space by 

flight tests aboard the Shuttle orbiter in 1982 accelerated advanced space R&D. Some experiments 

measured characteristics and performance of the Shuttle itself to discover principles applicable to future advanced transportation. The orbiter provides a far 

greater range of test parameters than either ground 

facilities or experimental aircraft. 

Flight data indicated that the thermal protection 

system’s performance margin provides the Shuttle with 

a greater cross-range capability than planned and increased confidence in its use under less rigorous maintenance conditions. Measurement of various aerodynamic coefficients provided research-quality data for 

improving the theoretical and ground-based experimental methods of analyzing aerodynamic force and 

control. 

Additionally, the value of the Shuttle as a platform 

for technology flight experiments was demonstrated 

during 1982. An experiment to develop discrimination 

and classification of image data on board a spacecraft 

demonstrated the principle and defined a system concept. A flight test of technology to provide thermal 

isolation of sensitive astronomy instruments permitted 

relaxation of thermal control requirements. 

NASA Energy Programs 

NASA supports the Department of Energy (DOE) 

and other agencies by applying aerospace expertise to 

the development of energy technology. This activity 

encompasses a range of projects in solar and fossil 

energy and in energy conservation - important examples of which are cited below. Progress was made 
during 1982 in automotive propulsion research, windenergy technology, terrestrial photovoltaic-array technology, solar thermal-energy conversion, and international applications of solar energy. 

Automotive Propulsion Research. NASA continued its 

support of DOE’S vehicle and engine R&D programs 

by developing technology for gas turbines, the Stirling 

engine, and electric and hybrid vehicles. The Stirling 

engine project, conducted by the team of Mechanical 

Technology, Inc., and United Stirling of Sweden, has 

accumulated more than 1300 hours of steady-state and 

transient testing of experimental engines with efficiencies equal to that of automotive diesel engines and with 

emissions less than Environmental Protection Agency 

research goals. 

Research on the ceramic components to meet the 

129OOC to 137OOC operating temperature of an advanced, automotive, gas turbine engine continued at 

the Detroit Diesel Allison Company and the Garrett 

Corporation. Cold spin tests of simulated and actual 

turbine rotors have demonstrated that ceramic 

materials can achieve the required strength. 

Research on propulsion technology for electric 

vehicles emphasized both alternating-current (AC) and 

direct-current (DC) systems. During 1982, development of electronically commutated, permanentmagnet, propulsion motors was completed at 

AiResearch and Virginia Tech. At one-fifth to one-half 

the weight of conventional motors, the permanentmagnet motors for DC have demonstrated a combined 

motor and controller efficiency of 90 percent. A contract was awarded to Ford Motor Company to develop 

technology for an advanced AC electric powertrain. 

The powertrain will consist of a concentric AC motor, 

automatic transaxle, and differential integrated into a 

single, lightweight unit. General Electric Company, 

Ford’s principal subcontractor, will develop the motor, 

inverter, and motor controller from technology developed under an earlier contract. 

Wind-Energy Technology. Operation of the wind turbine “farm” consisting of three Mod-2, 2500-kilowatt 

wind turbines continued at Goodnoe Hills, Washington, under the direction of NASA and DOE. Each of 

the three machines, built by the Boeing Engineering 

and Construction Company, surpassed 1000 hours of 

operation during 1982. The test program provides 

valuable data on interactions among the three 

machines as well as basic information on wind turbine 

operations. 

The world’s most powerful wind turbine, the 

WTS-4, began operation during 1982 near Medicine 

Bow, Wyoming. This 4000-kW turbine, with its 

78-meter (tip-to-tip) blade on an 80-meter-high tower, 

was developed under NASA technical direction by the 

Hamilton Standard Division of United Technologies 

Corporation. The Department of Interior sponsored 

this project as well as the construction of a ‘2500-kW, 

Mod-‘2 wind turbine at the same site. Mod-2 has a 

92-meter blade and a tower 61 meters high. Data from 

the two wind turbines will be evaluated over two years 

as part of the consideration of a “wind farm” of up to 40 

machines that may be erected in Medicine Bow. 

Testing was completed on the four intermediate-size 

(200 kW) wind turbines to advance the development of 

more efficient second-generation machines (Mod-2) 

and WTS-4) and contributed to definition of the thirdgeneration, 7000-kilowatt, Mod-5 design. 

Terrestrial Photovoltaic-Array Technology. Research 

directed toward cost-competitive, long-life photovoltaic arrays made progress in silicon refinement 

processes, silicon-sheet growth techniques, environmental isolation materials, cell and module processing 

techniques, and advanced module-array designs. Continuing transfer of technology advances to industry has 

led to establishment of manufacturing processes, and 

economic analyses indicate that price goals of 70 cents 

per peak watt (1980 dollars) will be feasible if private 

industry makes the required investments 

Solar Thermal-Energy Conversion. Solar concentrator 

dishes combined with heat engines have been tested 

since 1979 at Edwards, California. Tests to date have 

used an experimental 1 1-meter-diameter dish to focus 

solar radiation onto a high-temperature receiver. In 

1982, a Stirling engine placed at the focus of the experimental parabolic dish demonstrated an overall efficiency (sunlight-to-electricity) of 29 percent - a milestone for solar conversion systems. 

International Applications of Solar Energy. NASA supports DOE by providing standardized solar-cell power 

systems for health service, water, educational needs, 

and public lighting for four villages in Gabon, Africa. 

A contract for the four systems was awarded in late 

1982, with installation in Gabon scheduled for late 

1983. Solar-cell-powered refrigerator-freezers, jointly 

funded by DOE and the Center for Disease Control for 

cold storage of vaccines in remote medical posts, were 

installed in the Maldive Islands, Gambia, Ivory Coast, 

Colombia, and Peru. NASA continued technical support to the Agency for International Development 

(AID) for solar energy-related projects in many other 

countries in South and Central America, Southeast 

Asia, and Africa. 

Space Tracking and Data Systems 

NASA’s space tracking and data systems provide 

tracking, command, telemetry, and data-acquisition 

for earth-orbital science and applications missions, 

planetary missions, sounding rockets, research aircraft, and the Space Shuttle program. Two worldwide 

tracking networks, one for deep-space and one for 

earth-orbital missions, provide this support. In addition, on-site tracking and data-gathering systems support the aeronautical research and sounding rocket 

programs. A global communications system links 

21 
tracking sites, control centers, and data processing 

facilities, providing real-time data processing for mission control and determination of orbit and attitude, as 

well as routine data processing for applications and 

scientific missions. 

Network Operations 

The Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

(STDN) supported 41 missions in 1982, including the 

newly launched Landsat 4. The work load includes 

NASA missions as well as launch and on-orbit support 

to missions of foreign countries and commercial firms 

on a reimbursable, noninterference basis. This network also supports Space Shuttle missions, covering 

STS 3, 4, and 5 flights in 1982. A temporary tracking 

station at White Sands, New Mexico, supported the 

STS 3 landing. 

An agreement with the government of Senegal permitted upgrading the Dakar UHF air-to-ground voice 

station to an S-band-telemetry, voice-and-command 

station before the STS 4 mission. Without this change 

at Dakar, there would have been a major gap in telemetry data coverage between Bermuda and Hawaii for 

all due-east launches from STS 4 on. This mid-point 

station permits analysis of initial orbital-maneuveringsystem burn data and provides for crew updates in the 

event of an abort. 

Closure of the Quito, Ecuador, station was completed during the year. After removal of needed equipment, the station was turned over to the government of 

Ecuador, which may use it as a Landsat station in the 

future. 

During 1982, the Deep Space Network (DSN) 

tracked 11 space probes, 4 of them at distances of more 

than 1 billion kilometers from the earth. The DSN now 

has one 64-meter and one 34-meter antenna at each of 

three stations: Goldstone, California; Madrid, Spain; 

and Canberra, Australia. During 1982, preparation 

was begun to add another 34-meter antenna at two of 

the deep-space complexes. The new antennas, when 

completed in 1985, will enhance network sensitivity for 

the Voyager 2 encounter with the planet Uranus in 

January 1986. During such planetary encounters, all 

deep space antennas at a single complex are focused on 

the spacecraft, and all signals received are electronically combined, giving the effect of one large "super 

antenna" with sufficient gain to receive imaging data 

sent from the ends of the solar system. 

Control Centers and Data Processing 

Five control centers monitor, command, and control 

some 20 spacecraft. A new control center is also being 

prepared for the Space Telescope. 

Processing bulk science data from spacecraft is 

another important function. Traditionally, receipt, 

capture, accounting, and product generation have 

been classified broadly into two major categories: image and telemetry (non-image) data processing. The 

Image Processing Facility converts data from spacecraft measurements of earth features or phenomena into pictures of their digital representation on computer 

tapes. Telemetry data processing separates the science 

data for the individual investigators and records the 

data on experimenter tapes. Also, plots or histograms 

may be produced. A major subactivity in the future 

will be processing data from Spacelab missions by the 

Spacelab Data Processing Facility, which is being 

built. The facility will support the first Spacelab mission, scheduled for launch in late 1983. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) 

The first satellite of the new Tracking and Data 

Relay Satellite System was in the final stages of testing 

and preparations for launch. The satellite was to be 

launched in 1983 into low earth orbit by the Space 

Shuttle and then boosted into synchronous orbit by an 

Air Force inertial upper stage. The prime contractor, 

Space Communications Company (Spacecom), is the 

owner and operator of the system, contracting with 

NASA to provide 10 years of service, with responsibility for design, development, integration, operation, 

and maintenance. 

The system for NASA use, when complete, will consist of three synchronous-orbit satellites, including one 

spare; it will relay commands to and data from the 

Space Shuttle and other earth-orbiting spacecraft to a 

ground terminal at White Sands. Other major NASA 

components, in conjunction with TDRSS, will constitute the Space Network, including the Network 

Control Center (NCC) at Goddard Space Flight 

Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. When TDRSS becomes fully operational in 1984, many ground tracking 

stations, no longer required, will be closed. TDRSS 

and the Space Network will provide greater versatility 

and operational effectiveness for the Space Shuttle, 

Space Telescope, and NOAA's operational Landsat 

satellites. 

Aeronautical Research and Technology 

NASA's aeronautical research and technology program provides the advanced technology base for 

superior U.S. aircraft - improving speed, range, comfort, and safety at reduced direct operating costs. The 

program includes maintaining a strong base in the 

technological disciplines, investigating advanced technology at the component or system level to establish 

the utility of proposed advanced development, 

supporting the military in development and demonstration of superior military systems, and supporting 

the Federal Aviation Administration with complementary research in aircraft safety. 

During 1982, NASA completed two major U.S. 

wind tunnels- the National Transonic Facility at 
Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, and 

the 80- by 120-foot Low-Speed Facility at Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California. The Langley 

facility provides the most advanced transonic test 

capability in the world. Its 8- by 8-foot test section permits nearly exact simulation of flight conditions of the 

world’s largest aircraft at near-sonic flight speeds and 

realistic altitudes. The Ames wind tunnel will provide 

the nation new and needed capability for testing fullsized rotorcraft and V/STOL aircraft by using a 

straight-through flow passage that eliminates exhaust 

contamination in the test medium. A set of turning 

vanes failed during a December test and checkout run, 

causing major damage to the facility’s drive fans. Plans 

for repair and returning the facility to operation were 

under way. 

Maintaining a Strong Technology Base 

NASA’s disciplinary aeronautical research includes 

fluid and thermal physics, materials and structures, 

controls, and human factors. 

Fluid and Thermal Physics. The ability to compute the 

aerodynamic forces and torques acting on aircraft was 

substantially advanced during 1982. Scientific computers permitted predictions with good accuracy of 

transonic flows over wings, bodies, and nacelles, facilitating economical study of the best positioning of these 

basic aircraft components. For some specialized conditions, flow computations have become sufficiently accurate to shorten substantially the wind-tunnel testing 

of airfoil designs. An advanced three-dimensional 

panel code recently completed can model separated 

rolled-up vortex wakes for estimating forces acting on 

wings with variable leading-edge sweepback. 

Materials and Structures. In the national undertaking to 

decrease reliance on rare imported materials, NASA 

studied the role of cobalt in high-temperature nickelbase superalloys for gas-turbine engines. Research has 

shown that decreases in cobalt level do not change alloy 

strength, but do lower resistance to high-temperature 

creep. Understanding the mechanisms responsible 

should lead to development of suitable substitute 

elements to maintain high-temperature properties. 

In structural analysis and aeroelasticity, research 

established technology for understanding the buckling 

and nonlinear res’ponse of composite aerospace structures and for methods of suppressing active and passive 

flutter and alleviating loads on aerospace vehicles. 

Techniques for analyzing flat, stiffened, composite 

panels with postbuckling response were developed and 

gave excellent correlation with test results, permitting 

more efficient application of composites to aerospace 

structures. Wind-tunnel tests demonstrated for the first 

time an adaptive system for suppressing flutter in 

fighter aircraft whose configuration changes suddenly 

with the release of stores. The system was validated by 

ejecting a wing-tip missile in a wind-tunnel flow condition above the flutter boundary for the wing without 

the missile. 

Controls and Human Factors. A pioneering effort in 

fault-tolerant-system technology reached a significant 

milestone in 1982 with the delivery to NASA of engineering models of two computer concepts for evaluation. The fault-tolerant multiprocessor (FTMP) and 

software-implemental fault-tolerance (SIFT) computers have been designed for highly reliable, failurefree operation in future aircraft flight control systems. 

The engineering models were fabricated using standard, commercial aircraft electronic computers and 

other components. A year of testing has proved the 

basic operation of the FTMP. A mathematical proof of 

SIFT verified its fault-tolerant features. When fully 

developed, this technology will provide nearly failurefree, low-maintenance electronic systems that will permit the design of a new generation of aircraft in which 

aerodynamic stability and structural integrity are totally dependent on the electronic flight control system. 

These new aircraft will be more fuel-efficient and more 

readily available for missions. 

Systems Research for Future Applications 

Advanced Turboprops. Analytical and experimental efforts over the past several years have produced a preliminary design for a large-scale research propeller. 

During 1982, work began toward fabrication and 

ground test of 2.7- to 3-meter-diameter propeller 

assemblies. Experimental programs in acoustics and 

installation aerodynamics developed data bases confirming that advanced turboprops would use 15 to 20 

percent less fuel than advanced turbofans would. Nearand far-field noise measurements of propellers, using 

the JetStar aircraft, were completed, and fuselage 

noise-attenuation tests in an anechoic chamber provided data on several promising wall-treatment concepts. 

Wind-tunnel tests of turboprop wing installations with 

contour changes to accommodate the swirling slipstream gave encouraging results. 

Energy-Efficient Engines. Operation of components 

integrated into a research test-stand engine - over a 

full range of speeds, pressures, and temperatures - demonstrated the advanced component 

technology in an engine environment. Integrated component performance and engine starting and transient 

capabilities were excellent. The technology developed 

can reduce fuel consumption by advanced turbofan 

engines as much as 15 percent. 

Laminar Flow Control. Reduced drag and increased 

efficiency of long-range transport aircraft requires 

maintenance of laminar flow over the wing and tail 

surfaces. Removing through a surface suction system 

small amounts of air from the boundary layer can 

maintain this flow, with the suction levels dependent 

on airfoil characteristics. NASA has designed and 

fabricated an advanced, swept, supercritical airfoil 
with performance comparable to that of advanced turbulent airfoils and with features that .will simplify 

laminarization. Verification of performance by windtunnel testing began in early 1982. Both slotted- and 

porous-surface systems will be evaluated. Results will 

provide basic data for designing suction systems and 

also for validating improved design methods. Flight 

tests beginning in 1983 will give operational experience 

with wing leading-edge systems. 

Rotorcraft. NASA’s rotor systems research aircraft 

(RSRA) completed its first flight research phase, which 

measured rotor and fuselage aerodynamic loads in 

hover and low-speed forward flight with its unique 

measurement system. The two tilt-rotor research aircraft continued proof-of-concept flights and extensive 

operational demonstration flights for the military services, including Navy sea trials based on the U.S.S. 

Tripoli. A highly instrumented AH- 1 helicopter flown 

in another research program simultaneously measured 

rotor aerodynamic loads and external noise signatures 

to provide a data base for developing noise prediction 

methodology. 

Tests completed on the aft transmission of an 

XCH-62 heavy-lift helicopter provided data for correlation with an improved analytical method of predicting loads on large, spiral, bevel gears. Testing on the 

CH-47 airframe obtained vibration data for correlation with analytical methods. A number of advances 

were made in computational fluid-dynamic methods to 

account for the influence of unsteady motion, vortex 

interaction, and transonic flow on rotor aerodynamics. 

Powered Lift. Design studies completed for a singleengine, supersonic short-takeoff and vertical-landing 

(STOVL) fighter-attack aircraft revealed several 

promising concepts that will be investigated in windtunnel testing. One concept employs remote burning 

of the engine-fan air stream for thrust and lift; another 

uses additional mass air flow provided by an ejector to 

supply thrust for vertical operation. 

Results from model tests of a twin-engine V/STOL 

fighter with flow-through nacelles are being compared 

with analytical predictions. Future testing will use 

new, advanced-propulsion simulators now being 

checked out. The simulators are miniature propulsion 

systems that will permit more accurate wind-tunnel 

evaluations of an aircraft concept than has been possible before. 

Supersonic Cniise Technology. Supersonic-cruise research in 1982 was directed toward completing selected 

projects from the terminated supersonic-cruise 

research program and initiating technology programs 

for military aircraft. Analysis and mathematical 

modeling of the structural-response dynamics of large 

flexible aircraft at supersonic speeds were published, 

completing a 10-year effort that began with flight tests 

of the B-70 and ended with the B-1 . Fabrication of four 

configurations of variable-geometry, axisymmetric inlets for use on future transports was completed in the 

spring of 1982. These inlets were tested in the 9- by 

15-foot tunnel at Lewis Research Center to provide the 

world’s only data base on the relationship of fan noise 

suppression and aerodynamic performance of axisymmetric supersonic inlets. 

Two analyses of advanced technologies applicable to 

military supersonic cruise aircraft sought to identify 

high payoff in longer range and larger payloads. Technologies include arrow-wing concepts and wingfuselage blending, advanced aluminum and composite 

structures, improved propulsion system components 

and controls, and integration of low-drag conformal 

weapon concepts. General Dynamics this year made 

the first application of the NASA-developed arrow 

wing to two F-l6XL aircraft that were completed in 

July and September and are now being flight-tested at 

Edwards Air Force Base. 

Technical Support for the Military 

X-29 Forward-Swept- Wing Flight Demonstrator. NASA 

is supporting development of the X-29A funded by the 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, assisting 

preparation for the first flights, scheduled for 1984, 

and preparing to conduct later government flight tests. 

During 1982, wind-tunnel tests at Ames and Langley 

Research Centers obtained low- and high-speed aerodynamic data and investigated inlet performance. 

Technical support was also given in instrumentation, 

structural dynamics, handling qualities, and control 

systems. 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTI). The 

Air Force and NASA cooperate in two AFTI programs 

for future fighter applications. The AFTI/F-16 incorporates an advanced, digital, fly-by-wire control 

system and canard surfaces for direct force control. 

During 1982, General Dynamics, Fort Worth Division, completed modifications of the F-16 aircraft to include digital flight controls. The aircraft made its first 

flight on 10 July, and the joint flight research program 

will continue at NASA’s Dryden Flight Research 

Facility during 1983. 

The mission-adaptive wing (MAW) of the 

AFTI/F- 11 1 will demonstrate the aerodynamic performance improvements of a smooth, variable-camber 

airfoil on that aircraft. A supercritical wing design has 

been developed that permits great variability in wing 

camber, using smooth leading- and trailing-edge 

devices to let the airfoil assume many shapes for optimum performance over a wide operating envelope. 

During 1982, the Boeing Aerospace Company has 

been modifying the F-111 aircraft wings with the 

variable-camber system. In 1983 the wings will be 

delivered to Dryden for installation and checkout. 

Flight research is scheduled to begin in the summer of 

1983. 
Improving Aircraft Safe9 

In cooperation with the Federal Aviation Administration, NASA completed development of the 

aviation-safety reporting system (ASRS), a program 

for collecting human factors data on aircraft crew performance. ASRS is a voluntary, confidential, nonpunitive, crew reporting system designed to surface 

deficiencies in national aviation before accidents occur; 

it is strongly supported by the aviation community. 

The President’s Task Force on Aircraft Crew Complement made extensive use of ASRS data in its review, 

and it has proved a valuable tool in planning research 

programs in aviation safety. Managed by NASA for 

the FAA, it has received more than 30 000 reports 

since 19 April 1976, issued 740 alert bulletins, and 

published 240 reports. FAA requested that NASA extend its management through 1987. 

Work to define atmospheric hazards and advance 

fire and crash safety technology made progress in 

1982. The accumulation of data from 147 direct lightning strikes on the F-106B research aircraft contributed a major advance in characterization of atmospheric lighting. NASA participated in an interagency 

field research program that collected data during more 

than 50 wind-shear episodes at Denver to define the 

fine-scale nature of this hazard. A flight research program began to compare natural icing conditions with 

research data developed in the icing research tunnel at 

Lewis Research Center. 

Also with FAA, NASA continued developing advanced fireworthy lightweight materials to reduce the 

threat of fire in aircraft cabins. Specifically, new seatcushion foams were developed and tested. NASA and 

FAA began a joint safety-research program to demonstrate antimisting-kerosene safety fuel, measure structural loads, and evaluate advanced metallic and composite crashworthy structures, in a remotely controlled 

crash of a civil jet transport scheduled for 1984. Close 

cooperation with FAA continued in icing, lightning, 

and aircraft landing-gear research. 

25 
Department of Defense 

To maintain the security of the United States, the 

Department of Defense acquires and operates space 

and aeronautical systems and pursues advances in 

related ‘research and technology development. 

Cooperation with NASA and other federal agencies 

produces civil benefits. During 1982, Department of 

Defense space systems received a new focus. The 

secretary of defense on 22 June 1982 approved a statement of policy to guide activities in furtherance of the 

national space policy announced by the president on 4 

July 1982 (see appendix F). This DoD policy supports 

the principles underlying the United States space program and directs the continued maintenance of a 

strong technology base, with leadership in areas 

necessary for effective national security. The policy 

recognizes that, since space systems can effectively 

support military missions in both peace and conflict, 

future military use of space - including command and 

control, communications, navigation, environmental 

monitoring, warning, surveillance, and space defense - should have an operational orientation. 

Soviet development of an operational antisatellite 

(ASAT) capability presents the potential for space to 

become a hostile environment. Therefore, DoD space 

policy directs that military space systems, including 

essential ground elements as well as orbiting 

spacecraft, be designed, developed, and operated to 

enhance the ability of critical mission functions to survive. 

Space launch is critical to any space capability, and 

the policy requires an adequate launch capability for 

flexible, responsive access to space to meet national 

security needs. DoD recognizes the Space Shuttle as 

the primary space launch system and the need for continued cooperation with NASA to develop a fully 

operational Space Transportation System. 

In a separate but related action, the Air Force consolidated its management of space activities, forming a 

new major command, Space Command, on 1 September 1982. Headquartered in Colorado Springs, Space 

Command will be built around the existing Aerospace 

Defense Center staff. The Air Force also established 

within the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) a 

Space Technology Center at Kirtland Air Force Base, 

New Mexico, in October. Under this realignment, 

three AFSC laboratories - the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory, the Air Force Geophysics 

Laboratory, and the Air Force Weapons 

Laboratory - will constitute the elements of the Space 

Technology Center under the Air Force Space Division. The center will focus on the major scientific 

disciplines for launch vehicle and spacecraft 

technology. 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Communications 

In 1982, DoD continued to operate a range of firstgeneration military satellite communications 

(MILSATCOM) systems for support of worldwide 

military forces and began to develop and deploy 

second-generation MILSATCOM systems. The 

systems support three main user communities: 

(1) command and support forces of the commanders in 

chief and the military services and agencies, (2) strategic and tactical nuclear forces, and (3) strategic and 

tactical conventional forces. DoD also continued to 

lease selected commercial satellite communication 

(COMSATCOM) circuits and began to investigate 

approaches with private industry for ensuring that 

systems can survive in periods of national emergency 

to augment DoD systems. 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS). For 

communication needs of the command and support 

forces, DSCS Phase I1 provides high-data-rate communications to the Department of Defense, Department of State, and allied nations. The system operates 

at the superhigh-frequency (SHF) 8- to 7-gigahertz 

band, with fixed and large, transportable ground terminals distributed around the globe. Major improvements in the operational system began with the 

October 1982 launch of the first of a new generation of 

communications satellites - the DSCS I11 series. The 

DSCS I11 system also operates in the SHF band, but 

features increased antijamming and other protection. 

The DSCS 111 satellite was paired with a DSCS I1 

satellite and launched atop the first Titan III(34)D 

launch vehicle with the new inertial upper stage. At 

year end, the DSCS 111 satellite was undergoing inorbit evaluation. 

Air Force Satellite Communications System 

(AFSA TCOM). For the nuclear-capable forces, the Air 

Force operated the ultrahigh-frequency (UHF) 

27 
AFSATCOM space segment, made up of packages on 

the Satellite Data System (SDS), the Fleet Satellite 

Communications System (FLTSATCOM), and other 

host satellites. The Air Force, and to less extent other 

DoD users, continued to field AFSATCOM terminals. 

At the conclusion of the year, about 450 of the projected 600 UHF terminals were in operational service. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System. The FLTSATCOM system provides moderate-capacity mobile-user 

service in a worldwide communications system. It supports the most urgent tactical-peacetime and mixedmanagement communications requirements of the 

Navy and commanders in chief of the unified and 

specified commands, as well as communications requirements of the strategic forces. The four FLTSATCOM satellites provide virtually worldwide service 

with an aggregate of more than 13 spacecraft years of 

service. FLTSATCOM 1 will reach the five-year point 

in February 1983. The Navy has begun long-lead 

material procurement for three additional FLTSATCOM satellites to extend these services. Fabrication of 

the Navy’s leased satellite (LEASAT) is well under way 

for Space Shuttle launches scheduled for 1984, to fill 

continuing Department of Defense communications 

requirements. FLTSATCOM capacity is supplemented by lease of UHF transponders on commercial 

Marisat satellites. The Navy, major user of this 

capability, had deployed about two-thirds of its UHF 

terminals by the end of 1982. Terminals are expected 

to total about 1700 when deployments are completed. 

Army Satellite Communications Activities. The Army 

develops and procures ground terminals for satellite 

communications for all the military departments. 

DSCS provides high-data-rate interconnection, and 

Ground Mobile Forces Tactical Satellite Communications (GMF-TACSATCOM) provides communications for tactical forces. The Army also conducts 

research to advance satellite terminal technology. 

. New Satellite Communications Initiatives. Emphasis continued on survivability and endurance of satellite communications. DoD began concept validation studies to 

define a system to serve the strategic and tactical forces 

(nuclear and nonnuclear) of all three services. The 

studies concluded with a September 1982 request for 

proposals for engineering development of the 

MILSTAR satellite. Contract award is scheduled for 

the spring of 1983. This system, operating in the 

44- and 20-GHz bands, will permit worldwide, jamresistant communications to satisfy the minimum 

essential needs for commanding and controlling 

strategic and tactical forces. Initially, a scaled-down 

version of the MILSTAR capability will be tested on a 

FLTSATCOM satellite. The Massachusetts Institute 

of Technology’s Lincoln Laboratories began developing this limited capability, and the services are 

developing terminals to provide an operating capability in the late 1980s. The extremely-high-frequency 

(EHF) SATCOM terminal entered full-scale development for future use with the MILSTAR satellite. The 

Navy is the lead service in coordinating terminal 

development and production to ensure future interoperability, commonality, and coordinated logistics 

and technology development among the services. The 

EHF package to be developed by Lincoln Laboratories 

for deployment aboard one or more FLTSATCOM 

satellites will support operational evaluation of the terminals in time for use with MILSTAR satellites. 

During 1982, the Navy awarded an engineering 

development contract for MILSTAR EHF ship-borne 

terminals, the Air Force released a request for proposals for airborne MILSTAR terminals, and the 

Army continued advanced development of the singlechannel-objective tactical terminal (SCOTT) at Lincoln Laboratories. 

The joint Defense Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (DARPA) and Navy Submarine Laser Communications (SLC) Program continued developing 

technology to communicate from space, using a bluegreen laser beam to penetrate clouds and water to submarines at operational depths without compromising 

their security or limiting their flexibility. Early tactical 

capabilities are expected from an airborne system for 

limtied areas. A space-based system would provide 

global coverage, survivability, and flexibility in both 

tactical and strategic operations, but presents formidable technical challenges. During fiscal 1982, SLC 

spacecraft design and laser spaceworthiness engineering were started, to assess the concept and to permit 

allocation of resources to the laser techniques that 

promise early operational applications. The first SLC 

satellite (SLCSA T I) is expected to resolve technical 

and operational issues and to have a limited operational capability. 

Advanced Space Communications Technology 

The Advanced Space Communications program 

develops technology, techniques, and concepts to improve present and future military satellite communications systems. In 1982, testing of the AN/ASC-30 

airborne-command-post communications terminal was 

completed. 

NASA and the Air Force continued a cooperative 

program to develop components for a satellite communications system in the 20-GHz frequency range. 

The program is developing both solid-state and 

traveling-wave-tube amplifiers for satellite downlink 

transmitters. 

Navigation and Geodev 

The Navy navigation satellite system, TRANSIT, 

provides worldwide positional data for strategic 

ballistic-missile submarines and many other military 

and commercial users. TRANSIT completed 17 years 

of operation in 1982. 
The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) is a 

space-based radio-positioning, navigation, and timedissemination system that will improve weapon 

delivery, worldwide rapid-deployment, and intelligence and reconnaissance capabilities. The operational system will be deployed by late 1988, with 18 

satellites providing positioning information accurate to 

16 meters, velocity accurate to 0.1 meter per second, 

and time synchronization to within 0.1 microsecond. 

GPS is being developed by a joint program offce with 

representatives from the Air Force, Army, Navy, 

Defense Mapping Agency, Department of Transportation, and nine North Atlantic Treaty Organization 

(NATO) countries. 

In 1982, development of GPS reached significant 

milestones. Congress approved and the Air Force initiated a multiyear, block-buy procurement of 28 

satellites to establish the GPS constellation. Competing 

contractors Rockwell/Collins and Magnavox - awarded contracts in 1979 to develop a family of GPS user 

equipment to satisfy the requirements of all participating services and agencies - delivered test models 

for initial field testing for Army applications following 

completion of final factory tests in November 1982. 

Field testing will begin in March 1983. First deliveries 

of prototype user equipment configured for representative aircraft, ship, and submarine platforms are 

scheduled for 1983. Testing will continue into 1984. 

Testing of engineering models of user equipment 

continues to confirm the versatility and accuracy of the 

GPS. Landing and approach tests with a helicopter, 

emphasizing navigation through the transition to 

hover, yielded typical accuracies better than 10 meters. 

The Landsat 4 satellite, launched in July 1982, is 

determining its position in space with the first spacequalified GPS receiver. The receiver provides navigation and timing information for Landsat earth imagery 

and for mapping. Participating North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO) nations conducted numerous 

demonstrations using GPS, including a flight over the 

North Pole by a United Kingdom aircraft equipped 

with a GPS set, aided by an altimeter for navigation 

through periods of poor satellite visibility. 

The Navy began the Geodetic/Geophysical Satellite 

(Geosat) program in 1982. Geosat, scheduled for launch 

in 1984, will provide data to improve accuracy of the 

marine geoid, completing the data collection begun by 

NASA’s remote-sensing satellite, Searat, during its brief 

life in 1978. The Geosat sensor will duplicate the Seasat 

radar altimeter on a bus module derived from the 

GEOS Geodetic Satellites. An 18-month mission is 

planned to provide a homogeneous geoid data base and 

to detect bathymetric hazards to submerged navigation. 

Meteorology and Oceanography 

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP) provides high-resolution visible and infrared 

cloud imagery, atmospheric soundings for moisture 

content and temperature, and ionospheric monitoring 

to support DoD strategic and tactical weather requirements. Data are stored on board the satellite for 

readout to U.S.-based ground stations or are provided 

in real-time to Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps 

mobile readout stations or Navy carrier task forces. 

The stored data, played back from satellites when over 

the United States, are processed by the Air Force 

Global Weather Center or the Navy Fleet Numerical 

Oceanography center for distribution. The Air Force 

and Marine Corps have just begun procuring new, 

deployable, tactical vans that can be transported in 

C-130 aircraft; the first units have been operationally 

deployed. 

DMSP provides entire earth coverage at least four 

times daily. The data are merged with Department of 

Commerce environmental satellite data to provide 

real-time meteorological support to U.S. military 

forces around the globe. Tactical aviation forecasts, 

general weather and severe weather forecasts, and 

tailored forecasts for specific weapons, sensors, and 

platforms are routinely available 24 hours each day for 

all areas. 

Seasat demonstrated that data describing the surface 

of the world’s oceans can be collected by satellite. 

These data can improve the accuracy of the tactical atmospheric and oceanographic information required by 

the military forces. The Navy, with NASA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) support, is considering the development of a 

Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System (N-ROSS), an 

oceanographic satellite to provide this information. 

Surveillance and Warning 

Early-warning satellites provide early-warning data 

on missiles to the National Command Authorities, the 

Strategic Air Command, and the North American Air 

Defense Command. 

Space Surveillance Research and Development. Significant 

progress was made in 1982 in collecting infrared radiation measurements with sensors carried on a highaltitude balloon and a probe rocket. The infrared data 

on earth backgrounds and rocket exhaust plumes will 

make a major contribution to developing a missilewarning system that can survive adverse conditions. 

Advanced technology will also improve timeliness and 

accuracy of attack assessment. 

DARPA continues to support development of advanced surveillance technology for future infrared and 

radar sensors deployable on surface, airborne, and 

space-based platforms. That technology, applicable to 

broad-area surveillance, is complemented by a precision pointing and tracking program called Talon Gold, 

begun in 1979. DARPA completed the preliminary 

design of the Talon Gold demonstration experiment 

critical to proving the feasibility of space laser 

29 
technology. In 1982, a single contractor was selected 

for the detailed design, fabrication, and testing. 

The Teal Ruby experiment is to demonstrate the 

infrared-mosaic sensor from space. In 1982, DARPA 

emphasized development of the infrared-mosaic focalplane and signal-processing technologies applicable to 

airborne surveillance as well as space surveillance. Key 

portions of the program, including infrared-detector 

arrays and advanced digital-signal processing components, have been successfully demonstrated. 

Advanced Microwave Technology. In 1978, DARPA and 

the Air Force began developing technology for 

monolithic, microwave-radar-transceiver components 

to make new, high-density, phased-array antenna 

systems possible. The technology has been developed 

in both silicon on sapphire and gallium arsenide, making it possible to perform all of the radar-antenna 

module’s transmit-receive functions on a single 

chip - potentially reducing weight and cost of phasedarray systems by several times that of present systems. 

Applications and novel concepts for space-based, airborne, and surface radars and communications 

systems have been identified. Work is continuing on 

advanced membrane antennas, with an active arrayantenna test planned in 1983. 

U. S. Naval Space Surveillance System. NAVSPASUR, 

part of the North American Aerospace Defense Space 

Detection and Tracking System (SPADATS), detects 

and tracks satellites and other space objects. The 

Systems Computational Center in Dahlgren, Virginia, 

maintains a catalog of space objects. NAVSPASUR 

continued its planned multiyear modernization during 

1982. The modernization will replace much of the 

original hardware installed in 1961 with digital 

receiver, transmitter, and data-processing equipment 

and already is improving system accuracy and sensitivity. 

Antisatellite System. The U.S. antisatellite (ASAT) 

program is being developed in response to Soviet 

development of operational ASATs. The main U.S. 

weapon component is a miniature vehicle interceptor 

that will be air-launched by an F-15 aircraft using a 

two-stage SRAM-ALTAIR booster combination. 

Space Transportation 

Expendable Launch Vehicles. During 1982, DoD 

launched six expendable launch vehicle missions on 

Titan I11 and Atlas E vehicles. One of these missions, 

launching a dual payload, was the first flight of the 

Titan III(34)D with the inertial upper stage, which was 

developed to provide an expendable launch vehicle 

configuration for both prime launch and Space Shuttle 

backup applications. The program to integrate the inertial upper stage onto the Titan I11 was begun in June 

1977. 

Space Shuttle. NASA and DoD are partners in the 

development and operation of the Space Shuttle. 

NASA has development and operational responsibilities for the Shuttle vehicle, the East Coast Shuttle 

launch and landing facilities at Kennedy Space Center, 

Florida, and Mission Control Center at Johnson Space 

Center, Texas. The Air Force is developing the inertial 

upper stage and will develop and operate the West 

Coast launch and landing facilities at Vandenberg Air 

Force Base, California, for both defense and civil missions. Vandenberg, needed for polar-orbiting missions, is scheduled to be ready for Shuttle operations in 

October 1985. The Air Force is also funding modifications of existing NASA facilities and equipment to permit classified operations at Johnson, Kennedy, and 

Goddard Space Centers and has begun acquisition of 

the Consolidated Space Operations Center near Peterson AFB, Colorado, to augment the Satellite Control 

Facility in Sunnyville, California, as well as Shuttle 

mission control capabilities at JSC. 

The Air Force participates in the Shuttle program to 

ensure effective support of national defense missions. 

Although NASA has overall responsibility for the 

Space Transportation System, the Air Force defines 

DoD’s operational and support requirements and 

assesses the effect of Shuttle design changes on national 

security missions. It considers unique DoD needs to 

ensure maximum operational use of the expanded 

capability offered by the Shuttle. The long-term advantages of the Shuttle to DoD appear to be substantial, particularly for payload retrieval, in-orbit repair, 

assembly of very large structures in space, and the 

availability of an orbital test bed - modes of operation 

unavailable without the Shuttle. 

The fourth and final orbital test flight of the Space 

Shuttle - which landed at Edwards AFB, California, 

on the Fourth of July, 1982 -carried the first DoD experimental payload. DoDs first operational use of the 

Shuttle is scheduled for a launch from KSC in 1983. 

Inertial Upper Stage (IUS). The Air Force is developing the IUS as an expendable upper stage for use with 

the Space Shuttle, to transfer payloads from the Shuttle’s low earth orbit to the mission orbits. The IUS, also 

used on the Titan III(34)D launch vehicle for certain 

DoD payloads, is to be used with the Shuttle by both 

DoD and NASA for large high-altitude payloads. The 

first, highly successful, launch of IUS was in October 

1982 on the Titan deploying a DSCS I1 and DSCS I11 

payload. Its first launch on the Shuttle is scheduled for 

early 1983 (the sixth Shuttle flight), when it will carry 

the first Tracking and Data Relay Satellite into geosynchronous orbit. 

NASA/DoD Centaur Upper Stage. Present Space Shuttle upper stages include the commercial PAM-D and 

PAM-A payload assist modules (also called SSUS-D 

and SSUS-A, spinning solid upper stages), which can 

carry 450 and 900 kilograms to geosynchronous orbit, 

in addition to the Air Force inertial upper stage (2300 

kg to geosynchronous orbit). Because these stages provide less than the desired capability for the Galileo 
orbiter-probe mission to Jupiter in 1986, the Congress 

directed NASA to proceed with development of the 

Centaur upper stage for planetary exploration missions. The congressional direction, combined with 

several other new factors, led DoD to enter joint Centaur development with NASA. These factors included: 

The development schedule for one DoD satellite 

slipped, permitting direct integration with the 

Centaur stage instead of dual integration with 

IUS and a new, higher energy upper stage - thus 

promising lower cost over the long term. 

DoD can now retain the IUS for certain missions, 

ensuring continuity of launch operations during 

Centaur development. 

DoD was able to restructure IUS contracts to 

minimize the cost effects of NASA’s use of Centaur instead of IUS for planetary missions. 

* DoD worked out a financial arrangement with 

NASA that limits both the total investment and 

the effect of Centaur development on the nearterm budget. 

NASA and the Air Force signed a memorandum of 

agreement defining the management and financial arrangement for a joint program to develop two Centaur 

configurations. The Centaur G, six meters long and 

able to launch 4500 kg from the Shuttle to geosynchronous orbit, will be the program’s baseline configuration for common use by NASA and the DoD; a 

stretched Centaur G will provide increased performance for the Galileo mission to Jupiter. 

Space Vehicle Subsystem RUD. The Air Force continued development of advanced spacecraft subsystems 

for space navigation and guidance and continued planning space technology. The space sextant, test-flown 

during 1982, demonstrated that it could survive the 

launch environment and could precisely measure 

angles between stars while in orbit. Combinations of 

such included angle measurements and angular 

measurements between stars and the earth or the 

moon’s limb permit the sextant to navigate 

autonomously and to determine precise attitude for its 

host spacecraft. Development of the Military Space 

Systems Technology Model (MSSTM) continued, for 

advanced technology planning. MSSTM provides Air 

Force planners a broad overview of potential military 

space missions and defines technology development 

needed for the projected capability. 

The Air Force Space Test Program’s Spacecraft 

Charging at High Altitude (SCATHA) experiment, 

which was launched into geosynchronous orbit in 

1979, continues to provide extensive data on electrical 

charging. In 1982, the Air Force, NASA, and others 

were using the data to develop new design requirements that will minimize the effects of charging 

and discharging on spacecraft systems. 

The Space Test Program provided launch, integration, and coordination support for four Navy space experiments during 1982. Two experiments were sponsored by the Office of Naval Research. One is measuring heavy ions to provide data for analysis of 

electronic-equipment shielding requirements. The 

other is measuring electron precipitation from highpowered, very-low-frequency (VLF) transmissions. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Fixed- Wing Programs 

Bomber Development. All four major associate contractors (Rockwell, Boeing, GE, and AIL division of 

Eaton) received full-scale development contracts for 

the B-1B multirole bomber early in 1982, and 24 percent of the total program is committed under firmfixed-price contracts. Final engineering reviews for the 

associate contractors were completed in April, the 

Strategic Air Command’s system operational concept 

document was published in September, and the test 

and evaluation master plan was to be submitted to the 

Office of the Secretary of Defense in January 1983. 

Key milestones include rollout of the first production 

B-1B in October 1984, first B-1B flight in March 1985, 

initial operational capability in September 1986, and 

full operationial capability in June 1988. The plan is to 

acquire 100 B-1Bs for an estimated $20.5 billion (in 

constant 1981 dollars). 

B-1A number 4 participated in the 1982 international air show at Farnborough, England. After its 

return and exhibition at Andrews and Offutt Air Force 

Bases, work began to modify the aircraft to receive the 

newly developed offensive and defensive systems. 

Starting in July 1984, it will be the test bed for the 

heavyweight buildup (to increase the maximum gross 

weight at takeoff from 179 000 kg to 216 000 kg), offensive and defensive avionics integration testing, evaluation of the performance of the terrain-following and 

terrain-avoidance system, and testing B- 1 B performance and operational flying qualities in adverse 

weather conditions. 

The time-phased, combined B-1 B and advanced 

technology bomber (ATB) program permits orderly 

development with early attention to risk reduction. 

Progress on technology in support of the ATB is promising, but the major advances required indicate that 

concentrating solely on an accelerated ATB program 

would entail high risk. The combined program will 

provide transition to a mixed force of penetrating 

bombers and cruise missiles to deter an enemy through 

the 1990s and into the next century. 

F-14 Alternate Fighter Engine. Grumman Aerospace 

Company and Navy pilots flew 44 flights in an F-14B 

aircraft with two General Electric FlOl engines from 

14 July 1981 through 26 March 1982. Pilots explored 
virtually every corner of the flight envelope and moved 

throttles without restriction. Although the aircraft was 

not sufficiently instrumented to develop quantitative 

performance data, the program demonstrated inlet 

compatibility, reliable engine operation, and performance increases. In spite of aggressive throttle 

movements, there were no inlet distortion stalls, no 

stagnations, only five stalls in the entire program (all of 

which were self-clearing), a 98-percent afterburner 

lighting rate, and no need for throttle restrictions-a 

limiting factor for present F-14 flight profiles. 

F/A-18. The F/A-18 Hornet naval strike fighter-a 

twin-engine, midwing, multimission tactical aircraft-will replace the F-4 fighter and A-7 light attack 

aircraft. The program stresses the use of proved 

technology and places the highest priority on reliability, maintainability, survivability, and operational versatility. Full-scale development was essentially completed during 1982. The operational evaluation was 

completed in October, and the first fleet unit, a Marine 

fighter attack squadron of F-4s modernized to F/A-l8s, 

was completed during the latter half of the year. Additional Navy and Marine squadrons will be upgraded to 

Hornets at the rate of eight per year. 

Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF). The Air Force began 

to define requirements, focus technology, and develop 

concepts for an advanced tactical fighter for the 1990s. 

Mission analyses have indicated the need for an ATF 

that will survive and be more effective against a rapidly 

growing threat (in both quantity and quality). The Air 

Force has been working with industry to identify a 

range of concepts and the supporting technology that 

must be developed. The ATF will take advantage of a 

broad spectrum of advanced technology, including 

short takeoff and landing to reduce runway 

dependence and increase deployment flexibility, 

greater aircraft agility to increase survivability and 

engagement options, greater speed and altitude to improve survivability and to deny potential enemy sanctuaries, techniques to decrease probability of detection, 

increased range and payload capabilities to increase 

both deployment and employment choices, better vehicle and weapon integration to minimize the penalty 

paid to deliver munitions to the desired target, and improved system reliability to reduce support cost and increase effective force availability. 

C-5A Wing Modqication. The purpose of the wingmodification program is to allow the C-5A aircraft to 

attain full mission capability and to reach its design 

goal of 30 000 hours of service life. The program began 

in December 1975. Air Force Systems Command has 

program management responsibility (PMR) for 

research, development, test, and evaluation (phase I 

and II), scheduled for completion in October 1983. Air 

Force Logistics Command is responsible for production (phase I11 and IV), scheduled for completion in 

July 1987. 

The fatigue test article X-99 1 successfully reached 

90 000 cyclic test hours (CTH), the equivalent of three 

lifetimes of design use, in April 1982. Fatigue article 

testing terminated at 105 000 CTH in November. At 

85 000 CTH, the severity of the test loads was increased to represent a wartime contingency. The first 

60 000 CTH validated the fatigue life of the wing, and 

the follow-on 45 000 CTH tested crack propagation. 

The testing validated the crack-growth analysis and 

characteristics of the modified wing structure, to provide data for a structural monitoring program for the 

C-5A fleet. Further tests will assess the residual 

strength of the wing after severe structural damage 

(such as that from engine blowup or war damage). All 

testing will be concluded in early 1983 and the final 

report submitted in late 1983. In November 1982, the 

San Antonio Air Logistics Center contracted for procurement of 18 sets of wing mod kits and for installation of kits on 16 aircraft, making a cumulative total of 

52 kits and 22 installations on contract. 

C-I 7. The Air Force awarded a contract to McDonne11 Douglas Corporation to begin low-level development of the C-17 transport aircraft. Initial investigations are aimed at advancements that would be useful 

in any follow-on cargo-aircraft development. These 

technology areas, which were identified by NASA, are 

(1) externally blown flap systems on swept, supercritical wings; (2) directed thrust reversers that reverse 

the entire engine flow, both fan and hot core; (3) aircrew work load for three-man crew operations and a 

two-pilot cockpit configuration for tactical airlift missions. This low-level effort will lay the groundwork for 

a program leading to a follow-on airlifter in the early 

1990s. 

Next-Generation Trainer. Fairchild and Garrett Corporations won full-scale development contracts for the 

air vehicle and engine for the next-generation trainer 

(T-46A), and development is progressing. The T-46A 

will replace the T-37 primary trainer in Air Force 

undergraduate pilot training, correcting inefficiencies 

and performance deficiencies of the T-37 while 

alleviating a T-37 fleet insufficiency projected for 

1987. The initial operational capability will be in 1987, 

and a total purchase of 650 aircraft is planned through 

1992. 

VTXTS. Because of high operating and support 

costs, as well as pending obsolescence of present Navy 

jet-flight-training aircraft, the Navy has begun a program to replace them. VTXTS is to integrate aircraft, 

simulators, training management systems, and 

academics into a cost-effective system to provide 

qualified jet pilots. After parallel industry studies and 

proposals for pre-full-scale development, a prime contractor team was selected in 1982. 

Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPV). The Army’s remotely 

piloted vehicle will perform target-acquistion, designation, aerial-reconnaissance, and artillery-adjustment 

missions. A small unmanned air vehicle, including its 

32 
mission payload, is controlled from a ground station, 

and video imagery and target-location information are 

returned via a jam-resistant data link. Full-scale 

engineering development of the RPV continued from 1 

October 1981 to 30 September 1982, with the first 

flight in July 1982. Four 1982 flights demonstrated 

telemetry of video imagery to the ground control station and computer-controlled launch, recovery, and 

navigation. The cost-plus-incentive-fee contract 

awarded Lockheed Missiles and Space Company in 

1979 calls for 22 air vehicles, 18 mission payload subsystems, 4 ground control stations, 3 launchers, and 3 

recovery subsystems. 

Cruise Missile Programs 

Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The ALCM, a 

key element in the bomber leg of the U.S. Triad of 

land, air, and sea forces, provides the U.S. bomber 

force greater weapon accuracy, flexible routing and 

targeting, reduced exposure to enemy defenses, and 

saturation of defenses. Initially, B-52G aircraft will 

carry 12 ALCMs loaded on two external pylons, while 

retaining the internal capability to carry short-range 

attack missiles and gravity weapons through fiscal 

1986. 

Beginning in fiscal 1986, ALCMs will be loaded externally on B-52H aircraft. Future plans include internal loading for a total load of 20 missiles each. The 

B-1B and the advanced technology bomber will also be 

able to carry cruise missiles. 

At the end of 1982, the ALCM program was concurrently in full production and follow-on operational test 

and evaluation, with 1145 ALCMs under contract. 

The 20-flight test program begun in 1980 was completed in September 1982. The initial operational 

capability of an entire B-52G squadron, with each aircraft equipped with 12 external ALCMs, was achieved 

in December. 

Sea-Launched Cruise Missile (SLCM). SLCMs are key 

weapons in the Navy’s tactical and strategic inventory. 

The Harpoon weapon system, operational with the 

U.S. Navy, extends the range for antiship attack 

capabilty of submarines, surface ships, and aircraft. 

During 1982, the Harpoon system was installed on additional U.S. Navy ships and submarines. 

The Tomahawk SLCM weapon system, completing 

development in 1982, provides both land-attack and 

antiship cruise missiles sized to fit torpedo tubes and 

can be launched from submarine, surface, air, and 

land launch platforms. The Tomahawk antiship 

missile (TASM) will be able to deliver a conventional 

warhead against heavily defended surface combatants 

at extended ranges, The Tomahawk land-attack 

missile (TLAM) will carry either a conventional or 

nuclear warhead and provide Navy operating forces a 

distributed strike capability with survivability. During 

1982, developmental testing was conducted for both 

the TASM and TLAM at the Pacific Missile Test 

Center, Point Mugu, California. 

Ground-Launched Cruise Missile (GLCM). The longrange Air Force GLCM, a key element of the NATO 

theater nuclear-force modernization program, is 

designed to survive an enemy first strike. Its development should enhance deterrence and help compensate 

for any enemy numerical superiority in conventional 

and theater nuclear forces. 

The system incorporates the Tomahawk cruise 

missile with ground-launch equipment consisting of a 

transporter-erector-launcher and a launch control 

center. Each launcher, containing four missiles, is 

mounted on a semitrailer with electronic and powerproduction equipment. The control center, also on a 

semitrailer, houses the launch crew and equipment for 

communications, missile status monitoring, and 

missile launch. 

The system is now undergoing development and initial operational testing. All seven launches through 

1982 were successful except for two missile-related 

problems. Three more flights are planned in early 

1983. Initial deployment is scheduled to begin in the 

United Kingdom in December 1983, followed by 

deployments in Italy. The full deployment plan, for 

464 missiles based in five European countries, is to be 

completed in 1988. 

Helicopter Programs 

UH-GOA Black Hawk. The Black Hawk utility 

helicopter provides the Army cargo and troop-carrying 

support necessary to sustain ground forces in warfare. 

Sikorsky and General Electric were awarded successive 

production contracts from fiscal 1976 through fiscal 

1981, for 337 aircraft and engines. In fiscal 1982, 

Sikorsky received a multiyear contract for 1982-1984, 

for 294 aircraft, to total 631 Black Hawks under contract. The Army had accepted 318 by 15 September 

1982. 

The Black Hawk is in service in high-priority Army 

Forces Command units, and deliveries have begun to 

units in Europe. Korea will begin receiving aircraft in 

October 1983, and follow-on deliveries will continue to 

continental U. S. units. The UH-GOA will substantially 

improve operational capability to carry a combatequipped squad of 11 men, or comparable cargo, in all 

weather, day or night, in all operational environments 

including the Middle East. It is meeting all user requirements. 

SH-GOB Sea Hawk. A Navy-developed derivative of 

the Black Hawk, the Sea Hawk is the airborne part of 

the LAMPS MK I11 sea-air antisubmarine warfare 

system. The aircraft and engine have been modified to 

endure the more severe environmental conditions met 

in operating helicopters from small ships (DD-963 class 

destroyers and FFG-7s). Full production of the SH60B began in 1982. The Navy is considering a 

33 
derivative of the SH-GOB to replace the aging fleet of 

SH-3s to give the carrier battle group inner-zone pro. 

tection against submarines. This helicopter will be 

designated the SH-6OF. 

HH-GOD Night Hawk. A program to develop and 

field a new helicopter for USAF combat rescue and 

special operations forces began in 1982. The aircraft, 

designated the HH-60D Night Hawk, will be a 

derivative of the Army UH-GOA Black Hawk and 

Navy’s SH-GOB Sea Hawk and will be capable of longrange, unescorted flight at night and in adverse 

weather conditions. Sikorsky Aircraft is under contract 

for the air vehicle and necessary modifications, while a 

separate contract has been awarded to develop and integrate the avionics subsystem. Production is scheduled to begin 1985, with initial operational capability 

in 1987. Delivery of 243 aircraft is planned from 1987 

to 1993. The HH-GOD will use the same GE-401 

(T-700-derivative) engine as the Navy’s Sea Hawk. 

CH-47 Modernization. The CH-47 modernization 

program will provide the Army a medium-lift 

helicopter beyond the year 2000. Engineering development, begun in June 1976, has produced three prototype CH-47D models incorporating modernized 

rotor, drive, hydraulic, electrical, advanced-flightcontrol, cargo-handling, and auxiliary power unit 

systems. Integration of these changes is designed to improve operational characteristics and produce one 

standard CH-47 configuration, to facilitate logistical 

support and maintenance. The first production contract for nine helicopters was signed in late 1980. By 

the end of 1982, the three CH-47D prototypes had flow 

more than 2200 test hours, with the high-time aircraft 

surpassing the 1300-hour mark through extended 

reliability, availability, and maintainability (RAM) 

testing and desert operations. The fiscal 1982 contract, 

awarded in December 1981, will modernize 19 aircraft. The approved program will modernize the entire 

fleet of 436 CH-47A, B, and C helicopters to the CH47D configuration. Deliveries of the first production 

aircraft were to begin in February 1983. The first Army Aviation unit fully equipped with 24 CH-47D 

helicopters is to be operational in early 1984. 

CobrdTOW. Modification of existing AH-1G 

helicopters and purchase of new production aircraft 

continued. Deliveries of the first AH-1S model 

Cobra- equipped with the tube-launched, optically 

tracked, wire-guided (TOW) missile - began in June 

1975. Since that time the Cobra/TOW has been 

upgraded three times, leading to the present fully 

modernized AH- 1 S. Key improvements include addition of survivability equipment, 20 mm gun, computerized fire control, laser range finder, rocketmanagement system, and upgraded engine and drivetrain components. 

On completion of the program in early fiscal 1985, 

the inventory will consist of about 500 fully modernized AH-1s models and 488 older models. The Army 

is evaluating a program to upgrade the older aircraft 

and include a forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sight 

system for day and night fighting capability in reduced 

visibility environments. 

C/MH-53. The Navy is converting CH-53E aircraft 

to the MH-53E configuration for airborne mine 

countermeasures (AMCM). The conversion will provide the tow-tension, endurance, and lift capacity required to employ the necessary equipment. During 

1982, the Navy awarded a development contract for 

the conversion, also beginning prototype design, 

fabrication, and engineering analysis of a longer-life 

tail-rotor system and night vision system. 

AH-64 Apache Advanced Attack Helicopter. The Apache 

completed an extensive developmental flight-test program of more than 4000 hours. Production began in 

1982 with a first-year purchase of 11 aircraft of a 

planned 515. At the end of the year, all production activities were on or ahead of schedule, and construction 

of the final assembly facility at Mesa, Arizona, was 

well ahead of schedule. The first production Apache 

was scheduled for delivery to the Army in February 

1984, with the laser-equipped Hellfire antitank missile 

and sights that permit day, night, and adverse weather 

operations. 

Synthetic Flight Training. The Army continued 

research, development, and acquisition of flight 

simulators. In August 1982, the Army awarded 

American Airlines a contract for the final portion of the 

rotor systems integration simulator (RSIS), a highly 

versatile, high-fidelity, rotor-wing simulator that will 

be a key element in future aircraft selection, in improving existing rotor-wing aircraft, and in formulating 

computer software for training simulators. 

In July 1982, the Army let a contract for development of the prototype simulator for the AH-64 Apache 

helicopter. The AH-64 combat-mission simulator is 

designed to provide training in normal operating procedures, emergency procedures, target designation 

and acquisition, and weapon delivery. Its pilot and 

copilot-gunner stations will train pilots from aircraft 

transition to full combat capability. The device will be 

ready for pilot training by June 1985. 

The Army’s CH-47C-model simulator program was 

proceeding on schedule at the end of the year. The first 

three production models were in use. In 1983 the Army will exercise a contract option for two CH-47D 

simulators and for converting the fielded C-model 

simulators to D configuration. Conversion, to begin in 

1984 and be completed in 1985, is to provide pilot 

training as CH-47 modernization progresses. 

The first production AH- 1 S-model Cobra simulator 

is scheduled for fielding in late 1983. The Army plans 

eight production models, two for the Army National 

Guard. The simulator consists of two cockpits, replicas 

of the AH-1S pilot and copilot-gunner stations, with an 

instrument station aft of each. This simulator permits 

pilot and gunner training separately and as a team and 
includes a visual system that provides day and night 

scenes, as well as weapon effects. 

V/STOL Program 

AV-8B. More than 500 hours of flight tests of four 

full-scale development AV-8B aircraft completed Navy 

technical evaluations I and I1 and the first stages of 

Navy operational test and evaluation. An improved, 

vectored-thrust, vertical or short takeoff and landing 

(V/STOL) aircraft for the Marine Corps, the AV-8B is 

based on the AV-8A aircraft and the Pegasus I engine. 

The AV-8B will double the range and payload performance of the AV-8A model and will be more reliable 

and easier to maintain. 

Joint Services Vertical L.gt Development UVX) 

In December 1981, the Army was designated the executive service to develop a common DoD vertical 

takeoff and landing (VTOL) vehicle. A joint 

technology assessment, completed in the spring of 

1982, reviewed JVX concepts that would take advantage of emerging advanced VTOL technology and 

meet mission requirements of all services. JVX will 

provide a multimission capability using a common airframe and possibly a common engine. Each service will 

use its own mission equipment. The Marine Corps 

defined an assault lift vehicle as part of the triservice 

program. The Navy will use it for combat search and 

rescue, the Air Force for special operations and search 

and rescue, and the Army in a special electronicmission role. The services expected to issue a request 

for proposals in fiscal 1983. The Marine Corps will 

achieve the initial operational capability in late 1991, 

with aircraft for other services expected by 1993. The 

lead service responsibility was transferred from the 

Army to the Navy in December 1982. 

Aeronautical Research and Development 

Forward-Swept Wing. A joint DARPA-USAF-NASA 

program will demonstrate the feasibility and practical 

application of a forward-swept wing and related flightcontrol technology in an experimental flight-test aircraft, the X-29. Grumman Aerospace Corporation is 

assembling the aircraft for a first flight in early 1984. 

By using advanced composite materials and aeroelastic 

tailoring, the nonmetallic wings can be made up to 30 

percent lighter than metal wings of the same strength. 

Other advanced technologies in the X-29 design include digital fly-by-wire flight control, a variableincidence close-coupled canard, discrete-trailing-edge 

variable-wing camber, and highly relaxed (negative), 

static longitudinal stability. In addition to decreased 

aircraft size and weight, the forward-swept-wing 

technology offers reduced transonic drag, improved 

low-speed flying qualities, and greater maneuverability 

at transonic and supersonic speeds. 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTI). The 

Air Force AFTI program began flight-testing a 

modified F-16 in July 1982. The test aircraft integrates 

a triple-redundant, digital-flight-control system with 

vertical canard control surfaces to achieve independent 

six-degree-of-freedom control, thus improving agility 

and flexibility. Investigation of the new flight control 

features and handling qualities will continue through 

mid-1983. During the second phase of the program, 

the advanced system will be integrated with a fire control system to achieve highly accurate maneuveringattack capability. 

Aeronautical Tschnology Research. The Army pursues 

exploratory development and scientific knowledge in 

aeronautical technology to increase operational effectiveness of helicopters, reduce life-cycle costs, improve 

availability, reduce vulnerability, and improve flight 

simulation and analysis of helicopter system integration. Disciplines include aerodynamics, structures, 

propulsion, reliability and maintainability, safety and 

survivability, aircraft subsystems, mission support, 

flight simulation, and man-machine integration. 

Tests of the no-tail rotor (NOTAR) demonstration 

aircraft, which uses a circulation-control tail boom and 

jet thruster for antitorque and directional control, 

showed adequate performance and reduced noise 

signature. A study of devices to improve helicopter 

autorotative capabilities to increase flight safety was 

completed. Three concepts for curved fuselage frames 

made from composite materials were developed and 

tested. Testing of a scale model of an aeroelastically 

conformable rotor showed that tailoring of blade stiffness and aerodynamic parameters can reduce loads 

and improve performance 

Cost-effective techniques for fabricating cooled 

radial turbines were defined and validated. A feasibility study of adaptive fuel-control concepts that permit 

electronic fuel controls to change characteristics while 

in operation was completed with encouraging results. 

New inspection and repair techniques for helicopter 

wiring damaged in battle permit rapid fault isolation 

and repair. Flight test for the oil-debris discrimination 

and filtration system completed 75 000 hours, leading 

to a recommendation to extend the oil-change interval 

on all UH/AH-l helicopters to 1000 hours, for an 

estimated yearly saving of $3 300 000. Chemicalinfiltration and air-leak tests on an AH- 1 S helicopter 

assessed the sealing in the cockpit area required for 

overpressure, to preclude contamination by chemical 

agents. User evaluation of the internal cargo-handling 

system on the CH-47 was successfully completed. 

Preliminary design methodology for a wide variety of 

VTOL concepts was updated, extended, and applied 

to evalution of candidate designs for the JVX. 

Advanced Digital-Optical Control System (ADOCS). The 

ADOCS program seeks to develop an advanced flightcontrol system to increase battlefield effectiveness of 

Army helicopters while reducing their cost and weight. 

35 
Redundant digital-optical hardware will be developed 

to protect against lightning, electromagnetic pulse, and 

nuclear radiation. Optics, immune to electrical interferences, will provide protection even with composite structures that offer no inherent electrical 

shielding. Studies have shown that digital flight control 

improves helicopter handling. significantly improving 

mission effectiveness. 

The ADOCS program is developing and flighttesting a digital control system that is as electrically 

passive as possible. A computer, or microprocessor 

complex, generates actuator control signals in response 

to commands from the pilot, aircraft-state data from 

onboard sensors, and system feedback from electrically 

passive, optical transducers. All essential controlsystem data are communicated digitally over optical 

fibers, with redundancy as necessary for reliability and 

survivability. Two control-media-mechanization contracts were completed in fiscal 1981. Optical servovalve contracts and linear, rotary, differentialpressure-transducer contracts were essentially complete at the end of 1982. An advanced rotor-actuation 

concept was selected for analysis. The advancedcockpit-controls and automatic-flight-control system, 

with the balance of its phase I1 simulation to be completed in January 1983, is providing preliminary 

design information on control laws, controller configurations, and display formats for the flight 

demonstrator program. 

Boeing Vertol, awarded a contract to design, 

fabricate, and flight-test a redundant digital-optical 

flight control system in a UH-60-A helicopter, completed its preliminary design in October 1982. After 

detailed design, the first flight is planned for 

November 1984. Contract completion is expected in 

fiscal 1986. 

Air Mobility Research. The Army conducts basic 

research in the aerodynamics of rotor systems and 

rotary-wing and V/STOL aircraft; in advanced propulsion systems; and toward developing materials, 

structures, and aviation electronics for future aircraft. 

Particularly noteworthy accomplishments in 1982 were 

in aeromechanics, propulsion, and structures. A threedimension, transonic, inviscid, aerodynamics code 

that predicts the flow field and pressure distribution in 

the region of a rotor-blade tip in hovering flight was 

developed and applied. This code, and its extension to 

forward flight, is fundamental to accurate prediction of 

rotor noise, rotor design loads, and performance. 

Significant advances were demonstrated in the use 

of optical (laser-light-source) interferometry. This 

new, non-intrusive, measurement technique provides 

an excellent tool for validating the newly developed 

transonic code and for developing new wake-geometry 

codes. 

Tests of a model helicopter rotor in two advanced 

anechoic wind tunnels, in France and the Netherlands, 

were completed in cooperative research with France 

and Germany. The tests provided an extensive data 

base for understanding rotor noise-generation. The 

data have already shown that these results are scalable 

so that small-scale wind-tunnel models can be used to 

study full-scale acoustic phenomena. A felt-ceramic 

combuster-liner material appears to offer great advantages for future gas-turbine-engine combusters requiring extremely low coolant flows. A simple test was 

developed that measures the interlaminar fracture 

toughness of multilayered, fibrous, composite 

materials. NASA is using this test to screen toughened 

resin-graphite composites for primary structural components. Its application to helicopter structures is 

straightforward and may be used to evaluate new, lowcost composite materials. 

Advanced Composite Airframe Program (ACAP). ACAP 

seeks to demonstrate the use of advanced composite 

materials and structural design concepts in helicopter 

airframes to reduce weight by 22 percent and cost by 

17 percent, provide tolerance to 12.7 mm and 23 mm 

high-explosive incendiary weapons, reduce radar 

cross-section, improve crashworthiness and laser burnthrough resistance, reduce maintenance, and lengthen 

life. The program seeks to establish industry and Army 

confidence in composites for primary and secondary 

airframe structures for operational helicopters. 

Resulting technology will also be applicable to all 

future aircraft. 

Bell Helicopter Textron is using dynamic and operational components from its model 222 commercial 

helicopter for the demonstration, while Sikorsky Aircraft is using dynamic and operational components 

from its S-76. They completed detailed design and 

analysis of the airframe structure and landing gear for 

both configurations in 1982 and tested coupon and 

cross-section specimens of representative materials and 

joint designs. One-fifth-scale wind-tunnel models of 

airframe configurations verified drag predictions and 

static stability characteristics. Critical design reviews of 

airframe and landing gear design, analysis, and supporting test data were completed. The final phase of 

the program, begun in late 1982, includes airframe 

fabrication, full-scale structural test, flight vehicle 

assembly, and ground and flight tests. Tests will include static and dynamic testing, crash testing, and 

ballistic testing. First flight of the ACAP aircraft is 

scheduled for late 1984, with the entire program 

scheduled for completion in 1985. 

Avionics. Two contracts were awarded in 1982 for the 

nap-of-the earth (NOE) communications program. 

Both contracts (for improved FM and HF-single side 

band) are proceeding well, with first article tests 

scheduled for late 1983. Plans are to initiate Army participation in the microwave landing system (MLS) program by installing MLS at the training fields at Fort 

Rucker and Troy, Alabama. R&D for the full joint tactical MLS has been curtailed. Ways to strengthen 

available small MLS equipment for mobile configura36 
tion are being studied as a possible means of meeting 

the Army's requirements. "Digitizing" the UH-60 

helicopter designated as the system test bed for avionics 

research (STAR) made progress. Plans are to have a 

fully integrated digital cockpit by the end of 1983 for 

flight demonstrations. The program is to provide 

lighter weight, lower cost aircraft electronics that are 

more likely to survive in combat. 

Joint- Technology Demonstrator Engine. A Navy-Air 

Force program is substantiating performance, structural integrity, and reliability of advanced gasgenerator and low-pressure-spool components in integrated engine tests. Three demonstrator engines 

demonstrated satisfactory performance, starting 

characteristics, reduced specific-fuel consumption and 

broad-area variable-geometry characteristics. 

Multiapplication Core Engine. A Navy-Air Force program for designing and fabricating early prototype versions of the next generation of large, high-thrust, 

tactical-aircraft engines is directed to increase reliability and durability significantly and reduce life-cycle 

costs. Initial concept definition studies on 16 different 

systems in 30 configurations have been completed as 

the basis for a joint Navy-Air Force long-range propulsion plan. Design was begun for joint core-engine concept validation. 

Hypersonic Missile Propulsion. NASA is participating 

in a Navy assessment of advanced propulsion 

possibilities for hypersonic cruise missiles. NASA's 

Langley Research Center has developed an airbreathing-propulsion concept that has potential for a 

variety of naval and other military missions requiring 

hypersonic missile speeds over long ranges. 

Lightweight Hydraulic System. The increasing 

hydraulic-power requirements in complex aircraft such 

as the F-14, the reduced space in aircraft such as the 

FIA-18, and the desire for minimum weight in 

V/STOL aircraft such as the AV-8B have added impetus to reduce subsystem weight in future aircraft. 

The Naval Air Development Center has investigated 

the potential of a lightweight hydraulic system, 

culminating in a laboratory system simulating an actual aircraft installation. The lightweight system 

operates at a pressure of 540 atmospheres (8000 

pounds per square inch) rather than the present 200 

(3000 psi). Early investigation established the desired 

pressure level after exploring a range up to 1360 atmospheres (20 000 psi), determined that damage 

system characteristics were no more severe for 540 

than for 200 atmospheres, and evaluated the effects on 

actuator, pump, and related subsystems. Design 

analysis, using test results, indicates that the total 

hydraulic system weight of a typical carrier-based tactical aircraft can be reduced by 30 percent and the 

volume 40 percent. 

XV-15 Tilt-Rotor Research Aircraft. The tilt-rotor 

research aircraft program continued in 1982 with a 

military demonstration tour of the East Coast by the 

XV-15 aircraft, including flight demonstrations at 

several military installations. The aircraft then was 

prepared for participation in the special electronicmission aircraft (SEMA) exercises. SEMA instrumentation, radar warning receivers, and chaff dispensers 

were installed and checked out, and phase I SEMA 

survivability tests indicated that the tilt-rotor should be 

a viable SEMA aircraft. Subsequently, the aircraft was 

flown on a highly instrumented range from China 

Lake Naval Weapons Center, California, for radar 

cross-section measurements. Data were taken at 

various pylon angles and at various aspects to the radar 

systems. In addition to baseline measurements, a series 

of measurements were made of chaff fired from the aircraft. 

During July and August 1982, shipboard tests of the 

XV-15 were performed as part of a joint NASA-ArmyNavy-contractor operation. Following extensive landbased flight tests simulating ship takeoffs and landings, 

the Navy-contractor pilot team conducted flight operations for several days from the U.S.S. Trzpoli(LPH-10) 

off San Diego, California. All flight-test objectives 

were realized, and the tilt-rotor was assessed as adaptable to sea-based operations. Both STOL and VTOL 

operations generally confirmed performance predictions. Hover off the deck at near wheel height met no 

problems. Takeoffs and landings from various deck 

spots pinpointed no problem areas. The results of these 

trials will be of direct use in the present early stages of 

the JVX program. 

V/STOL Aircraft Technology. In a joint program, the 

Navy, NASA, and Grumman Aerospace Company 

conducted a series of tunnel and V/STOL stand tests 

to establish the technical characteristics of a turbofanpowered, subsonic, V/STOL-aircraft concept. Tests of 

a large-scale model at NASA's Ames Research Center 

investigated vertical, transition, and forward flight. 

Re s u 1 ts t ha t the 

characteristics would be essentially 

small-scale preliminary models and 

c o n f i r m ed 

Space and Aeronautics 

design's flight 

as predicted from 

analysis. 

support 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF) 

The Air Force SCF controls satellites for DoD from 

the Satellite Test Center (STC) at Sunnyvale, California, through a worldwide network of seven tracking 

stations. During 1982, SCF supported 15 launches (1 

dual) including 7 DoD and 5 NASA orbital missions 

and 3 ballistic flight tests. From its tracking station in 

the Indian Ocean, SCF provided critical orbital 

coverage for Space Shuttle orbital flight tests. It made 

80 600 station contacts providing 94 900 hours of orbital support for satellite programs. The data systems 

modernization project, a major development program 

to upgrade the data-processing capability of SCF, is 

scheduled to provide an operational system in early 
1985, The new system will centralize data processing at 

STC, reducing operating costs at the remote-tracking 

sites and increasing network capacity. Using the new 

DoD standard software language, Ada, as a design 

language, the system has completed critical design 

review, and coding is progressing on schedule. 

Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC) 

The CSOC integration contract was awarded in 

1982, and construction of the facility is scheduled to 

begin in the summer of 1983 in the Colorado Springs 

area. CSOC will provide secure management and control for military space operations on the Shuttle. By 

complementing both DoD’s Satellite Test Center and 

NASA’s mission control complex at Johnson Space 

Center in Texas, CSOC will remove the single-pointof-control aspect for DoD space operations. First 

satellite control operations are scheduled to begin in 

1986. 

Eastern Space and Missile Center (ESMC) 

ESMC, at Patrick AFB in Florida, provides launch 

and data-acquisition support for a wide variety of lowinclination-orbit DoD, NASA, and NASA-sponsored 

space programs and ballistic missile operations. During 1982, ESMC supported 21 major space test operations, including the first operational Space Transportation System mission in November. 

Western Space and Missile Center (WSMC) 

WSMC, at Vandenberg AFB in California, provides launch and data-acquisition support for DoD and 

NASA space programs requiring polar orbit and for 

USAF aeronautical programs. WSMC supported 13 

major space test operations during 1982. Aeronautical 

testing includes that for cruise missile programs. Construction at the western launch site for the Space 

Transportation System continued at a high level, and 

preparations continue for beginning MX testing in 

March 1983. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) 

WSMR, in White Sands, New Mexico, continued 

to support DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs, including NASA’s Space Shuttle, upper atmospheric sounding using rockets and balloons, and 

astronomical test programs. Space Shuttle activities at 

WSMR include qualification tests on the orbital 

maneuvering system and on forward and aft reaction 

control systems, evaluation of Shuttle spacecraft 

materials, training of astronauts to land the Shuttle, 

preparation of a satellite system to track and relay 

Shuttle data back to the earth, and Shuttle flight and 

landing support. Past efforts include construction of a 

second landing strip, construction of facilities for postlanding deservicing, preparation for ferrying, preparation of a public affairs plan to handle the multitude of 

visitors to White Sands during and after landings, provision of overall security support, and conduct of 

astronaut recovery exercises. White Sands continues 

preparations for Shuttle landings - training chase aircraft pilots for rendezvous, testing tracking acquisition, testing data transmission, and operating other 

support systems. 

Pa+ Missile Test Center (PMTC) 

PMTC, at Point Mugu, California, provided 

back-up support for all Space Shuttle missions, out of 

its overall capacity to support ballistic missile and 

aeronautical testing. PMTC’s primary emphasis in 

1982 was test support for cruise missile programs. 

Other major testing included the Phoenix AIM-54C, 

advanced medium-range air-to-air missile 

(AMRAAM), and AIM-7M missile. Preparations 

continued for launch and range support for launch certification of the Trident submarine missile. 

Naval Astronautics Group (NAG) 

NAG is the operational activity responsible for 

operating the TRANSIT navigation satellite system. 

Headquartered at Point Mugu, California, NAG provides satellite control, timing, and user services 

through satellite support stations around the globe for 

TRANSIT operations. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC) 

AEDC, in Tullahoma, Tennessee, participates in 

the timely development and continued operational effectiveness of advanced-technology aerospace systems 

by conducting tests, engineering analyses, and 

technical evaluations. As a national facility with a 

broad range of governmental and commercial users, 

AEDC over the past year supported such projects as 

the MX missile, Space Shuttle, B-1B and F-16 aircraft, 

F-100 engine, next-generation trainer, and advanced 

medium-range air-to-air missile. AEDC operates and 

maintains some 25 aerospace ground-test facilities, 

which provide aerodynamic, propulsion, and 

spaceflight environmental simulations. 

Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) 

AFFTC, at Edwards AFB in California, conducts 

development tests and evaluation of manned and unmanned aircraft systems and aerospace research 

vehicles. Tests range from engineering simulations 

before flight through flight tests of fully integrated 

weapon systems. The large air space, dry lake beds, 

isolation, and highly instrumented ranges provide 

unique support for a wide variety of users, including 

NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Facility, the Army’s 

Aviation Engineering Flight Activity, and the Air 
Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory. During 1982, 

the center supported major space, tactical, and 

strategic systems including the Space Shuttle, F-15, 

F-16, A-10, F-5, B-52, KC-135, and air-launched 

cruise missile. 

4950th Test Wing 

The 4950th Test Wing, an Air Force Systems Command unit based at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, 

flight-tests military systems, subsystems, and components. It also operates and maintains test and testsupport aircraft and ancillary equipment. One of the 

primary support aircraft is the advanced rangeinstrumentation aircraft (ARIA), which serves key 

telemetry, data-processing, and command-and-control 

functions during both aeronautical test flights and 

space missions. Conversion from the (2-135 to C-18 

(used B-707) aircraft and updating of data-acquisition 

equipment are under way to improve ARIA 

capabilities. 

Cooperation with NASA 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB), cochaired by the under secretary of 

defense for research and engineering and the NASA 

deputy administrator, is the major forum for review of 

policy and program issues of mutual DoD and NASA 

interest. Its active panels complement the interagency 

coordination process. During 1982 the AACB met 

twice (the 87th and 88th meetings), focusing on subjects related to the Space Transportation System. The 

board resolved to dedicate a meeting early in 1983 to 

aeronautics. 

Cooperative Prosrams 

The Department of Defense- through the Army, 

Navy, Air Force, and Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency - continues to pursue with NASA 

research and development programs in space and 

aeronautics technology. NASA and the Air Force continued a cooperative program to develop components 

for a satellite communications system in the 20-GHz 

frequency range. The Navy, with NASA and NOAA 

support, is considering development of a Navy Remote 

Ocean Sensing System (N-ROSS), an oceanographic 

satellite to provide tactical information to operating 

forces. 

Cooperation continues in acquiring a fully operational Space Transportation System, including the 

Space Shuttle, inertial and Centaur upper stages, 

launch and landing facilities at Kennedy Space Center 

and Vandenberg Air Force Base, and mission control 

elements at Johnson Space Center, Goddard Space 

Flight Center, and the Consolidated Space Operations 

Center. 

DoD and NASA also continue to support each other 

in expendable launch vehicle operations and 

spaceflight opportunities for technology development 

experiments. They are assessing requirements for a 

prospective Space Station. 

Cooperative aeronautical activities include windtunnel and flight-test support for aircraft technology 

development programs: forward-swept wing, advanced fighter technology integration, hypersonic 

missile propulsion, XV-15 tilt-rotor research aircraft, 

and V/STOL aircraft technology. Cooperative programs are discussed more fully within the preceding 

text under the appropriate titles. 

39 
Department of Commerce 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), and the National Telecommunications 

and Information Administration (NTIA) are the 

Department of Commerce agencies that took part in 

the nation's aeronautics and space program during 

1982. 

The NOAA mission is to ensure the safety of the 

general public and improve the quality of life through 

better understanding of the earth's environment and 

more efficient use of its resources. This mission is accomplished by the operation, management, and improvement of the nation's civil, operational environmental satellite systems. Satellite data are used to 

assess the impact of natural factors and human activities on global food and fuel supplies and on environmental quality. The data also are used to observe 

and forecast weather conditions, issue warnings of 

severe weather, and assist community-preparedness 

programs for weather-related disasters; to prepare 

charts and coastal maps and for geodetic research; to 

improve assessment and conservation of marine life; to 

meet the needs of public and private users including 

scientists; and for research to improve the nation's environmental service. 

The NBS mission is to maintain and develop the national standards of measurement and provide government, industry, and academia the measurement services and fundamental physical, chemical, and 

engineering data to achieve national goals. NBS supports space systems, atmospheric and space research, 

and aeronautical programs. 

NTIA is the principal communications adviser to 

the president. Its mission is to develop and coordinate 

executive branch policy in telecommunications and information. NTIA also is responsible for managing the 

radio spectrum assigned for federal use and providing 

technical assistance to other federal agencies. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

Polar Orbiting Satellites. During 1982 NOAA 6 and 

NOAA 7 were the active polar-orbiting satellites 

operated by the National Earth Satellite Service 

(NESS). They are in sun-synchronous orbits of 810 

and 850 kilometers and provide environmental observations of the entire earth four times each day. NOAA 6 

crosses the equator in a southward direction at about 

7:30 a.m. local time, and NOAA 7 crosses northward at 

2:30 p.m. These satellites carry four primary instruments: the advanced very-high-resolution 

radiometer, the Tiros operational vertical sounder, the 

Argos data-collection and platform-location system, 

and the space environment monitor. 

A new version of the spacecraft, the Advanced 

Tiros-N (ATN), has been developed to carry an increased payload. The first ATN satellite, NOAA-E (to 

become NOAA 8 on launch in March 1983), will carry 

a search and rescue capability in addition to its 

primary instruments. Later flights will carry sensors to 

measure the earth's radiation budget and ozone. 

Geostationary Satellites. GOES 4 and 5 were the operational satellites in NOAA's Geostationary Operational 

Environmental Satellite (GOES) system throughout 

most of 1982. In orbit at about 35 000 km above the 

equator, GOES 4 is at 135" west longitude, and GOES 

5 is at 75" W. Both were equipped with the visibleinfrared spin-scan radiometer (VISSR) atmospheric 

sounder (VAS), but, on 25 November 1982, the VAS 

failed on GOES 4. GOES 1, at 116" west longitude, was 

substituted for image taking. However, only the visible 

channel of the GOES 1 VISSR is operable, and it has 

no VAS capability. The next geostationary satellite, 

GOES-F (GOES 6 in orbit), is scheduled to be 

launched in April 1983. 

The VAS provides traditional images of the earth's 

surface and cloud cover as well as new images that 

depict atmospheric temperatures and the water vapor 

content at various altitudes. The 12 infrared channels 

of the VAS can be used to derive temperature and 

moisture profiles in noncloudy areas at a much higher 

frequency than with radiosondes or polar-orbiting 

satellites. These satellites were being used in an operational demonstration program to determine the 

capability of the VAS. Results so far have been excellent, and efforts are under way to develop a ground 

system to use the VAS data to improve NOAA's operational weather analysis and forecasting. The failure of 

GOES 4 created technical problems that temporarily 

terminated the VAS demonstration program, probably 

until after the launch of GOES-F. GOES satellites also 

carry a space environment monitor, a data-collection 

41 
system, and a weather facsimile broadcast service. 

Other in-orbit spacecraft - GOES 2 and 3- remain on 

standby, providing limited operational support for 

weather facsimile and data collection. After more than 

seven years of service, SMS 2, one of the two original 

NASA prototype geostationary satellites, was deactivated 5 August 1982. It was boosted about 250 

kilometers above its normal geostationary height to 

relieve the crowded geostationary orbit. During 198 1, 

SMS 1 was deactivated in a similar manner. 

Land Satellites. NOAA, authorized to manage an 

operational land satellite system based on the Landsat-D and -D satellites constructed by NASA, expects 

to assume operational responsibility for the first of 

these satellites early in 1983. NASA launched the 

Landsat-D (named Landsat 4 after achieving orbit) on 

16 July 1982 and completed the operational testing of 

the satellite in November. Since then, NASA has been 

proving the operational capability of the ground control and data preprocessing system at Goddard Space 

Flight Center (GSFC). During 1982, NOAA established a technical staff that will manage day-to-day 

Landsat 4 operations at GSFC after NOAA assumes 

responsibility. 

LandFat 4 carries one operational instrument, the 

multispectral scanner (MSS), and one research and 

development instrument, the thematic mapper (TM). 

The MSS measures reflected solar radiation over four 

bands of the visible and near-infrared wavelengths at 

80-meter resolution, and the TM measures radiation 

over six bands of the visible and near-infrared 

wavelengths at 30-meter resolution and one band in 

the thermal-infrared wavelength region of 1 1 

micrometers at 120-meter resolution. Data from these 

instruments became available for public use in October 

1982. MSS data are available for most of the contiguous United States, Alaska, most of Central and 

South America, northern Europe and northwest 

Russia, Japan and near neighboring areas of Asia, and 

Australia. Limited, unscheduled TM data are 

available for the contiguous United States and 

Canada. In December, NOAA deployed tape 

recorders in India and Thailand to collect MSS data 

for those regions. 

On 1 October 1982, NOAA assumed responsibility 

for producing and distributing Landsat data and data 

products, including those from Landsat I, 2 and 3. 

NOAA contracted with the Department of Interior’s 

Earth Resources Observation System (EROS) Data 

Center (EDC) for production and distribution. The 

products are sold to federal and other users to cover the 

coast of managing the overall Landsat program and 

operating and maintaining GSFC and EDC Landsat 

activities. 

In 1982, NOAA hosted six public meetings on the 

operational Landsat program, to inform users of progress toward an operational system and identify their 

concerns. NOAA’s new, higher price for MSS products was one topic of these presentations, to ensure that 

the prices are well known and to explain that they 

recover only the operating and maintenance costs, not 

capital costs. The main topic was definition of the MSS 

basic data set, which consists of pictures routinely collected by Landsat and is sold at regular prices. Requested special acquisitions require an added fee. TM 

products are provided to NASA researchers and sold to 

the public through the NOAA Landsat archive. 

The Program Board on Civil Operational Land 

Remote Sensing from Space, established in 1981 by 

the Secretary of Comerce, provides interagency federal 

review of NOAA’s Landsat activities. In 1982, the 

secretary established the Land Remote Sensing 

Satellite Advisory Committee to obtain nonfederal 

views on management and on transferring the program to the private sector. The committee is 

evaluating opinions; recommendations to the secretary 

are expected early in 1983. 

Satellite Data Services 

Data Distribution. Customers of the GOES-Tap 

system, which became operational in 1975, continued 

to increase. NESS completed modifications of its communication equipment at the Washington, Kansas 

City, and San Francisco Satellite Field Services Stations (SFSSs) to permit more GOES-Tap connections 

and plans to modify the New Orleans equipment. The 

original 50 Weather Service Forecast Office Taps increased by the end of 1982 to some 205 with a capability of expanding to 488 in the future. 

Weather facsimile (WEFAX) broadcast schedules on 

GOES East and West satellites expanded, totaling 233 

satellite image sectors and 24 weather charts daily. 

Known national and international WEFAX user stations increased to 176. In June, the National Weather 

Service (NWS) substituted WEFAX satellite image 

broadcasts for all satellite image data on the main 

United States to Europe facsimile circuit. 

At the end of 1982, the GOES Data Collection 

System (DCS) totaled more than 3100 platforms (a 

25-percent increase from 1981) operated by 61 national 

and international users. Eighteen direct-readout stations operationally received DCS data. A randomreporting operational test begun in February will continue for up to two years to determine if nonscheduled 

platform broadcasts will satisfy real-time data requirements and if random reporting can be managed 

along with scheduled broadcasts. The automatic 

monitoring system that evaluates each platform’s 

messages and provides statistics for system management began operation in May. 

NWS began operational demonstration in 1982 of a 

prototype service called Satellite Imagery Acquisition 

by Telephone Terminal. Small Weather Service Offices (WSO) that issue weather warnings can quickly 

receive high-resolution GOES satellite images for the 
cost of a 10-minute telephone toll call. To minimize 

costs, the number of offices receiving this service will 

be restricted to those in the hurricane-prone coastal 

sites and high-risk severe-weatherlflash-flood inland 

locations. 

The Environmental Data and Information Service 

(EDIS) archives U. S. environmental satellite data for 

the users, including film images and magnetic tapes 

collected by numerous satellites since early 1960. In 

addition to meteorologically oriented data, the archive 

contains information of interest to oceanographers, 

agronomists, geologists, hydrologists, and climatologists. These data are especially valuable to those 

engaged in research or monitoring conditions over 

areas for which no other observational data are 

available. EDIS also is developing a National Environmental Data Referral Service (NEDRES) to 

locate and describe environmental data files maintained by governmental agencies, private institutions, 

and businesses. This service will provide a readily accessible identification of what data exist, where, and 

how the data may be obtained. Data will span a wide 

range of scientific fields. 

In late 1982, EDIS completed a feasibility study of 

the Geosynchronous Satellite Archival and Retrieval 

System (GARS). The system will collect full-resolution 

GOES digital data, store it, and produce statistical 

summaries and photographic and digital data. GARS 

should be operational by 1984. 

Datu Support. EDIS uses precipitation estimates from 

NOAA polar-orbiting and geostationary satellite images to support Agency for International Development 

(AID) disaster assistance. During 1982, EDIS provided assessments of the effects of weather variables on 

crops to 50 countries in Africa and also to Central and 

South America and Asia. 

In addition to the meteorological satellite data archived at the National Climatic Center, the National 

Geophysical Data Center archives, analyzes, and 

publishes data on the solar-terrestrial and cryospheric 

environments recorded by NOAA, NASA, U.S. Navy 

and U.S. Air Force satellites in low-altitude, geostationary, geocentric, heliocentric, and Venusian orbits. 

These data are principally used in research, but also 

have applications in telecommunications, defense, 

transportation, power generation, exploration, 

meteorology, climatology, and hydrology. 

Precipitating-electron data over the northern and 

southern auroral zones observed by polar-orbiting 

satellites were analyzed in support of the International 

Magnetospheric Study. Auroral boundaries and 

precipitation characteristics were determined to 

describe ionospheric and magnetospheric dynamics for 

magnetic substorms. The data also were used for the 

magnetospheric plasma motion model at Rice University. An EDIS-developed computer program identifying the equatorward boundary of the auroral oval from 

Tiros N and NOAA 6 energetic particle measurements 

will support the tests of a new USAF over-the-horizon 

radar system. 

The Kansas City Satellite Field Services Station continued to evaluate programs using the Central Storm 

Information System (CSIS) and the University of 

Wisconsin McIDAS System (man-computer interactive display system), incorporating information from 

the systems into daily operations. CSIS greatly increased the timeliness of GOES data and increased 

user interface on rapidly developing severe weather. 

Programs were written to "flag" meteorological conditions that precede mesoscale convective storms. Additional programs are being developed for forecasting 

heavy snow. 

The Synoptic Analysis Branch of NESS provided 

satellite images and interpretations to the wire services, 

the news media, and the TV networks during the 

Falkland Islands hostilities. Satellite data were the only 

source of information available on weather in the 

Falkland Islands and vicinity. 

GOES images gave weather support to the 1982 

Space Shuttle flights. The NWS Spaceflight 

Meteorology Group at the Johnson Space Center used 

satellite data to monitor weather conditions for some 

preselected recovery sites. 

NWS also supported the VAS assessment program, 

cooperating with the Space Science and Engineering 

Center (SSEC) at the University of Wisconsin in providing data for evaluation and special VAS products. 

Until the demise of the VAS instrument on 25 

November 1982, its images were provided four times 

daily from the western GOES satellite to NWS 

Forecast Offices and other meteorological agencies. 

Research during the past year has shown that the water 

vapor images reveal atmospheric circulation patterns, 

such as high-and-low pressure areas, fronts, and jet 

streams when clouds are absent. Clouds are necessary 

to detect these phenomena in visible and infrared images. For example, animation of water vapor satellite 

images up to seven days provides the San Francisco 

SFSS with a unique insight into large-scale atmospheric flow over the data-sparse areas of the Pacific 

Ocean. These images also permit better monitoring of 

moisture remaining- in the form of water vapor rather 

than clouds - from late-season eastern Pacific tropical 

storms and hurricanes that can cause precipitation over 

California, impairing such agricultural interests as 

raisin drying. VAS soundings over the Pacific Ocean 

may also greatly improve the 24- to 36-hour numerical 

weather forecast for the United States. Unlike the 

sounders on the polar-orbiting satellites, the VAS can 

sound the atmosphere over the Pacific Ocean at exactly 

the same time that conventional balloon soundings are 

obtained over the U.S. Simultaneous measurements 

greatly enhance the value of satellite observations. In 

two out of six tests, the Pacific soundings dramatically 

improved the 12- to 24-hour forecast. In no instance 

43 
was the forecast degraded. More tests are planned for 

1983. 

Also during 1982, experimental VAS soundings 

from the GOES 5 spacecraft were processed by NESS 

and University of Wisconsin scientists and 

disseminated to the National Severe Storms Forecast 

Center in Kansas City for evalution of their use in 

severe convective storm forecasting. The VAS 

measures upper air temperature and moisture every 80 

km across the United States at two-hour intervals. 

Conventional upper-air balloon soundings are roughly 

650 km apart and obtained only twice daily. 

Preliminary results were encouraging. The time variations of temperature and moisture observed by VAS in 

cloud-free areas provide a good estimate of where 

severe convective weather can be expected. 

VAS data on atmospheric moisture distribution and 

circulation also are proving valuable for estimating the 

motion of tropical storms. The VAS moisture-profile 

data reveal both the low-level energy-source areas for 

tropical storm generation or dissipation and the upperlevel vertical-motion patterns that support intensification or decay. Large-scale circulation patterns provided by the cloud motion observations and the thermal 

gradient observations in cloud-free areas provide a 

complete picture of the external forces governing storm 

movement. 

NOAA’s Prototype Regional Observing and 

Forecasting Service established a GOES direct-readout 

ground station in Boulder, Colorado. One of only 

three stations that can receive VAS data, it is used as 

part of the NOAA operational VAS assessment program. The service, evaluating the usefulness of VAS 

products in forecasting local weather at the Denver 

Weather Service Forecast Office, is testing techniques 

to combine satellite, radar, surface-meteorologicalnetwork, and ground-based sounding data to improve 

short-term (0- to 12-hour), local-scale (metropolitan 

area) forecasts. These applications are emphasizing 

severe storm and flash-flood warning. 

Satellite Datu Uses 

Winds and Temperatures. A statistical evaluation of 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellite soundings indicate that 

they can be useful in global weather analysis and 

forecast models, as well as in analysis of specific situations. In the tropics, where conventional weather data 

are usually scarce, satellite data help monitor atmospheric circulation, particularly of hurricanes. In the 

eastern tropical Atlantic, the low-level jet stream also 

can be identified from satellite observations of vertical 

temperature distribution. In addition, moisture 

distribution, a key ingredient affecting growth and intensification of hurricanes, can be monitored. 

During 1982, NESS began a new method for deriving high-level wind measurements. An interactive 

computer method, using the VISSR image registration 

and gridding system, controlled by a meteorologist, 

replaced the film-loop method used since 1973, saving 

$50 000 annually by eliminating photographic processing. In support of NESS research, University of 

Chicago scientists studied the mechanics of detecting 

and anticipating severe weather by seeking “signatures” 

of surface storms in satellite and radar images. The 

university participated in the Joint Airport Weather 

Studies of microbursts, the concentrated downdrafts 

that produce intense horizontal wind shear dangerous 

to aircraft during landings and takeoffs. NOAA’s 

Wave Propagation Laboratory detected clear-air wind 

shears with pulsed doppler lidar at ranges of 15 km. 

In 1982, NOAA’s Wave Propagation Laboratory 

gathered aerosol backscatter statistics for 

10-micrometer-wavelength, infrared-lidar (laser light 

detection and ranging) instruments. Values indicated 

that the proposed Windsat satellite, carrying a lidar, 

would recieve enough returned power to measure 

wind - if the Boulder backscatter values used in the experiment are representative of worldwide aerosols. In 

another study, thermal soundings from the NOAA 6 

microwave sounding unit combined with radiometric 

and radar data from the laboratory’s ground-based 

profiler produced temperature profiles more accurate 

than from either system alone, except for a region at 

tropopause altitude. 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellites are providing sea 

surface temperatures accurate within 0.75OC since the 

improved multiple-channel algorithms became operational in mid-November 1981. Corrections are being 

sought for aerosol contamination that caused lowaltitude errors in the satellite-derived temperatures (as 

large as - 3OC) after the spring eruption of Mexico’s El 

Chichon volcano. 

Global Radiation. Nearly eight years of planetary 

radiation budget (1974-1982) estimates obtained from 

operational polar-orbiting satellites have been assembled. These data are used to monitor the earth‘s 

climate, to study the sensitivity of the radiation budget 

to cloudiness, and to understand the relationship of the 

radiation budget to the general atmospheric circulation. The data also are being used to study the impact 

of volcanic eruptions on climate. 

Analysis of Nimbus 7 data from the Earth Radiation 

Budget (ERB) experiment produced angular models of 

reflection and emission patterns from cloud and land 

surfaces, key elements in accurately estimating the 

radiation budget. Also, analysis of nearly four years of 

solar data from ERB yielded a mean solar constant of 

1372.6 watts per square meter with a range of 6.2 watts 

per square meter. A continuous decline in the solar 

constant has averaged around 0.022 percent per year. 

Environmental Warning. Vertical temperature profiles 

from the microwave sounding instruments on NOAA’s 

polar-orbiting satellites help monitor the position and 

intensity of hurricanes. The microwave sounder 

penetrates most clouds to observe the high-altitude 
warm core of the hurricane. Statistical studies of 1981 

hurricanes demonstrated that storm position can be 

estimated within 95 km, and that strength of maximum sustained surface winds can be estimated within 

20 km per hour, This new capability could provide 

large cost savings in hurricane surveillance. 

During 1982, the Miami Satellite Field Services Station continued to monitor Atlantic Ocean hurricanes 

providing the NWS National Hurricane Center 

satellite data on locations and maximum sustained 

winds for all hurricanes and other tropical cyclones 

every six hours. These data were often the only information available to forecasters for storms far at sea. 

Hurricanes were located with an average accuracy of 

32 km and maximum sustained winds were estimated 

with an average accuracy of 18.5 km per hour. Center 

forecasters used the estimates with other information in 

formulating advisories for the public, marine, and 

military interests. The San Francisco station provided 

similar information for the eastern Pacific Ocean, the 

Honolulu station for the central Pacific Ocean, and 

NESS’S Synoptic Analysis Branch for the western 

Pacific and Indian oceans. 

NESS continued to use GOES images to estimate 

the amount of rainfall from thunderstorms, helping to 

forecast flash floods. During 1982, NESS identified 

four kinds of subtle heavy rainfall signatures from the 

images: synoptic-scale systems with a cyclonic circulation, single-clustered and multiclustered mesoscale 

convective systems with warm tops, large-scale overrunning systems with a large cloud area and no discernible heavy rainfall signature, and regenerative 

systems moving rapidly over the same area. 

To improve flash-flood forecasting, an algorithm 

was developed to predict convective precipitation by 

tracking cloud tops in the GOES images; this 

algorithm includes a fully automated precipitation 

estimation technique to help forecast expected accumulation. Another improvement, the interactive 

flash-flood analyzer (IFFA), was delivered to NESS in 

June 1982; software development and system integration is now in progress, with operation scheduled by l 

March 1983. The IFFA will improve timeliness and 

accuracy of satellite-based flash-flood products, and it 

will be able to disseminate them to NWS and NESS 

field offices and other users simultaneously. 

During 1982, operational flash-flood support to the 

NWS Western Gulf River Forecast Center (WGRFC), 

Fort Worth, supplied satellite-based rainfall estimates 

in digital format for models forecasting the level of 

rivers. Effectiveness of the data will be assessed during 

1983. The San Francisco station improved the 

timeliness of satellite quantitative precipitation 

estimates by direct electronic input of satellite data into 

the “Satellite Information Display System.” The 

estimates were rapidly distributed to users through the 

NWS automation of field operations and services 

system. San Francisco is experimenting with graphic 

displays of precipitation estimates for easier field use. 

Introduction of combined visible-infrared images to 

replace alternating visible and infrared data improved 

monitoring of convection in the NWS Western 

Region. The high-resolution pictures switch from the 

visible to infrared where cloud tops are colder than 

- 42OC, for more consistent observation. NOAA’s Office of Weather Research and Modification used 

GOES digital infrared images to investigate the diurnal variation of rainfall over the tropical and subtropical Pacific Ocean and to study the feasibility of 

estimating rainfall from winter storms. Investigating 

large-area effects of cloud seeding, it found that-over 

a 330-km radius surrounding the seeding target 

area-the seeded days produced more rain in the 

target and downwind than did the no-seed days. 

Satellite images are used to locate the 5°C isotherm 

and pockets of lower temperatures in the Alaskan 

waters. The 5OC isotherm is one of the critical 

parameters for determining expected severity of icing. 

Superstructure icing is a major problem for vessels of 

all sizes. Special ice images provided to the NWS 

forecast offices and the Joint Navy-NOAA Ice Center 

at Suitland, Maryland, are used by various agencies in 

the preparation of ice analyses, forecasts, and special 

operations and rescue efforts. Oil companies use the 

products to monitor ice conditions during shipping and 

drilling operations. 

Time-lapse film loops of high-resolution satellite 

images give a better understanding of the behavior of 

sea fog, a hazard to offshore drilling and to boating. 

More accurate short-range forecasts of sea fog formation and dissipation are expected to result from empirical studies relating the changes in sea fog to 

changes in surface winds and sea surface temperatures 

observed from satellite data. 

During 1982, NESS expanded its volcano reporting 

activities, In addition to providing volcanic data to the 

Smithsonian Scientific Events Alert Network 

(SSEAN), NESS sent information on major volcanic 

eruption to meteorological offices in areas affected by 

volcanic ash and dust. 

NOAA 7 and GOES satellites detected and monitored the four large eruptions of El Chichon volcano in 

Mexico in late March and early April, reporting information to SSEAN. The last of these eruptions produced a large stratospheric dust cloud that took three 

weeks to circle the earth and covered a latitude belt between 5ON and 30°N. Also, NOAA 7 and the Japanese 

GMS satellites monitored the multiple eruptions of 

Galunggung volcano in Java between April and 

August 1982. The Air Lines Pilot Association has expressed interest in using satellite data for rerouting air 

traffic around eruptions. In addition, these satellites 

were the first to detect the eruptions of Loputan 

volcano in Indonesia on 26 and 27 August. 

45 
Oceanography. NOAA’s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory analyzed altimetry data from Seasat (the 

NASA’s ocean-sensing satellite operated in 1978) using 

path-length corrections from the Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory. Surface current velocities, short period 

changes in position of Gulf Stream axis, and warm 

core eddies northeast of Cape Hatteras were evident in 

altimeter velocity profiles and also in coincident infrared data. The laboratory also is developing 

algorithms for measuring particulate matter distributions in the ocean from surface color information. 

Finite depth theory for nonlinear internal waves has 

been developed to explain observations of largeamplitude waves (solitons) in the Sulu Sea during a 

1980 field experiment. Internal waves have been 

observed in numerous satellite images. The theory was 

found to be in good quantitative agreement with the 

images. 

New Orleans and Washington SFSSs are now producing thermal analyses of the Gulf of Mexico and 

Northwest Atlantic Sea Surface. The charts aid 

fishermen in pinpointing the thermal gradients where 

fish tend to locate, saving costs and providing overall 

economic benefits to commercial marine transportation and recreational boaters. 

Hydrology. EDIS conducted a study to evaluate the 

data from a snow/cloud-discriminator sensor system 

flown on a DMSP satellite in 1979. Distinction between snow and clouds from satellite photos has long 

been a problem to users, impeding snow-melt and 

runoff forecasts, the monitoring of global snowcover, 

and the determination of distribution and frequency of 

clouds on varying spatial and temporal scales. EDIS 

completed a digitized archive of Southern Hemisphere 

snowcover for 1974-1980, using satellite data- the 

first time Southern Hemisphere snowcover has been 

measured with any accuracy. 

Melting snow is the source of 70 percent of the water 

in the western United States. Since 1974, NESS has 

monitored snowcover for 30 watersheds in this region. 

In 1982, this snow-mapping technology was transferred to users and NESS field offices in the central and 

western United States, including the Salt River Project, which assumed snow-mapping duties for the river 

basins of central Arizona. A digital snow-mapping 

technique, using geostationary satellite data, was 

started at the Kansas City SFSS and covered basins in 

Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and Nevada. Specially processed polar-orbiting satellite data over the Sierra 

Nevada Mountains permitted the California State 

Department of Water Resources to monitor the mountain snowpacks above the fertile Sacramento and San 

Joaquin Valleys. The San Francisco SFSS began 

monitoring snowpacks in Oregon, Idaho, and selected 

areas of British Columbia in November. 

In late 1982, EDIS began a project to evaluate data 

from the Nimbus 7 scanning, multichannel, microwave 

radiometer (SMMR). The objectives are to develop 

useful snow and ice information products, inform Goddard Space Flight Center of difficulties in using the 

products and of suggestions for improvements, and 

verify selected data with “ground truth data from 

other sources. 

Agriculture. NESS continued to develop products for 

agriculture from weather satellite data in the 

Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys through 

Aerospace Remote Sensing (AgRISTARS), a program 

to develop techniques for monitoring extent and condition of major crops worldwide. In this cooperative effort, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is 

the lead agency, with NASA providing research and 

special products from Landsat data, the Department of 

the Interior providing routine Landsat data, and 

NOAA providing yield models and special products 

from its operational satellite data. Special products include daily estimates of precipitation, insolation, maximum and minimum temperature, vegetation index, 

and snowcover. 

During 1982 for example, EDIS continued to acquire and evaluate candidate yield models for wheat, 

barley, corn, and soybeans. Testing also began on 

advanced-simulation crop models that attempt to 

describe the physical and biological processes of conditions affecting crop production. Development of 

techniques for more accurate forecasts of domestic and 

foreign commodity production in the major grainproducing countries of the world are project objectives. 

EDIS and NESS developed techniques that used 

data from the NOAA 6 and 7 advanced, very-highresolution radiometer (AVHRR) to assess crop stress 

and areas of excess water. Meteorological satellite data 

offer a major advantage in frequency and time of 

global coverage. Meteorological satellites can cover the 

same area twice daily; Landsat covers the same ground 

once every 18 days. The high-resolution satellite data 

are now used operationally by the USDA to monitor 

crop growth in primary grain regions worldwide, by 

the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organizations to monitor desert-locust breeding habitats, by the 

government of Senegal to monitor the availability of 

vegetation for grazing animals, and by the U.S. 

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to monitor the 

condition of foliage in fire-prone districts. In May 

1982, NESS began producing weekly composite 

vegetation-index images of the Northern and Southern 

Hemispheres. The reduced-resolution AVHRR data 

indicate possible climatic changes as well as regional 

phenomena such as droughts, desert creep, and 

deforestation. In August, the San Francisco SFSS 

started producing twice-weekly pictures of vegetative 

index over the agricultural areas of California, 

Oregon, and Washington. 

NOAA in 1982 began producing a global mappedvegetation index that is a measure of density and vigor 

of vegetation. Production of insolation estimates for 

the United States continued and coverage was extend- 
ed to Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil. Three satellitederived visible and infrared precipitation algorithms 

were identified for potential use. Plans are to test these 

algorithms and, where possible, to combine the best 

aspects of each for operational demonstration in 1984. 

NESS began producing maps in May 1982 of incoming solar radiation for the entire United States, 

printing insolation values for 1' squares from GOES 

satellite data. These data are being evaluated by 

USDA for crop field models, by NWS for 

evapotranspiration models, and by the U.S. Forest 

Service for fire weather models. Production of insolation estimates also were extended to Mexico, Argentina, and Brazil. A NESS soil-moisture gauge, 

relocated at University of Minnesota Agriculture 

Research Station in Lamberton, Minnesota, will provide ground data for comparison with NASA and 

USDA microwave data obtained by aircraft overflights 

starting in late 1983. The overflights are part of a 

larger program, called Plan of Research for Integrated 

Soil Moisture Studies (PRISMS), to develop a remotely sensed technique for estimating soil moisture. 

Fisheries. Satellite-derived ocean data have many 

fisheries applications. The Southeast Fisheries Center 

demonstrated that satellite communications could 

speed up distribution of information to users during 

the state-federal Southeast Area Mapping Program 

(SEAMAP). NOAA, the National Marine Fisheries 

Service, and charter, state, and Mexican research 

vessels participated in the program. Information on 

bottom fish and shrimp size was transmitted through 

the ATS 3 satellite and the NOAA ARGOS datacollection system to shore stations for distribution to 

fishermen, fishing associations, state fishery managers, 

researchers, and federal investigators. 

The Fisheries Service's satellite-image processor in 

Slidell, Louisanna, is now fully operational. In 1982, it 

was used to evaluate Landsat data for monitoring 

changes in coastal wetland ecosystems. This evaluation 

is being conducted jointly with the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service and the state of Louisiana. A second 

study demonstrated the feasibility of mapping shallow 

water corals from Landsat data. 

Subtle ecological effects of hurricanes were studied 

through an analysis of coastal-zone color scanner 

(CZCS) data. Two major 1979 hurricanes, Frederic 

and Henri, led to significant upwelling along the Mexican coast, causing a major phytoplankton bloom 

observed by the CZCS on September 29 and October 

3. Ocean color data also were used with thermal data to 

map distribution patterns of bluefin tuna in the Gulf of 

Mexico. This mapping has been highly successful. 

An opportunity to apply satellite thermal data to an 

environmental event potentially damaging to coastal 

shrimp resources in the northern Gulf of Mexico occured during summer SEAMAP surveys. A large area 

of ocean bottom water off the coast of Louisiana was 

found to have low oxygen levels. Evaluation of thermal 

data showed a high correlation between areas of low 

oxygen and pools of unusually warm surface waters. 

These warm surface waters cause thermal stratification 

that, when coupled with high organic loads, lower the 

oxygen content. 

The Northeast Fisheries Center continued the 

Coastal Habitat Assessment Research and Mensuration (CHARM) Program. Using Landsat multispectral scanner data, CHARM quantifies changes in productivity, biomass, and area of principal coastal-zone 

vegetation from North Carolina to Maine. Phase 1 of 

the program - to determine the acreage of wetlands, 

with the kinds of vegetation - has been completed. The 

center participated in three field experiments of the 

National Science Foundation warm-core-ring investigation, examining physical, chemical, and 

biological processes in the interaction of warm-core 

rings with Gulf Stream waters and the refinement of 

remote-sensing technology used in marine sciences. 

Support included near-real time satellite infrared images. Detailed analyses of the data will be made in 

1983. 

Scientists at the Southwest Fisheries Center used 

CZCS ocean color data and NOAA 6 temperature 

measurements to define the spawning habitat of the 

northern anchovy and predict distribution and migration. Using similar satellite data and fishery logbook 

data, center scientists also demonstrated that albacore 

tuna aggregate near ocean color boundaries, preferring 

warm, clear, oceanic waters and avoiding cool, turbid 

coastal waters. Satellite color and temperature data 

and acoustic devices attached to free swimming 

albacore identified water clarity for feeding, rather 

than thermal physiology, as previously believed, as a 

probable cause of tuna aggregation near oceanfronts. 

Other Uses of Satellltes 

International Activities 

France provides the ARGOS data-collection system 

and the United Kingdom the stratospheric sounding 

unit for the NOAA polar satellites. The agreement 

under which the French National Center for Space 

Studies, NASA, and NOAA cooperate in satellite data 

collection is being amended to reflect interest in continuing this program. An agreement with thy United 

Kingdom Meteorological Office on cooperation in 

stratospheric soundings also is being extended. 

NOAA participated in U.S. preparations for the 

Second United Nations Conference on the Exploration 

and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE '82), 

held in Vienna 9-21 August 1982, and contributed 

displays depicting applications of land and environmental remote-sensing data. The agency also 

began negotiations with foreign countries for direct 

ground-station reception of Landsat data after the 

47 
Landsat system is transferred from NASA to NOAA in 

February 1983. 

More than 120 countries receive images and digital 

data directly from satellites operated by NESS. LOWresolution images from polar-orbiting satellites are 

received at 890 locations, and high-resolution images 

from the same satellites are received at 76 sites in 32 

countries. Both polar-orbiting and geostationary 

satellites provide data-collection services - the geostationary regionally and the polar orbiter globally. In addition, the geostationary satellites broadcast weather 

facsimile data and high-resolution images for directreadout stations within communication range. 

The National Climate Program Office is coordinating U.S. participation in the International 

Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP), scheduled to begin in mid-1983. The ISCCP is the first project of the World Climate Research Program, under 

the joint sponsorship of the World Meteorological 

Organization and the International Council of Scientific Unions. ISCCP will take advantage of global 

coverage by five geostationary satellites and the 

NOAA and Meteor polar orbiters of the U.S. and 

U.S.S.R. The geostationary satellites were to be the 

United States GOES 4 and 5, the Japanese Geostationary Meteorological Satellite GMS, the Indian 

Satellite Znsat IA, and the European Meteorological 

Satellite Meteosat 2 of the European Space Agency. 

However, Znsat 1A and GOES 4 are no longer operational. GOES-F (GOES 6 after launch in April 1983), 

will replace GOES 4, and India is planning to launch 

Znsat 1B at a later date. These satellites will gather five 

years of visible and infrared radiance data to produce a 

calibrated global data set for the international scientific 

community. Participating U.S. agencies are NOAA, 

NASA, NSF, DOE, and DoD. 

Training 

During 1982, the NESS Applications Laboratory 

provided training in satellite image interpretation to 

about 500 persons. Seven field and two local classes 

each were conducted for 135 NWS and 185 Department of Defense weather personnel. Also, 29 visitors 

from 14 foreign countries were trained in such subjects 

as general satellite meteorology, tropical storm interpretation, and precipitation estimation. Four 

workshops were held in 3 foreign countries, with a total 

of 151 trainees from 14 countries. 

Application of Space Technology to Geodesy and Geodynamics 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS) and NASA have 

agreed that NOS will assume complete responsibility 

for observations at stations of the National Crustal 

Motion Network by 1985. NOS will maintain the network, using mobile very-long-baseline interferometry 

and Global Positioning System equipment to increase 

the precision of geodetic measurements over continental distances and as a service to scientists and engineers 

working in geodynamics. 

Studies of the proposed gravity satellite - GRAVSAT- system indicate that the concept of determining 

the global gravity field of the earth by observing the 

relative motion of a pair of satellites close to each other 

is sound. GRAVSAT has the potential to improve 

knowledge of the earth's gravity field by 10 times or 

more, at scales of a few hundred kilometers or greater. 

The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) completed 

studies showing that the orbits of DoD's NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites can be 

determined to within 20 centimeters for the horizontal 

coordinates when all 18 satellites are in operation. The 

studies also showed that the GPS signals could be 

received by the proposed Topographic Experiment 

(TOPEX) altimeter satellite and used to determine its 

radial coordinate with a 3-cm accuracy. The accurate 

measurement of the TOPEX orbit will permit full use 

of the altimeter results to determine small variations in 

the height of the sea surface. 

Data Buoys . During 1982, NOAA obtained surface meteorological data from 25 ocean-moored buoys for weather 

analysis and forecasting. The data were transmitted 

through GOES satellites synoptically, and the ARGOS 

data-collection and platform-location systems on 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellites monitored the buoys to 

detect mooring failures. Prototype drifting buoys, 

measuring a simple set of surface meteorological 

parameters and subsurface temperatures, were tested 

in the northeast Pacific Ocean for application in providing information in data-sparse regions for weather 

analysis and forecasting. 

Satellite Time Service 

NBS has devised a technique in which simultaneous 

viewing of the same GPS satellite can provide extremely precise time transfer. With GPS receiving equipment developed by NBS, time-transfer precisions in 

the nanosecond range have been demonstrated between the NBS laboratories in Boulder and the United 

States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C. This 

equipment is now being installed at NASA sites in 

Spain and Australia to support tracking of deep space 

probes. The NBS system promises improved synchronization at a cost equal to or lower than that of 

older timing systems. 

NBS also is part of a NASA-sponsored team to provide highly accurate, worldwide, time and frequency 

transfer by integrating the latest technologies into the 

Space Shuttle. Systems under consideration include a 

space-qualified hydrogen maser in the Shuttle and both 

a laser-ranging and a microwave doppler-cancellation 

system at ground timing centers. In support of Jet Pro- 
pulsion Laboratory’s effort to improve the reliability of 

hydrogen masers for the Deep Space Network, NBS 

developed a new source of ultrapure hydrogen. The 

new source occupies less than half the volume of a conventional storage bottle and also continuously purifies 

the hydrogen. 

Studies of Low-Gravity Effects 

Materials Processing in Space. A major feature of 

materials processing in space is an expected great 

reduction in gravity-driven convection. Sufficient 

reduction in convective stirring could produce improved materials. To predict this influence, NBS has 

measured convective effects of temperature and impurity gradients during freezing and surface-tension 

gradients that could produce a further source of convection. 

NBS has been collaborating on NASA’s Gravity Probe B experiment to 

test the theory of general relativity by measuring the 

precession of a spinning sphere that is orbiting the 

earth. Because the predicted relativistic precession is 

extremely small, it is essential that residual torque on 

the spinning sphere also be small. Superconductive 

support electrodes have been used in earth-based 

models to reduce eddy-current heating. Analysis at 

NBS in 1982 showed that nonsuperconductive electrodes should probably be used in the flight model, 

since the magnetic torque from each superconductive 

electrode exceeds the design goal for residual torque by 

three orders of magnitude. 

Dynamic Thewnophysical Measurements in Space. NBS is 

developing techniques for the dynamic (subsecond) 

measurement of selected thermophysical properties, 

such as heat capacity, heat of fusion, and electrical 

resistivity of solids and liquids at temperatures above 

2000 kelvins. Experiments will be performed in a nearzero-gravity environment in space, where it may be 

possible to sustain a liquid-column specimen for the 

duration of the brief experiment and obtain, for the 

first time, accurate data on thermophysical properties 

above the melting point of high melting substances. A 

preliminary system for testing the stability of the liquid 

’ specimen in near-zero gravity is being tested in 

preparation for flight testing in 1983. 

Immissible Liquid Droplets. The effect of diminished 

gravity on nucleation in the liquid-solid front of a 

growing metallic crystal was studied. The study led to 

the design of a self-contained controllable heat value 

that would permit many of the control, feedback, and 

amplification functions performed by triodes in electrical circuits to be duplicated by a temperaturecontrolled thermal triode. 

Satellite Communications. The National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) 

is responsible for developing the federal government’s 

proposals for the International Telecommunications 

Test of Theory of Relativity. 

Union (ITU), the United Nations agency that 

establishes and administers international regulations 

concerning the use of the radio spectrum, including its 

use by spacecraft. In preparation for the ITU’s 1983 

Regional Administrative Radio Conference on 

broadcasting-satellite service, NTIA participated in 

the second Conference Preparatory Meeting and Software Panel of Experts. Also, through its Institute for 

Telecommunication Sciences, NTIA performed 

studies to assist in determining orbit-spectrum capacity 

and how it might be shared with other Western 

Hemisphere countries. NTIA continues to lead 

government agencies in the preparations for the 1985 

and 1987 World Administrative Radio Conferences for 

planning space services. Relevant to this effort, the 

ITU completed initial work in the development of a 

computer-based model for analyzing orbit and spectrum use. 

NTIA also registers the frequencies used by government satellites with the ITU. In this manner, the 

government protects its spectrum use and coordinates 

proposed operations. NTIA also assigns frequencies 

for operating the satellite systems. 

In cooperation with the Department of State and the 

Federal Communications Commission, NTIA participates in overseeing the Communications Satellite 

Corporation’s activities in the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) and 

the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). In February 1982, INMAKSAI’ began 

operations using Marisat spacecraft serving more than 

1000 ship and land stations in the marine environment; ship stations in the system are increasing at a 

rate of almost 5 percent per month. In addition, INTELSAT’s annual growth in revenues and circuit use 

continued at more than 24 percent; its capital ceiling 

was increased to $2.3 billion; orders were placed for six 

Intelsat V-A spacecraft, which will each have about 25 

percent greater capacity than the Intelsat V. The first 

five Intelsat V spacecraft have been launched-one in 

1980, two in 1981, and two in 1982. 

Space Support Activities 

Warnings and Forecasts. 

The Space Environment Service Center, operated 

by NOAA and USAF, is the national and world warning agency for solar-terrestrial disturbances that affect 

men and equipment operating in the upper atmosphere and space environment. The center provided forecasts and warnings for Space Shuttle operations, 

including specific support to solar physics payloads on 

STS 3 that observed polarized hard x-ray emission 

from solar flares. Radiation forecasts for launch and 

in-orbit operation, including crew protection, were 

also provided. 
Using data from one.of the International Sun-Earth 

Explorer satellites (ISEE 3), the center provided a 

warning of the beginning and end of a major 

geomagnetic storm with such accuracy that the 

operators of a series of defense navigation satellites 

were able to compensate ..for storm-induced atmospheric heating. By accounting for varying atmospheric drag on the satellites, the operators kept the 

positional error for the satellites within prescribed 

operating tolerances. Until this success, the usual effects of large storms was to cause positional errors that 

exceeded planned tolerances. 

Measurement and Calibration Services 

Spectrometer Design. Operating the large spectrometercalibration chamber and associated radiometric beam 

line at its Synchrotron Ultraviolet Radiation Facility 

(SURF), NBS calibrated rocket payloads from the 

Naval Research Laboratory, the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, and Goddard Space 

Flight Center and the stellar spectrometer of the finepointing telescope from Johns Hopkins University. 

NBS also calibrated the Naval Research Laboratory’s 

Space Shuttle experiment - the solar-ultraviolet 

spectral-irradiance monitor (SUSIM) - both before 

and after its flight in early 1982. In addition, a 

deuterium lamp calibrated by NBS flew on SUSIM as 

an inflight ultraviolet calibration source. 

Instrument Fabrication. NBS is providing machined 

parts for NASA’s neutral ion mass spectrometer for the 

Galileo probe (flight unit). Machining requires very 

close tolerances in size, weight, and machine finishes. 

Most of these parts are machined from materials such 

as titanium, stainless steel, and glass ceramics. 

Electromagnetic Radiation Detectors. NBS is investigating the fundamental physics of small-area 

superconductive tunnel junctions, which, used as 

heterodyne receivers, have recently been shown to be 

extremely sensitive detectors of electromagnetic radiation. The thin-film devices of low-transition temperature superconductors are fabricated in an NBS facility, 

cooled below the transition temperature with dilution 

refrigerators, and tested at microwave frequencies. 

Electromagnetic E-Field Meter. A highly sensitive electromagnetic E-field meter was supplied to NASA 

within 24 hours of request, to meet a possible emergency aboard the Space Shuttle before its second flight. 

The instrument was designed to measure electromagnetic interference from onboard radar inside 

the crew quarters. 

Cryogenic Flowmeter. Thrust control on the Space 

Shuttle main engines requires measurement of the flow 

rate of liquid oxygen to them. The original turbine 

flowmeter has been found unsatisfactory, and NASA is 

supporting an NBS investigation of a vortex shedding 

flowmeter as a possible replacement. The meter must 

function in liquid oxygen moving 10 times the normal 

design velocity of the flowmeter but with a pressure 

drop around 68 atmospheres (100 psi). The flowmeter 

also may be subjected to swirl. Flow tests to dateusing a 3.8-centimeter, commercially manufactured 

flowmeter as a starting point - indicate that the flow 

velocity and pressure drop requirement can be 

achieved. 

Aerospace Systems 

Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and Computer Vision. To 

enable NASA to make informed decisions on research 

and applications in artificial intelligence, robotics, and 

computer vision, NBS is preparing reports on basic 

techniques, state-of-the-art techniques, research requirements, research under way, participants and their 

funding, and a 5- to 10-year technology forecast. 

Pulse- Tube Rejigeration. A pulse-tube refrigerator 

contains only one moving part and can provide 

refrigeration down to at least 100 kelvins. An experimental, theoretical study is identifying sources of 

inefficiency and the effect of various parameters such 

as geometry and frequency of operation. Since the 

refrigerator has the potential for high reliability, it 

would be useful for operation in satellites. 

Combustion of Metals. A number of times during 

development of the Space Shuttle’s main engineswhich use high-pressure oxygen and hydrogen as propellants - metallic materials of the oxygen system 

ignited, causing their destruction. NBS is seeking to 

determine the conditions under which metals can be 

expected to ignite, so they can be avoided in the future. 

Space and Atrnospherlc Research 

Solar Activity 

Solar Flares. NBS continued to work with the Solar 

Maximum Mission team in analyzing data from solar 

flares. The data were taken with flat and curved crystal 

spectrometers whose radiometric and diffraction properties were measured at NBS. The data are being 

used to infer the properties of the hot flaring plasma 

and the mechanics by which this plasma cools. 

Solar Convection. The properties of solar convection 

and the associated transport of mechanical energy are 

being investigated, with observations of steady and 

oscillatory velocities complemented by theoretical 

studies of both anelastic model convection and 

acoustic-gravity waves. Data obtained with the 

ultraviolet spectrometer and polarimeter experiments 

on the Solar Maximum Mission satellite suggest that the 

large-scale steady flows observed in the sun’s 

chromosphere-corona transition region are a combination of the overshooting of convection motions from 

below and the downflow of coronal material along 

magnetic-field lines. Recent observations using the 

diode-array instrument at Sacramento Peak Obser50 
vatory indicate that the five-minute oscillations can be 

used to probe subphotospheric cellular structures. 

Theoretical models of solar convection show that a 

single large-scale mode can transport nearly the full 

solar flux over most of the convection zone. 

Interplanetary Physics. NOAA's Space Environment 

Laboratory (SEL) is constructing a computer simulation model that describes the flow of mass, momentum, and energy from the sun to the earth's 

magnetosphere. The model incorporates the coupling 

of the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) to the 

outward-flowing solar wind plasma. Computer simulation of the sun's activity can be used to predict and 

evaluate the evolution of interplanetary disturbances 

that originate at the solar surface and subsequently 

reach the earth's orbit. The magnetohydrodynamic 

model is being tested by incorporating solar observations in the model and by direct comparison of the 

predictions with spacecraft such as ISEE 3. 

Magnetospheric Physics. SEL continued analysis of 

magnetospheric charged-particle data from detectors 

aboard the operational NOAA and GOES satellites, as 

well as data from comprehensive particle detectors 

aboard the NASA ISEE satellites. The studies seek 

understanding of magnetospheric boundary, particle 

energization, and transport processes, which are keys 

to understanding the coupling of energy from the solar 

wind to the earth's atmosphere and the consequent 

magnetic and ionospheric disturbances that can 

seriously compromise communications, navigation, information, and power transfer systems. 

Planetary Atmospheres. NBS continued laboratory investigations of the rate constants, mechanisms, and 

photochemistry of chemicals prevalent in the atmospheres of the planets and their satellites. New 

chemicals predicted in these atmospheres were subsequently observed. Experimentally, NBS remeasured 

and confirmed the rate constants, at ambient 

temperatures, for reaction of ethynyl with hydrocarbons. Continuing to characterize the far-infrared spectra of the gaseous constituents of the outer planets, 

NBS has shown that some of these spectra can be accurately represented by a semi-empirical line shape. 

An important result of this work is the analytical 

representation of the rotation translational spectrum of 

hydrogen, which will make it possible to calculate the 

spectrum at a variety of temperatures and over a very 

broad frequency. 

Atomic Data. NBS compiles critical data on atomic 

energy levels for predicting and interpreting spectra of 

astrophysical interest. In 1982, NBS continued to compile spectra for the element silicon by extending the 

data from the 6th ionization stage through the 13th. It 

also was. assembling all the data for potassium through 

nickel into a single compilation. New data have been 

added as they appear in the literature. When complete, 

the compilation will contain 235 spectra for the 

elements cited and will permit improved assignment of 

wavelengths for spectral lines observed in solar flares, 

hot stars, and other astronomical plasmas. 

Stellar Atmosphere. During 1982, NBS scientists used 

the International Ultraviolet Explorer ZUE and the 

Einstein X-ray Observatory (HEAO 2) satellites to 

study which stars have hot outer atmospheres like the 

sun and which have cool outer atmospheres. They also 

used those satellites to study close binary stars with 

bright active regions and to study stellar flares. The 

observations indicate that magnetic fields play important roles in stellar atmospheres. They also have found 

evidence for downflows in a number of active 

chromosphere stars. 

Atmospheric Chemistry 

Earth's Atmosphere. In cooperation with NASA and 

the Chemical Manufacturers Association, NBS conducts gas kinetics and mechanistic investigations of 

selected atmospheric reactions of importance in modeling catalytic cycles that control stratospheric ozone. In 

particular, NBS has recently completed measurements 

on two reaction systems that help define the photochemical lifetime of chlorine atoms in the stratosphere. 

Thus NBS program on spectroscopic standards and 

tunable laser spectroscopy also supports NASA's upper 

atmospheric research. Direct frequency measurements 

of molecular calibration lines have provided secondary 

frequency and wavelength standards in the infrared 

two to three orders of magnitude more accurate than 

the previous measurements made with wavelength 

techniques. 

Determination of the dependence on temperature of 

the ozone ultraviolet-absorption cross-section is of particular importance to accurate stratospheric measurements and modeling. NBS has recently completed 

measurements over the wavelength region of 250 to 

340 nanometers at temperatures of 295, 243, and 228 

kelvins. Measurements have been started at 273 K and 

will be completed during the coming year. NBS also 

has completed detailed measurements of the 

temperature variation from 210 to 295 K of the ozone 

cross-section at the wavelengths of the eight principal 

Dobson bands, used for ground-based observations of 

the total column density of ozone. Scientists at NOAA 

and Environment Canada have concluded that these 

new cross-sections substantially resolve inconsistencies 

previously observed. 

NOAAs Aeronomy Laboratory is analyzing data 

from the Solar Mesophere Explorer (SME) 

satellite - in particular stratospheric profiles of 

nitrogen dioxide (NO,), which provide a global picture 

of the component that at present is most important in 

controlling the amount of ozone present. Both global 

abundance of ozone and its perturbation by solar proton bursts have been sucessfully modeled. The 

laboratory also is investigating an unanticipated 

51 
feature of the satellite - its demonstrated ability to 

measure lower tropospheric NOz pollution. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Aeronautical Charting 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS), which produces 

aeronautical charts and chart-related products for 

navigation in U.S. air space, has reconstructed the 

Sectional Aeronautical Chart series to improve 

reliability and accuracy. Designed for use by low- and 

medium-speed aircraft, these charts are used by pilots 

flying under visual flight rules. NOS also improved the 

design concept for computer-assisted cartographic 

techniques to produce aeronautical charts. The improved techniques permit NOS to respond more 

rapidly to new technology developed by the aircraft industry. 

Weather Research 

NOAA's National Severe Storms Laboratory in 

Norman, Oklahoma, continued to study weather 

hazards to aviation and Space Shuttle flights. Turbulence, hail, wind shear, and lightning are being investigated by a network of lightning detectors, dualdoppler radars, weather radar, surface observations, 

rawinsondes, a 444-meter meteorologically instrumented TV-tower, and aircraft obervations. 

Lightning characteristics and locations are used to 

define operating procedures for the Shuttle and to 

evaluate effects on solid-state airborne electronic 

equipment. Ground-based doppler radar observations 

in a joint program with the Federal Aviation Administration validate prototype radars for turbulence 

detection scheduled for use on commercial airliners. In 

a joint program with the multiagency NextGeneration 

Radar (NEXRAD) Joint Systems Program Office, 

techniques are being developed to detect gust fronts, 

wind shear, tornadoes, and turbulence for improved 

guidance of aircraft. 

Structures and Materials 

Fiber-Reinforced Composites. A major source of co Fern in the use of fiber-reinforced composites for aircraft 

bodies is reduction in strength by cracks developing in 

the polymeric material binding the fibers together. In a 

cooperative program, NBS, NASA's Langley Research 

Center, and several industrial suppliers are developing 

a way to measure the resistance of polymeric materials 

to crack growth. During the past year, basic guidelines 

for this measurement technique have been developed 

for the brittle polymeric resins now in use. Future work 

will investigate the effectiveness of the technique and 

extend it to polymers being developed to be more resistant to cracks. 

Surface Microtopography oj Wind- Tunnel Models. NBS is 

developing a procedure for characterizing the surface 

topography of models to be used in NASA's National 

Transonic Facility (NTF). Surface texture will play a 

significant role in testing, since the aerodynamic 

boundary-layer thickness at high air speeds of the NTF 

will be in the submicrometer range. To provide a 

technique convenient to use as well as suitable for 

measuring surfaces with large curvature, NBS has constructed a light-scattering system. During 1982, it 

made a detailed comparsion of stylus profilometry with 

light-scattering measurements of surface topography. 

Thin Film Thermocouple. The NASA-sponsored advanced thin-film thermocouple program focuses on 

measuring turbine airfoil temperatures in commercial 

and military aircraft gas turbines. A new technology in 

which thin-film thermocouples are sputtered directly 

on a turbine airfoil is being developed. The new sensors permit the measurement of surface temperatures 

on thin-walled, air-cooled turbine airfoils without perturbing the airflow around the surface or the heat flow 

to the surface. The measurements provide new information on heat transfer to the airfoil and airfoil cooling 

and structural design. NBS is examining methods of 

fabricating durable, multilayer, sensor structures on 

turbine airfoil superalloys and is evaluating the accuracy of the sensors. 

52 
Department of Energy 

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) 

has statutory responsibility for the research and 

development of nuclear-electric power systems for the 

nation’s space programs. Nuclear systems developed 

by DOE and its predecessor agencies have provided 

electric power for many NASA and Department of 

Defense missions since the early 1960s. Nuclear power 

provided the electrical energy for NASA’s Pioneer, 

Viking, and Voyager missions and DoDs Lincoln Experimental Satellites (LES 8 and 9), as well as earlier 

earth orbital and lunar missions. Since 1980, DOE has 

been developing technology of lightweight, safe, 

nuclear reactors for higher power requirements of 

future space missions, at 100 kilowatts and above. In 

1982, DOE began testing simulated radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for the NASA Galileo 

mission and the International Solar Polar Mission. 

The compact size, light weight, and long life of 

nuclear-powered electric generators make possible 

operation of the sensing, analytical, and communication systems of spacecraft, satellites, and other remotely located devices for long periods without external 

sources of energy. Nuclear research and development 

in the DOE-sponsored space and special applications 

program delivers environmentally acceptable, operationally safe, compact, and technically qualified energy 

systems to federal agencies for earth-orbital and interplanetary space missions, as well as for other 

special-purpose applications. 

Space Applications of Nuclear Power 

The space and special applications program has 

evolved from efforts to develop nuclear power for 

aerospace applications since the early 1950s. The program now consists of three projects: (1) static 

outerplanetary radioisotope thermoelectric generator 

(RTG) project, developing RTGs for Galileo and the 

International Solar Polar Mission; (2) space reactor 

technology program (SP- loo), an advanced technology 

readiness program; and (3) a terrestrial RTG project. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators 

During 1982, components for engineering, 

qualification, and two flight-unit general-purpose heatsource RTGs (GPHS-RTGs) were fabricated, continuing the development of an advanced silicongermanium generator for NASA’s Galileo and the International Solar Polar Mission in 1986. Thermal and 

dynamic testing of the engineering unit began. The 

Galileo mission is to send an orbiter spacecraft with atmospheric probe to Jupiter. The solar polar mission 

will collect scientific data on the sun and solar wind 

from high heliographic latitudes. The 55.5-kilogram 

GPHS-RTG is designed to provide a minimum 285 

watts of electrical power, with a fuel loading of 4410 

thermal watts. 

Production included fuel, iridium, and graphite 

components. Key components of the RTG Assembly 

and Testing Facility were completed in 1981. 

Multihundred-watt-heat-source production and component fabrication of the Gulileo radioisotope heater 

units also were completed in 1981. 

The Savannah River Plant supplied encapsualted 

isotope hardware for the program. The Mound Facility will assemble the isotope-fueled modules into a heat 

source, load the heat source into the thermoelectric 

converter, and test the fueled power unit to qualification and flight acceptance levels. Fueling and testing of 

the qualification converter and the first flight converter 

are planned for 1983 and 1984. 

Advances in Supporting Technology 

During 1982, DOE began fabricating and 

performance-testing two modular isotopic-thermoelectric-generator (MITG) test modules. Data from 

these tests will help determine further development of 

the new RTG concept, which takes advantage of new 

materials, fabrication techniques, and design to 

analyze the potential for a more advanced, much 

lighter generator for future space missions. Except for 

its end sections, the generator consists of a number of 

identical slices of a standard design, each producing 

about 24 watts of electricity at 28 volts. The basic 

design appears adaptable to many uses, since the 

power output can be scaled in 24-watt steps by varying 

the number of standard generator slices, usually 

without other design changes. Any intermediate power 

level can be provided by minor modification of the 

radiator fin dimensions. In the earlier multihundredwatt isotope generator, changing the power level required major redesign and requalification of the heat 

source; even in the GPHS generator, which uses the 
same modular heat source as the MITG, changing the 

power level would usually require major changes in the 

thermoelectric couples and circuit. 

The MITG also promises a substantially higher 

specific power than provided by present RTGs, 

without any reduction in safety and with increased 

reliability. It permits performance checking of individual thermoelectric modules in the assembled converter and replacement of any deficient ones. The 

MITG should be more economical because of the 

modularity, scalability, and greater flexibility in 

matching the payload’s voltage requirements. 

Space Reactor Technology 

Space nuclear-reactor power systems are another 

power source for generating electricity for spacecraft. 

Like RTGs, reactor powerplants are basically heat 

engines; they convert the heat from the fissioning of 

uranium-235 into electricity through either static (e.g., 

thermoelectric element) or dynamic (e.g., rotary shaft) 

subsystems. The reactor power system has growth 

potential because of the greater energy release 

available in the fission process (almost 200 million electron volts per fission of uranium-235 versus about 5.5 

MeV per alpha emission from plutonium-238). In 

weight, a space reactor becomes competitive with other 

power sources at levels above 25 electrical kilowatts, 

however, the choice of nuclear power source depends 

on the needs of the spacecraft mission. 

During 1982, the Los Alamos National Laboratory 

completed the conceptual design layout of a space reactor and its shield assembly, analyzed water immersion 

effects on reactor criticality, and tested performance of 

reactor-core heat pipes and the compatibility of various 

materials with working fluids. The swelling 

characteristics of the reactor fuel were also examined. 

Talks continued on an interagency agreement with 

NASA and the Department of Defense for component 

technology development of an SP- 100 space-power 

nuclear reactor targeted for potential use in the 1990s. 

Nuclear Waste Disposal 

Conceptual studies that considered using the Space 

Shuttle to place nuclear waste in space as a method for 

permanent disposal were terminated in 1982. The 

studies concluded that additional costs would be expected without significant reduction in the low risk of 

waste disposal in mined geologic repositories. 

Remote Sensing of the Earth 

During 1982, the National Laboratories and other 

research establishments, under contract to DOE, used 

satellite systems for collection of earth resources imagery. In particular, remotely sensed data have been 

used for siting energy-generating facilities, characterizing potential nuclear-waste repository sites, developing 

exploration techniques for energy resources, and 

monitoring regional environmental trends and impacts. 

Nuclear Test Detection 

Several of the six pairs of Vela satellites launched for 

the Department of Defense from 1963 to 1970 to 

monitor nuclear tests under the 1963 Limited Test Ban 

Treaty, although degraded, were still functioning in 

1982. The Atomic Energy Commission, a predecessor 

of DOE, developed the nuclear detection instrumentation for the Velas. Other multimission DoD satellites 

now incorporate the mission of surveillance for violations of the treaty ban on nuclear testing underwater, 

in the atmosphere, and in outer space. DOE retains 

the responsibility for design, fabrication, test, calibration, and some launch and operational support. DoD 

manages spacecraft procurement, sensor integration, 

launch schedules and costs, and satellite operations. 

DOE conducts a substantial research and development program to support new test-detection requirements and to improve capabilities. It also conducts research toward understanding the space environment in which surveillance satellites must 

operate. Theoretical modeling, development, and 

flight testing of environmental and prototype instrumentation on NASA and DoD space systems lead 

to surveillance systems with substantially greater 

coverage, sensitivity, and discrimination. 

54 
Department of the Interior 

Caretaker for more than 2 million square kilometers 

of public lands, the U.S. Department of Interior is 

responsible for managing, conserving, and developing 

the natural resources on these nationally owned lands. 

The department frequently relies on data acquired by 

airborne sensors for inventorying, managing, and 

monitoring vast, often inaccessable areas. It also experimentally uses data from sensors carried on 

satellites, particularly the Landsat series, for mineral 

and energy resource exploration and for monitoring 

the environment. Research in digital data analysis and 

the development both of new applications of Landsat 

and other remotely sensed data and of related 

technologies have aided effective management. 

Bureaus and agencies of the Department of the Interior participating in remote-sensing studies during 

1982 included the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 

Bureau of Land Management; Bureau of Reclamation; Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement; National Park Service; Bureau of Indian 

Affairs; Bureau of Mines; and U.S. Geological 

Survey’s Water Resources Division, Geologic Division, and National Mapping Division. 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Office 

The mission of the U.S. Geological Survey’s EROS 

Office is to develop and demonstrate applications of 

remotely sensed data that result from merging and 

manipulating digital data sets for earth science. This 

work supports the department’s natural resource inventory, monitoring, management, and mapping 

responsibilities. The remotely sensed data may be acquired by spacecraft or aircraft. EROS also develops 

basic criteria for the remote sensing of features of the 

earth and coordinates data requirements, system configurations, and product formats with other agencies. 

It archives, reproduces, and distributes data and imagery and provides specialized training and assistance 

in their use. 

The EROS Data Center near Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota, is the primary archive and distribution center 

for remotely sensed data. In 1982, the center trained 

350 scientists and technicians from Interior, other 

federal and state agencies, and foreign countries in 

remote sensing. Sales of remotely sensed data totaled 

more than $4.6 million (almost $3 million in Landsatrelated sales and $1.6 million in other sales, primarily 

aerial photographs). 

Digital- Dah - Base Development and Applications 

EROS made significant progress in computer-aided 

information handling and processing of geographic, 

geologic, and remotely sensed data. The center 

developed techniques for integrating disparate digital 

data sets to produce spatial data bases on natural 

resources for analysis, planning, and management. 

For example, it acquired aeromagnetic, radiometric, 

and geochemical data from national uranium resource 

evaluation (NURE) for the four 2’ quadrangles making up the Uinta basin region in Utah and Colorado, 

as well as additional aeromagnetic data, on contract, 

for selected sites and an extensive gravity data set. 

These data and geologic data obtained from image interpretation and published geologic maps are being 

digitized and registered to a common geographic base. 

Project scientists are developing interpolation 

algorithms for creating continuous surface data sets 

from the original discrete data sets. 

EROS developed a digital data base of topographic, 

geophysical, geochemical, geological, and Landsat 

data for the Nabesna area, Alaska, and analyzed it 

using a conceptual geologic model to locate areas of 

high potential for porphyry-copper mineralization. A 

minicomputer was effective in defining the correlations 

between the 21 original and 19 derived data sets in this 

data base. All areas indicated by the model as having 

high potential for copper were confirmed as being intensely altered in the field. Similar techniques are 

being used to test the geologic-data-base concept in the 

lead-zinc district near Rolla, Missouri. 

The Fish and Wildlife Service’s Refuges Division 

and EROS produced land-cover and terrain digital 

data bases and maps for the Kenai and Togiak National Wildlife Refuges and surrounding areas in 

Alaska. These data bases were developed in response 

to the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation 

Act (ANILCA, Public Law 96487), which was signed 

into law in 1980. The map products, digital files, and 

tabular summaries have met the information needs of 

planners as well as biologists concerned with refuge 

management. The service will use the methodology 
demonstrated in this project for the remaining 14 national wildlife refuges in Alaska. 

To study the availability of water for energy 

development near the Black Hills of South Dakota and 

Wyoming, EROS is developing a hydrologic information system-a multiple, digital data base for the exploration, inventory, evaluation, description, and 

prediction of water resources. Better information on 

resources is needed because of the increasing use of 

water and the complexity of water problems. The data 

base will contain many kinds of geoscience data, including topographic, hydrologic, geologic, geophysical, geochemical, and remotely sensed image data. It 

will be used to model streamflows, water infiltration, 

and ground-water movement in the study area. 

EROS and the Bureau of Indian Affairs concluded a 

demonstration project to evaluate the usefulness of 

Landsat digital data, aerial photographs, and ancillary 

data for mapping irrigation potential on 500 000 acres 

of tribal and individual trust lands in South Dakota. 

The use of remotely sensed data and manipulation of 

ancillary data within a geobased information system 

met management needs in a timely and cost-effective 

manner. 

Data Handling 

Designed and put into effect at the EROS Data 

Center, a system for registering Landsat data to a map 

base as well as for automatically registering temporal 

images to each other supported EROS cooperative 

projects and other department users. As additional improved techniques for analyzing Landsat data emerge, 

larger areas are incorporated into projects. Taking further advantage of the synoptic coverage characteristics 

of Landsat, multiscene digital mosaics can cover these 

larger areas. 

A new software function on the EROS Data Center 

computer system converts computer classifications in 

raster format to polygonal formats, permitting groundcover classes to be plotted as polygons and cartographic 

detail to be generalized. This technique provides an 

important bridge from image processing of raster data 

to spatial analysis techniques employing vector (line) 

representations. A second function converts digital 

line-graph data from vector to raster format for use in 

image analysis systems. Computer hardware and software improvements in the EROS digital imageprocessing system increased data-handling capabilities 

for Landrat 4 multispectral-scanner image data and 

prepared for a new earth-coverage pattern and 

spectral-band-numbering system associated with the 

launch of Landrat 4 on 16 July 1982. 

Remotc Information Processing 

EROS completed the specifications of a remote 

information-processing station (RIPS) to extend the 

use of Landsat data and other remotely sensed data to 

field users. RIPS uses small, inexpensive computers in 

field offices to enhance images and other spatial data 

for analysis, either independently or through, communications with a large “host” computer. A prototype 

teleconferencing system was set up to permit RIPS 

users to exchange ideas, problems, and capabilities 

without being limited by local office hours. 

Monitorlng the Envlronment 

Department of the Interior bureaus and other 

federal agencies use aircraft and satellite sensor data to 

monitor all aspects of the environment, from the atmosphere to the earth‘s surface. 

Land-Cover Inventories 

The Bureau of Reclamation analyzed Landsat images to inventory land-cover types for the 59 500 

square-kilometer area of the Solomon and Republican 

River basins of Kansas, Nebraska, and eastern Colorado and the 17 221-sq-km Tularosa basin in New 

Mexico. Information derived on land and water use in 

the Solomon and Republican basins helped determine 

effects on current and future water supply. For the 

Tularosa basin, the bureau is studying the relationship 

between land cover and near-surface ground water to 

promote the most economical use of the water and to 

prevent salinity buildup at the surface. 

In cooperation with the U.S. Forest Service, EROS 

evaluated the utility of high-altitude photographs, 

Landsat images, and Landsat digital data in providing 

information on vegetation cover in urbanized areas for 

a test site in Syracuse, New York. The project examined (1) the consistency of stratifying areas according 

to a prescribed set of guidelines based on vegetation occurrence and (2) the accuracy and precision of 

discriminating specific vegetation features within 

prescribed areas. Results showed a great inconsistency 

in stratifying areas on all data formats, but indicated 

that acceptable accuracy and precision for 

discriminating , specific vegetation features is best 

realized on high-altitude photographs. The Forest 

Service requested that the project be continued, using 

Landrat 4 thematic-mapper data when they become 

available. 

In anticipation of the new generation of instruments 

on Landsat 4 (and its ground spare, Landsat D), the 

National Park Service in 1981 and 1982 began three 

experimental projects - in the Great Smoky Mountains, Big Bend, and Yosemite National Parks-to 

determine whether the new higher resolution and different spectral bands will permit more accurate 

resource classifications. The projects are now 

computer-processing data gathered by NASA and Environmental Protection Agency aircraft to simulate 

Landrat 4 data. Preliminary results from Big Bend had 

56 
successfully separated 25 different vegetation landcover classes, a far greater number than was possible 

for similar environments with previous Landsat 

technology. 

Forest Fuels Mapping and Fire Control 

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and 

EROS continue to investigate the use of satellite data 

from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s advanced, very-high-resolution 

radiometer (AVHRR) to plan wildfire suppression and 

prevention. While the AVHRR ground resolution is 

only about 1.1 km (contrasting with Landsat resolution 

of 79 m), it provides spectral coverage of the same area 

every day, and digital products are available for 

analysis on the same day. Preliminary results show that 

the AVHRR can effectively provide near-real-time 

synoptic data for time-series monitoring. Data can be 

interpreted to define the relative amounts of standing 

green biomass (location of greatest fire potential) and 

to monitor the seasonal growth of annual grasses and 

advent of their curing (time of greatest fire potential). 

Water Resources Analysis 

Knowledge of the characteristics of drainage basins 

(their area, slope, land cover, and other features) improves prediction of streamflow. Digitial Landsat and 

topographic data are used to originate mapping 

methods for evaluating changes in basin development. 

Thematic-mapper images from Landsat 4 should 

enhance this capability. 

Hydrologic data are routinely transmitted by radio 

from more than 480 U.S. Geological Survey watergauging stations to a NOAA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) for relay to 

ground-receiving stations linked to a USGS computer 

network. The data are available within minutes to 

water management agencies throughout the United 

States for operational planning and early warning of 

extreme events, such as floods. Most of the platforms 

relay only hydrologic data, although certain geologic 

information - such as seismic, strain, and magnetic 

data-are also available. For example, 20 platforms in 

the vicinity of Mount Saint Helens, Washington, 

transmit hydrologic and geologic data. 

The Bureau of Reclamation inventoried the playa 

basins of the 246 000-sq-km area of the Texas high 

plains, analyzing Landsat computer-compatible tapes 

from nine scenes acquired in the wet season and five in 

the dry season. A total of 4153 playa lakes larger than 

7500 sq m were found in 58 counties from five states in 

the study area. The bureau also developed multidate 

models of water quality from Landsat images of the 

North Platte Reservoir in Wyoming and tested the 

models, with favorable results, on Landsat images of 

Flaming Gorge Reservoir. Very good relationships 

were developed for mapping water clarity, chlorophyll 

concentrations, and phosphorous concentration. 

The USGS Water Resources Division is using sidelooking radar images acquired from the Seasat satellite 

in 1978 and from aircraft to map fracture zones in a 

clay formation in New Jersey. Knowledge of the location and extent of the fracture zones permits siting 

waste disposal away from areas where liquid waste may 

seep downward and contaminate ground-water supplies. 

Irripation Analysis 

The Bureau of Reclamation entered into a 

cooperative agreement with the state of Wyoming to 

monitor the consumption of water by irrigation on the 

39 000-sq-km drainage basin of the Upper Green 

River. Using Landsat data, simulated thematicmapper data, and aerial photographs, this project will 

not only provide the needed information for the 

Wyoming Water Development Commission but will 

also lead to methodology for future use in other parts of 

the Colorado River basin. 

Weather Monit0rin.g 

The Bureau of Reclamation uses GOES images on 

all Project Skywater field projects to collect cloud data 

in near real time. It uses GOES digital data to observe 

wintertime extratropical storm systems for the Sierra 

Cooperative Pilot Project (SCPP) in California and the 

Colorado River Enhanced Snowpack Test (CREST) 

in a five-state region of the Rocky Mountains. Observations in the SCPP are to determine to what extent 

the cloudtop temperatures of both convective bands 

and overcast decks can be monitored from geosynchronous altitudes. For CREST, objective analyses of 

cloudtop temperatures and mesoscale features are to 

produce a climatology of wintertime storm conditions 

in six subbasins in the Colorado River basin. These 

analyses will improve our understanding of winter 

orographic storm systems and provide information for 

designing CREST. A total of 150 solar-powered portable meteorological monitoring (PROBE) stations support SCPP, CREST, the Wind Energy Program, and 

other Bureau of Reclamation activities. 

Mine Development and Safe9 Monitoring 

BLM completed a two-year project to develop 

techniques for using Landsat data to monitor BLM 

land for unauthorized exploitation of minerals. 

Automated comparison of the energy reflected from 

the same land on different occasions (as expressed in 

digital brightness values in the data), has been an accurate, fast, and cost-effective means of identifying 

locations where increased reflected energy indicated a 

possible change in land cover. Increased reflectance, 

57 
frequently coinciding with the removal of vegetative 

cover, justifies further field investigation. This method 

permits BLM to monitor effectively millions of acres 

annually and to preplan the deployment of personnel 

into only the localized areas where the possibility of 

mineral trespass is indicated. Beginning in fiscal 1983, 

the technology developed will be applied operationally 

to bureau lands. 

The Office of Surface Mining uses large-scale aerial 

photographs of active surface-coal-mine areas in the 

southern Appalachian basin to detect, inventory, and 

monitor active mining areas and to decide priorities for 

spot checks for upcoming complete inspections of 

representative mine sites. Coverage of alluvial valley 

floors in the western U.S. coal states verifies the mine 

plan-review process. The office also uses thermalinfrared-scanner images to find the extent of the surface expression of underground mine fires and waste 

bank fires in the northern Appalachian anthracite coal 

fields of Pennsylvania and subsurface mine fires in 

northern Wyoming’s Powder River basin. 

The Bureau of Mines concluded a two-year contract 

with Science Systems and Applications Inc., of 

Seabrook, Maryland, to test the usefulness of Landsat 

images for remotely inventorying mine-waste stockpile 

areas. Four mine sites were selected to investigate 

response of the systems under varied conditions of 

climate, topography, and vegetation. The test results 

were verified by low-altitide aerial photographs, 

topographic maps, and ground data. The contractor 

concluded that surface mine-waste areas are extremely 

difficult to classify by automated digital-image processing techniques. Of four methods used in the study, 

none provided consistent results for the sites studied. 

Manual interpretation of Landsat images coupled with 

aerial photographs may provide an alternative method 

of locating and studying waste dump changes at 

specific mine sites. 

Discrimination of Alteration 

Geologic Division, USGS, used spectral reflectance 

to discriminate gossans (decomposed rock or vein 

material of reddish color resulting from oxidized 

pyrites) from pseudogossans in the Mount Isa-Hilton 

and Lady Loretta massive sulfide deposits in Australia. 

“Pseudogossan” is an Australian term for a limonite 

concentration that is highly anomalous geochemically, 

but that is totally unrelated to mineralized rock. 

Historically, the only way to differentiate a 

pseudogossan from a true gossan has been by drilling. 

In cooperation with Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) and Mount 

Isa Mines, samples of gossans and pseudogossans were 

collected from the Mount Isa-Hilton deposits, Lady 

Loretta deposit, and surrounding barren areas in 

Queensland. Laboratory studies of spectral properties 

in the 0.4- to 1-micrometer region by CSIRO and in 

the 0.8- to 2.5-micrometer region by USGS have 

classified these samples into three distinct groups. Each 

of the three sample groups has a combination of spectral properties distinct from the others; gossans lack 

kaolinite, but pseudogossans and all other samples contain kaolinite. The gossans and pseudogossans are 

well-exposed and have spectral differences sufficient to 

permit mapping of gossans from remotely sensed 

multispectral data. 

Lithologic Discrimination 

EROS made significant progress in 1982 on studies 

using thematic-mapper simulator data from the Uinta 

basin region of Utah and Colorado to investigate and 

document improvements in lithologic discrimination of 

sedimentary rocks. Data from five study areas of varying geologic and topographic condition were 

geographically registered and digitally enhanced. Interpretations of the enhanced images show variable, 

but always significant, improvement in the lithologic 

separation relative to that possible with Landsat 

multispectral-scanner data. 

Cartography 

Landsat 4 

The National Mapping Division continued investigating applications of Landsat data and defined 

experiments to be undertaken with Landsat 4 images, 

using the geometric, radiometric, and resolution 

characteristics of data from the thematic mapper and 

multispectral scanner. 

New editions of the Worldwide Reference System 

(WRS) index maps were designed to show cloud cover 

data for Landsat 1, 2, and 3 coverage. Planned centers 

of Landsat 4 scenes will be included on the reverse side 

of the map. Complete world coverage is provided in 26 

index sheets now in production. A new Landsat 

ground-station map indicates areas where Landsat 

coverage can be received directly. Because Landsat 4 

orbits at a lower altitude than Landsat 2 and 3, its area 

of direct reception is significantly smaller at each 

ground station. 

The National Mapping Division continued to use 

Landsat data in the production of image maps and to 

respond to requests for assistance from foreign governments. The following projects are being pursued or 

have recently been completed: in Antarctica, mapping 

the Ronne Ice Shelf, Berkner Island, and Filchner Ice 

Shelf quadrangles at 1:1 000 000 scale; in Cape Cod, 

the New Bedford quadrangle at 1:250 000 scale; in the 

Arabian Peninsula, the Precambrian Shield area at 
1:250 000 scale, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 

1:500 000 scale, and overall Arabian Pensinsula 

1 : 2 000 000 scale. 

at 

at 

Mapsat 

A patent for an automated mapping satellite (Mapsat) was issued to the Department of Interior on 2 

February 1982. The patent describes an efficient, costeffective, automated concept for mapping the earth 

from space. The department also successfully filed a 

continuation of this patent, entitled “Automated CloseRange Stereo Mapping System,” with the Patent Office and began investigating the factors that affect 

automated correlation in order to define parameters 

better for an operational earth-sensing stereoscopic 

satellite system. So far, DO1 has developed a computer 

program to reconstruct mathematical terrain models 

based on reflectance and digital elevation models based 

on Mount Saint Helens for correlation studies. 

international Activities 

Workshops 

U.S. Geological Survey scientists held two, monthlong, remote-sensing workshops during 1982 for 44 

scientists from 16 countries at the EROS Data Center. 

Three advanced remote-sensing courses were held at 

the Geological Survey’s Center for Astrogeologic 

Studies in Flagstaff, Arizona, for 14 scientists from 14 

countries. Geological Survey scientists participated in 

remote-sensing courses at the University of Ife, Ile-Ife, 

Nigeria, and at the Alberta Remote Sensing Center in 

Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. 

International Cooperation in Fuels Exploration 

The first scheduled exchange visit of project 2A, Applications of Remote Sensing Techniques to Petroleum 

Exploration, took place in September and October 

1982, when five Chinese scientists from the Scientific 

Research Institute for Petroleum Exploration and 

Development, Ministry of Petroleum Industry, the 

People’s Republic of China, visited the EROS Data 

Center for joint studies with EROS scientists. The productive exchange visit concluded with detailed discussions of concepts and procedures for developing and 

implementing digital data bases for geologic applications and with definitions of work to be carried out by 

each side before the return visit to China by EROS 

scientists, scheduled for summer 1983. A summary 

paper, “Evaluation of Image Processing of Landsat 

Data for Geologic Interpretations of Qaidam Basin, 

China,” was presented at the International Symposium 

on Remote Sensing of Environment, Second Thematic 

Conference, Remote Sensing for Exploration Geology, 

in December 1982. 

59 
Department of Agriculture 

Significant achievements of the U.S. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) in the fields of aeronautics and 

space during 1982 focused on research in aerospace 

remote sensing as a data source in agriculture and 

renewable resources and on research for developing 

lifting platforms based on lighter-than-air technology. 

Agriculture and Resource8 Inventories 

AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resources Inventory 

Surveys through Aerospace Remote Sensing) - a joint 

research program of USDA, National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration, Department of Commerce, and 

Department of the Interior- was revised during 1982 

to reflect current budget constraints, USDA priority 

information requirements, and research progress to 

date. AgRISTARS is a multiyear program of research, 

development, evaluation, and application of aerospace 

remote sensing to support national management of 

agricultural and renewable resources. The revised program focuses research on USDA priority needs, 

facilitates use of research results, and simplifies the 

program’s organizational structure. 

The department will continue AgRISTARS, which 

began in fiscal 1980, through fiscal 1986. The complexity of the research dictates a fairly long, stable effort to exploit satellite sensors fully, including the 

thematic mapper (TM) and other experimental sensors. Despite reduction in its scope, AgRISTARS is 

still a large program that will yield important results. 

With user requirements increasing, the need to 

develop remote-sensing technology is even more acute 

now than it was when AgRISTARS was originally 

planned. Program objectives continue to focus on 

primary USDA concerns in developing and using 

aerospace remote-sensing technology as a costeffective, timely, and reliable source of information. 

Although the research program was originally planned 

to end in fiscal 1985, components will be extended 

through fiscal 1986 to use and assess data from the 

Landsat 4 satellite, especially from its thematic mapper. 

Organizational Changes 

Overall research policy and direction will be provided by an Interagency Coordinating Committee (ICC), 

the result of reducing three levels of management and 

coordination to one. A Program Management Group 

within the ICC will be responsible for the day-to-day 

management of the program. Ad hoc Application 

Research Teams will link users more closely with 

research and will help users incorporate results into 

operational activities. 

Significant Achievements 

gram in calendar 1982 included: 

Technical achievements in the AgRISTARS proUse of Landsat data for domestic crop estimation 

in five states. 

* Development of models to provide warnings of 

potentially damaging conditions; for example, 

water and temperature stress. Substantial progress was made in the variety of crops and conditions that can be treated and in the facility with 

which such models can be tested, using a new data 

base for the Great Plains. 

Successful testing of an automated technique for 

classifying corn and soybeans near harvest over 

large areas of the Corn Belt. 

Testing of techniques to estimate the area of 

spring small grains early in the season. Three 

techniques show promise of being as accurate as 

previous end-of-season results. 

Analysis of simulated thematic-mapper data over 

various types of forests, with results indicating a 

high level of accuracy in delineating major forest 

types. 

Initial analysis of data from the new thematicmapper sensor on Landsat 4, verifying that greatly 

improved agricultural information is contained in 

the data. Methods to extract the information show 

promise. 

Aerial Crane for Logging 

Continuing concern for protecting the environment 

and maintaining the reproductive capability of forested 

areas has provided impetus to the Forest Service of the 

Department of Agriculture to develop new methods for 

aerial logging. Balloons, helicopters, and cable systems 

are among technologies being considered. 

In recent years, helicopters have provided a way to 

harvest timber on steep terrain and on fragile soils, 

61 
substantially increasing the available timber supply. 

The helicopter, however, has a limited range for 

economic transportation of logs, about one and half 

kilometers at present. Because in many forested areas, 

particularly in the Northwest, it is not economically or 

environmentally possible to construct roads that close 

to a tract of timber, a capability to extract logs by air 

over greater distances would provide a valuable alternative in meeting management objectives. 

In 1976, the Piasecki Aircraft Corporation submitted a proposal to the Forest Service to build and test 

a “Heli-Stat” as a possible aerial logging system. In 

simplest terms, the Heli-Stat (helicopter plus aerostat) 

consists of a blimp attached to four helicopters by an 

understructure of aluminum tubing. The helicopterballoon idea is not new; it was first patented by 

Piasecki in 1961. The blimp or aerostat supports the 

weight of the understructure - the helicopters- which 

in turn are free to provide the lift for heavy objects. A 

control system connecting the four helicopters permits 

operation from one point. The Heli-Stat has a projected payload of approximately 24 metric tons, more 

than twice that of the largest helicopter now used for 

logging. Piasecki Aircraft studies indicate that the 

Heli-Stat can transport logs 1.5 to 10 km at a cost comparable to that of conventional helicopter logging. The 

Heli-Stat itself will lift the logs. 

A U.S. Navy evaluation of the Piasecki proposal 

concluded that it was technically feasible, and thc Navy 

offered to act as contracting and program management 

agent for the Forest Service during the machine 

fabrication phase. The Forest Service signed an agreement with Naval Air Systems Command to permit the 

Navy to act as technical representative and contract 

administrator because of its greater experience with 

lighter-than-air systems. The Navy also proposed to 

make available the helicopters and aerostat, a fly-bywire system, associated parts and equipment, and 

hangar space for fabrication in Lakehurst, New Jersey. 

In addition, the USDA and Department of Transportation agreed to a mutual interest in the program. 

Funding for the Heli-Stat was about $2 million in 

fiscal 1980, divided among the Forest Service, the 

Coast Guard, and the Department of Transportation. 

In fiscal 1981 and 1982, the Forest Service assumed 

responsibility for all activities and appropriations. The 

fabrication contract has added $10 million, with an additional $15 million to be spent on logging tests. 

Fabrication of the Heli-Stat is being completed and, 

after test phase in New Jersey and the Allegheny National Forest in Pennsylvania, the craft will go to the 

Pacific Northwest for experiments in hauling oldgrowth timber. The Heli-Stat will be tested on live sites 

in the Pacific Northwest and Alaska. 
Federal Communications Commission 

Demand for both international and domestic 

satellite communication services continued to expand 

in 1982. The International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) upgraded its 

12-satellite global service by launches of its fourth and 

fifth Intelsat V satellites and introduction of highcapacity digital transmission. The United States is being served by domestic commercial satellites from 15 

locations, 12 operating in the 4-6 gigahertz (GHz) 

bands and 3 in the 12-14 GHz bands. The International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) 

began commercial maritime service. FCC issued construction permits to begin building direct-broadcasting 

satellites (DBS) for direct-to-home television service. 

Communications Satellites 

ZNTELSA T 

Operating satellites in the INTELSAT global communications system at the end of 1982 included one Intelsat IV-A and two Intelsat Vs in the Atlantic Ocean 

region, two Intelsat Vs in the Indian Ocean region, 

and one Intelsat IV-A in the Pacific region. Six inorbit contingency and leased domestic-service satellites 

were also in service. Zntelsat V F-4 and F-5 were 

launched during 1982; F-6 was to be launched early in 

1983. 

INTELSAT plms launches of up to four more Vs in 

1983, followed by six improved V-As in 1984 and 

1985, to meet expanding international demands and 

provide regional and domestic services to member nations. Four Intelsat Vs, to be capable of providing 

maritime services, are expected to be leased by INMARSAT. INTELSAT in 1981 approved introduction of time-division multiple access (TDMA), a 

transmission technique that will markedly increase 

satellite communications capacity. It awarded a contract in early 1982 to Hughes Aircraft Corporation for 

the new Intelsat VI satellites, to become operational in 

1986. 

Maritime 

The INMARSAT system on 1 February 1982 

replaced the commercial maritime-mobile satellite 

services previously provided by the U.S. Marisat 

system. Communications Satellite Corporation (Comsat) is the United States signatory in INMARSAT. At 

the end of 1982, INMARSAT was serving 1309 ship 

and 38 land stations around the world. U.S. entities 

owned 292 ship and 17 land stations. On 19 February, 

by Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, the commission 

requested public comments on proposed amendments 

of its rules to conform with the INMARSAT equipment and operational requirements. The rules are expected to be amended in 1983. National and international efforts continued toward establishing technical 

and operational characteristics of a satellite communications system for a future global maritime 

distress and safety system. Selective calling will alert 

only those units in any ocean area that can aid the ship 

in distress. An international agreement is expected by 

about 1990. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

The domestic commercial communications satellite 

network capacity increased during 1982 with the 

launch of four satellites in the 4-6 GHz bands and one 

in the 12-14 GHz bands. Westar 4 and 5 (Western 

Union Telegraph Company) replaced Westar 1 and 2, 

which were launched in 1974 and are nearing the end 

of their useful lives. Westar 1 and 2 are now colocated 

and will function as a single satellite until they expire. 

RCA-Satcom 4 and 5 (RCA American Communications) have expanded the capacity of the Satcom network. RCA-Satcom 5 is dedicated primarily for services 

to and within the state of Alaska. In the 12-14 GHz 

bands, SBS 3 (Satellite Business Systems) is the third 

operational satellite in the SBS communications network. 

The number of available orbital positions with the 

present 4O satellite spacing in the 4-6 GHz bands is 

nearing exhaustion. To accommodate future satellites 

and to expand the capacity of the domestic satellite 

communications network, FCC studied methods of 

placing satellites as close as 2' apart in both the 4-6 

and the 12-14 GHz bands. As a result of satellite industry comments on proposed methods and further 

FCC studies, the commission will release a reducedorbital-spacing plan at the beginning of 1983 for 

domestic satellites to be launched through the mid-tolate 1980s. 

Introduction this past year of new technology for 

more efficient use of satellites and the frequency spec63 
trum brought economic benefits and improved services 

to satellite users. Common carriers are incorporating 

companded FDM-FM (frequency division multiplexed 

-frequency modulated) voice channels that double or 

triple transponder use. Companded single sideband 

(CSSB), employing amplitude modulation (AM) in 

place of frequency modulation makes a transponder 

three to six times more efficient. (A compandor is a 

device that, by the use of matched channels, compresses the voice channel before it enters the transmission link and expands the received transmission before 

it reenters the voice channel.) 

The commission authorized developmental use of 

transportable ground stations with 4.5-meter antennas 

for emergency and other short-term needs. These stations can provide up to 24 voice channels and 1 video 

channel and can be placed in operation within a few 

hours of the service request. Transponder sales are 

now permitted on a limited number of satellites. These 

noncommon carrier transactions, which supplement 

conventional transponder leases under tariff, satisfy 

particular needs for telecommunication services. The 

sales help prospective entrants to secure the large 

amounts of capital necessary to construct satellite 

facilities, provide a way of sharing the risks unique to 

satellite technology, and help ensure an adequate supply of transponders in the future. 

FCC, representing the United States in negotiations 

with Canada and Mexico, concluded an agreement for 

accommodating their domestic satellites without 

significantly disturbing the current location of U.S. 

and Canadian satellites. Agreements were also reached 

on use of domestic satellites for transborder services to 

and from Canada and to certain Caribbean points. 

Direct-Broadcast Satellite (DBS) 

Direct-broadcast satellites in geostationary orbit will 

beam programs directly into individual homes without 

the intermediary of local television stations or cable 

systems. Service areas in the United States will receive 

multiple channels from a single satellite, and several 

satellites will be capable of serving a given service area. 

The downlink frequency will be in the 12.2-12.7 GHz 

band. 

Final rules for interim DBS systems were adopted 23 

June 1982. The rules impose only the minimum requirements necessary to ensure that DBS systems 

operate in conformity with the Communications Act 

and international agreements. The commission accepted nine applications requesting authority to provide DBS service to the 50 United States, Puerto Rico, 

and the Virgin Islands. Construction permits to build 

satellites in the DBS frequency band have been issued. 

In addition to studies tailored to indigenous DBS 

systems, the United States is preparing for the 

Regional Administrative Radio Conference 

(RARC-83), to be held in Geneva in the summer of 

1983 to plan for ITU region 2 administrations. The 

United States plans to promote a more flexible approach than a priori planning (used at the World Administrative Radio Conference of 1977), in which administrations are assigned channels. FCC proposes 

assigning a block of frequencies to service areas, within 

which each administration can partition the band as its 

needs require. The United States has promulgated 

three notices of inquiry, set up an RARC-83 Advisory 

Group, and attended an ITU Conference Preljaratory 

Meeting in Geneva June-July 1982. A government ad 

hoc group will prepare the U.S. position for 

RARC-83. 

Experlmento and Studles 

FCC continued to prepare for the first session (July 

1985) of the World Administrative Radio Conference 

(Space WARC). The second session will be held in 

1987. The conference will seek to guarantee for all 

countries equitable access to the geostationary satellite 

orbit and the frequency bands allocated to space services. FCC released a second notice of inquiry in June 

1982, requesting public comment on preparations. 

The FCC Advisory Committee for the Space WARC, 

bringing the nongovernment sector into the preparations, met in January, March, and October 1982. The 

committee is developing preliminary reports on its 

charter of work. A final report is due December 1983. 

Emergency communications experiments continued 

using Applications Technology Satellites A TS I and 

ATS 3 (launched in 1966 and 1967). Narrow-band 

VHF transponders on these satellites permit experimenters to send voice and data communications to 

and from fixed and portable stations. Messages deal 

with medical emergencies, state government operations, search and rescue, and church administration. 

Use of the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite GOES 3 (launched in 1978) to collect 

environmental data continued to increase. The satellite 

is operated by the National Earth Satellite Service of 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA). Observations and measurements of physical, 

chemical, or biological properties of oceans, rivers, 

lakes, solid earth, and atmosphere are gathered by 

data-collection platforms, relayed to the satellite, and 

then distributed to users for fire-weather forecasting, 

prediction of water runoff, and information on the environment near offshore oil-drilling platforms. 

64 
Department of Transportation 

The basic responsibilities of the Federal Aviation 

Administ.ration (FAA), as defined in the Federal Aviation Act of 1958, are to promote aviation safety, ensure 

the safe and efficient use of'the national airspace, foster 

civil aeronautics at home and abroad, develop and 

operate a common system of air navigation and traffic 

control for both military and civil aviation, promote 

aviation security, develop an effective national airport 

system, and ensure that civil aviation poses as little risk 

to the environment as possible. Extensive research, 

development, and engineering programs, both inhouse and under contract, engage FAA headquarters 

in Washington, the FAA Technical Center in Atlantic 

City, the FAA Civil Aeromedical Institute in 

Oklahoma City, and on occasion the DOT Transportation Systems Center in Cambridge. In matters of 

common interest, the agency also carries on research 

jointly with NASA, DoD, other agencies of the executive branch, and the research echelons of friendly 

foreign governments. Research and development 

focuses on three principal categories: aviation safety, 

environmental research, and air navigation and traffic 

control. 

Avlatlon Safety 

Fire Safcty Research 

For the past several years, FAA, NASA, and the 

British Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) have been 

developing FM-9, an antimisting, kerosene fuel additive of British origin. Jet fuel with FM-9 is expected to 

be highly effective in reducing postcrash jet-transport 

fires from ruptured fuel tanks. At present, the released 

mist of vaporized fuel often ignites to form a fireball 

capable of consuming everything in its path. As 1982 

closed, FAA and NASA were readying FAA's obsolete 

B-720 for a full-scale crash test to determine the effectiveness of the antimisting FM-9 in inhibiting fireball 

formation. The crash will also permit crashworthiness 

tests of seats, cabin furnishings, and galleys. 

Aviation Security Research 

FAA continued efforts to detect explosives in air 

cargo, checked baggage, and baggage carried by individuals. Of the six methods under study in the past 

several years, two-one based on the use of gerbils and 

rats, the other on the detection of explosive 

vapors - were discarded as unlikely to meet requirements; a third, a walk-by detector based on explosive vapor sampling, was sent back to industry for 

improvement toward possible future use. The remaining three methods had demonstrated a potential to do 

the job with further development, 

X-ray Absorption. The absorption device, in prototype 

form in 1982 and considered particularly suitable for 

detecting explosives in checked baggage, is based on an 

automatic, computerized analysis of the size, shape, 

and x-ray density of the baggage checked. Two prototype detectors have been preliminarily tested- one at 

Dulles International Airport, the other at the FAA 

Technical Center. The detector at Dulles did 

moderately well in its preliminary operational test. 

However, the many false responses made clear that the 

device would have to be improved to be fully effective. 

The Technical Center found the trouble was in the 

detector's software and, at the end of the year, was 

testing a modified software program from the contractor. 

Thermal Neutron Activation. A device that detects explosives by reference to thermal nuclear reactions has 

proved itself particularly useful for screening air cargo. 

Portable prototypes were tested at the international airports at Pittsburgh and Boston, and FAA decided to 

modify the system for use by airline personnel in 

emergency and threat situations. 

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Tests at the regional airport at Dallas-Fort Worth showed that a laboratory 

scale model of a device that relies on the characteristic 

response of explosive molecules subjected to magnetic 

and pulsed radio fields could detect explosives. In 

1982, the laboratory model was converted into an 

operational system and readied for operational testing. 

Aeromedical Research 

Two developments in aeromedical research were 

noteworthy during 1982. The first was in personnel 

testing- specifically, the results of a new test battery 

devised by FAA for selecting air-traffic-control 

trainees. The second was in improving pilot judgment 

and behavior under stress, to the extent that this could 

be done by didactic methods. 

65 
Screening Air- Traffic-Controller Applicants. FAA used a 

new customized job-related test battery for the first 

time in late 1981 to screen 125 000 applicants for positions as air traffic controllers following the strike by the 

Professional Air Traffic Controllers Organization and 

the subsequent dismissal of 11 400 striking controllers. 

The first classes entering the FAA Academy after the 

strike included persons screened by the old test battery 

and selected from the old register as well as persons 

tested by the new battery and selected from the new 

register. The difference in the pass-fail performance 

between the two groups was significant. The 479 persons from the old register had a pass rate of 43 percent; 

the 965 from the new register, a pass rate of 71 percent. 

With 6000 persons scheduled to move through controller training in the next two years, such improved 

rates were welcome. The primary return from improved pass rates is the projected saving in time required to rebuild the work force. The FAA Academy 

also expects to save about $10 000 per student, or an aggregate of $50 million during the rebuilding program. 

Improving Pilot Judgment. Statistics show that half of 

all civil aviation fatalities are related to poor pilot judgment. The FAA Office of Aviation Medicine and the 

FAA Technical Center concluded a contract with 

Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University to develop 

materials to improve the pilot's judgment particularly 

under stress, by increasing his ability to make decisions 

and assess risks and by changing his attitude toward 

engaging in potentially dangerous activities. 

Embry-Riddle developed prototype training 

manuals for both student pilots and flight instructors 

and tested their effectiveness on resident student pilots. 

Those who had used the manuals and taken the training exhibited better' inflight judgment than others at 

the university who had not received the training. During cross-country flights in which student pilots were 

subjected to a series of inflight decision-making situations controlled and monitored by an instructor, those 

who had taken the training made correct decisions 74 

percent of the time, contrasting with 58 percent for 

pilots who had not taken it. 

Meanwhile, in August 1982, the Canadian government in cooperation with FAA completed an independent evaluation of the Embry-Riddle prototype 

manuals. In observation flights with pilots who had 

already received their Canadian private pilot certificates, those who received judgment training made 

correct decisions in 83 percent of the situations; the 

others made correct decisions in only 43 percent of 

them. 

Airport Pavement Research 

In 1982, as in previous years, the greater part of 

FAA funds allotted to U.S. airports under the Airport 

Development Aid Program (ADAP) has gone for airport pavement construction. Research has sought to 

ensure the most effective use of this money and to 

maintain the highest safety standards. 

Among research projects was study of the use in 

pavement construction of nonwoven fabric made of 

synthetic fibers. Polymerized, feltlike substances such 

as polypropylene, a thermoplastic resin that can be 

used safely and effectively as a sandwich between layers of bituminous pavement, may materially reduce 

the thickness of the pavement and provide the same 

strength and performance as before but at lower cost. 

The nonwoven fabrics, now available in rolls from 

manufacturers, have so far been successfully used in 

the construction of drains, subdrains, and pavement 

foundations. During 1982 the fabrics were tested as a 

means of correcting and halting reflection cracking of 

bituminous pavements over existing cracked surfaces. 

Research to establish new criteria for rigid and flexible overlay pavements is being conducted jointly with 

the Defense Department at the Waterways Experiment 

Station of the Corps of Engineers in Vicksburg, 

Mississippi. It provides criteria for the structural 

design of Portland cement, concrete, and bituminous 

overlays of existing pavements. Present criteria were 

derived from military requirements and were based on 

failure modes not necessarily applicable to civilian traffic today. The Corps of Engineers is making tests to 

determine optimum pavement thicknesses for civil airport operations. 

Environmental Research 

In 1982, FAA continued research in support of its 

regulatory mission to control aircraft noise and sonic 

boom and to limit the adverse effects of aviation on the 

atmosphere. Primary activity was in helicopter noise. 

A secondary area of activity was aviation-affected air 

quality at airports and environmental impacts on the 

upper atmosphere. 

Rotorcrafi Noise Reduction. In 1981, FAA withdrew 

proposed noise standards for civil helicopters, as both 

premature and costly. In 1982, it undertook with 

NASA and the helicopter industry a joint national 

rotorcraft program to develop a cost-effective noisereduction technology as a basis for a new proposed 

standard. 

Air Quality. FAA termicated its High-Altitude Pollution Program (HAPP) in 1982. The program had examined over several years the potential effects of highaltitude aircraft engine emissions on the earth's atmosphere, especially a potential decrease in 

stratospheric ozone. The study concluded that the effect of expected fleets of high-altitude aircraft on 
surveillance, however, in cooperation with other agencies in the United States and abroad, to determine if 

future research may be needed. 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

National Airspace System Plan 

On 28 January 1982, FAA issued a National Airspace System Plan stating how the agency proposed to 

modernize its air traffic control and air navigation 

system in the next two decades. In a public hearing, 

the FAA administrator emphasized that the existing 

U.S. system for guiding aircraft-while the safest and 

most efficient in the world-is made up of a mix of 

technologies, many of them old. It is expensive to 

operate and maintain, allows little room for expansion, 

and is difficult to adapt to new situations. By the year 

2000, the number of commercial aircraft is expected to 

jump 42 percent; the number of private planes, 94 percent; the number of air taxi and commuter aircraft 175 

percent. Since the existing system cannot handle that 

load safely, measures to expand and improve it cannot 

long be delayed. 

FAA estimated that modernizing the system would 

cost as much as $7.16 billion over the first 5 years, 

when the heaviest expenditures would be made, and 

perhaps reach $9 billion by the end of the first 10 years. 

Savings, on the other hand, would be significant-at 

least $25 billion in reduced operation and maintenance 

costs alone during the implementation of the plan. The 

savings would result from higher levels of automation, 

consolidation of facilities, the use of lower-cost 

technology in the telecommunications net that ties the 

system together, and a need for fewer controllers, 

technicians, and maintenance specialistcs to run the 

more efficient and better articulated system planned. 

These savings would be in addition to enhanced safety 

and efficiency. 

En Route and Terminal-Control Systems. The NAS plan 

takes two principal approaches to revamping the en 

route and terminal ATC systems: (1) using compatible 

hardware and software elements and (2) using higher 

levels of automation. The IBM 9020 computer used in 

the ATC system today is not expected to prove adequate for the projected traffic growth beyond the 

mid-1980s. Moreover, the 9020 cannot accommodate 

the higher levels of automation being developed to 

reduce operational costs, enhance safety, and permit 

aircraft to use fuel-saving routes. The plan calls for 

replacing the 9020 in the mid-1980s with a new computer that can use existing software. The new highcapability, high-reliability equipment would immediately relieve any capacity restrictions resulting 

from rapid traffic growth in the 1980s. 

At the same time, FAA would develop new software 

and sector suites to replace existing consoles and 

displays. The sector suites are to have their own 

microprocessors to generate information for controller 

displays and to serve as back-up to the central computer complex. Computers and suites will be the same 

for center and terminal facilities, although computer 

capacity will differ. In the 199Os, new computers would 

provide the capacity and informational frame for 

higher levels of automation, known as the automated, 

en route, air-traffic-control (AERA) concept. AERA 

would permit more fuel-efficient aircraft routings and 

assist controllers with flow planning and traffic 

management. When fully implemented, AERA would 

automatically probe aircraft routes, detect and resolve 

conflicts with other aircraft, and issue clearances to ensure safe, metered, fuel-efficient traffic flow. 

Flight Service System Modernization. In a modernization 

plan already begun, FAA will consolidate its more than 

300 flight service stations into 61 automated hubs. The 

schedule calls for the delivery by 1983 of computerized 

systems at 41 of the hubs, with the remaining 20 hubs 

to be phased in as the equipment becomes available. 

During 1981, all major automated hardware for the 

first 41 was procured and a basic model assembled. 

The new automated equipment will permit rapid 

retrieval of information for briefing general-aviation 

pilots on weather and flight conditions. By 1985, the 

first 41 sites will be in operation, using an interim 

model 1 system. By that time, however, FAA will 

begin introducing the more advanced model 2, which, 

in addition to the minimum weather and flight-data 

service available with the model 1, will display weather 

radar data, charts, and other essential graphics. All 61 

sites are to be fully operative by 1990. Under the NAS 

plan, by the year 2000 the system will have an enhanced voice capability and will give pilots direct 

access to the computer data base via remote computer 

terminals as well as by touch-tone telephone. Communications switching systems interconnecting the 61 

hubs will provide even greater pilot access and greater 

coordination between pilots and flight service 

specialists. 

Ground-to-Air Systems. The NAS plan envisages improving both aircraft surveillance and air-ground communications with a new secondary radar system known 

as Mode S. Mode S, like the air-traffic-control radarbeacon system (ATCRBS) it would replace, obtains information on aircraft by querying transponders in 

these aircraft, reading out the coded replies, and 

presenting this data on radar displays. However, 

Mode S can also interrogate aircraft individually, 

rather than on an “all call” basis, and this avoids the interference that plagues ATCRBS in busy terminal 

areas. And, since aircraft can be addressed individually and respond in the same manner, an avenue exists 

67 
for automatic air-ground data-link communications. 

FAA expects to provide Mode S data-link coverage to 

aircraft flying above 3800 meters mean sea level by 

1990. 

Interfacility Communications Systems. The present 

system for communicating between FAA air traffic 

control and other facilities has evolved over time. Initially, circuit costs were low, but they have escalated 

sharply in recent years. At the same time, competition 

has emerged in all telecommunications areas, providing FAA with an opportunity to take a systems approach to its interfacility communication needs and 

develop a national network that will provide greater 

routing capabilities, flexibility, growth potential, and 

reduced operating costs. The NAS plan calls for an integrated telecommunications network with the potential for use by other elements of the Department of 

Transportation. It recommends a mix of owned, 

leased, and satellite communication facilities and requires the system to take advantage of rapidly changing and lower-cost technologies. The plan also provides 

for establishment between 1981 and 1985 of a nationalairspace data-interchange network (NADIN). NADIN 

is to evolve into a general-purpose, data transmission 

system with alternative routing capabilities to bypass 

failed or saturated areas. It will be designed to transmit 

by whatever medium proves most cost effective at the 

time the network is ready. 

Microwave Landing Systcm. The plan calls for installation of a new microwave landing system (MLS) at airports to begin in 1984, with more than 1250 in place by 

1998. This equipment provides more precise guidance 

over a broader area than the present instrument landing system, which will be phased out during the 1990s. 

In 1982, FAA began a two-year final test and evaluation program using four MLSs. 

Key Achievements 

New Radars. Procurement of the new, long-range, 

air-route-surveillance radar (ARSR-3), a solid-state 

device with improved antenna design and built-in test 

equipment, continued during the year. Of the 23 

ARSR-3s procured for use at operational sites, 22 were 

in commission by the year’s end and the 23d, which 

had been received in Honolulu, was expected to be in 

operation by early 1983. Development of the new 

airport-surface detection-equipment radar (ASDE-3) 

was still incomplete, but a request for proposals for a 

prototype of this analog system was expected by early 

1983. 

DARC Enhancement. The last of 20 direct-access 

radar-channel (DARC) support systems went into 

operation at the Minneapolis air route traffic control 

center on 28 June 1981. The individual DARC subsystems in this version could operate the center’s radardata-processing (RDP) system when its main computer 

complex failed or was shut down for routine 

maintenance. DARC , however, could provide digitized, narrow-band alphanumeric readouts of the identity, position, and altitude only of aircraft equipped 

with transponders. When a controller switched to 

DARC, he had to lower his radar displays from the 

vertical to the horizontal and use plastic markers to 

locate aircraft not equipped with transponders. A more 

versatile software component has been developed to 

permit the controller to switch back and forth between 

his primary and backup systems at the touch of a button and to control both transponder-equipped and 

non-transponder-equipped aircraft simultaneously. 

New DARC software enhancement kits sufficient for 

all the centers were being procured at the end of 1982. 

Next-Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD). FAA‘s 

joint program with DoD and the National Weather 

Service to develop a new doppler, common-use, 

weather radar network to meet the nations’s needs for 

the 1990s and beyond advanced to another stage during 1982. The joint NEXRAD Special Program Office 

awarded multiple contracts in early 1982 for a 

validated design concept and functional specifications. 

A number of government laboratories conducted 

research and studied the latest algorithmic 

developments for possible application to NEXRAD. 

Contract design and validation will begin in 1983, and 

the winning company will be selected in 1985 to produce the radar. 

Automated Weather Observing System (A WOS). FAA, in 

cooperation with the National Weather Service and 

DoD, worked toward a new weather observing system 

that includes sensors for wind speed and direction, 

altimeter, temperature, dewpoint, ceiling, and visibility, and will improve safety and controller productivity. 

It will provide weather observations for airports qualifying under an airway planning standard issued in 

December 1982 and information for the weather data 

network for general dissemination. Weather data will 

also be broadcast to aircraft and provided to flight service stations, Center Weather Service Unit meterologists, and towers for controller use and for 

automated-terminal information-system broadcasts. 

Evaluation of the sensors was completed in 1982, and 

contracts for the first systems have been awarded. An 

AWOS demonstration test of 15 systems is planned, to 

begin in April 1983. The test will demonstrate system 

features in a variety of climates; afford controllers, 

pilots, and other users the opportunity to submit their 

suggestions and verify weather reports; and give FAA 

an indication of the maintenance and reliability of 

commercially available systems. 

Trajic-Alert and Collision-Avoidonce System (TCAS). 

Two versions of the new TCAS are under development: TCAS-I, a low-cost service for the general- 
aviation community, and TCAS-11, a more capable 

version for airline use. TCAS-I, although it cannot 

provide pilots with maneuver advisories for conflict 

resolution, can provide traffic alerts in cockpits of 

general-aviation aircraft. TCAS-I1 is an extension of 

the beacon collision-avoidance system (BCAS), adding 

new signal-processing techniques to ensure reliability 

in high-density airspace. During 1982, design guidelines for TCAS-I were completed and minimum 

TCAS-I1 standards were drafted. Also completed were 

engineering and operational evalutions of a minimum 

TCAS-11. TCAS-I implementation is expected to 

begin in late 1983. The TCAS-I1 minimum operational performance standard (MOPS) and minimum 

national standard (final) will be computed in 1983, 

with implementation expected to begin in 1984. 

P 

89 
Environmental Protection Agency 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and 

NASA have cooperated in research since the beginning 

of the Interagency Energy/Environment Program 

(IEEP) in 1974. IEEP provides data to federal, state, 

and local pollution abatement and control programs, 

focusing on controlling pollution from both new and 

existing energy production facilities. The advanced 

earth-surveillance systems developed by NASA are applicable to energy-related environmental research programs. However, funding for IEEP was reduced in the 

EPA budget for fiscal 1982. Consequently, cooperative 

efforts between EPA and NASA during the year were 

limited to the completion of three existing projects. 

The first of these was the Persistent Elevated Pollutant EpisodedNorth East Regional Oxidant 

Study- the PEPE/NEROS field study. During 

July-August 1980, a team of researchers employed 

satellite systems, balloons, aircraft, and vans to document extensively the air pollution and meteorological 

conditions during a pollutant episode. The twofold 

goal was, first, to understand the origins, nature, duration, and air quality impacts of summertime stagnant 

air masses and, second; to understand the sources of 

the oxidants and oxidant precursors that affect the air 

quality of the northeastern United States. 

Weather satellites detected the stagnant air masses, 

and the information gathered assisted researchers collecting field data. In addition to launching weather 

satellites, NASA took measurements with two advanced lidar (light detection and ranging) systems on 

aircraft. One system, the UV-DIAL (ultravioletdifferential absorption lidar) system, measures the atmospheric distribution of specific compounds such as 

sulfur dioxide and ozone. The other system, HSRL 

(high-spectral-resolution lidar), is an advanced lidar 

system that uses laser light pulses to distinguish the 

light scattering of air molecules from that of aerosol 

particles. Data from HSRL is used to investigate 

visibility impairment associated with atmospheric 

pollution. In 1982, data from both the DIAL and 

HSRL systems were submitted to the special 

PEPE/NEROS archive at St. Louis University. 

The second 1982 cooperative project was a technology transfer project in which expertise gained in 

designing and operating NASA's UV-DIAL system 

was applied to developing a smaller, analogous system. 

NASA's large and sophisticated UV-DIAL system is 

mounted in an Electra aircraft where ample power is 

available and weight and size constraints are not 

severe. It is designed to function as a flexible, state-ofthe-art system amenable to a broad range of applications and operating conditions. .The smaller system, on 

the other hand, will be designed for use in small aircraft to perform routine atmospheric measurements. 

Development of this smaller system will be a reductionto-practice step in the overall development of this new 

laser technology and may lead to some limited commercialization. During 1982, NASA reviewed for EPA 

a feasibility study and preliminary design for this 

smallrr UV-DIAL system. 

The third cooperative project was a continued collaboration on a small field study made during the summer of 1981. The study was designed to determine if 

ozone is transported from the boundary layer of the atmosphere into the free troposphere via cloud dynamics 

and, if so, to quantify the flux. Transfer of ozone from 

the boundary layer into the free troposphere has not 

been incorporated into existing models by any 

mechanism. This project tested the significance of 

pumping by convective clouds as a possible mechanism 

for transporting ground-level air into the free 

troposphere. Analysis of the data continued in 1982. 

Preliminary findings indicate that the postulated ozone 

transfer does occur. Efforts are continuing to quantify 

the flux to the extent possible with the available data. 

71 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation supports research 

to advance knowledge in scientific and engineering 

fields, including astronomy and atmospheric science. 

Scientists contribute to this research through NSF 

grants and the use of NSF-supported national research 

centers. 

Astronomy and atmospheric sciences focus on the 

physical and chemical characteristics of the near and 

far atmosphere and the distant reaches of the universe. 

Their boundless spatial extent is matched by a time 

span that ranges from investigations of galaxies 10 

billion light-years away to current weather and climate 

phenomena and volcanic eruptions, Studies enable 

scientists to predict environmental changes, hazards, 

and opportunities with greater accuracy, and they add 

to our understanding of human interaction with the 

environment. 

Astronomy 

The foundation helps advance knowledge in all areas 

of ground-based astronomy by awards to individual 

astronomers, funding for new instruments, and support of five national astronomy centers. Among 

achievements reported in calendar 1982, astronomers 

using a 91-centimeter telescope at the McDonald 

Observatory near El Paso, Texas, found a pulsating 

white dwarf star that had been predicted earlier. As a 

resalt of this work and related research by others, 

astrophysicists can now probe the interiors of white 

dwarfs much as geophysicists use seismic waves to 

study the interior of the earth. The probes may add 

much to our understanding of the late stages of stellar 

evolution and the early history of star formation. 

Astronomers also succeeded in observing the center 

of our Milky Way galaxy. Using a very-large-array 

(VLA) telescope, they discovered an exceptionally 

small and luminous radio source with a core that has a 

remarkable, spirallike pattern. The gas in that pattern 

seems to flow outward from a still smaller source that 

some think could be a black hole (a superdense space 

object). 

An astronomer at Kitt Peak National Observatory, 

which NSF supports, perceived a drop of 6' centigrade 

in solar luminosity since the sunspot minimum of 

1975-1976. This is the first time that the sun's outflow 

of energy has been shown to be partially controlled 

over the entire surface by its magnetic field; the finding 

confirms a 1980 theory. The Kitt Peak scientist 

monitored the sun's temperature with the McMath 

solar telescope, the largest such instrument in the 

world, equipped with a Fourier transform spectrometer. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

Atmospheric research draws on knowledge from 

many fields of science and mathematics. NSF supports 

this work through grants to academic institutions and 

contracts for the operation of two national centers. 

Recent studies have yielded new knowledge on the 

possibly dangerous climatic effect of increasing carbon 

dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Other findings bear 

on drought prediction and the role of mountains in 

creating severe storms. 

In 1982, NSF's grants for research in the atmospheric sciences produced a number of results. 

Among them, the Joint Airport Weather Studies 

(JAWS) project, a three-year experiment, conducted 

its field phase near Denver in the summer of 1982. The 

study focused on low-level wind-shear conditions during severe thunderstorms - in particular the small, intense, downward and outward gusts of air (downbursts) in a number of aircraft accidents and nearaccidents during takeoffs and landings. 

Basic research observations and findings from 

JAWS already have been used to improve local, shortterm weather forecasts in the Denver area and to 

prepare severe-weather advisories for the National 

Weather Service. Scientists are finding that downbursts occur often enough to pose very real danger to 

aircraft. JAWS data are now available to aid development of detection and warning systems for hazardous 

wind shears. Wind-shear profiles will be used in flightsimulation training for airline pilots. They are also being made available to airlines and aircraft manufacturers for checking aircraft safety and performance. 

In the spring of 1982, El Chichon volcano erupted in 

Mexico. The eruption has been called the biggest 

geophysical event of the century in terms of potential 

climatic impact. Three months after the eruption, the 

plume was observed over Laramie, Wyoming. An 

already existing research project there made it possible 

to observe the early stages in the evolution of both this 

and the Mount Saint Helens plume of 1980. Balloon 

73 
soundings from the El Chichon plume produced data 

that were unobtainable by any other means. The high 

concentrations of sulfuric acid suggest that this volcano 

may have a noticeable climatic effect, in contrast to 

Mount Saint Helens. global climate. 

The Wyoming project, which has yielded the longest 

record of in situ stratospheric aerosol observations at a 

single location, provides fundamental data in developing models of stratospheric aerosols and their effects on 

74 
Smithsodan Institution 

National goals for the peaceful uses of space are met 

by the Smithsonian Institution through a broad program of basic research at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and through public exhibits, lectures, and 

education programs at its National Air and Space 

Museum (NASM) in Washington. NASM also conducts historical and basic research in space science. 

Space Sciences 

High-Energy Astrophysics 

Research at SA0 focused on analyzing scientific 

data from the two High Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAO 1 and 2). Programs covered a wide 

range of astronomical topics, including stellar coronas, 

supernova remnants, globular clusters, binary x-ray 

systems, normal galaxies, narrow-emission-line galaxies, radio galaxies, BL Lac objects, Seyfert galaxies, 

quasars, clusters of galaxies, and surveys and identification of galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. 

Analysis of data from the scanning modulation collimator on board HEAO I continued, with the objective of identifying bright x-ray sources with optical objects. A major milestone was completion of the datareduction phase by merging directories of all mission 

data for each of 1200 possible x-ray sources. So far, 

about 240 sources are indicated. 

Among results of investigations by HEAO 2 (also 

named Eiroshn) were discovery of a new class of x-ray 

galaxies - "dull galaxies"; development of a classification scheme for galaxies based on x-ray emission, optical morphology, and radio properties; statistical 

studies of complete samples of quasi-stellar objects 

(QSOs); evidence for evolution of QSO x-ray 

luminosity; correlation of x-ray and optical properties 

of QSOs; determination of cluster x-ray luminosity 

function; extension of cluster classification schemes; 

and estimation of the mass of supernova progenitor 

stars. Most exciting was the discovery of an x-ray 

pulsar blinking on and off seven times a second in the 

supernova remnant MSH 15-5(2), which has given 

new support to the theory that the massive explosion of 

stars must leave behind compact cores of the original 

stellar bodies. 

Studies of solar and stellar x-ray emission continued 

to focus on understanding the physics of coronal formation. Indeed, HEAO 2 observations of various 

stars- including, in 1982, M dwarf stars- show that 

all stars along the so-called main sequence and of all 

luminosities emit x-rays. This ubiquitous nature of 

x-ray emission is probably due to the general presence 

of hot coronas. 

Balloon Astronomy 

Infrared observations from high-altitude balloons 

were used for imaging and spectroscopy of astronomical objects, such as regions of star formation and 

the galactic center, and high-resolution spectroscopy of 

the earth's atmosphere. A balloon-borne telescope was 

also used to produce a high-resolution far-infrared map 

of a large area (lo x 4O) of the galactic center. 

Geophysics and Geodynamics 

SA0 continued to operate a satellite laser-tracking 

network, which provided routine tracking for geophysical research at the observatory and other research 

organizations in the U.S. and abroad. In addition to 

tracking, it provided five-day mean pole positions 

routinely to the scientific community. During the year, 

the laser tracking stations were closed in Natal, Brazil; 

Orroral Valley, Australia; and Mount Hopkins, 

Arizona. Arrangements were made to relocate the laser 

from Natal to Matera, Italy, under a joint program 

with the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. 

Studies of the earth's thermosphere based on data 

from satellite-borne mass spectrometers continued. 

Data from earlier satellites ESRO 4 (1972-1974) and 

Explorer 12 (1961) were augmented by those from Explorer 51 (1973-1978), which provided needed information for greater heights. Major emphasis was on the 

geomagnetic variation in its relation to the heat sources 

and the dynamics of the disturbed thermosphere. An 

important result was identification of the effects of 

winds and waves generated by the heat input and the 

successful modeling of the time lag and the persistence 

of disturbance. 

Solar and Stellar Physics 

Instruments launched aboard a sounding rocket 

from White Sands Missile Range on 20 July aided 
study of the generation of the solar wind in the sun’s 

corona. By combining data from two instruments, a 

new ultraviolet-light coronagraph developed by SA0 

and a white-light coronagraph from the High Altitude 

Observatory, the experimenters hope to determine for 

the first time the velocity of coronal material accelerated into the solar wind. The studies should provide a better understanding of how the sun (and other 

stars) generate wind and, ultimately, help develop 

means for predicting solar wind streams and their effects on Earth and other planets. 

The HEAO 2 and International Ultraviolet Explorer 

(ZUE) satellites measured high-temperature plasmas in 

stars. Theoretical calculations of radiative protesses in 

optically thick chromospheric emission lines and other 

features in static and expanding solar and stellar atmospheres permitted definition of the energy balance 

required to cool atmospheres. 

Gravity Research 

SAOs hydrogen maser group continued research 

and experiments using ultrastable clocks. Experimental work with cryogenically cooled masers investigated 

hydrogen collision effects on wall surfaces coated with 

various freezing gases and demonstrated stability at the 

level for intervals between one minute and one 

hour. 

The simulation was completed of doppler detection 

of pulsed low-frequency gravitational waves using such 

clocks with a multilink doppler system in a deep space 

probe. With today’s precise timing and space tracking 

technology, it is possible to detect pulses at the 

level in the doppler signatures. These pulses are 

thought to originate in the collapse of supermassive 

black holes of about lo7 solar masses, which may exist 

at the core of some galaxies. This is the first feasible 

system developed that could detect such waves. 

Planetary Science 

NASMs Center for Earth and Planetary Studies in 

1982 conducted basic research in comparative planetology, lunar geochemistry, and terrestrial remote 

sensing. Photogeologic studies of features on the 

moon, Mars, and Mercury indicated that global-scale 

planetary compression was involved in deformation of 

early planetary crusts. Geochemical variations 

detected from lunar orbit by the Apollo x-ray 

fluorescence experiment have been used to define areas 

of primitive crustal material. 

Terrestrial remote-sensing studies, using Landsat 

and other orbital data, have shown the value of combining visible-wavelength images with infrared spectra. Scientists investigated desert regions in Saudi 

Arabia to determine which spectral ratios could best 

distinguish surface compositional variations. Multispectral reflectivity measurements of samples from the 

desert surface in Kharga Oasis, Egypt, are being used 

to calibrate data from the radar and multispectral experiments conducted from the Space Shuttle Columbia 

in November 1981. 

History of Space Science 

NASM initiated a program to study the developmental history of the Space Telescope (ST). The project is 

designed to complement other efforts evaluating the 

historical significance of major space programs and 

will ensure that all important ST records are 

preserved. 

, 
Department of State 

International civil space activities of the United 

States in 1982 focused on the Space Transportation 

System (Shuttle) program, the Second United Nations 

Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of 

Space (UNISPACE '82), and the development of the 

Reagan administration's space policy. The United 

States continued to pursue an expanding program of 

international cooperation and interaction in its civil 

space activities. Now in its operational mode, the 

Space Transportation System will provide increased 

opportunities for international participation, reimbursable launch services, a more flexible policy on inclusion of foreign payload specialists, and use of the 

NASA-European Space Agency Spacelab and the 

Canadian remote manipulator system. International 

interest continues to grow in land and meteorological 

remote sensing and especially in the U.S. Landsat program, with several new countries interested in directreadout ground stations. The Department of State 

works with NASA, Department of Defense, Office of 

Science and Technology Policy, National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration, and National Security 

Council in formulating U. S. positions on international 

aspects of space policy. 

Issues have ranged from private-sector participation 

in remote sensing and launch services to the restructuring of the planetary exploration programs; from the 

use of the geostationary orbit to direct television broadcasting from space and the maintenance of the 

longstanding U.S. policy of nondiscriminatory 

availability to the public of data from federal civil 

remote-sensing satellites. Foreign demand for spacerelated products and services from the U.S. private 

sector has continued to grow, with the support of the 

Department of State within the guidelines of national 

security and foreign policy. 

The department, in addition to coordinating U.S. 

efforts for UNISPACE '82, carried out its regular 

responsibilities in the United Nations Committee on 

the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), the 

United Nations General Assembly, the International 

Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), and International Maritime Satellite 

Organization (INMARSAT). 

Activities within the United Nations 

Outer Space Committee 

The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space is a forum and negotiating body 

for international space law and consideration of aspects 

of international cooperation in space activities. 

Through this committee the international community 

is building a foundation for cooperation on legal, 

political, and technical issues. The United States plays 

a leading role in the committee and its two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and 

the Legal Subcommittee. State, NASA, NOM, DoD 

and other U.S. agencies are represented at the 

meetings of the committee and the subcommittees. 

Because of the special interest in the Shuttle flights, the 

United States hosted many heads of foreign delegations 

to the launching of the third and fourth Shuttle flights 

and the administrator of NASA delivered a speech to 

the Outer Space Committee at the end of the successful 

third flight. Issues before the committee in 1982, as in 

the recent past, were draft principles governing direct 

television broadcasting by satellites, draft principles for 

remote sensing of the earth, definition of outer space, 

use of the geostationary orbit, and preparation for 

UNISPACE '82. 

UNISPA CE '82 

The United States participated from 1980 in planning the UNISPACE '82 Conference. The conference 

was held in Vienna 9-21 August 1982, with 94 countries and more than 30 international organizations 

represented. The U.S. delegation, led by the administrator of NASA, included senior government officials, leaders of the aerospace industry, congressional 

members, and private citizens. With substantial participation by the private sector, the U.S. staged an exhibition of space technology and demonstrations. In 

addition, the U. S. announced several initiatives 

planned in space science and applications to advance 

international cooperation. The principal product of the 

conference was its final report, a consensus document 

that covers the exploration and peaceful uses of outer 

space and incorporates many recommendations for 

future study by the United Nations and its specialized 

agencies. The report's emphasis reflects the goal of the 

77 
conference: to advance the benefits of space technology 

to developing countries. 

U. N. General Assembly 

The 37th session of the General Assembly in 

December adopted by a vote of 88 to 15 (including 

U.S.), with 11 abstentions, a resolution on principles 

governing the use by states of satellites for direct television broadcasting. The resolution was a significant 

departure from the U.N.’s traditional consideration of 

issues related to peaceful uses of outer space in that it 

was forced to a vote despite lack of consensus on the 

principles. The United States could not agree with the 

resolution primarily because of the limitations it contained on the free flow of information. 

Communications Sa telii tes 

Space communications continues to be the most 

commercially oriented space application to date. Activities of INTELSAT and INMARSAT have continued to grow, with strong support of the U.S. 

government, while U.S. industry is the dominant supplier of communications satellites to the world community. The Space Shuttle will continue the tradition 

of reimbursable launch services. 

INTELSAT traffic has continued to grow, with the 

United States the dominant user. A U.S. firm was 

awarded the contract for design and construction of the 

Intelsat VI series, the next generation of lNTELSAT 

satellites. Intelsat VI spacecraft will be compatible with 

the Shuttle, and significant use of the Shuttle is 

planned in the program. Intelsat V and V-A satellites, 

also built by a U.S. manufacturer and launched by 

NASA, are operating successfully. INTELSAT is 

studying ways to improve its ability to provide 

domestic service to developing countries and is also 

studying future business communication services that 

will affect INTELSAT traffic demand. 

The INMARSAT organization is now operating 

and includes in its global satellite network the commercial capacity of the Marisat satellites. (See also Federal 

Communications Commission chapter.) 

78 
Arms Control 

and Disarmament Agency 

The U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

conducts a number of activities related to outer space. 

It contributes to the formulation and implementation 

of U.S. space policy, conducts and coordinates 

research on outer space arms control, participates in 

international discussions concerning outer space arms 

control, and promotes the principles of peaceful exploration and use of outer space by all nations for the 

benefit of mankind, consistent with national space 

policy. 

Space Policy 

ACDA participated in the formulation of the administration’s new space policy announced by the 

president on 4 July 1982. This policy reinforces and 

clarifies the government’s oft-stated goal of exploiting 

the potential of outer space for enhancing the security 

and welfare of mankind. It provides that the United 

States will continue to study space arms control options 

and will consider verifiable and equitable arms control 

measures that would ban or limit development and 

testing of specific weapon systems, consistent with 

U.S. national security. 

The director of ACDA, as a member of the Senior 

Interagency Group (SIG) on Space established by the 

policy directive, participates in this process. The SIG 

mandate is to advise on proposed changes in national 

space policy and to refer space policy issues to the 

president for decision as necessary. 

Multilateral Discussions on 

Space Arms Control 

The Geneva-based Committee on Disarmament 

discussed outer space arms control at both its spring 

and summer sessions in 1982. The committee had 

before it two resolutions passed the previous year by 

the United Nations General Assembly on possible 

negotiations toward further arms control measures affecting outer space. There was considerable interest in 

and discussion of the subject, but the committee to date 

has taken no decision on how it might treat the question or whether negotiations might be pursued. ACDA 

has the principal responsibility for staffing and supporting the U.S. delegation to the committee, as well 

as to the U.N. General Assembly’s First Committee, 

which deals with disarmament issues. 

UNISPACE ’82 

ACDA participated in the U.N.-sponsored Conference on Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space in Vienna in August 1982, where a number of 

countries insisted on discussing arms in space, 

although the issue was not on the agenda. The U.S. 

delegation, consisting of persons from both the government and the private sector, stressed the extent of international cooperation in space- the U.S. has more 

than 1000 agreements with more than 100 countries-and the efforts being made to bring benefits to 

all peoples of the earth. The U.S. proposed a U.N. 

working group on disaster assistance communications, 

a U.S.-sponsored 1984 conference on global disaster 

monitoring and early warning, and a U.S.-sponsored 

1985 conference on rural satellite communications. 

Space Conference 

ACDA and NASA cosponsored a symposium in 

Washington in September commemorating the 15th 

anniversary of the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. Senior 

officials from government, industry, and academe 

discussed the role of the treaty in promoting international order in the use of outer space, as well as future 

activities in space and the U.S. space program. The 

featured speakers were Judge William Clark, the president’s national security adviser; Senator Harrison 

Schmitt, Apollo astronaut; Administrator James Beggs 

of NASA; Director Eugene Rostow of ACDA; and 

astronaut Joe Engle, NASA. 

79 
United States Information Agency 

Telling the world about the United States role in the 

exploration and peaceful uses of space has been a continuing topic of the U.S. Information Agency, and 

1982 proved another rich year of space achievement. 

USIA coverage included direct satellite TV and live 

radio broadcasts, news coverage and feature stories, 

interviews, exhibits, visits of astronauts to overseas 

posts, and video tape programs for television. The continuing series of flights by the Space Shuttle Columbia 

was the most important space story, but the agency 

also supported U.S. participation in the 1982 U.N. 

Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Space 

(UNISPACE ’82). USIA emphasized the U.S. commitment to advancing science and enlarging the frontiers of human knowledge through the peaceful exploration of space, stressing U.S. leadership and the 

spin-off benefits for mankind. 

Space Shuttle 

USIA correspondents were on the scene at the 

launch of Columbia’s third, fourth, and fifth flights, at 

the landings, and at mission control in Houston. 

Coverage was extensive and detailed. Voice of 

America broadcast live in Chinese, Polish, Dari Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish, to name a few of the 

languages in which the event was covered. The Wireless File, USIA’s press service to 193 posts in 125 countries, included preliminary and on-the-spot coverage of 

the launches as well as supplemental features about the 

astronauts, the cargo, and the uses of new technology. 

The file also reported on international cooperation, as 

in the use of the Canadian-built remote manipulator 

arm and the arrangements with Senegal for using the 

Dakar airport as abort site. 

Agency magazines featured stories on the Space 

Shuttle. Span, the agency’s award-winning monthly 

publication in India, included several. A packet of pictures for each of the Shuttle flights and a special feature 

packet, “Columbia’s Triumph: The Future in Space,” 

were shipped to all field posts. 

The USIA television service produced a series on the 

Shuttle, including a half-hour feature program in 

Arabic, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, as well as 

English. USIA news clips on the missions dealt with 

astronaut training, payload, astronaut profiles, and 

flight overviews. 

Agency exhibits on Columbia were popular again 

during 1982. Posts in Japan, Canada, and India produced major exhibits, and Shuttle-related materials as 

well as materials on past NASA projects were sent to 

nearly 30 field posts worldwide. Shuttle tile displays as 

well as moon rocks were circulated to posts. The agency also cooperated with a number of foreign institutions in exhibits on space themes and is producing a 

poster exhibit entitled “Deep Space,” featuring a 

number of research projects coordinated by NASA. 

Face-to-face meetings with U.S. astronauts have 

been an important element of information transfer for 

foreign scientists, government officials, academics, 

and citizens; and in 1982 USIA continued to program 

astronaut visits. Six astronauts visited 13 countries, 

and evaluations of the visits noted an improved understanding of U.S. space efforts and strengthened relations with the United States following each visit. 

U N IS PAC E ’82 

The Second United Nations Conference on the 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space also was extensively 

covered by USIA. The agency provided policy 

guidance on the conference to all its posts. Coverage 

included Voice of America interviews with NASA Administrator James Beggs, astronauts Henry Hartsfield 

and Anna Fisher, and UNISPACE Deputy Secretary 

General Jerry Grey. VOA broadcast daily reports 

from Vienna on the conference along with feature 

stories on special items. 

The Wireless File carried a series of articles summarizing the U.S. contribution to the exploration of 

space, including the use of satellites for communications, remote sensing, and weather; planetary and interplanetary vehicles and experiments; the space telescope; and the future of man in space. The File also 

provided foreign print media with an exclusive interview with Administrator Beggs as well as the text of his 

address at the conference and a White House Fact 

Sheet on space policy. For the conference, the agency 

produced a four-color poster-pamphlet in English, 

German, French, and Spanish on the Space Shuttle 

and benefits of the U.S. space program. Agency 

distribution of the item is continuing through 1982 and 

1983. 

81 
Other Programs throughout the world. VOA produced several scripts 

USIA also covered various satellite launches during 

1982 and produced interviews with NASA researchers 

and technicians on topics from extraterrestrial life to 

astrophysics. These were sent to field posts and broadcast by VOA. Feature articles on the launch of Znsat 

IA -which provides weather forecasting, telecommunications, and direct television broadcasting for the 

United States - appeared in agency magazines 

and iocumentaries on U.S.- planetary probes, ;he 

search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI), the industrialization of space, and the establishment of space 

stations. VOA also observed the 25th anniversary of 

Sputnik and the 100th anniversary of the birth of 

Robert Goddard. It interviewed Arthur Clarke on the 

future in space and prepared a documentary on his 

thoughts. 

82 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Earth Orbita Earth Escapea Calendar Earth Orbita Earth Escapea 

Year Year Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure 

1957 .................. 0 1 0 0 1970 .................. 36 1 3 0 

1958 .................. 5 8 0 4 1971 .................. 45 2 8 1 

1959 .................. 9 9 1 2 1972 .................. 33 2 8 0 

1960 .................. 16 12 1 2 1973 .................. 23 2 3 0 

1961 35 12 0 2 1974 .................. 27 2 1 0 

1962 55 12 4 1 1975 .................. 30 4 4 0 

1963 .................. 62 11 0 0 0 1 0 

1964 .................. 69 8 4 0 1977 .................. 27 2 2 0 

1965 .................. 93 7 . 4 1 1978 .................. 34 2 7 0 

1966 .................. 94 12 7 lb 1979 .................. 18 0 0 0 

1967 .................. 78 4 10 0 1980 .................. 16 4 0 0 

1968 .................. 61 15 3 0 1981 .................. 20 1 0 0 

1969 .................. 58 1 8 1 1982 .................. 21 0 0 0 

Total ............. 998 134 79 15 

.................. 

.................. 

a The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of earth orbit or earth escape rather than judgment of mission success . "Escape" 

flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the earth . 

This earth-escape failure did attain earth orbit and therefore is included in the earth-orbit success totals . 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People's United European U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom Space India Calendar United 

Year States of China Aeencv "I 

1957 ...................... 2 ............................................................................. 1958 ..................... 5 1 ............................................................................. 1959 .................... 10 3 ............................................................................. 1960 .................... 16 3 ............................................................................. 1961 .................... 29 6 ............................................ ............................. 1962 .................... 52 20 ............................................................................. ................ 38 17 .................................................. .................. 

................ 57 ................ 63 ...................................... 

...................................... .................. 

.................. 1966 .................... 73 ................................................................. 1967 .................... 57 66 ........ 2 ........ ................................ ...................... 

1968 74 ............................................................... ........ .................... 45 

1969 .................... 40 70 ............................................................................. 1970 .................... 28 81 ........ 2 ........ 1" ....... ........................... 

1971 .................... 30 83 1 2= 2 l...... 

1972 .................... 30 

1973 .................... 23 86 ......................................... 1974 .................... 22 81 ................. 2a.. ..... l.............. 

1975 .................... 27 89 ........ 3 ........ 1........2........3..... ........................... 1976 .................... 26 99 .......................... 1 ........ z..... 

1977 .................... 24 98 .......................... 2 .................................................. 1978 .................... 32 88 .......................... 3 ........ .......................................... 

1979 .................... 16 87 .......................... 2 ................................... l.............. 

1980 13 89 .......................... 2 ............................................. l.... ................ 2 ......... 2.... 

................. ........ .. ....... ........ 

........................... 

.................... 

a Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spacecraft . 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches4982 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Equator (") 

16 Jan. 

RCA-Satcom 4 

4A 

Thor-Del ta 

21 Jan. 

Defense 

6A 

Titan IIIB 

26 Feb. 

Wcsfar 4 

14A 

Thor-Delta 

5 Mar. 

Intelsat V F-4 

17A 

Atlas-Centaur 

6 Mar. 

Defense 

19A 

Titan IIIC 

22 Mar 

Soace Shuttle .- 

Columbia 

22A 

Objective: To place spacecraft in stationary geosynchronous orbit to transmit television, voice channels, 

and high-speed data to Alaska, Hawaii, and contiguous U.S.; to provide video programming to CATV 

(cable television) systems throughout U.S. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.6 m high; 2 

rectangular solar panels on short booms. Hydrazinepropellant tanks protrude from east and west panels of 

spacecraft body. Three-axis stabilized. Weight at 

launch: 1082 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronoustransfer orbit. Satellite to transmit television, voice, 

and facsimile data throughout continental U.S., 

Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands. 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped telescoping cylinder 2.8 m 

high in stowed configuration, and 6.6 m when 

deployed in space; 2.2 m in diameter; spin-stabilized. 

Carries 24 color TV channels, twice previous Westar 

spacecraft, design life 01 10 yrs. Weight in orbit after 

apogee motor firing: 1072 kg. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous 

orbit for INTELSAT to provide 12 000 voice circuits 

plus 2 color TV channels simultaneously. 

Spacecraft: Modular main body, 1.66 x 2.01 x 1.77 m, 

with winglike solar arrays spanning 15.6 m. Overall 

height, 6.4 m; width deployed, 6.8 m; 6 communications antennas- 2 global-coverage horns, 2 

hemispherical/zone offset-fed reflectors, and 2 offsetfed spot-beam reflectors. Double the capacity of Intelsat IV-A series. Weight at launch: 1928 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To demonstrate ascent, in-orbit, and entry 

performance under conditions more demanding than 

in STS 2; extend orbital flight duration; conduct longduration thermal-soak tests; and conduct scientific and 

applications research with attached Office of Space 

Science payload (OSS 1). 

Space Shuttle consists of reusable orbiter Columbia 

(OV-102), external tank (ET), and 2 solid-fueled 

rocket boosters (SRBs). Orbiter is crew- and payloadcarrying, delta-winged spacecraft about size of DC-9 

aircraft, 37 m long with 24-m wing span, weighing 

75 000 kg without fuel. Orbiter designed to transport 

payload of 29 500 kg into orbit when operational. 

Cargo bay measures 18.3 x 4.6 m. Three main, liquidfueled rocket engines, each with 1670-kilonewton 

thrust at sea level. Engines fed propellants from external tank 47 m long, 8.4 m in diameter, holding 719 000 

kg liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. External tank, 

(STS 3) 

35 795 

35 778 

1436.1 

0.0 

64 1 

630 

97.4 

97.2 

35 790 

35 785 

1436.2 

0.0 

35 798 

35 778 

1436.2 

0.1 

35 797 

35 786 

1436.4 

1.5 

247 

239 

89.4 

38.0 

Fifth in a series of RCA commercial, domestic communications satellites 

launched by NASA into transfer orbit. Apogee-kick motor fired 19 Jan., 

placing satellite in geosynchronous orbit at 83O W. longitude. 

Reentered 23 May 1982. 

First in a series of secondgeneration satellites; launched by 

NASA for Western Union Telegraph 

Company. Apogee-boost motor fired 

1 Mar., placing satellite in stationary 

synchronous orbit at 99O W. 

longitude, as replacement for Wcstar I 

launched in 1974. 

Fourth in series of 9 satellites; launched 

by NASA for 106-member-nation International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). 

Placed in geosynchronous orbit after 

apogee-motor firing 7 Mar.; positioned above Indian Ocean to provide 

communication services between 

Europe, Middle East, and Far East. 

Still in orbit. 

NASA's 3d of 4 planned flight tests of 

Space Transportation System. Columbia, piloted by astronauts Jack R. 

Lousma and C. Gordon Fullerton, 

lifted off from KSC at 11:OO a.m. EST. 

Columbia was put through extensive 

thermal testing in various attitudes. 

OSS 1 pallet returned scientific data. 

Remote manipulator system (RMS) 

moved plasma experiment outside 

Shuttle cargo bay. Flight extended 1 

day because heavy rains flooded normally dry lake-bed runways at Edwards AFB, Calif. Alternate landing 

site, Northrop strip at White Sands, 

New Mex., saw touchdown of Columbia at 11:05 a.m. EST, 30 Mar. Crew 

left orbiter 45 min. after landing. 

84 
APPENDIX A-3 - Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I982 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Remarks 

10 Apr. 

Insat 1A 

31 A 

Thor-Delta 

11 May 

Defense 

41A 

Titan IIID 

9 June 

Westar 5 

58A 

Thor-Delta 

only part of Shuttle not reusable, was jettisoned just 

before orbit. Solid-fueled rocket boosters-each 45.5 m 

long, 3.8 m in diameter, with 23 575-kilonewton combined thrust - dropped away after ascent for recovery 

and reuse. 

Payload: OSS 1 payload consisted of 9 separate investigations: plasma diagnostics package (PDP), vehicle charging and potential (VCAP), Spacelab induced 

atmosphere (SIA), thermal canister experiment 

(TCE), solar-flare x-ray polarimeter (SFXP), solarultraviolet spectral-irradiance monitor (SUSIM), influence of weightlessness on lignification in developing 

plant seedlings (PCU), microabrasion foil experiment 

(MFE), and contamination monitor package (CMP). 

Additional payloads and instrument included getaway 

special flight-verification payload, monodisperse latex 

reactor, heflex bioengineering test, orbital flight-test 

pallet, induced-environment-contamination monitor, 

and Shuttle student-involvement project. Remote 

manipulator system (RMS) was carried on this flight. 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit 

with sufficient accuracy to permit spacecraft to be 

placed in stationary synchronous orbit. Satellite to provide nationwide direct broadcasting to community TV 

receivers in rural areas of India. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular main body 1.42 x 1.55 x 2.18 m. 

In orbit, with solar sail and solar array deployed, 19.4 

m wide. Additional instrumentation includes a veryhigh-resolution radiometer (VHRR) for meteorological observations. Three-axis stabilized. Weight: 

1152 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into suborbital 

trajectory of sufficient accuracy to permit payload propulsion system to place it in stationary synchronous orbit. Satellite to relay voice, data, video, and facsimile 

communications to U.S., Hawaii, Alaska, Puerto 

Rico, and Virgin Islands. 

Spacecraft: Telescoping cylinder 2.8-m high in stowed 

configuration, and 6.6-m when deployed in space; 

2.2-m in diameter; spin-stabilized. Carries 24 color 

TV channels, twice previous Westar spacecraft, design 

life of 10 yrs. Weight in orbit after apogee motor fire: 

1072 kg. 

27 June Objective: To demonstrate ascent, in-orbit, and entry 

performance under conditions more demanding than 

in STS 3; conduct long-duration thermal-soak tests; 

and conduct scientific and applications research with 

attached payload. 

Space Shuttle 

65A 

Columbia (STS 4) 

Space Shuttle; see Mar. 22. 

Payload: Continuous-flow electrophoresis system, commercial experiment designed by McDonnell Douglas 

Astronautics Co.; monodisperse latex reactor; two 

37 167 

34 395 

1435.9 

0.5 

251 

157 

88.6 

96.3 

35 795 

35 777 

1436.1 

0.0 

307 

297 

90.6 

28.5 

Total mission time: 8 days 4 hrs 49 

min. Columbia returned to KSC 3:58 

p.m. EST, 6 Apr., to begin processing 

for STS 4 mission. 

First in series of communications 

satellites; launched by NASA for the 

India Department of Space (DOS). 

Apogee-boost motor fired successfully 

11 and 12 Apr. Satellite was 

maneuvered to 74" E. longitude, but 

met operational problems; it failed in 

September because all of attitudecontrol-system propellant was consumed. 

Still in orbit. 

Second in a series of secondgeneration satellites; launched by 

NASA for Western Union Telegraph 

Company. Apogee-boost motor fired 

11 June; satellite placed in stationary 

synchronous orbit at 75" W. 

longitude, replacing Westar 2. 

Last flight of NASA's orbital test flight 

program. Shuttle demonstrated 

readiness for routine space operations. 

Columbia, piloted by astronauts 

Thomas K. (Ken) Mattingly I1 and 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr., lifted off 

from KSC at 11:OO a.m. EST. Scientific payload returned valuable data. 

Columbia touched down on runway 22 
APPENDIX A-3 - Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I982 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Equator (O) 

16 July 

Landsat 4 

72A 

Thor-Delta 

26 Aug. 

Anik D-1 

82A 

Thor-Delta 

(Telesat-G) 

28 Sept. 

Inielsai V F-5 

97A 

Atlas-Centaur 

27 Oct. 

RCA-Safcom 5 

105A 

Thor-Delta 

30 Oct. 

DSCS I1 satellite 

106A 

Titan III(34)DIIUS 

medical experiments of the Shuttle studentinvolvement project; first get-away special; nighttime/daylight optical survey of lightning. Inducedenvironment-contamination monitor (IECM) was 

moved about payload bay area by remote manipulator 

system (RMS). Shuttle also carried Department of 

Defense payload. 

Objective: To acquire multispectral imagery sufficient 

to improve remote-sensing interpretive techniques and 

test new instrument, thematic mapper (TM), for at 

least 1 year. 

Spacecraft: Main spacecraft body consists of multimission modular spacecraft (MMS) and instrument 

module (IM); high-gain antenna mounted at end of 

4-m mast for Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

System (TDRSS) communications, single-wing solar 

array. Principle instruments are thematic mapper and 

multispectral scanner (MSS), both in instrument 

module. Weight: 1942 kg. 

Objective: To launch satellite into transfer orbit permitting spacecraft propulsion system to place it in stationary synchronous orbit for communications 

coverage over Canada. 

Spacecraft: Launch configuration 2.2 m in diameter by 

2.8 m high, cylindrical. In orbit, satellite deployed to 

height of 6.6 m. Spin-stabilized. Weight after apogeekick-motor firing: 730 kg. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit 

for INTELSAT to provide 12 000 voice circuits and 2 

color TV channels simultaneously. 

Spacecraft: Modular main body, 1.7 x 2 x 1.8 m, with 

winglike solar arrays spanning 15.6 m. Overall height, 

6.4 m; width deployed, 6.8 m; 6 communications antennas - 2 global-coverage horns, 2 hemispherical/ 

zone offset-fed reflectors, and 2 offset-fed spot-beam 

reflectors. Double the capacity of Intelsat IV-A series, 

Maritime communications services (MCS) package for 

International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) to provide ship-shore-ship communication. Weight at launch: 2000 kg. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in stationary geosynchronous orbit to provide TV, voice channels, and highspeed data transmission to Alaska, Hawaii, and contiguous U.S. and provide video programming to 

CATV (cable television) systems throughout U .S. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped 1.2 x 1.2 x 1.6 m high; 2 rectangular solar panels on short booms give satellite span 

of 15.8 m. Hydrazine-propellant tanks protrude from 

east and west panels of spacecraft body. Three-axis 

stabilized. Weight in orbit: 589.5 kg. 

Objective: To place Defense Satellite Communications 

Spacecraft: Barrel-shaped. Dimensions and weight not 

Systems I1 spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit. 

announced. 

70 1 

697 

98.8 

98.2 

35 793 

35 781 

1436.1 

0.0 

35 797 

35 769 

1435.9 

1.4 

35 810 

35 764 

1436.1 

0.1 

35 776 

35 644 

1432.2 

2.4 

at Edwards AFB, Calif., 12:09 p.m. 

EDT. 4 July. President Reagan, at 

landing ceremonies, declared Space 

Transportation System operational. 

Shuttle's solid-fueled rocket boosters 

sank in Atlantic Ocean; not recovered 

for reuse. Total mission time: 7 days 1 

hr 9 min. Columbia, ferried aboard 747 

aircraft, arrived at KSC 15 July to 

begin processing for STS 5 mission. 

Launched by NASA into circular, nearpolar sun-synchronous orbit, permitting spacecraft to photograph entire 

globe every 16 days, in 185-km 

swaths. Followed Landsaf 1 launched 

in 1972, Landsot 2 in 1975, and Landsaf 

3 in 1978. All systems activated as of 

18 July and performing well. MSS 

and TM providing excellent imagery 

at end of year. 

Launched by NASA for Telesat Canada 

as in-orbit replacement for 3 aging 

Anik-A (1972, 1973, 1975) and 1 

Anik-B (1978) satellites. Apogee-boost 

motor fired 29 Aug. Satellite on station at 104O W. longitude. 

Fifth in series of 9 satellites; launched by 

NASA for 106-member-nation International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). 

Placed in geosynchronous orbit after 

apogee-motor firing 1 Oct.; positioned over Indian Ocean at 63O E. 

longitude. 

Communications satellite launched by 

NASA for RCA joined 4 other RCA 

satellites-Safrom I, 2, 3-R, and 4-in 

orbit. Apogee-kick motor fired 30 

Oct., placing satellite over Pacific 

Ocean at 143' W. longitude. 

Dual launched by Air Force with DSCS 

I11 satellite. First Use of Titan(34)D 

with inertial upper stage (IUS) to 

launch spacecraft. Still in orbit. 
APPENDIX A-3 - Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I982 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator (%) 

Re m a r k s 

DSCS I11 satellite 

106B 

Objective: To place Defense Satellite Communications 

Systems 111 spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit. 

Spacecraft: Central body 2.8 m long, 7.6 m wide, 2 m in 

diameter. With solar array fully extended, length 1.2 

m. Satellite 3-axis stabilized. Weight (dry): 816.4 kg. 

Objective: To demonstrate initial operational capability 

by launching 2 commercial communications satellites 

Columbia (STS 5) and demonstrate extravehicular activity (EVA) 

Payload: Two commercial communication satellite; also 

instrument packages composed of development flight 

instrumentation (DFI), aerodynamic coefficient identification package (ACIP); student experimentsgrowth of porifera in zero gravity, formation of crystals 

in weightlessness, and convection in zero gravity; getaway special (GAS); NASA experiments- monodisperse latex reaction (MLR), tile gap heating effects, 

catalytic surface effects, dynamic, acoustic and thermal 

environment (DATE), and atmospheric luminosities 

investigation (Glow experiment). 

11 Nov. 

Space Shuttle 

110A capability. 

SBS 3 

110B 

Objective: To launch first commercial communications 

satellite from Shuttle. Spacecraft to provide integrated, 

all-digital, interference-free transmission of telephone, 

computer, electronic mail, and video teleconferencing 

to SBS business clients. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, 2.2 m in diameter, with stowed 

height at launch of 2.8 m; height in orbit, 6.6 m with 

solar panel and antenna deployed. Spin-stabilized. 

Weight: 601.5 kg. 

Anik C-3 (Teksat 5) Objective: To launch commercial communications 

110c satellite from Shuttle. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, 2.2 m in diameter, with 

stowed height at launch of2.8 m; height in orbit, 6.6 m 

with solar panel and antenna deployed. Spinstabilized. Weight: 632.3 kg. 

35 857 

35 727 

1436.4 

2.4 

302 

276 

90.3 

28.5 

35 790 

35 786 

1436.2 

0.0 

35 796 

35 778 

1436.1 

0.0 

17 Nov. 

Defense 

lllA 

Titan IIID 

21 Dec. 

DMSP satellite 

118A 

Atlas E 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 474 

technology. 268 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 92.0 

97.0 

823 

lite into planned orbit. 81 1 

Weight: 753 kg. 98.7 

Objective: To launch meteorological observation satelSpacecraft: Same basic configuration as NOAA 7. 101.2 

Dual launch by Air Force with DSCS I1 

satellite. First in series of uprated 

communications satellites. Still in orbit. 

NASA flew first operational flight of 

Space Transportation System. Columbia was piloted by astronauts Vance 

D. Brand and Robert F. Overmyer. 

Mission specialists: Joseph P. Allen 

and William B. Lenoir. Shuttle lifted 

off from Launch Complex 39, Pad 4, 

at 7:00 a.m. EST. Two satellites were 

launched from payload cargo bay. 

EVA canceled when problems developed in both spacesuits. Columbia 

landed on concrete runway at Edwards AFB, Calif., 9:33 a.m. EST, 16 

Nov. Total mission time: 5 days 2 hrs 

14 min 25 sec. Orbiter returned to 

KSC 22 Nov. for major overhaul and 

refurbishment for next scheduled 

flight in fall 1983 (STS 9). 

First satellite launch from Shuttle cargo 

payload bay of Space Transportation 

System. Satellite Business Systems. 

SaS 3 was released at 3:17 p.m. EST, 

11 Nov. Payload assist module (PAMD) fired 45 minutes later, boosting 

satellite to geosynchronous-transfer 

orbit and finally into geosynchronous 

orbit at 94' W. longitude. 

Second commercial satellite launch from 

Shuttle, Anik C-3 was deployed by 

NASA for Telesat Canada at 3:24 

p.m. EST, 12 Nov. Satellite stationed 

at 117.5O W. longitude. 

Still in orbit. 

Defense Meterological Satellite Program 

block 5D2 spacecraft. Still in orbit. 

87 
APPENDIX B- 1 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites 1977- 1982 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

28 Jan. 1977 

10 Mar. 1977 

12 May 1977 

26 May 1977 

25 Aug. 1977 

15 Dec. 1977 

7 Jan. 1978 

9 Feb. 1978 

5 Mar. 1978 

31 Mar. 1978 

7 Apr. 1978 

11 May 1978 

29 June 1978 

19 Nov. 1978 

14 Dec. 1978 

16 Dec. 1978 

4 May 1979 

9 Aug. 1979 

21 Nov. 1979 

2 Dec. 1979 

18 Jan. 1980 

31 Oct. 1980 

15 Nov. 1980 

6 Dec. 1980 

21 Feb. 1981 

23 May 1981 

6 Aug. 1981 

24 Sept. 1981 

20 Nov. 1981 

15 Dec. 1981 

16 Jan. 1982 

26 Feb. 1982 

. 5 Mar. 1982 

10 Apr. 1982 

9 June 1982 

26 Aug. 1982 

28 Sept. 1982 

27 Oct. 1982 

30Oct. 1982 

11 Nov. 1982 

12 Nov. 1982 

16 June 1977 

14 July 1977 

23 Nov. 1977 

1 May 1978 

16 June 1978 

13 Oct. 1978 

24Oct. 1978 

6 June 1979 

27 June 1979 

29 May 1980 

9 Sept. 1980 

22 May 1981 

23 June 1981 

21 Dec. 1982 

NATO IIIB 

Palapa 2 

Intelsat IVA F-4 

Sirio 

Sakura 

Intelsat IVA F-3 

Fltsatcom 1 

Oscar 8 

Intelsat IVA F-6 

BSE (Yuri) 

DSCS II-7,8 

OTS 2 

Comstar D-3 

NATO IIIC 

DSCS II-11,12 

Anik 4 (Telesat D) 

Fltsatcom 2 

Westar 3 

DSCS 11-13.14 

RCA-Satcom 3 

Fltsatcom 3 

Fltsatcom 4 

SBS 1 

Intelsat V F-2 

Comstar D-4 

Intelsat V F-1 

Fltsatcom 5 

SBS 2 

RCA-Satcom 3-R 

Intelsat V F-3 

RCA-Satcom 4 

Westar 4 

Intelsat V F-4 

Insat 1A 

Westar 5 

Anik D-1 

Intelsat V F-5 

RCA-Satcom 5 

DSCS 11, 

DSCS 111 

SBS 3 

Anik C-3 

GOES 2 

Himawari 

Meteosat 

AMS 3 

GOES 3 

Tiros-N 

Nimbus 7 

AMS 4 

NOAA 6 

NOAA-B 

GOES 4 

GOES 5 

NOAA 7 

DMSP 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Centaur 

'Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Tfidr-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Second of new series. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Positioned over Atlantic. 

Italian experiment. 

Japanese experiment. 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

First of new Defense series. 

Secondary payload with Landsat 3, replacement for Oscar 6 for 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Japanese experimental direct-broadcast satellite for television; doEuropean Space Agency experimental relay satellite; domestic satellite, 

Positioned south of U.S. over the equator by Comsat; domestic satellite. 

Final one of this military series, 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for Canada; domestic satellite. 

Second of new DoD series. 

Launched for Western Union Co. as part of its domestic comDefense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for RCA, but contact lost during orbit circularization. 

Third of DoD series. 

Fourth of DoD series. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems as part of its domestic com- munications links. 

First of new series, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fourth in series for Comsat General Corp. 

Second in series for INTELSAT, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in DoD series. 

Second in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Fourth in series for RCA, replacement for RCA-Satcom 3. 

Third in series. To be positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in series for RCA. 

First in a series of second-generation for Western Union Co. 

Fourth in series; positioned over Pacific. 

First in series for India Department of Space. 

Second in series of second-generation for Western Union Co.; replaces 

Launched for Telesat Canada as reolacement for in-orbit satellites. 

amateur radio communications. 

mestic satellite. 

munications links. 

Westar 2. 

Fifth in series; positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Joined 4 operational satellites launched for RCA. 

Defense communications (dual launch), including first in series of 

Third in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Second in new series for Telesat Canada. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan III(34) D/IUS 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle, 

uprated satellites. 

PAM-D 

PAM-D 

WEATHER OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Japanese geosynchronous satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Burner 2 DoD meteorological satellite. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F DoD meteorological satellite. 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F Replacement for Noaa-B. 

Atlas E DoD meterological satellite. 

Second in series of operational synchronous-orbit satellites for NOAA. 

European Space Agency geosynchronous satellite. 

Third of this series for NOAA. 

First of third-generation for NOAA, also experimental satellite for 

Last of this experimental series for NASA. 

Second of 8 planned third-generation satellites for NOAA; first was 

Failed to achieve useful orbit. 

Fourth of this series for NOAA. 

Fifth of polar-orbiting series for NOAA. 

NASA. 

Tiros-N. 

a Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identilied by launch. 

88 
APPENDIX B-1-Continued 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites 1977-1 982 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

5 Mar. 1978 Landsat 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Third experimental earth resources satellite, 

26 Apr. 1978 HCMM (AEM 1) Scout Experimental, low-cost, limited-function heat-capacity mapping mis27 June 1978 Seasat 1 Atlas F Proof-of-concept oceanographic-phenomena data-collection satellite. 

16 July 1982 Landsat 4 

sion for earth resources. 

Thor-Delta (TAT) Fourth experimental earth resources satellite. First use of thematic 

mapper (TM). 

GEODESY 

9 Apr. 1975 Geos 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. 

4 May 1976 Lageos Thor-Delta (TAT) Laser geodynamic satellite. 

NAVIGATION 

23 June 1977 NTS 2 Atlas F Forerunner of Navstar Global Positioning System. 

28 Oct. 1977 Transit Scout Developmental model. 

22 Feb. 1978 Navstar 1 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

13 May 1978 Navstar 2 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

7 Oct. 1978 Navstar 3 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

11 Dec. 1978 Navstar 4 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

9 Feb. 1980 Navstar 5 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

26 Apr. 1980 Navstar 6 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

15 May 1981 Nova 1 scout First of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.=Launched Scientific Satellites 1977-1 982 

Date 

20 Apr. 1977 

12 Aug. 1977 

22 Oct. 1977 

26 Jan. 1978 

14 July 1978 

12 Aug. 1978 

24Oct. 1978 

17 .. Nov. . . .. 1978 ~ 

30 Jan. 1979 

18 Feb. 1979 

24 Feb. 1979 

6 lune 1979 

26Sept. 1979 

30 Oct. 1979 

14 Feb. 1980 

3 Aug. 1981 

6 Oct. 1981 

Name Launch Vehicle 

Geos Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Heao 1 

ISEE 1,2 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

IUE Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Geos 2 Thor-Delta (TAT) 

ISEE 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Cameo Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Heao 2 

Scatha 

Sage 

Solwind 

Ariel 6 

Heao 3 

Magsat 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

scout 

SMM Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Dynamics Thor-Delta (TAT) 

SME Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Explorers 1, 2 

Remarks 

European Space Agency, study of magnetic and electric fields from geoX-ray and gamma-ray astronomy. 

Magnetosphere and solar wind measurements (for NASA and 

Ultraviolet observation of astronomical phenomena, in elliptical geoEuropean studies of magnetosphere, in geosynchronous orbit. 

International Sun-Earth Explorer, in halo orbit near Earth-Sun libraBarium and lithium cloud experiments, carried in rocket body of NimHigh-resolution observations of astronomical x-ray sources. 

Measurement of sources of electric charge buildup on spacecraft. 

Measurement of stratospheric aerosols and ozone. 

Measurement of solar wind, electron buildup in polar regions, aerosols, 

synchronous orbit (not attained). 

European Space Agency respectively). 

synchronous orbit. 

tion point. 

bus 7 launcher. 

and ozone. Measurement of cosmic radiation (United Kingdom payload) 

Gamma and cosmic ray emissions. 

Detailed current description of earth's magnetic field and of sources of 

Solar Maximum Mission. 

DE 1 and 2 to measure magnetospheric-ionospheric energy coupling, 

Solar Mesosphere Explorer to measure changes in mesospheric 

variations. 

electric currents and fields, plasmas. 

ozone. 

6Oct. 1981 UOSAT Thor-Delta (TAT) Secondary payload with SME, for amateur radio and science 

(Oscar 9) experiments. 

89 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.=Launched Space Probes 1975-1 982 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

20 Aug. 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, while 

orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs 

of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, while 

orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs 

of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

15 Jan. 1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIE- Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of sun, 

measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload 

had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus 

cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, 

arrived Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 

1989. 

9 Sept. 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIECentaur !. ::. 

Centaur 

20 Aug. 1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

5 Sep. 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed 

for outer solar system. 

20 May 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur 

8 Aug. 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit 4 Dec., returning imagery and 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended 

data. 

through Venus atmosphere 9 Dec., returned data. 

90 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1982 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(daw : hrs : min) Highlights 

~ ~ 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

~ 

12 Apr. 1961 

5 May 1961 

21 July 1961 

6 Aug. 1961 

20 Feb. 1962 

24 May 1962 

11 Aug. 1962 

12Aug. 1962 

3 Oct. 1962 

15 May 1963 

14 June 1963 

16 June 1963 

12 Oct. 1964 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. 'l'itov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

I,. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper., Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Corbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

0: 1:48 

0: 0.15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:18 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10 : 20 

4:23: 6 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; astronaut 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of Vostok 5. 

First 3-man crew. 

safe. 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

18 Mar. 1965 

23 Mar. 1965 

3 June 1965 

21 Aug. 1965 

4 Dec. 1965 

15 Dec. 1965 

16 Mar. 1966 

3 June 1966 

18 July 1966 

12 Sept. 1966 

1 1 Nov. 1966 

23 Apr. 1967 

11 Oct. 1968 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min). 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneuvers 

21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

in orbit. 

with Agena target rocket). 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4:53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1:51 

0 : 10 : 41 

3: 0:21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2 : 23 : 17 

3 : 22 : 35 

then Agena 8). 

hiehest earth-orbit altitude (1372 km). 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

Loniest extravehicular activiiy to dark (Aldrin, 5 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

hrs 37 min). 

1: 2:37 

10:20: 9 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

26 Oct. 1968 

21 Dec. 1968 

3 : 22 : 51 

6: 3: 1 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of moon; first manned 

departure from earth's sphere of influence; 

highest speed attained in manned flight to date. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cos- monauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

14 Jan. 1969 

15 Jan. 1969 

2 : 23 : 23 

3: 0:56 

Apollo 9 3 Mar. 1969 10: I: 1 Successfully simulated in earth orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and takeom from 

lunar surface and rejoining with command 

module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including lunar module descent to 14 300 m from the 

lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and safe 

return to earth. First return of rock and soil 

samples to earth, and manned deployment of 

experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight without actually docking. Each conducted certain 

experiments, including welding and earth and 

celestial observation. 

Apollo 10 18 May 1969 8: 0: 3 

Apollo 11 16 July 1969 8: 3: 9 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

11 Oct. 1969 

12 Oct. 1969 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

13 Oct. 1969 4 : 22 : 50 

91 
APPENDIX C - Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1982 

Spacecraft Launch Date Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Crew 

- Highlights 

Apollo 12 14 Nov. 1969 Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred,’yV. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pope 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Staflord 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

10 : 4 : 36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17 : 16 : 59 

9: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23 : 18 : 22 

12 : 7 : 12 

11 : 1 : 51 

Second manned lunar landing. Explored surface of moon and retrieved parts of Surveyor 

3 spacecraft, which landed in Ocean of Storms on 19 Apr. 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. Ship circled moon, with crew using 

LM as “lifeboat” until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and con- tinued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew recovered 

24Apr. 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied 

space station for 22 days. Crew perished during 

final phase of Soyuz 11 capsule recovery on 30 June 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo “J” 

series mission, which carried Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. Worden’s inflight EVA of 38 min 12 sec was performed during return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired damaged station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Apollo 13 11 Apr. 1970 

1 June 1970 

31 Jan. 1971 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 22 Apr. 1971 

soyuz 11 6 June 1971 

Apollo 15 26 July 1971 

Apollo 16 16 Apr. 1972 

12 : 13 : 52 

28: 0.50 

59: 11 : 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1 : 16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15 : 17 : 30 

2: 0.12 

5 : 22 : 24 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1.28 

48: 1:32 

7 : 21 : 54 

2: 0: 6 

17 : 17 : 23 

2: 0.46 

Apollo 17 7 Dec. 1972 

Skylab 2 25 May 1973 

Skylab 3 28 July 1973 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

27 Sept. 1973 

16 Nov. 1973 

Checkout of improved Soyuz 

Docked with Skylab 1 in longduration mission; 

last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources exDocked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Soyuz stages failrd to separate; crew recovered 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint experiDocked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of 

periments. 

space station. 

after abort, 

ments of ASTP mission. 

ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Earth resources study with multispectral camera 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. 

system. 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

18 Dec. 1973 

3 July 1974 

26 Aug. 1974 

2 Dec. 1974 

10Jan. 1975 

5 Apr. 1975 

24 May 1975 

15 July 1975 

15 July 1975 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

soyuz 23 

soyuz 24 

soyuz 25 

6 July 1976 

15 Sept. 1976 

14 Oct. 1976 

7 Feb.1977 

9 Oct. 1977 

92 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1982 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

[days : hrs : min) Highlights 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

soyuz 34 

soyuz 35 

Soyuz 36 

Soyuz T-2 

soyuz 37 

Soyuz 38 

Soyuz T-3 

SOYUZ T-4 

soyuz 39 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

SOYUZ T-5 

SOYUZ T-6 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

10 Dec. 1977 

10 Jan. 1978 

2 Mar. 1978 

15 June 1978 

27 June 1978 

26 Aug. 1978 

25 Feb. 1979 

10 Apr. 1979 

6 June 1979 

9 Apr. 1980 

26 May 1980 

5 June 1980 

23 July 1980 

18 Sept. 1980 

27 Nov. 1980 

12 Mar. 1981 

22 Mar. 1981 

12 Apr. 1981 

14 May 1981 

12 Nov. 1981 

22 Mar. 1982 

13 May 1982 

24 June 1982 

27 June 1982 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Pmnariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Anatoliy Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

37 : 10: 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

7 : 22 : 17 

79 : 15 : 23 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

108: 4: 24 

1:23: 1 

73 : 18 : 17 

55 : 1 : 29 

65 : 20 : 54 

3 : 22 : 21 

79 : 15 : 17 

7 : 20 : 43 

12 : 19 : 8 

74 : 18 : 38 

7 : 20 : 43 

2: 6:21 

7 : 20 : 41 

2: 6:13 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; 

crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; 

crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 min. 

Docked'%ith Salyut 6. Rernek was first Czech COSm"4rit to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; 

crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first 

Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; 

crew durat:on 7 days 20 hrs 49 min. Jaehn was 

first German Democratic Republic cosmonaut 

to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; 

crew duration 175 days 36 min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. 

Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for 

Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned unmanned. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. 

Crew duration, 184 days 20 hrs 12 min. 

Docked wijh Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. 

Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 46 min. Farkas was 

first Hungarian to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight of newgeneration ferry. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 36. 

Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 42 min. Pharn 

was first Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in Soviet 

program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested spacecraft in 

orbit. First landing of airplanelike craft from 

orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first scientific payload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator arm. 

Returned for reuse. 

8 : 4 : 49 Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scientific 

payload (OSS-1). Second test of remote 

manipulator arm. Flight extended 1 day because 

of flooding at primary landing site; alternate 

landing site used. Returned for reuse. 

5 Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 days. 

Crew returned in Soyuz T-7. 

7 : 21 : 51 Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first French 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

211 : 9 : 

7 : 1 : 9 Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD payload, 

additional scientific payloads. Returned 4 July. 

Completed orbital flight testing program. 

Returned for reuse. 

93 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1982 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Highlights 

SOYUZ T-7 19 Aug. 1982 Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Space Shuttle 11 Nov. 1982 Vance D. Brand 

Columbia Robert F. Overmyer 

(STS 5) Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

7 : 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second Soviet 

woman to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5. 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first operational flight; 

launched 2 commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik 

C-3); first flight with 4 crewmembers. EVA test 

canceled when spacesuits malfunctioned. 

5 : 2 : 14 

94 
APPENDIX D 

US. Space Launch Vehicles 

Vehicle 

Max. Payload (kg)b 

yaheti; 185-Km Geosynch.- Circular First Thrust 

newtons) Orbit Transfer Sun-Synch. Stages Propellant' (kilo- 

(m) Orbit Orbit 

scout 

Delta 2900 Series 

(Thor-Delta) 

Delta 3900 Series 

(Thor-Delta)r 

Atlas E/FTE 364-4 

Atlas-Centaur 

1. Algol IIIA ....... .Solid ............. 431.1 1.14 x 22.9 255 - 155'1 1979(60) 

2. Castor IIA .Solid 285.2 ..I.(( 205d 

1. Thor plus ....... .LOX/RP-1 ....... 912.0 2.44 x 35.4 2 000 705 1250d 1973(60) 

LOX/RP- 1 ....... 9 12.0 2.44 x 35.4 3 045 1275 2 135" 1982(60) 

....... ............. 3. Antares IIIA ..... .Solid ............. 83.1 

4. Altair IIIA ....... .Solid ............. 25.6 

147 each 1410d 

44.2 

3. TE 364-4 ......... Solid ............. 65.8 

9 TX 526-2 .... .Solid ............. 375 each 2 180d 

2. Delta ............ N20,/Aerozine-50 .. 44.2 

1. Atlas boos 3.05 x 28.1 2w1 - 1 500d 1972(67) 

3. TE 364-4 

& susta' 

2. TE 364-4 

1. Atlas booster & 3.05 x 39.8 5 680 2045 - 1962 

sustainer ....... LOX/RP-l ....... 1 913.0 

2. Centaur .......... LOX/LH,. ........ 146.0 

SunDirect Synch. 

Orbit Orbit 'E;! Geosynch. Transfer 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Titan IIIC 

Titan HID 

Titan III(34)D 

Titan III(34)Dl 

IUS 

Titan III(34)D/ 

Transtage 

1. LR-87 N,O,/Aerozine 2 341.0 3.05 x 48.4 360W - 3 060" 1966 

2. LR-91 .......... .N,O,/Aerozine .... 455.1 

3. Agena ........... IRFNA/UDMH ... 7 1.2 

3.05-m dia. ..... .Solid ............. 10 675.2 

2. LR-87 ........... N20,/Aerozine .... 2 341 .O 

N20,/Aerozine .... 455.0 

1. Two segment 3.05~48.2 13 245 1610d - 1965 

N,O,/Aerozine .... 69.8 

Same as Titan IIIC without Transtage 3.05 ~46.9 11 020d - 9 750d 1971 

1. Two 5 !4 -segment 3.05~49.4 12 520'1 - 11 340" 

3.05-m dia. ..... .Solid ............. 11 564.8 

3. LR-91 ........... N20,/Aerozine .... 449.3 

4. IUS 1st stage ..... .Solid ............. 275.8 

Solid ............. 115.7 

Same as Titan III(34)D plus: 3.05~46.9 14920 1855d - h 

4. Transtage ........ N,O,/Aerozine .... 69.8 

2. LR-87 ..... N20,/Aerozine 2 366.3 

Same as Titan 111 (34)D plus: 3.05 x 48.0 14 920 1850" - 1982 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

Space Shuttle 

(reusable) 

1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) 

fire in parallel 

with SRBs ..... .LOX/LH2 ........ 1 670 each 

2. Two-solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRBs) fire in 

parallel with 

SSMEs ........ AL/NH,CLO,/ 

Mounted on ex- ternaltank(ET) ................................ 

PBAN .......... 11 790 each 

29 500 1981 

in lull 

perlormance 

23.79 x 37.24 configuration 

wing long 

span 

3.71 x 45.45 

8.40 x 46.88 

a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen and a modified kerosene = LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant combining in a 

single mixture both fuel and oxidizer =solid; inhibited red-liming 

nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine - Maximum performance based on 3920, 3920/PAM configuraIRFNANDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH/N,H, = N,04/ 

aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen = LOX/LH2; I With dual TE 364-4. 

aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene acrolonitrile 

terpolymer = AL/NH,CLO,/PBAN. 

' The date of first launch applies to this latest modilication with a 

d Polar launch. 

date in parentheses lor the initial version. 

tions. PAM =payload assist module (a private venture). 

I: Initial operational capability in December 1981; launch to be 

l1 Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to be 

1 At sea level. 

scheduled as needed. 

scheduled as needed. 

I) Due east launch except as indicated. 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the director of expendable launch vehicles. 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY - BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

NSF Total 

Space Defense Energy :zKi Interior Agricul- NASA 

ture Fiscal Year 

Total Spacea 

1959 

1960 

1961 .................. 1962 .................. 1963 .................. 1964 ..... 1965 .................. 1966 .................. 1967 

1968 .................. 1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 .................. 1973 .................. 1974 .................. 1975 .................. 1976 .................. Transitional Quarter .... 

1980 .................. 

1982 .................. 

1984 est. .............. 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1824.9 

3673.0 

5099.7 

5249.7 

5174.9 

4965.6 

4587.3 

3990.9 

3745.8 

3311.2 

3306.6 

3406.2 

3036.9 

3229.1 

3550.3 

931.8 

3817.8 

4060.1 

4595.5 

5240.2 

5518.4 

6043.gb 

6830.9 

7098.0 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1796.8 

3626.0 

5016.3 

5137.6 

5064.5 

4830.2 

4430.0 

3822.0 

3547.0 

3101.3 

307 1 .O 

3093.2 

2758.5 

2915.3 

3225.4 

849.2 

3440.2 

3622.9 

4030.4 

4680.4 

4992.4 

5527.6 

6278.1 

6508.6 

489.5 34.3 

560.9 43.3 

813.9 67.7 

1298.2 147.8 

1549.9 213.9 

1599.3 210.0 

1573.9 228.6 

1688.8 186.8 

1663.6 183.6 

1921.8 145.1 

2013.0 118.0 

1678.4 102.8 

1512.3 94.8 

1407.0 55.2 

,1623.0 54.2 

1766.0 41.7 

1892.4 29.6 

1983.3 23.3 

460.4 4.6 

2411.9 21.7 

2738.3 34.4 

3035.6 58.6 

3848.4 39.6 

4827.7 40.5 

6678.7 60.6 

8490.9 61.9 

9881.5 60.1 

... 

... 

... 

50.7 

43.2 

2.8 

12.2 

26.5 

29.3 

28.1 

20.0 

8.0 

27.4 

31.3 

39.7 

60.2 

64.4 

71.5 

22.2 

90.8 

102.8 

98.4 

92.6 

87.0 

144.5 

185.6 

208.4 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.9 

11.7 

12.3 

12.1 

9.5 

9.0 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

.7 

.8 

.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

15.2 

21.0 

25.8 

... 

0.1 

.6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

.6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.0 

1 .o 

1 .o 

784.7 

1065.8 

1 808.2 

3 294.8 

5 434.5 

6 831.4 

6 955.5 

6 969.8 

6 709.5 

6 528.9 

5 975.8 

5 340.5 

4 740.9 

4 574.7 

4 824.9 

4 640.3 

4 914.3 

5 319.9 

1 340.5 

5 982.8 

6 518.2 

7 243.5 

8 688.8 

9 977.8 

2 440.7 

5 048.0 

6 694.4 

a Excludesamounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

Includes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed. 

11.7 

U. S. Space Budget - Budget Authority FY 1971-1984 1M.y not add of roundin91 

1U 

118 

11.1 

1U 

M 

8.1 

muomof 1,8 DOLLAW 

LO 

mnin 

u D€f€W 

u 0 u 

w.n t1 - T~AIIIINOMAL 

~rxc~unmwouwnfon 1.1 

OUAiT~R 

AIR 1IUWWMAllOW 

1 

1811 1811 1811 11M 1115 1118 1.Q' 1111 1811 113 l1W llm 11U €SI. 1181 ISU €ST. 

UXIICI. wncr or mA~Ao~Mml Alm .U1(ITT 

lL8 

1 L1 

111 

i im 

It1 

11.8 

18.8 

Ll 

&I 

1.1 

Ll 

u 

u 

11 

11 

1.1 

8 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Outlays 

Federal Space Programs 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 

Actual Est. Est. Actual Est. Est. 

Federal agencies: 

NASAa .......................... Defense ......................... ... 5 527.6 6 278.1 6 508.6 5 463.3 6 146.5 6 385.2 ... 6 678.7 8 490.9 9 881.5 4 771.5 6 290.7 7 504.5 

Energy ........................... 60.6 61.9 60.1 59.5 65.8 57.9 

Commerce ...................... 144.5 185.6 208.4 142.4 185.2 208.4 

Interior .................................... 12.1 9.5 9.0 12.1 9.9 9.1 .............................. 2.0 1 .o 1 .o 2.2 1.5 1.2 .................... 15.2 21.0 25.8 15.2 21.0 25.8 

Total ................................... 12 440.07 15 048.0 16 694.4 10 466.2 12 720.6 14 192.1 

NASA: 

Space flight ........................ 4 109.1 4 049.0 3 543.3 4 033.8 4 027.6 

Space science, applications, and 1 567.8 1 638.0 1 456.9 1 516.8 1 600.6 

Air transportation .................. 552.8 589.4 562.5 566.6 587.4 

Supporting operations .............. 609.6 830.1 473.0 604.3 765.5 

Less receipts ...................... - 8.4 - 8.5 - 9.6 - 8.4 - 8.5 

Total NASA ............. 6 830.9 7 098.0 6 025.8 6 713.1 6 972.6 

a Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

b Includes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed. 

SOURCE: Ofice of Management and Budget. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Outlays 

Federal Aeronautics Programs 1982 1983 1984 1982 1983 1984 

Actual Est. Est. Actual Est. Est. 

NASA” ...................................... 516.3 552.8 589.4 562.5 566.6 587.4 

Department of Defenseb ........................ 2984.0 3664.1 4079.0 2657.0 3048.4 3507.4 

Department of Transportation‘ .................. 81.0 121.0 286.0 89.0 115.0 217.0 

Total ..................................... 3581.3 4337.9 4954.4 3308.5 3730.0 4311.8 

a Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, Research 

and Program Management. 

Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft and 

related equipment. 

Federal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and 

Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Offce of Management and Budget. 

97 
APPENDIX F 

United States Space Policy 

The White House Fact Sheets, 4 July 1982 

The President announced today a national space policy 

that will set the direction of U.S. efforts in space for the next 

decade. The policy is the result of an interagency review requested by the President in August,,JCl$!l. The 10-month 

review included a comprehensive analysis of all segments of 

the national space program. The primary objective of the 

review was to provide a workable policy framework for an aggressive, farsighted space program that is consistent with the 

administration's national goals. 

As a result, the President's directive reaffirms the national 

commitment to the exploration and use of space in support of 

our national well-being, and establishes the basic goals of 

United States space policy which are to: 

-strengthen the security of the United States; 

-maintain United States space leadership; 

-obtain economic and scientific benefits through the exploitation of space; 

-expand United States private-sector investment and involvement in civil space and space related activities; 

-promote international cooperative activities in the national interest; and 

-cooperate with other nations in maintaining the freedom 

of space for activities which enhance the security and 

welfare of mankind. 

The principles underlying the conduct of the United States 

space program, as outlined in the directive are: 

-The United States is committed to the exploration and 

use of space by all nations for peaceful purposes and for the 

benefit of mankind. "Peaceful purposes" allow activities in 

pursuit of national security goals. 

-The United States rejects any claims to sovereignty by 

any nation over space or over celestial bodies, or any portion 

thereof, and rejects any limitations on the fundamental right 

to acquire data from space. 

-The United States considers the space systems of any nation to be national property with the right of passage through 

and operation in space without interference. Purposeful interference with space systems shall be viewed as an infringement upon sovereign rights. 

-The United States encourages domestic commercial exploitation of space capabilities, technology, and systems for 

national economic benefit. These activities must be consistent with national security concerns, treaties, and international agreements. 

-The United States will conduct international cooperative 

space-related activities that achieve scientific, political, 

economic, or national security benefits for the Nation. 

-The United States space program will be comprised of 

two separate, distinct and strongly interacting programs- national security and civil. Close coordination, 

cooperation, and information exchange will be maintained 

among these programs to avoid unnecessary duplication. 

-The United States Space Transportation System (STS) 

is the primary space launch system for both national security 

and civil government missions. STS capabilities and 

capacities shall be developed to meet appropriate national 

needs and shall be available to authorized users-domestic 

and foreign, commercial and governmental. 

-The United States will pursue activities in space in support of its right of self-defense. 

-The United States will continue to study space arms 

control options. The United States will consider verifiable 

and equitable arms control measures that would ban or 

otherwise limit testing and deployment of specific weapons 

systems, should those measures be compatible with United 

States national security. 

Space Transportation System 

The directive states that the space shuttle is to be a major 

factor in the future evolution of United States space programs 

and that it will foster further cooperative roles between the 

national security and civil programs to ensure efficient and 

effective use of national resources. The Space Transportation 

System (STS) is composed of the space shuttle, associated upper stages, and related facilities. The directive establishes the 

following policies governing the development and operation 

of the Space Transportation System: 

-The STS is a vital element of the United States space 

program and is the primary space launch system for both 

United States national security and civil government missions. The STS will be afforded the degree of survivability 

and security protection required for a critical national space 

resource. The first priority of the STS program is to make the 

system fully operational and cost-effective in providing 

routine access to space. 

-The United States is fully committed to maintaining 

world leadership in space transportation with a STS capacity 

sufficient to meet appropriate national needs. The STS program requires sustained commitments by each affected 

department or agency. The United States will continue to 

develop the STS through the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) in cooperation with the Department 

of Defense (DoD). Enhancement of STS operational 

capability, upper stages, and methods of deploying and 

retrieving payloads should be pursued, as national requirements are defined. 

-United States Government spacecraft should be designed to take advantage of the unique capabilities of the 

STS. the completion of transition to the shuttle should occur 

as expeditiously as practical. 

-NASA will assure the shuttle's utility to the civil users. 

In coordination with NASA, the DoD will assure the shuttle's 

utility to national defense and integrate national security missions into the shuttle system. Launch priority will be provided for national security missions. 

-Expendable launch vehicle operations shall be continued 

by the United States Government until the capabilities of the 

STS are sufficient to meet its needs and obligations. Unique 

national security considerations may dictate developing 

special-purpose launch capabilities. 
-For the near term, the STS will continue to be managed 

and operated in an institutional arrangement consistent with 

the current NASA/DoD Memoranda of Understanding. 

Responsibility will remain in NASA for operational control 

of the STS for civil missions and in the DoD for operational 

control of the STS for national security missions. Mission 

management is the responsibility of the mission agency. As 

the STS operations mature, the flexibility to transition to a 

different institutional structure will be maintained. 

Presidential approval. 

The Civil Space Program 

In accordance with the provisions of the National Aeronautics and Space Act, the directive states that the civil space 

program shall be conducted: 

-to expand knowledge of the Earth, its environment, the 

solar system, and the universe; 

-to develop and promote selected civil applications of 

space technology; 

-to preserve the United States leadership in critical 

aspects of space science, applications, and technology; 

and 

-to further United States domestic and foreign policy objectives. 

The directive states the following policies which shall 

govern the conduct of the civil space program: 

-United States Government programs shall continue a 

balanced strategy of research, development, operations, and 

exploration for science, applications, and technology. The 

key objectives of these programs are to: (1) preserve the 

United States preeminence in critical space activities to 

enable continued exploitation and exploration of space; 

(2) conduct research and experimentation to expand understanding of: (a) astrophysical phenomena and the origin and 

evolution of the universe through long-lived astrophysical 

observation; (b) the Earth, its environment, its dynamic relation with the Sun; (c) the origin and evolution of the solar 

system through solar, planetary, and lunar sciences and exploration; and (d) the space environment and technology to 

advance knowledge in the biological sciences; (3) continue to 

explore the requirements, operational concepts, and technology associated with permanent space facilities; (4) conduct 

appropriate research and experimentation in advanced technology and systems to provide a basis for future civil applications. 

-The United States Government will provide a climate 

conducive to expanded private-sector investment and involvement in space activities, with due regard to public safety 

and national security. These space activities will be authorized and supervised or regulated by the Government to the 

extent required by treaty and national security. 

-The United' States will continue cooperation with other 

nations in international space activities by conducting joint 

scientific and research programs, consistent with technology 

transfer policy, that yield sufficient benefits to the United 

States, and will support the public, nondiscriminatory, direct 

readout of data from Federal civil systems to fereign ground 

stations and the provision of data to foreign users under 

specified conditions. 

-The Department of Commerce, as manager of Federal 

operational space remote sensing systems, will: (1) aggregate 

Federal needs for these systems to be met by either the 

-Major changes to STS program capab 

private sector or the Federal Government; (2) identify needed 

research and development objectives for these systems; and 

(3) in coordination with other departments or agencies, provide regulation of private sector operation of these systems. 

Tht National Securiv Space Program 

The directive states that the United States will conduct 

those activities in space that it deems necessary to its national 

security. National security space programs shall support such 

functions as command and control, communications, navigation, environmental xqonitoring, warning, surveillance, and 

space defense. The directive states the following policies 

which shall govern the conduct of the national security program: 

-Survivability and endurance of space systems, including 

all system elements, will be pursued commensurate with the 

planned use in crisis and conflict, with the threat, and with 

the availability of other assets to perform the mission. Deliciencies will be identified and eliminated, and an aggressive, 

long-term program will be undertaken to provide more 

assured survivability and endurance. 

-The United States will proceed with development of an 

antisatellite (ASAT) capability, with operational deployment 

as a goal. The primary purposes of a United States ASAT 

capability are to deter threats to space systems of the United 

States and its allies and, within such limits imposed by international law, to deny any adversary the use of space-based 

systems that provide support to hostile military forces. 

-The United States will develop and maintain an integrated attack warning, notification, verification, and contingency reaction capability which can effectively detect and 

react to threats to United States space systems. 

-Security, including dissemination of data, shall be conducted in accordance with Executive orders and applicable 

directives for protection of national security information and 

commensurate with both the missions performed and the 

security measures necessary to protect related space activities. 

Inter-Program Responsibilities 

The directive contains the following guidance applicable to 

and binding upon the United States national security and 

civil space programs: 

-The national security and civil space programs will be 

closely coordinated and will emphasize technology sharing 

within necessary security constraints. Technology transfer 

issues will be resolved within the framework of directives, Executive orders, and laws. 

-Civil Earth-imaging from space will be permitted under 

controls when the requirements are justified and assessed in 

relation to civil benefits, national security, and foreign 

policy. These controls will be periodically reviewed to determine if the constraints should be revised. 

-The United States Government will maintain and coordinate separate national security and civil operational space 

systems when differing needs of the programs dictate. 

PoliGy Implementation 

The directive states that normal interagency coordinating 

mechanisms will be employed to the maximum extent possible to implement the policies enunciated. A Senior Interagency Group (SIG) on Space is established by the directive 
to provide a forum to all Federal agencies for their policy 

views, to review and advise on proposed changes to national 

space policy, and to provide for orderly and rapid referral of 

space policy issues to the President for decisions as necessary. 

The SIG (Space) will be chaired by the Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs and will include the Deputy Secretary of Defense, Deputy Secretary of State, Deputy 

Secretary of Commerce, Director of Central Intelligence, 

Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Director of the Arms 

Control and Disarmament Agency, and the Administrator of 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

Representatives of the Office of Management and Budget 

and the Office of Science and Technology Policy will be included as observers. Other agencies or departments will participate based on the subjects to be addressed. 

Background 

In August 1981, the President directed a National Security 

Council review of space policy. The direction indicated that 

the President’s Science Adviser, Dr. George Keyworth, in 

coordination with other affected agencies, should examine 

whether new directions in national space policy were warranted. An interagency working group was formed to conduct the study effort and Dr. Victor H. Reis, an Assistant 

Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy was 

designated as Chairman. The group addressed the following 

fundamental issues: (1) launch vehicle needs; (2) adequacy of 

existing space policy to ensure continued satisfaction of 

United States civil and national security program needs; (3) 

shuttle organizational responsibilities and capabilities; and, 

(4) potential legislation for space policy. The reports on the 

various issues formed the basis of the policy decisions outlined here. 

The following agencies and departments participated: 

State, Defense, Commerce, Director of Central Intelligence, 

Joint Chiefs of Staff, Arms Control and Disarmament Agency, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 

as well as the National Security Council staff and the Office 

of Management and Budget. 

100 
APPENDIX G 

Aeronautical Research and Technology Policy 

Office of Science and Technology Policy, November 1982 

I. INTRODUCTION 

Since 1915, the U.S. government has provided national 

leadership and significant financial support for the development of aeronautical research and technology (R&T). Approximately one-third of the U.S. defense budget is spent on 

aeronautical products and their support, and commercial aircraft sales contribute the largest positive balance of trade 

among U. S. manufactured goods. Superior aeronautical 

R&T has been essential to the current U.S. preeminence in 

both military and civil aviation. Given the ever-increasing 

Soviet military pressures and foreign commercial aviation 

competition, future preeminence depends on effective U.S. 

R&T programs. Significant questions have been raised concerning the appropriateness and effectiveness of current U.S. 

aeronautical R&T policies, and the U.S. government’s role 

in support of aeronautical R&T. 

In response to these questions, the Office of Science and 

Technology Policy (OSTP), in the Executive Office of the 

President, chaired a multi-agency study group that reviewed 

national aeronautical R&T policy. The following central 

issues andlor questions were addressed: 

* Is aeronautics a mature technology and is continued investment justified by potential benefits? 

- What are the proper government roles in aeronautical 

R&T and does the present institutional framework 

satisfy these roles or should it be changed? 

The study was conducted from February 1982 through 

August 1982 by an interagency working group and a seniorlevel steering group consisting of individuals from: OSTP 

(chair), the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), 

Council of Economic Advisors (CEA), Department of 

Defense (DOD), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Department of Transportation 

[Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)], and Department 

of Commerce (DOC). Two observers, one from industry and 

one from the university community, also participated. Further data were acquired from an extensive questionnaire sent 

to aeronautical industry leaders and from interviews with 

their representatives. While considering the broad range of 

aeronautics and aeronautical R&T, the study group concentrated on the air vehicle and only peripherally addressed external weapon systems and air traffic control systems. The 

study group reviewed past and current government policies 

on aeronautical research, and extensively addressed current 

and future needs, capabilities, and incentives for such 

research in both government and private industry. Analysis 

of policy options and alternatives resulted in specific findings 

and recommendations. This summary report, Volume I, 

provides the study findings and recommendations in brief, 

and a summary of the major rationale that led to these 

results. Volume I1 provides analyses and data to support the 

results. Volume I was fully reviewed and approved by all 

agencies represented on the Steering Group (OSTP, OMB, 

CEA, DOD, NASA, FAA, DOC) and further reviewed and 

approved by the National Security Council (NSC) and the 

Office of the U.S. Trade Representatives (USTR). Volume 

I1 was reviewed and approved by members and agency support staff on the working group. This study was accomplished 

to aid senior Administration officials in establishing and implementing policies affecting aeronautical R&T. 

Victor Reis Louis Montulli 

Steering Group Chairman Working Group Chairman 

111. FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

This chapter presents the study group’s findings and principal recommendations. 

Findings 

The study group presented the following findings: 

Importance of Aeronautics 

The United States depends heavily on technical 

superiority of military aircraft for national defense - approximately one-third of the DOD budget is for procurement, maintenance, and operation of aeronautical 

systems. 

Civil aircraft are the dominant common carrier mode of 

inter-city travel in the United States. The U.S. government is responsible for air traffic control and safety. 

Nature oj Aeronautics Industry 

A healthy, competitive civil aeronautics manufacturing 

industry reduces the cost of providing an essential 

military industrial base and wartime mobilization surge 

capacity. 

A successful aeronautics industry requires a continuous 

input of multidisciplined advanced technologies from 

both inside and outside the aeronautical industry. 

The capital investment required to develop a new aircraft often exceeds the net worth of the sponsoring company. 

Section I, Introduction, and 111, Findings and Recommendations, from volume 1, Summary Reporl, of OSTP report Aeronautical Research and 

Technology Policy, November 1982. 

101 
3. 

*Antitrust laws have constrained U.S. companies from 

domestic joint ventures but have often allowed international joint ventures. However, industry has not yet 

attempted to take full advantage of recent relaxation of 

some antitrust constraints. 

Aeronautics industry prosperity is influenced by 

worldwide economic conditions, foreign trade policies, 

and government policies, as well as R&T. 

Aeronautical R&T 

Large gains are expected from continued aeronautical 

R&T. 

Continued strong advancement in aeronautical R&T is 

essential for national security and for continued success 

of the U.S. civil aeronautics industry. 

The aeronautical R&T development activities in support of future military and civil applications are largely 

common, thereby compounding the value of the 

resulting research. 

Industry-funded aeronautical R&T is predominantly 

near-term focused. Private companies have been 

generally unable to effectively capture the benefits of internally funded aeronautical R&T development. As a 

result, a market disincentive exists for such R&T activities. 

Recommendations 

The study group made the following recommendations: 

1. National Goals in Aeronautics and Aeronautical R&T 

Recognizing aviation’s unique role in national defense and 

its significance in the U.S. transportation system, the study 

group recommends the following goals for industry and 

government: 

In Aeronautics 

-Maintain a superior military aeronautical capability. 

-Provide for the safe and efficient use of the national 

airspace system, vehicles operated within the system, 

and facilities required for those operations. 

-Maintain an environment in which civil aviation 

services and manufacturing can flourish. 

-Ensure that the U.S. aeronautical industry has access 

to and is able to compete fairly in domestic and international markets, consistent with U.S. export policy. 

In Aeronautical R&T 

-Ensure the timely provision of a proven technology 

base to support future development of superior U.S. 

aircraft. 

-Ensure the timely provision of a proven technology 

base for a safe, efficient, and environmentally compatible air transportation system. 

2. U.S. Government Role 

After considering alternative policies consistent with national needs, objectives, and the U.S. economic system, the 

study group recommends: 

* Government support for aeronautical RRT development and for military aeronautical technology demonstration, consistent with overall government priorities 

and the availability of funds. 

3. Government Agency Roles 

The study group recommends that the government maintain the present institutional framework in which 

DOD funds, directs, and implements aeronautical 

technology development and demonstration programs 

directed specifically toward military applications. 

NASA funds, directs, and implements aeronautical 

R&T development programs and supports military 

aeronautical technology demonstration programs. 

NASA and DOD encourage transfer of aeronautical research results to and within U.S. industry. 

Both DOD and NASA manage, maintain, and operate 

aeronautical research, development, test, and evaluation facilities. 

The FAA, with NASA and DOD support, is responsible for air traffic control and safety-related aeronautical R&T. 

The study group found the general coordination of NASA 

and DOD programs to be both frequent and highly professional. However, since the creation of NASA in 1958 and the 

elimination of the NACA Advisory Board, senior aeronautical policy coordination between NASA, DOD, and industry has been weakened. The panel recommends 

* The reinstitution of a high-level NASA, DOD, and industry committee, which would meet at least once a 

year to review and coordinate all aeronautical R&T 

policies. 

4. Facilities 

The study group examined the capabilities and limitations 

of the existing and developing aeronautical facilities and concluded that present and planned major facilities are adequate. However, continued maintenance and modernization 

will be required. Specifically, improvements to and expansion of computational capability should be considered. 

Disparity in approach to user charges between DOD and 

NASA facilities creates a significant potential for inappropriate program distribution and use of some facilities. It is 

recommended that 

- NASA and DOD develop a common framework of appropriate incentives and proper joint management 

coordinating mechanisms to ensure that the use of 

NASA and DOD aeronautical facilities is consistent 

with government priorities and the needs of the user 

programs. 

5. Technology Transfer 

The study group viewed the rapid, uncontrolled 

dissemination of unclassified aeronautical R&T data by the 

United States to foreign parties as detrimental to U.S. 

preeminence in military and civil aviation. The group further 

determined that significant, high-quality aeronautical R&T 

is being accomplished by many developed countries. The 

United States is not now fully collecting and utilizing this 

available, unclassified foreign technology. After a study of 

technology transfer, including a review by DQD and other 

agencies, the study group recommends that 

NASA and DOD, in conjunction with other U.S. 

government and non-government agencies, review the 

procedures for disseminating aeronautical R&T documents. 

NASA provide a plan for a centralized means of collecting unclassified aeronautical R&T documents, conference proceedings, and meeting results. 

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1983-4 17-305