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Aeronautics 

and Space Report 

of the President 

Fiscal Year 

1991 

Activities 

1992 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 
Contents 

Executive Summary ................................................... 1 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration .......... 1 

Department of Defense .................... 

Department of Commerce .......... ...................... 6 

Department of Energy ................................................... 7 

Department of the Interior ..... ............................... 7 

Department of Agriculture ...... ............................... 8 

Federal Communications Commission ................ 8 

Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration ............................... 9 

Commercial Space Transportation ........................... 9 

Environmental Protection Agency ................................. 9 

National Science Foundation ....................................... 10 

Smithsonian Institution ................................................ 10 

Department of State ..................................................... 10 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency .................... 11 

United States Information Agency .... ........ 11 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 12 

Space Science and Applications .................................. 12 

Space Transportation ................................................... 28 

Safety and Mission Quality .......................................... 36 

Commercial Programs .................................................. 38 

Space Communications ................................................ 43 

Aeronautics Research and Technology ....................... 47 

Space Research and Technology ................................ 60 

Exploration of the Moon and Mars ............................. 67 

Department of Defense ........................................... 70 

Space Activities ............................................................ 70 

Aeronautical Activities ................................................. 78 

Department of Commerce ..................................... 82 

Space Systems .............................................................. 82 

Commercial Space Support ......................................... 89 

Research Applications .................................................. 90 

International Activities ................................................. 96 

Department of Energy ............................................ 99 

Space Nuclear Power Systems ..................................... 99 

Nuclear Detonation Detection .................................. 102 

Federal Communications Commission ............. 103 

Communications Satellites ......................................... 103 

International Conference Activities ........................... 105 

ii 
Department of the Interior .................................. 106 

Remotely Sensed Data ............................................... 106 

Remote Sensing Research and Applications ............. 107 

Planetary Studies ........................................................ 110 

International Activities ............................................... 114 

Department of Agriculture .................................. 117 

Department of Transportation ........................... 121 

Federal Aviation Administration ................................ 121 

Aviation Safety ............................................................ 121 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control ...................... 126 

Commercial Space Transportation ............................ 130 

Environmental Protection Agency ..................... 132 

National Science Foundation ............................... 134 

Smithsonian Institution ........................................ 136 

Department of State ............................................... 138 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency .......... 141 

United States Information Agency ...................... 144 

Appendixes 

A-1 U.S. Spacecraft Record ............................... 

A-2 World Record of Space Launches Success 

Successful U.S. Launches-Oct . 1, 1990- 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond .............. 158 

Sep . 30. 1991 ...................................... 159 

1985-1991 166 

1985-1991 ....................................................... 168 

A-3 

B-1 US.-Launched Applications Satellites, 

B-2 US-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

B-3 U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1991 

C 

.................. 

U.S . and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

......................................... 170 

D US . Space Launch Vehicles . ......... 179 

E-1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

Historical Budget Summary-Budget 

Authority ......................................................... 180 

Space Activities Budget ..................................... 181 

E-3 Aeronautics Budget ........................................... 181 

E-2 

F-1 National Space Launch Strategy ...................... 182 

Index ...................................... 185 

Glossary ................................................................... 146 

iii 
Executive Summary 

Note: The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 

directed that the annual Aeronautics and Space Report 

include a “comprehensive description of theprogrammed 

activities and the accomplishments of all agencies of the 

Unitedstates in thefieldofaeronauticsandspaceactivities 

during the preceding calendar year”. nis year’s report 

(like last year’s) has been prepared on a fiscal year basis, 

which is consistent with the budgetperiod now used in 

federal government programs. The Administration will 

seek to work with Congress to amend the National 

Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 accordingly. 

Fiscal Year 1991 was a significant one for US. 

aeronautics and space efforts. It included eight Space 

Shuttle missions and six successful launches by the 

Department of Defense (DOD). The Shuttle missions 

included the first such mission to focus on astrophysics 

and the first dedicated to life sciences research. They also 

included a satellite launched from the Orbiter to study the 

unexplored polar regions of the Sun and another to 

collect astronomical data from gamma ray sources. Still 

another Shuttle mission launched a satellite to study 

global atmospheric change affecting our own planet. In 

related areas, the Department of Commerce (DOC) and 

other Federal agencies have likewise pursued studies of 

such problems as ozone depletion and the greenhouse 

effect. Also here on Earth, many satellites launched in FY 

1991 and earlier provided vital support for the successful 

prosecution of Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm 

to force Iraq to evacuate Kuwait. And in the aeronautical 

arena, efforts have ranged from the further development 

of the National Aero-Space Plane to broad-ranging research and development that will reduce aircraft noise 

and promote the increased safety of flight. In these and 

a great variety of other ways discussed below, the budgets 

for zeronautics and space-distributed among 14 different Federal agencies-have promoted significant advances in the nation’s scientific and technical knowledge 

that promise to improve the quality of life on Earth by 

increasing scientific understanding, expanding the 

economy, improving the environment, and defending 

freedom. 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration 

Space Flight 

In the area of Space Flight, the National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration (NASA) added a new Orbiter 

named Endeavour in May to the three active orbiters 

already in its fleet, and it did so on schedule and within 

budget. During the course of Ey 1991, the Agency 

successfully completed eight Space Shuttle missions. In 

addition to improvements included in the design of 

Endeavour, NASA continued to incorporate modifications 

to the fleet, such as improved brakes and an improved 

auxiliary power unit. Some of the modifications contribute toward an Extended Duration Orbiter with a 16-day 

mission capability. NASA also made significant progress 

in work on an Advanced Solid Rocket Motor. 

In cooperation with its international partners, NASA 

continued to develop and deploy hardware for use on 

Shuttle missions. For example, it made use of Spacelab 

carrier system hardware on the Astro-1 and Space Life 

Sciences-1 (SLS-I) missions. Spacelab is a reusable 

science observatory and laboratory flown in the Shuttle 

payload bay and developed by the European Space 

Agency. Another example of cooperatively developed 

hardware was the Tethered Satellite System (TSS), a 

facility for deploying a satellite connected by a tether to 

the Shuttle for distances up to 62 miles. TSS is a 

cooperative program between NASA and the Italian Space 

Agency, and the system became integrated with the 

Spacelab hardware during 1991. 

Besides Shuttles, NASA also successfully launched 

two Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs) from the West 

Coast in 1991, a National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) polar meteorological satellite on 

a United States Air Force (USAF) provided Atlas-E in May, 

and a USAF radiation-experiment payload on a Scout 

launcher in June. As part of the national policy to use a 

mixed fleet so as to assure access to space, NASA signed 

several contracts during the year for commercial ELV 

support, bringing to 32 the number scheduled for launch 

1 
under such contracts. 

In addition to conducting launches, NASA also 

pursued a variety of advanced program developments 

focused on improving U.S. space launch capabilities. 

One such effort initiated in 1991 is the New Launch 

System, a joint program with DOD. The objective of this 

program is to develop a launch system with reduced 

operating costs and improvements in reliability, responsiveness, and mission performance. 

Work also continued on Space Station Freedom, a 

program to establish a world-class laboratory in low Earth 

orbit that would enable scientists to conduct a variety of 

life-science and materials-science experiments in the 

microgravity environment of space. NASA restructured 

the program during FY 1991 to fit within new 6-year 

budget guidelines provided by Congress. It completed 

the preliminary design review of the program, reducing 

the weight, power, and extravehicular-activity maintenance requirements of the Station, and it implemented the 

recommendations of the Advisory Committee on the 

Future of the U.S. Space Program as they applied to the 

Space Station. Other accomplishments of the program 

during FY 1991 included validating the solar array design 

for the Station, testing a prototype control moment gyro, 

and completion of testing for the Station’s environmental 

control and life support system. 

Finally, NASA continued to work with its international partners on the Space Station project-Europe, 

Canada, and Japan. Early in the fiscal year, the Space 

Station partners concluded an agreement on the design of 

payload racks to allow commonality throughout the 

separate laboratories (of the US., Europe, and Japan) to 

permit easy exchange and operation of research equipment. Also during the year, the four partners rehearsed 

the process of developing 5-year plans for Station operations and use, among other joint and cooperative activities, such as the agreement signed in 1991 with the Italian 

Space Agency for provision of two mini-pressurized 

logistics modules and potential provision of a minilaboratory in exchange for more Italian use of the Space 

Station. 

Space Science and Applications 

NASA continued its activities in the area of Space 

Science and Applications with the launches of the Ulysses, 

the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, and the Upper 

Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), plus the flights of 

the Astro and Space Life Sciences missions, among others. 

The Ulysses mission, launched from the Space Shuttle on 

October 6, 1990, collected scientific data on the previously unexplored polar regions of the Sun. The Compton 

Observatory, deployed into Earth orbit from the Space 

Shuttle Atlantis on April 7, 1991, has excited astronomers 

with the number and surprising nature of the gamma ray 

sources it has detected, including quasars, powerful solar 

flares, supernovae, and many other high-energy pulsing 

sources, during its short lifetime in orbit. 

UARS, launched aboard Space Shuttle Discovery on 

September 12, 1991, was the first mission in a long-term 

international program to study global change-in this 

case, specifically atmospheric chemistry, energy balance, 

and dynamics. As such, the mission underscored NASA‘s 

commitment to uncover the fundamental knowledge of 

our own planet and thereby to improve the quality of life 

for all people on Earth through the Agency’s Mission to 

Planet Earth, of which UARS was the first major flight 

element. 

The Astro-1 observatory flew on Space Shuttle 

Columbia in a nine-day mission during December 1990. 

Equipped with three ultraviolet telescopes and one x-ray 

telescope, it was the first Shuttle mission to study astrophysics. Analogously, SLS-1 was the first Shuttle mission 

dedicated to life sciences research. It revealed new, 

unexpected information, and a number of new techniques and procedures employed on the mission provided a new standard of scientific excellence for space 

research. 

Among other achievements in this area during FY 

1991, the Galileo spacecraft flew by Earth and the Moon 

in December 1990, providing spectacular views of our 

home planet and constituting the first encounter of a 

planetary spacecraft with that home planet. Despite 

aberrations in its primary mirror, during 1991 the Hubble 

Space Telescope continued to produce outstanding scientific results-collecting new evidence on the dynamic 

evolution of stars and making detailed observations of 

Mars, Saturn, Pluto, and Jupiter. Magellan, launched in 

1989, completed its first 243-day mapping cycle of Venus 

on May 15, 1991. The second cycle began immediately, 

and by September 1991 the spacecraft had successfully 

mapped over 90 percent of the planet’s surface. And 

2 
finally, as FY 1991 ended, the Japanese/U.S. Solar-A 

mission that successfully launched on August 30, 1991, 

was making measurements of the Sun throughout the 

current peak of the solar activity cycle. 

These are just some examples of how, as space 

science and applications programs open new vistas of 

knowledge, the possibilities for human exploration and 

habitation of space expand. Pushing the frontiers of 

knowledge and capability contributes to the realization of 

one of mankind’s most compelling aspirations-to explore and understand more of the cosmos. 

will provide the “bench-mark’’ for design data bases for 

spacecraft that will have to be maintained in the low-earth 

orbit environment. In the area of Transportation, the 

program developed an advanced manufacturing process 

that could greatly decrease the time and cost of fabricating 

rocket engine combustion chambers for the Space Shuttle 

Main Engine. And finally, in the Operations thrust enhancements in computer systems improved the quality of 

flight decision making and the cost effectiveness of Space 

Shuttle Mission Control Operations. 

Commercial Programs 

Space Research and Technology 

The mission of the Space Research and Technology 

program is to provide both technology for future space 

missions and a base of research and technology capabilities to serve all national space goals. The program 

consists of two complementary parts: the research and 

technology (R&T) base program and the focused technology programs. Because the focused programs are committed to meeting the needs of the user community, they 

have been structured into five technological thrusts: 

Space Science, Planetary Surface, Space Platforms, Transportation, and Operations. This approach has proved 

most useful in managing the Space R&T program and 

facilitating the transfer of technology to user organizations of NASA and the aerospace community. 

Significant progress was made in 1991 in each of the 

principal thrusts. For example, in Space Science the 

Magellan ground image processing system produced the 

remarkable images of the planet Venus that we have seen 

during the past year. The accomplishments of Space 

Science technology also included the demonstration of a 

diode-pumped, two-micron solid state laser. This laser 

was being researched as a potential candidate for use in 

NASA’s Mission to Planet Earth program to better understand the complex and dynamic natural and man-made 

forces that interact to create weather and climate. In the 

Planetary Surface area, researchers developed and demonstrated a semi-autonomous navigation system for unmanned wheeled planetary rovers and tested the vehicle 

on a 100-meter test course. 

With regard to Space Platforms, results obtained 

from the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), retrieved in January 1990 after five and a half years in space, 

During FY 1991, NASA continued to expand cooperative efforts with U.S. industry to encourage private 

investment in commercial applications of space technology. Technologies of NASA’s Centers for the Commercial 

Development of Space were in the experimental phase 

but showed promise for maturing commercially within 

the next decade. In addition, NASA expanded its partnership with industry by signing new agreements for industrial space research, commercial space transportation, 

and the development of space infrastructure. NASA’s 

Office of Commercial Programs (OCP) has assumed 

responsibility, in cooperation with U.S. industry, for 

managing technological and experimental programs that 

contribute to development of innovative commercial 

communications satellite services. Finally, to gauge 

progress in its Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) 

program, NASA queried 61 of 250 SBIR contractors and 

identified 88 products that had already or soon would 

become commercially available. In short, OCP provided 

a focus for stimulating involvement by the U.S. private 

sector in civil space activities. 

Exploratlon of the Moon and Mars 

During 1991 NASA made significant progress toward developing a strategy for the Space Exploration 

Initiative (SEI), President Bush’s challenge to return to the 

Moon and to explore Mars. An independent panel of 

government, industry, and academic experts presented a 

report outlining four candidate architectural options for 

lunar and Mars exploration that will serve as the foundation for detailed studies and ultimately lead to specific 

missions of exploration. Concurrently, internal studies 

3 
continued to identlfy and address key long-term issues in 

mission design and operations, requisite technology 

development, and life sciences research. These activities 

continued to involve a range of Federal agencies, reflecting the national character of SEI. 

Space Communications 

The Office of Space Communications is responsible 

for meeting requirements critical to NASA’s aeronautics 

and space flight missions. These include: spacecraft 

operations and control centers; flight dynamics and 

trajectory analyses; spacecraft tracking; frequency spectrum management; and applied research and development of new technology. When viewed as a unit, space 

communications activities are one leg of an interdependent triad that is absolutely essential to this nation’s space 

program. Space communications functions, while often 

less visible, are no less vital than the other triad legs-the 

payloads and the space transportation systems that carry 

them to their destinations. Mission success is possible 

only when all triad elements meet their performance 

requirements. 

The Space Communications functions are categorized as the Space Network, the Ground Networks, 

Communications and Data Systems, and Advanced Systems. The Space Network is the most complex, highly 

sophisticated tracking system in the world to date. This 

network provides tracking and communications for Earthorbital and suborbital missions. The Ground Networks 

provide Earth-based tracking and data acquisition capabilities for all NASA planetary and deep space missions 

and many of those in Earth orbit. 

The Communications and Data Systems are the vital 

links between the ground stations and the users. Communications are provided to link remote tracking stations 

with mission control and data processing facilities, and for 

administrative services such as facsimile, teleconferencing, and data sharing for NASA centers and Headquarters. 

The Data Systems provide data processing and mission 

control operations for numerous programs. 

Advanced Systems specialize in research and development efforts focused on technological advances in 

telecommunications, electronic micro-circuitry, and computer sciences. The Advanced Systems efforts are only in 

areas where the needed technology is not being developed by industry or other agencies. 

In 1991, the Space Network experienced its highest 

level of utilization while operating at a proficiency rating 

in excess of 99.8 percent. The increased frequency of 

Space Shuttle flights, the Gamma Ray Observatory, the 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, and the Hubble 

Space Telescope were the major contributors to this 

heavy workload and the beneficiaries of the high proficiency level. The fifth Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

(TDRS-5) was launched aboard STS-43 in August 1991. 

The on-orbit checkout of the spacecraft was highly 

successful and accomplished in record time. The on-orbit 

TDRSS constellation, linked to the ground by the White 

Sands Ground Terminal (WSGT) in New Mexico, provided continuous communications coverage to customers 

for over 85 percent of each orbit. 

Major accomplishments of the Deep Space Network 

(DSN) included navigation, telemetry, and command 

activities for: Magellan’s mapping of Venus’s surface; 

Galileo and its successful encounter with the asteroid 

Gaspara; and Ulysses, the joint NASMESA mission on its 

journey to explore the polar regions of the Sun. 

The Mission Control program successfully provided 

the control and performance analyses of numerous unmanned Earth-orbiting spacecraft. For example, Hubble 

Space Telescope operations were successfully initiated 

through a newly developed mission control and data 

capture facility. 

The Advanced Systems program enabled the realization of improved performance and higher efficiency of 

operations through the introduction of new technology. 

Through the improvements in spaceborne communications equipment and ground receiving facilities, capabilities for reception of data from deep space missions have 

increased by a factor of a trillion over the lifetime of NASA. 

Safety and Mission Quality 

Recognizing the inherent risks and uncertainties 

involved in “frontier” ventures such as space exploration, 

NASA continued to give high priority to operational safety 

and quality. In FY 1991, as the use of statistical or 

quantitative analysis increased, probabilistic risk assessment became an integral part of several program areas. 

4 
Aeronautics Research and Technology 

In implementing its program in aeronautics, NASA 

continued to pursue six key thrusts. The Subsonic 

Transport thrust focused on developing technology that 

would increase the productivity, affordability, and competitiveness of U.S. commercial transport aircraft. The 

focus of the High Speed Transportation thrust is to resolve 

critical environmental issues and establish the technological foundation for economical, high-speed air transportation. Goals in the research program focused on atmospheric effects, airport community noise, sonic boom, 

and enabling propulsion technologies. NASA’s HighPerformance Aircraft research program was structured to 

develop and mature technologies having important military applications. 

The Hypersonics and Transatmospheric research 

program was an integrated, multidisciplinary thrust aimed 

at building fundamental technical understanding of the 

physical phenomena controlling airbreathing hypersonic 

vehicles. Research focused on developing technologies 

required for a new generation of aerospace vehicles, 

including the X-30 National Aero-Space Plane, that would 

be capable of hypersonic cruise in the atmosphere, 

single-stage-to-orbit operations using airbreathing primary propulsion, and horizontal takeoff and landing. 

The Critical Disciplines thrust was pursuing revolutionary advances in the basic sciences necessary for the 

design and operation of next-generation aeronautical 

systems. Finally, in the conduct of aeronautical research 

and technology programs, NASA used a unique complement of high-value experimental wind tunnels, many of 

which were more than 30 years old at the end of FY 1991. 

In its sixth thrust, NASA has embarked on a multi-year 

program of revitalization to modernize and refurbish 

these Critical National Facilities. 

Department of Defense 

During FY 1991, the U.S. Air Force successfully 

launched two Titan IVs, including the first from Vandenberg 

Air Force Base, CA, three Delta IIs, and two Atlas Es. The 

DOD used three NASA Shuttle launches to support its 

programs. Space Transportation System (STS) flight 38 

successfully launched a classified payload; STS-39 carried 

the Air Force Space Test Program 1, P-675, and the 

Infrared Background Signature Survey; and STS-40 successfully deployed Space Life Sciences Laboratory-1. In 

addition, the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency 

(DARPA) conducted the second successful test flight of 

the Pegasus air-launched space booster on July 17, 1991, 

placing seven small Ultra High Frequency (UHF) communications satellites into low-Earth orbit. Further, the Air 

Force and NASA formulated a program called the New 

Launch System during FY 1991 to satisfy the nation’s 

space launch requirements in the next century. Another 

activity of the DOD in the space arena was a vigorous 

research effort to develop the Global Protection Against 

Limited Strike (GPALS) system in five different areas 

including sensor and interceptor technology. 

Among numerous other space-related activities of 

the DOD during FY 1991 were many successful uses of 

satellites to support Operations Desert Shield and Desert 

Storm in the Middle East. Two UHF Multiple Access 

Communications Satellites launched by DARPA in May 

1990 supported the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing in those 

operations from August 1990 through April 1991. The 

Defense Satellite Communications System provided 95 

percent of the inter-theater, long-haul communications 

between the continental U.S. and the Saudi Arabian-Iraqi 

theater and 80 percent of the intra-theater communications in support of ground (tactical) mobile forces engaged in Desert Shield/Desert Storm. The Navstar Global 

Positioning System was also critical to these operations by 

providing a means of navigation in the featureless desert; 

it guided warships, tank columns, artillery rounds, aircraft, and cruise missiles. Critical as well to the successful 

prosecution of the war against Iraq was the Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program, including a third satellite launched in December 1990. Finally, an upgraded 

Defense Support Program, including a new satellite (DSPI) launched in November 1990, was invaluable in detecting Iraqi SCUD missiles and providing warning data to 

allied forces. 

There were also numerous aeronautical activities 

during FY 1991. Among them was further development 

of the National Aero-Space Plane, with the not-yet-fullydesigned X-30 envisioned as a manned aerospace vehicle 

powered by ramjet/supersonic combustion ramjet 

5 
engines to be fueled by liquid or slush hydrogen. Also, 

during the year the B-IB achieved all of its baseline 

requirements except for the defensive avionics suite, and 

the B-2 Advanced Technology Bomber continued its 

flight testing at Edwards Air Force Base, with tests 

exploring over 90 percent of its operational envelope. 

The C-17 airlift aircraft underwent its first flight from Long 

Beach to Edwards AFB, CA, in September 1991 after the 

first test aircraft had completed the assembly process in 

December 1990. 

In other aeronautical developments, the X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator showed the viability of 

forward-swept, aero-elastically tailored, composite wings; 

digital control of a 35 percent statistically unstable aircraft; 

and excellent stability and longitudinal control resulting 

from the synergisms of its integrated technologies. The F15 Short Takeoff and LandingManeuver Technology Demonstrator achieved successful short landings in crosswinds 

and on a wet runway among other accomplishments in FY 

1991. The F-22, previously known as the Advanced Tactical 

Fighter, completed the demonstratiodvalidation part of its 

development in July 1991 and entered the engineering 

manufacturing and development phase in August. On April 

5, 1991, the Army selected Boeinghikorsky as the contract 

team for the new Comanche light helicopter. And the joint 

DARPMNavy effort with Germany to develop the X-31A 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability aircraft achieved numerous milestones in FY 1991, including first flight in October 

and an airworthiness test in January. 

Department of Commerce 

The Department of Commerce (DOC) continued to 

have four components involved in space activities. The 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOM), 

through its National Environmental Satellite, Data, and 

Information Service (NESDIS), was responsible for the 

operational polar-orbiting and geostationary satellites, 

and there will be prototype instruments on NASA’s Earth 

Observing System (EOS) that are expected to be used 

subsequently on NOM’S polar satellites. Concern developed during 1991 about the quality of instruments on the 

follow-on models of the geostationary satellite; therefore, 

contact continued with foreign satellite groups to plan for 

contingencies. Meanwhile, satellite-derived products continued to be used by the nation’s weather and climate 

services both for routine operational forecasting and for 

analysis and forecasting of severe storms and hurricanes. 

FY 1991 brought increased use of satellite information 

from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR), the Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer 

(VISSR), and from GOES (Geostationary Operational 

Environment Satellite)-Tap, a program enabling users to 

acquire high-quality satellite imagery over telephone data 

circuits. 

Coastwatch, the operational program providing 

environmental information alerts to coastal areas, expanded with the initiation of the Coastwatch-Change 

Analysis Program (C-CAP), an information system for 

coastal land cover and habitat change. There were several 

new projects in the Climate and Global Change Program. 

The COSPAS/Satellite Aided Search and Rescue Program 

(SARSAT) and Pan-Pacific Education and Communication 

Experiments by Satellite (PEACESAT) programs-both 

international activities-continued, the latter in concert 

with the National Telecommunications and Information 

Administration (NTIA). 

The Office of Space Commerce (OSC), the 

Department’s newest space-related group, had five main 

responsibilities in FY 1991: coordinating space-related 

issues, representing the Department on the National 

Space Council, acting as industry’s advocate at the Federal 

level, participating in international trade negotiations on 

space, and encouraging the export of U.S. space technology. 

DOC’S National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) maintained its activity on 

international committees and working groups and with 

foreign satellite groups. It continued its part in the World 

Administrative Radio Conference (WARC), completing a 

series of international meetings in preparation for WARC92. NTIA also participated in meetings in preparation for 

the joint meeting of the International Maritime Organization and the International Maritime Satellite Organization. 

Planning and preparation continued for experiments on 

NASA’s Advanced Communications Technology Satellite. 

And NTIA continued to study millimeter wave frequencies for use in Earth-space communications. 

The National Institute of Standards and Technology 

(NIST), formerly the National Bureau of Standards, participated in space-program support that included spectrograph calibration on the Hubble, scientific and technical design on several future NASA satellites, various 

6 
vacuum studies for space application, development of a 

robotics system to build and maintain Space Station 

Freedom, and the development and testing of extreme 

cold-temperature flowmeters. 

In the area of high-performance aerospace materials, NIST was studying the physics and chemistry of 

combustion, performance of heat exchangers, use of 

composite materials, and alloy solidification. In space 

sciences research, several of NIST’s studies in FY 1991 

were astronomical in nature, some were low gravity 

studies, and others were in the areas of plate tectonic 

motion and the Earth’s rotation. NIST’s atmospheric 

sciences research included: studies of ozone and greenhouse effects, various chemical studies including 

chloroflourocarbons, and the development of a computer 

code for calculating quantities of electrons and protons in 

aluminum shieldings of spacecraft. In commercial space 

support, NIST was engaged in the study of methods and 

techniques for micro-gravity application and of crystal 

growth in space as well as participation in government 

and private groups involved in the commercial development of space. 

Department of Energy 

The Department of Energy (DOE) has the mission 

of providing nuclear power sources for NASA space 

missions. Such power units have permitted spectacular 

missions such as the Voyager flyby of Neptune and the 

Apollo scientific work on the lunar surface. In March 

1990, DOE was added to the National Space Council in 

recognition of its over 30 years’ experience in and 

contribution to the nation’s space program. The 

Department’s space efforts have focused on its treaty 

verification mission and on supporting DOD and NASA 

space requirements. This has included research and 

development of space nuclear power and propulsion, 

strategic defense, and space exploration. In addition, 

new roles are emerging in space exploration, global 

climate change, and space technology for the Department 

that will enable DOD, NASA, and the commercial sector 

to capitalize on the scientific and technological capability 

resident in the Department’s national laboratories, such as 

in remote sensing, renewable energy, life sciences, manufacturing and science, and education. To formalize DOE’S 

growing relationships, it has signed memoranda of understanding (MOUs) on space nuclear reactors, space exploration, and space technology. Future MOUs are anticipated as emerging problems become defined. 

The Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) 

program developed and built devices that directly convert 

heat from the radioisotope Plutonium-238 to electric 

power. Progress included the successful launch of the 

RTG-powered Ulysses spacecraft; completion of life testing of the General Purpose Heat Source-RTG qualification 

unit after 54,588 test hours; and various actions intended 

to upgrade and initiate the restart of RTG production 

facilities to meet NASA’s RTG requirements for the Comet 

Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby and Cassini missions. 

The SP-100 Space Reactor program was developing 

a versatile, fully qualified space reactor power system to 

provide electrical power in the range of tens to hundreds 

of kilowatts for future NASA and DOD missions. In FY 

1991 DOE made significant technical progress in the areas 

of thermoelectric cell development for power conversion, 

fuel pin materials, and design of a viable radiation shield. 

The Thermionic Fuel Element Verification program 

was intended to resolve issues enabling thermionic power 

conversion to be a viable technology for future space 

reactor systems. Activities in FY 1991 consisted of lifetime 

testing of components in accelerated and real time 

environments. An additional DOE responsibility was providing sensors to scan for nuclear detonations in Earth’s 

atmosphere and in space. Such sensors, aboard Global 

Positioning System spacecraft and other satellites, are 

used to monitor nations’ compliance with nuclear test 

treaties, to monitor nuclear proliferation, and to meet 

military needs in the event of nuclear war. 

To provide a focus within the Department for space 

policy and inter- and intra-agency coordination of DOE 

space-related activities, the Secretary in May 1991 named 

a Special Assistant for Space and directed the formation 

of an Office of Space in October 1991. These organizational changes will strengthen the Department’s ability to 

support the space research and development needs of the 

civil, national security, and commercial sectors. 

Department of the Interior 

The Department of the Interior used data acquired 

by satellite and aircraft sensors to inventory natural 

resources and monitor changes on lands under its 

7 
management. It also maintained an active program of 

research and technique-development in remote sensing. 

In 1991, the Department continued to archive, process, 

and distribute Landsat and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer satellite data. The National Aerial Photography and Side-Looking Airborne Radar programs 

acquired data over priority U.S. areas. Major landmanagement applications of remote sensing included 

land-use and land-cover mapping, vegetation mapping, 

wetlands mapping and inventory, wildfire mapping and 

monitoring, and irrigated-lands inventory. Hydrologic 

applications included snow-cover mapping and monitoring and modeling of reservoir surface water parameters. 

Oceanographic applications included monitoring of marine mammal migration. Geologic applications included 

multispectral data analysis, underground and surface coal 

mine monitoring, and radar data applications. Planetary 

studies included archiving of data from the Magellan 

mission and study of data from the Galileo encounter of 

the Earth and Moon. Cartographic applications included 

shaded relief mapping, satellite image mapping, and 

studies using the Global Positioning System. Global 

change research included studies of snow and ice; 

monitoring desertification; land-cover characterization; 

and baseline studies for monitoring global change in the 

Arctic. Work continued on development of the Global 

Land Information System to provide access to landrelated, rernotely sensed, and earth-science data; to 

produce and distribute regional, continental, and global 

land data sets; and to support the NASA Earth Observing 

Data and Information System. International programs 

operated in Africa, the Middle East, Latin America, and 

Antarctica. 

Department of Agriculture 

During fiscal year 1991, agencies of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) extended their operational 

use of remotely sensed data from space platforms as a 

source of information for agricultural assessment and 

resource management in such areas as water quality, 

vegetative health, disease and insect infestations, and the 

effects of natural disasters. A broad-based research program, using data from aircraft and space satellites, continued to provide essential background on procedures for 

operational applications. 

Federal Communications Commission 

The Federal Communications Commission granted 

authority to the Communications Satellite Corporation 

(Comsat) to participate in the successful launches of the 

first International Maritime Satellite (INMARSAT) 

Organization’s second generation satellites, the F-1 on 

October 30, 1990, the F-2 on March 8, 1991, and the fourth 

International Telecommunications Satellite (INTELSAT) 

Organization’s VI series satellite, the F-5, on August 14, 

1991. INTELSAT has also contracted with NASA for a 

shared STS mission in April 1992 to rescue the INTELSAT 

VI satellite that failed to achieve geosynchronous orbit. 

Six U.S. domestic satellites launched during FY 1991. 

In March of 1991, the U.S., Bahamas, Costa Rica, the 

Dominican Republic, and Eastern European countries not 

members of INTELSAT agreed at the Board of Governors 

meeting to use the Pan American Satellite-1 (PAS-1) 

satellite for international public switched services comprised of not more than 100 sixty-four kilobit per second 

equivalent circuits. 

On June 28, 1991, the Commission granted the 

Orion Satellite Corporation’s request for final authority to 

construct, launch, and operate two Ku-band international 

satellites. In August 1991, the Commission granted 

conditional authority to Alpha Lyracom, doing business as 

Pan American Satellite, to construct, launch, and operate 

a hybrid satellite (PAS-4). In September 1991, the U.S. and 

the United Kingdom received INTELSAT approval of 

consultation for two satellites to be operated by Columbia 

Communications. 

The Qualcomm Corporation received authorization 

to operate an additional 20,000 mobile-user units (bringing its total number to over 40,000) for its two-way mobile 

data communications network. Canada and the United 

States agreed to permit cross-border roaming of certain 

mobile satellites without regard to normal U.S.-Canada 

border obligations. In September 1991, the Commission 

issued a Notice of Proposed Rulemaking to reallocate 

frequencies in the 137-138 megaherz (MHz), 148-150.5 

MHz, and 399.9-401 MHz bands for a low-Earth orbit 

satellite service. 

8 
Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration 

Within the Department of Transportation (P)OT), 

the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) conducted a 

growing research and development program to support 

its mission of ensuring the safety and efficiency of’ civil 

aviation. The first annual Capital Investment Plan provided a comprehensive blueprint for moderniziq3 the 

national system of air navigation and air traffic control. 

Accomplishments in this complex effort included initial 

deployment of the first element of the Advanced Automation System being developed to attain the greatly upgraded air traffic control capabilities needed for future 

demand. Other examples of progress included Aircraft 

Situation Display system expansion to facilitate nationwide air traffic flow and the New York area approach 

control facility’s achievement of the ability to track 2,800 

aircraft simultaneously. 

The FAA’s actions addressing a wide spectrum of 

safety issues included monitoring deployment of the 

airborne Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System and 

work to increase its capabilities. Among the many other 

safety-related programs were publications of a national 

human factors research plan, aircraft drop tests to obtain 

data on crashworthiness, and experiments on protecting 

aircraft against turbine engine rotor failure. 

The FAA broadened the scope and increased the 

pace of its civil aviation security research program during 

FY 1991. It began construction of a unique new laboratory that will permit investigation of the full range of 

explosives detection technology. Another example of the 

numerous ongoing projects was investigation of structural hardening to improve the ability of aircraft to survive 

inflight explosions. 

The Agency’s effort to increase national airport 

capacity included programs to safely expedite aircraft 

surface movement and to improve the all-weather LLtility 

of parallel and converging runways. The use of data link 

for Pre-Departure Clearance proved a highly successful 

innovation. Efforts to combat weather hazards included 

beginning development of three new services to help 

improve forecasts and alerting. The FAA also continued 

research aimed at realizing the full civil potential of 

rotorcraft and tiltrotors. 

Commercial Space Transportation 

The U.S. commercial space transportation industry 

and the Department of Transportation’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (OCST) have made impressive progress in the three years since the first DOTlicensed U.S. commercial launch took place. A total of 18 

successful U.S. commercial launches have occurred. 

They reflect a growing and diverse industry, including 

international business and foreign government customers, communications satellite and suborbital research 

payloads. According to the latest DOT Commercial 

Launch Manifest, issued in October 1991, at least 32 more 

commercial launches are expected to take place in the 

next few years. 

Other important highlights for the year include 

issuance of operators’ licenses to McDonnell Douglas, 

General Dynamics, and Orbital Sciences Corporation; 

completion of studies on commercial launch infrastructural 

needs; and forecasts for the launch industry. In addition, 

OCST issued final rules pertaining to user fees. Finally, 

OCST continued to monitor developments in the world 

commercial market and advocated U.S. policies to 

strengthen the competitive position of U.S. launch firms 

in the world market. 

Environmental Protection Agency 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

primarily through its Environmental Monitoring Systems 

Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV, with assistance from its 

Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, NC, routinely conducted 

research and provided technical support using remote 

sensing as part of an overall environmental monitoring 

program. The Agency used large-scale aerial photography to develop site characterization data during the 

remedial investigation and feasibility study part of remedial actions under the Comprehensive Environmental 

Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, as well as to 

support site selection and monitoring at hazardous waste 

facilities operated under the Resource Conservation and 

Recovery Act. It developed and used remote sensing 

systems to support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. 

Aerial photography and satellite data also supported a 

9 
broad variety of pollution, global change, pollution 

prevention, compliance, and other ecosystem monitoring 

studies, such as those of critical-habitat areas for wildlife. 

In addition, it was using and developing (with NASA 

support) light detection and ranging systems to monitor 

urban plumes and emissions sources as well as to 

measure ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulates. Finally, 

it was using a geographic information system for data 

integration and analysis in support of many of its programs. 

National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) continued 

to be the principal supporter of academic research in 

ground-based astronomy and atmospheric sciences. Major 

events in the astronomical sciences during FY 1991 

included the use of sensitive new detectors at Kitt Peak 

National Observatory to obtain spatially resolved images 

of quasi-stellar objects. These images revealed new 

features. Astronomers also obtained new results on the 

distribution of galaxies and distances to these galaxies. 

These seemed to indicate a lack of homogeneity in the 

distribution of matter in the universe. At the National 

Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, astronomers identified the first near-Earth metal asteroid, probably originating in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Also, 

new measurements obtained at Kitt Peak National Observatory indicate that the age of the universe may be 12.5 

billion years or less. This estimate differs from calculations of the age of older stars, which indicate that they are 

about 15 billion years old. 

In the upper atmospheric sciences, the Coupling, 

Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions (CEDAR) program sponsored two major campaigns that 

significantly increased our knowledge of both the dynamics and the structure of mesospheric and lower thermospheric regions of the atmosphere-a difficult region to 

observe and thus often nicknamed the “ignorosphere.” 

The Geospace Environment Modeling (GEM) program, 

which concentrates on the magnetosphere, began development of three-dimensional numerical simulations of 

oscillations produced by solar wind perturbations in that 

outer-plasma region of the atmosphere. 

Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution has contributed to national space goals through research conducted at the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, MA, and at the Center for Earth and Planetary 

Studies (CEPS) and the Laboratory for Astrophysics at the 

National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in Washington, 

DC. NASM’s exhibits, lectures, and educational programs 

have also contributed significantly to the public understanding of space research. In addition, SA0 has conducted programs designed to improve pre-college science instruction and has served as the North American 

gateway for SIMBAD, the international astronomical data 

base. In 1991 NASA selected SA0 to operate the data 

archiving and analysis center for the Advanced X-ray 

Astrophysics Facility now planned for launch in 1999. 

NASA has already performed successful tests on the two 

largest mirrors in this unusual x-ray telescope. A highresolution imaging camera built by SA0 for the Roentgen 

Satellite made detailed observations of x-ray objects 

selected from the observatory’s initial all-sky survey. Data 

on hundreds of other cosmic x-ray sources produced 

earlier by the Einstein (High Energy Astronomical Observatory-2) satellite were made available in CD-ROM format 

to all qualified scholars at no cost. Among the many results from the continuing analysis of this Einstein data was 

the discovery of an unusual x-ray arc associated with a 

gravitationally lensed quasar. A rocketborne SAO-IBM 

telescope made high-resolution x-ray images of the Sun’s 

corona on the day of the total solar eclipse. And Hubble 

Space Telescope’s observations of the ring structure 

around Supernova 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud 

made possible the most precise calculation to date of the 

distance to another galaxy. 

Department of State 

The Department of State, through its Bureau of 

Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific 

Affairs, works with NASA on all international and foreignpolicy aspects of American space programs and participates in National Space Council deliberations on major 

policy issues. During 1991, State supported Space Shuttle 

10 
activities by providing a direct link to U.S. embassies in 

countries with emergency landing facilities. It negotiated 

new agreements in this area with The Gambia, Morocco, 

and Spain. 

The Department’s Bureau of International Communications and Information Policy represents U.S. interests 

in the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) and the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). INTELSAT successfully 

launched the remaining two of its five VI-series satellites 

in 1991, one on August 14 and the other on October 29. 

INMARSAT repositioned one of its satellites in October 

1990 to provide increased capacity in its heaviest traffic 

routes over the Atlantic Ocean and to provide seamless 

coverage throughout the globe except in extreme sections of the South and North Poles. And among its other 

activities, in February 1991 INMARSAT awarded a contract to the General Electric Astro Space Division to serve 

as prime contractor for four INMARSAT-3 satellites scheduled fDr launch in 1994-1995; then in the fall of 1991 it 

received bids from five organizations for the launch of 

third-generation satellites, with a decision on the bids 

expected for April 1991. 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

The United States Arms Control and Disarmament 

Agency (ACDA) has played a role in space policy and 

research because of its arms control mandate. During Ey 

1991, ACDA officers were engaged in negotiations with 

representatives of the Soviet Union in the Defense and 

Space Talks in Geneva. The Strategic Arms Reduction 

Treaty was signed in July 1991, and negotiations on 

Defense and Space continued throughout the year. Also, 

during the year ACDA was the lead U.S. agency at 

multilateral discussions on space arms control at the 

Conference on Disarmament in Geneva and at the First 

Committee meetings of the United Nations General Assembly. ACDA is represented at National Space Council 

meetings when arms control issues are discussed. In 

addition, ACDA is a member of the Arms Control Policy 

Coordinating Committee and the Nonproliferation Policy 

Coordinating Committee; the charters of both committees 

include references to arms control issues related to space. 

United States Information Agency 

The United States Information Agency (USIA), using 

a wide variety of media to publicize U.S. activities to 

foreign audiences, was uniquely equipped to tell the 

world about NASA’s progress in space sciences and 

exploration. In FY 1991, USIA’s Voice of America 

provided live coverage of the Space Shuttle launches and 

other coverage of a variety of missions in English and 44 

foreign languages. USIA’s Press Division provided news 

and feature stories on the Shuttle missions and the 

discoveries made by the Magellan spacecraft orbiting 

Venus. The Publications Division distributed five articles 

on the space program to 70 USIA posts overseas, including photographs of Venus from the Magellan spacecraft, 

and several USIA publications in Russian, English, French, 

and Arabic carried articles on U.S. space efforts. Finally, 

in close cooperation with NASA, USIAs Television and 

Film Service used its WORLDNET satellite system to 

deliver extensive information on the space program in a 

variety of formats. Every NASA mission received extensive coverage. During the past fiscal year, WORLDNET 

produced nine programs on space and space-related 

topics for journalists and scientific writers in Europe, Asia, 

Latin America, Africa, and the Pacific Ocean nations. In 

addition, the USIA Newsfile produced over 70 individual 

two- to three-minute clips for placement on overseas 

television networks. The “Science World” series, composed of 15-minute segments, devoted over a dozen 

features to NASA activities, while six teleconferences with 

NASA officials and scientists reached experts in Brazil, 

Mexico, Honduras, and Thailand. 

11 
National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), established in 1958, continued to be responsible 

for planning, conducting, and managing civilian research 

and development activities in aeronautics and space. 

Other Federal agencies, state, local, and foreign 

governments, plus educational institutions and private 

industry, also share in NASA’s programs. 

NASA’s mission continued to reflect the intent of 

Congress in creating the Agency-to explore space for 

peaceful purposes with international cooperation, for the 

benefit of all humankind. Technological advances have 

resulted in significant economic and social benefits for the 

United States and other nations; they remain a significant 

catalyst for national pride, progress, and achievement. 

The continued success of NASA’s programs will allow the 

United States to maintain its leadership in aeronautics and 

space. 

Space Science and Applications 

NASA’s Office of Space Science and Applications 

was responsible for planning, directing, and evaluating 

that part of the overall NASA program that has the goal of 

using the unique characteristics of the space environment 

to conduct a scientific study of the universe, to understand 

how the Earth works as an integrated system, to solve 

practical problems on Earth, and to provide the scientific 

and technological foundation for research that will support expanding the human presence beyond Earth orbit 

into the solar system. Scientific disciplines within the 

Office of Space Science and Applications included astrophysics, solar system exploration, earth science and 

applications, space physics, life sciences, and microgravity 

science and applications. 

Astrophysics 

The 1990s promise to be a “decade of discovery” for 

astronomers and NASA’s Astrophysics program, using 

telescopes in space, in aircraft, and on the ground to 

answer fundamental questions about our universe. The 

NASA Astrophysics program was making unprecedented 

discoveries, exploring questions about the nature of the 

cosmos including: the origin and evolution of the uniThis photo of Jupiter was taken by the wide field planetary 

camera on NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. This picture is 

as sharp as the Voyager pictures taken in 1979. Detailed 

comparison with the Voyager pictures shows that a totally 

different cloud structure has formed over the past l.2 years. 

verse; the laws of physics that govern the universe; and 

the birth of galaxies, stars, planets, and ultimately life 

itself. Research in these areas required observations at 

wavelengths absorbed by Earth’s atmosphere and therefore had to be conducted from space-borne and airborne 

observatories. The Astrophysics program was centered 

around a series of space observatories, supported by a 

research base of instrument developments, suborbital 

research activities, data analyses, and theoretical studies. 

The three great observatories-the Hubble Space 

Telescope (HST) launched in April 1990, the Compton 

Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) launched in April 1991, 

and the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) 

expected to launch in the late 1990s-will provide 

significantly improved sensitivity and resolution over 

their respective regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Definition studies for the Space Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF), the fourth great observatory, continued in 

1991. Meanwhile, smaller spacecraft in the Intermediate12 
and Explorer-class series were being used for exploration, 

all-sky surveys, specific studies, or unique investigations 

that complimented the great observatories. As part of the 

suborbital program, rockets, balloons, and aircraft have 

provided means to make preliminary observations, conduct selected low-cost investigations, test instrumental 

concepts and technologies, and train the next generation 

of scientists and engineers how to develop instruments 

for future space missions. 

Hubble Space Telescope. NASA’s first great observatory, the Hubble Space Telescope, marked its first 

anniversary of successful scientific operations in April 

1991. During 1991, the Hubble Space Telescope continued to produce outstanding scientific results-collecting 

new evidence on the dynamic evolution of stars called 

“Blue Stragglers;” revealing new structure and detail in 

stars, star clusters, and galaxies; and making detailed 

observations of planetary weather patterns and interesting features on Mars, Saturn, Pluto, and Jupiter. Work on 

Hubble’s second-generation instruments, which were 

being designed to correct errors in the telescope’s primary 

mirror and thus end its spherical aberrations, plus preparations for the planned Space Shuttle servicing mission, 

both continued at a vigorous pace during 1991. 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. The second 

of NASA’s great observatories, the Compton Gamma Ray 

Observatory, deployed into Earth orbit from the Space 

Shuttle Adantis on April 7, 1991. The first satellite to 

provide all-sky mapping of the universe at gamma ray 

energies, it was officially renamed the Arthur Holly 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory in honor of the Nobel 

Prize-winning American physicist in September. Since its 

launch, the Compton Observatory has excited gamma ray 

astronomers with the quality of the data that it has 

collected on a variety of gamma ray sources, including 

quasars, powerful solar flares, supernovae, and highenergy pulsing sources. All four of the scientific instruments were performing at or above expectations. The 

Compton Observatory’s comprehensive study of gamma 

ray sources and its discoveries to date have provided 

unprecedented information on the location and nature of 

some of the most mysterious and powerful objects in the 

universe. As an example, the Observatory has revealed 

The second of NASA’s Great Observatories, the Compton 

Gamma Ray Observatory, deployed into Earth orbit from the 

Space Shuttle Atlantis on April 7, 1991. 

a uniform distribution of the sources of gamma ray bursts, 

requiring a total revision of existing theories of this 

enigmatic phenomenon. Another major discovery was 

the detection of extremely intense high energy gamma ray 

emission from the quasar 3C279 that, at the time of its 

observation, was the brightest object in the universe. 

Based on the performance to date, NASA anticipated that 

the Compton Observatory would provide scientists with 

a wealth of unique data and information on celestial 

objects during its projected 2-5 year lifetime. 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility. The 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) will be the 

third of NASA’s four proposed orbiting great observatories. AXAF will complement the observations made by 

the Hubble and Compton Observatories and will study 

stellar structure and evolution, large scale galactic phenomena, active galaxies, quasars and cosmology in the xray part of the electromagnetic spectrum. In 1991, NASA 

successfully completed development of the first and 

largest pair of AXAF’s mirrors. In September 1991, NASA 

achieved a major milestone in the program with the 

successful test and x-ray calibration of the first set of 

AXAF’s six mirror pairs. The capability of AXAF’s mirrors, 

measured in terms of angular resolution, has been proven 

to be 10 times better than those on any other x-ray 

telescope ever flown. Progress was also made with plans 

for AXAF’s Science Support Center to serve both national 

and international scientific communities, with the 
contract selection of the Smithsonian Astrophysics Observatory in Cambridge, MA, to provide this support. AXAF 

was being developed for launch in 1998 aboard the Space 

Shuttle. 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility. The fourth of 

the great observatories, the Space Infrared Telescope 

Facility (SIRTF), will provide an enormous increase in 

capability for infrared astronomy, completing observatory coverage for the four major regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. SIRTF, a cryogenically cooled observatory in high earth orbit, will be capable of detecting 

planets around nearby stars, studying infant solar systems, identifying young and distant galaxies, and extending the cosmic distance scale out to several billion light 

years. Concept and definition studies continued in 1991. 

Once approved, SIRTF will build on the scientific results 

as well as the engineering heritage from the other 

important scientific satellites, including the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE). 

Cosmic Background Explorer. Through observations made by the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 

launched in November 1989, astronomers have mapped 

the distribution of nitrogen throughout our whole galaxy 

for the first time. COBE’s all-sky survey, and additional 

maps of carbon and dust, has provided quantitative 

information that may enable scientists to understand 

better the heating and cooling processes that take place 

throughout the Milky Way. The data to date have shown 

that key building blocks of life-carbon and nitrogen 

atoms-are widespread in our galaxy. The COBE spacecraft continued to return useful scientific data more than 

one year after completion of its primary mission objectives and the first all-sky survey in 1990. 

Stratospheric Obseruatory for Infrared 

Astronomy. The proposed Stratospheric Observatory 

for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA) is a joint study being 

conducted by NASA and the Federal Republic of Germany. In 1991, the space science community endorsed 

SOFIA as an essential investment in the education and 

training of future space scientists. A 2.5-meter-class 

airborne observatory (Le., 2.5 meters in diameter) within 

a modified Boeing 747 aircraft, SOFIA will succeed the 

extremely successful Kuiper Airborne observatory. Once 

One of the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF) 

mirrors being cleaned and inspected prior to packaging and 

shipping. Each container was specifically designed for a 

particular optic. Each mirror was sealed in several layers of 

plastic covering. The packages were purged with nitrogen to 

protect the optical surfaces from atmospheric contamination. 

approved, SOFIA will assure frequent access to space and 

provide up to 200 flights per year for an estimated 65 

science teams. 

Roentgen Satellite. A cooperative flight project 

with the Federal Republic of Germany and the United 

Kingdom, the Roentgen Satellite (ROSAT) successfully 

completed its all-sky survey of the universe in the light of 

x-rays in January 1991. NASA provided the High Resolution Imaging Detector and Delta I1 launch vehicle for the 

mission. In February, the Explorer-class satellite (see 

below) began the pointed phase of its planned observations, with major U.S. participation through the Guest 

Observer program. Data processing for guest observations began in August. During phase two, the science 

program continues with approximately one celestial 

target pointing per day. Nine hundred light years from the 

Sun and beyond the disk of the Milky Way, U.S. astronomers have made a significant early discovery providing 

14 
evidence that hot gas from an ancient supernova may 

form a giant halo around our galaxy. 

Astro-I. The Astro-1 observatory flew on the Space 

Shuttle Columbia during a 9-day mission in December 

1990 to observe some of the most active objects in the 

universe. The mission was the first to use a Shuttle for the 

study of astrophysics. Three ultraviolet telescopes and 

one x-ray telescope mounted on a pallet in the Shuttle 

cargo bay made hundreds of observations. 

Explorer Program The Explorer program was 

designed to provide frequent access to space for smallersized science satellites. with an emphasis on technical 

innovation and scientific exploration, Explorer missions 

have made discoveries that dramatically changed our 

understanding of the near and distant universe. In 1991, 

progress continued in developing the Delta-class Explorer missions, while planning took shape to increase 

the number of flight opportunities by selecting missions 

in the Small Explorer (SMEX, see below) and Middle-class 

Explorer (MIDEX) categories. 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer. In 1991, development continued to support the launch of the Extreme 

Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) in early 1992. ELJVE will 

explore the window in the electromagnetic spectrum 

between ultraviolet radiation and x-rays-the extreme 

ultraviolet. Recent technological and scientific advances 

will enable the EUVE to make observations of distant 

stars, collecting important information about their age, 

temperature, chemical composition, and energy level. 

Once launched, EWE will conduct a 2-phased mission, 

in the first 6 months mapping the entire sky to determine 

the position, brightness and temperature of extreme 

ultraviolet (Em)-emitting objects, then studying individual targets for the remainder of the mission, estimated 

to last at least 12 months. 

X-ray Timing Explorer. The X-ray Timing Explorer (XTE) continued development work in 1991. XTE 

will study cosmic x-ray sources and timing phenomena, 

enabling scientists to investigate physical events under 

extreme conditions around black holes, quasars, and 

highly magnetized neutron stars. XTE was planned for a 

1996 launch on a Delta 11 expendable launch vehicle. 

Small Explorers. The Small Explorer missions 

continued their development in 1991 for launch in the 

early and mid-l990s, including the Solar Anomalous 

Magnetospheric Particle Explorer (SAMPEX), the Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite (SWAS), and the Fast 

Auroral Snapshot Explorer (FAST). SAMPEX will be 

launched on a Scout launch vehicle in 1992 to study solar 

flares. SWAS will make pointed and survey observations 

of dense galactic molecular clouds, looking for water and 

other important molecules in interstellar space. FAST will 

examine the electrodynamic causes of auroral displays. 

Solar System Exploration 

NASA’s Solar System Exploration program conducted research to determine the present nature of the 

solar system, its planets, moons, and primitive bodies 

(asteroids and comets). It also sought to identify and 

locate other planetary systems in various stages of formation, in order to understand how the solar system and its 

objects formed, evolved, and (in at least one case) 

produced environments that could sustain life. The 

program was responsible for comparative planetology, 

studies undertaken to better understand Earth by determining the general processes that govern all planetary 

development and by understanding why the “terrestrial” 

planets of the solar system are so different from each 

other. Other exploration missions have served to establish the scientific and technical data base for undertaking 

major human endeavors in space, including the survey of 

near-Earth resources and the characterization of planetary 

surfaces. 

Spacecraft missions to achieve these objectives used 

an evolutionary approach, beginning with flyby reconnaissance missions. The first-generation missions have 

been succeeded by more complex missions (orbiting 

spacecraft, landing stations, and sample returns) that have 

provided increasingly detailed and specialized information. The spacecraft missions have been supported by an 

essential foundation of ground-based activities, including 

mission operations and data analysis, scientific research 

and analysis, and advanced program studies. 

Pioneer Missions. Pioneer 10 and 11 (as well as 

Pioneer 6, 7, and 8) continued during FY 1991 to collect 

valuable data about the fields, particles, and plasma 

15 
waves of the outer solar system. In flight for nearly 20 

years, Pioneer 10 and 11 remained in working order, with 

most of their scientific instruments continuing to function 

well. They continued to explore the far edges of the solar 

heliosphere, remaining on their journey beyond our solar 

system in opposite directions. Pioneer 10 was expected 

to have enough power to continue operating until late 

2001, while Pioneer 11 was expected to exhaust power in 

late 1995. 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter. After more than a decade 

of operations, the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) continued to collect important scientific data from its orbit 

around Venus. PVO was continuing its studies of the 

chemical and physical processes of Venus’ upper atmosphere, especially its interaction with the solar wind. 

Scientists recently reported that their analysis of PVO data 

indicated that Venus may have lightning similar to that on 

Earth. These scientists analyzed radio signal data obtained from PVO during the period 1979 to 1990. These 

data implied that there is as much or even more lightning 

within the thick, high-cloud layers of the cloud-shrouded 

planet as there is on Earth. The physical properties of the 

solid and liquid particles in the Venusian clouds, as well 

as temperatures and atmospheric pressure, also appear 

similar to those in Earth clouds. PVO is scheduled to 

exhaust its available fuel in late 1992. Before it enters the 

Venusian atmosphere and burns up, the remaining fuel 

will be used to control the orbit’s orientation and altitude 

to maximize the data obtained about the planet’s atmosphere. 

VoyagerMissions. During 1989, Voyager 2 passed 

beyond the orbit of Neptune and became the fourth 

spacecraft to travel beyond the outermost planet (joining 

Voyager 1 and Pioneer 10 and 11). During 1991, scientists 

reported on a study of data taken by the Voyager 1 

spacecraft of Saturn’s largest moon, Titan, during the 

Voyager 1 flyby in 1980. Scientists used these data to 

model the temperature structure and energy balance on 

Titan and discovered the existence of an anti-greenhouse 

effect on a solar system body for the first time. This effect 

was produced by a thick, organic haze in Titan’s upper 

atmosphere that absorbed solar light but transmitted 

reflected infrared radiation. Also evident from the data 

was the existence of a traditional greenhouse effect. This 

study provided the first evidence for a greenhouse and 

This mosaic is a photograph of a portion of Alpha Regio in the 

Lavinia region of Venus as taken by the Magellan spacecraft 

during its first mapping cycle. The terrain shows intense 

folding, faulting, shearing, compression, and extension. It 

appears that the region has undergone many episodes of 

horizontal motion. 

anti-greenhouse effect existing simultaneously, in opposition with each other. This information may help in basic 

studies of the green-house effect here on Earth. Both 

Voyagers were headed at the end of FY 1991 toward the 

outer boundary of the solar system in search of the 

heliopause, the region where the Sun’s influence wanes 

and the beginnings of interstellar space can be sensed. 

The Voyagers will be the first spacecraft to pass through 

this region, which is thought to exist somewhere from 5 

to 14 billion miles from the Sun. The Voyager spacecraft 

have enough electrical power and thruster fuel to operate 

at least until 2017. By that time, Voyager 1 will be 12.4 

billion miles and Voyager 2 will be 10.5 billion miles from 

the Sun, respectively. 

Magellan. Magellan’s mission, since its launch in 

May 1989, has been to completely map the planet’s 

surface features and to explore the surface topography 

and interior structure of Venus through the use of high 

resolution radar mapping, altimetry, microwave radiom16 
below), and the Russian Venera investigations. 

This image of the Earth was obtained by the Galileo spacecraft 

on December 11,1990, when the spacecraft was about 1.3 

million miles from the Earth. South America is near the center 

of the picture, and the white, sunlit continent of Antarctica is 

below. Picturesque weather fronts are visible in the South 

Atlantic, lower right. 

etry, and through the precise measurement of Venus’ 

gravitational field. Magellan completed its first 243-day 

mapping cycle on May 15,1991. The second cycle, to map 

the remainder of the planet and investigate any changes 

since the first cycle, began immediately. By September 

1991, Magellan had successfully mapped over 90 percent 

of the planet’s surface. Data received from the Magellan 

spacecraft revealed geological features unlike anything 

seen on Earth. One area observed was what scientists call 

“crater farms,” a collection of numerous impact craters 

formed when aster-oids collided with the planet, while 

another area was covered by a checkered pattern of 

closely spaced fault lines running at right angles. Most 

intriguing were indications that Venus may still be geologically active, though much less so than Earth. Magellan 

also discovered what is believed to be the largest channel 

in the solar system, measuring over 4,200 miles long. This 

new information will add substantially to our understanding of Venus, building on the information provided by the 

earlier Pioneer Venus Orbiter, Arecibo observations (see 

Galileo. Galileo, the first direct study of the solar 

system’s largest planet, began its 6-year trip to Jupiter on 

October 18, 1989. During its 22-month encounter with 

Jupiter, the Galileo instruments will conduct detailed 

studies of the entire Jovian system, including the planet, 

its ring, and its four major moons: Io, Ganymede, Callisto, 

and Europa. The Galileo spacecraft also will investigate 

the structure and physical dynamics of the planet’s 

magnetosphere. The second planetary mission to be 

launched from the Space Shuttle, Galileo had a trajectory 

toward Jupiter that was designed for three planetary 

gravity-assist swingbys (one of Venus and two of Earth), 

which will provide it with the necessary velocity to reach 

the solar system’s largest planet in late 1995. In December 

1990, the Galileo spacecraft flew by Earth and the Moon, 

providing spectacular views of our home planet. This 

flyby constituted the first encounter of a planetary spacecraft satellite with Earth. Galileo was continuing its 

journey toward Jupiter as the year ended, with an 

encounter with the asteroid Gaspra scheduled for October 1991, to be followed by a second flyby of Earth in late 

1992. 

Ulysses. The Ulysses mission, launched from the 

Space Shuttle with the assist of an inertial upper stage on 

October 6, 1990, is an international cooperative mission 

developed by NASA and the European Space Agency 

(ESA). The Ulysses spacecraft was designed to collect 

scientific data on the previously unexplored polar regions 

of the Sun. Instruments on the spacecraft will be used to 

make detailed measurements of the Sun’s corona, the 

origin and acceleration of the solar wind in space, and the 

composition and acceleration of energetic atoms from the 

Sun in solar flares and violent solar events. To accomplish 

its mission, the spacecraft must leave the ecliptic plane, 

the plane in which the Earth orbits the Sun. At year’s end, 

Ulysses was on its way to Jupiter, where it will use the 

immense gravity of the largest planet in the solar system 

to propel itself out of the ecliptic plane toward the Sun’s 

southern pole. Ulysses will overfly the high southern 

solar latitudes in mid-1994 and the northern latitudes in 

mid-1995. The mission will be completed in late 1995. 

Mars Observer. The Mars Observer (MO) mission 

was being developed for a fall 1992 launch aboard a 

17 
Titan 111 expendable launch vehicle/transfer-orl,it-stage 

combination. Mars Observer is a single spacecraft that 

will be placed in a near-polar orbit around Mars to 

conduct the first long-term U.S. study of Mars as a planet. 

Instruments on the spacecraft will map and study the 

entire surface and atmosphere of Mars for a full martian 

year (687 Earth days). These observations will determine 

the planet’s global chemical and mineral surface coniposition and will provide a thorough exploration of Mars’s 

gravitational field, topography, and magnetic field. MO 

also will study the circulation of Mars’s atmosphere and 

determine the distribution, abundance, and sources of 

dust and volatile materials over a complete seasonal 

cycle. MO will begin its 2-year mapping mission in late 

1993 after insertion into Martian orbit. In addition, Mars 

Observer is being designed to conduct a Mars Balloon 

Relay (MER) experiment in cooperation with the Soviet 

IJnion and France. The MBR antenna system will relay 

data and increase the yield of high-resolution imagery 

ol>tained from lxdloons to be deployed on Mars by the 

Soviet IJnion’s Mars-94 mission, whose two spacecraft 

will arrive at Mars in late 1995. 

CRAF/Cassini. Two missions, the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) and Cassini (a Saturn Orbiter/ 

Titan Prohe), form the CRAF/Cassini Program. CRAF/ 

Cassini will be the first in a series of planetary missions 

whose cotninon objective is to explore primitive bodies 

mcl the outer solar system, with the ultimate goal of 

unclerstanding the origin of our solar system and life itself. 

CRAF has two main objectives: a close flyby of at least one 

large asteroid and a multiyear rendezvous with the shortperiod comet, Kopff. A cooperative international inission, it is scheduled for a 1975 launch alx)ard a Titan IV 

rocket. Cassini will be the second mission to use the 

Mariner Mark I1 spacecraft and is a joint endeavor with the 

European Space Agency. Named in honor of the Italian/ 

French xtronomer who discovered four of Saturn’s 

moons, Cassini will conduct a comprehensive scientific 

investigation ofthe Saturnian system, including the planet’s 

rings, moons, and the fields and particles in its magnetosphere. An ESA-provided prohe, named Huygens, will 

makc in situ measurements of the atmosphere of Titan, 

Saturn’s largest moon, while the orbiter will make close 

flyhys of ;I nutnlxx of the planet’s other satellites. Cassini 

will lxiild on the Galileo and CRAF missions by flying hy 

at least one asteroid and Jupiter en route to Saturn. A 

comparison of data from Galileo and Cassini will attempt 

to determine similarities and differences between the 

Jovian and Saturnian systems. Cassini is scheduled for 

launch in the spring of 1996 aboard a Titan IV expendalAe 

launch vehicle, arriving at Saturn in late 2002. 

Research and Analysis. In 1771, the Research 

and Analysis program continued to support active scientific research in several important disciplines, including 

planetary astronomy, planetary atmospheres, planetary 

materials and geochemistry, and planetary geology and 

geophysics. Most of the efforts in this area were focused 

on university-txiseci research groups and training new 

scientists. These activities supported the Solar System 

Exploration program by developing and maintaining the 

research hse and scientific instrumentation nece 

future missions. These efforts have provided effective 

analysis and long-term use of mission data and have 

generated exciting research results th:it cannot be 01,- 

tained from flight missions alone. 

Advanced Programs. Advanced programs support essential studies for planning future planetary missions. In 1991, progress was made on several mission 

concepts, including work on the Lunar Ohserver mission. 

The Space Science and Applications Advisory Committee 

(SSAAC) recommended several new missions for study 

during its strategic planning workshop held July 27- 

August 2, 177 1. These new missions includecl: ( 1) 

Toward Other Planetary Systems (TOPS), ;I new program 

to use interferometric techniclues to locate planetaiy 

systems around other stars; (2) the Neptune Orliter and 

I’luto Flyby missions, to explore separately the two most 

distant planets within our solar system; (3) Mars Environtnental Survey Mission (MESUK), :I fohwon to Mars 

Obsetver that will consist of a series of small Mars-lander 

spacecraft to study the Martian environment; and, (4) the 

Discovery program, :I series of Explorer-class missions to 

examine issues in planetxy science. 

Space Physics 

Space I’hysics progl-am oljectives incluclect unclerstanding the Sun as 21 star, as an influence on Earth, and 

as the dominant so~rce of energy, plasma, and energetic 

particles in the sol;ir system; understanding the interxtions between the solar wind and solar system Iwclies, 
including Earth and other planets; understanding the 

nature of the heliosphere, in its steady state as well as 

dynamic configuration; and understanding the origin, 

acceleration, and propagation of solar and galactic cosmic 

rays. The health of the space physics discipline depended 

on maintaining a mix of major, moderate, and small 

missions, the suborbital program, a Guest Investigator 

Program, and significant increases supporting research 

and technology. 

Combined Release andRadiation Effects Satellite Program NASA and the Department of Defense 

(DOD) were joint participants in this program to study the 

space environment that surrounds Earth and the effects of 

space radiation on modern satellite electronic systems. 

The Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

(CmS) carried an array of active experiments including 

chemical releases and a complement of sophisticated 

scientific instruments to accomplish these objectives. The 

first chemical release experiment, conducted in September 1990, successfully proved the theory of critical velocity ionization. In 1991, three CRRES chemical release 

campaigns successfully concluded. Two high-altitude 

campaigns in January and February studied the response 

of the space environment to injection of artificial clouds 

of charged particles. The experiments were focused 

specifically on whether it is possible to stimulate auroral 

phenomena artificially. In July and August 1991, a series 

of experiments over the Caribbean investigated the effects of artificial ion clouds on the electric-ally conducting 

ionosphere layers and sought to trace the geometry of 

electric ancl magnetic fields. These three campaigns 

concluded the chemical release experiments planned for 

the CRRES spacecraft. All 24 canisters have been ejected 

and released their chemicals as planned. The spacecraft 

continued, however, to collect data from the DOD 

experiments. 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program. The International Solar-Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) 

program is an effort to draw on the resources of a 

worldwide scientific community to make a concentrated 

and coordinated study of the interactions in the Sun-Earth 

system and to extrapolate this knowledge to the other 

planets and to the universe beyond. The ISTP embraced 

the Global Geospace Science (GGS) program and the 

Collaborative Solar-Terrestrial Science (COSTR) program. 

The GGS program is designed to study geospace as an 

interconnected, interactive system using a fleet of spacecraft, including the NASA Wind and Polar satellites 

scheduled for launch in late 1992 and mid-1993, respectively; the Japanese/NASA Geotail mission scheduled for 

launch in mid-1992; and the Combined Release and 

Radiation Effects Satellite extended mission (see 1989-90 

report). The Wind mission will provide measurements on 

solar wind input into the magnetosphere, and the Polar 

mission will provide measurements of energy input to the 

polar ionosphere. The Geotail mission will characterize 

the energy stored in the Earth’s geotail and mid-magnetosphere region including measurements in the tail plasma 

sheet and measurements of plasma entry and transport in 

the magnetosphere boundary layer. During 1991, the 

instruments for GGS were manufactured and assembled; 

spacecraft development was continuing. Also in 1991, the 

U.S. delivered its portion of the Geotail instruments to the 

Japanese Institute of Space and Aeronautical Sciences for 

integration and test. The ground system for GGS was 

installed in 1991 and work was progressing at year’s end 

for the preparation and installation of software. The 

COSTR program included the Solar and Heliospheric 

Observatory (SOHO) and Cluster missions. This program 

will be a cooperative venture between NASA and the 

European Space Agency. The SOHO mission will take 

remote measurements of the Sun and in situ measurements of the solar wind abundance to characterize the 

structure of the solar interior and the dynamics of coronal 

plasma. The Cluster mission will perform three-dimensional studies of the microphysical properties of different 

plasma states in the Earth’s magnetosphere. In 1991, 

engineers completed the majority of critical design reviews for the SOHO and Cluster instruments, and structural models were delivered. Planning for U.S. operations 

of the SOHO spacecraft continued in 1990 and 1991. 

Orbiting Solar Laboratory. The Orbiting Solar 

Laboratory (OX) will be a free-flying satellite in a nearpolar orbit. The spacecraft will fly in a sun-synchronous 

orbit along the line separating the Earth’s day side from 

its night side with its instruments pointing sunward. OSL 

will carry five major instruments that will observe the Sun 

in visible light, and at ultraviolet, extreme ultraviolet, and 

x-ray wavelengths. The OSL will provide the means with 

which to study the origin and evolution of features 

leading to solar flares and solar variability, which have 

19 
profound effects on Earth’s upper atmosphere. The 

understanding gained from these observations will also 

make an important contribution to our ultimate ability to 

predict the occurrence of energetic solar particle events 

that will pose health hazards to astronauts en route to and 

from or at the Moon and Mars. The OSL, therefore, will 

serve as the first critical step in determining the observations to be made by a network of solar monitoring stations 

that can provide early warning of solar events. Advanced 

Phase B studies of OSL occurred in early 1991. Having 

been brought to maturity by mission studies by the end 

of FY 1991, OSL awaited a new start in the future. 

Solar-A Program. The Japanese/U.S. Solar-A 

mission, successfully launched on August 30, 1991, took 

measurements of the Sun throughout the current peak of 

the solar activity cycle . NASA provided the soft x-ray 

telescope, the most complex of the four instruments 

aboard the Japanese Solar-A spacecraft, subsequently 

renamed Yohkoh (“sunbeam”). The Solar-A mission was 

investigating high-energy phenomena on the Sun through 

x-ray and gamma ray observations. It will make the first 

simultaneous hard and soft x-ray images of solar flares. 

The spacecraft was operating according to plan as the 

year ended, and NASA’s instrument had been activated 

and was returning excellent preliminary scientific data. 

Tethered Satellite System. The Tethered Satellite 

System (TSS), a cooperative program between NASA and 

the Italian Space Agency (ASI), was scheduled for a spring 

1992 launch. NASA was responsible for the TSS deployer 

and systems integration, while Italy was building the 

satellite; both were providing scientific investigations. 

The objectives of the TSS will be to determine and 

understand the electromagnetic interaction between the 

tether/ satellite/Space Shuttle system and the ambient 

space plasma, to investigate and understand the dynamic 

forces acting upon a tethered satellite, and to develop the 

capability for future tether applications on the Space 

Shuttle and Space Station Freedom (see below). On its 

first flight, the satellite will be deployed on a conducting 

tether above the Space Shuttle to a distance of 20 

kilometers (km, approximately 12 miles). During 1991, all 

experiments, the Italian spacecraft, and the TSS deployer 

arrived at Kennedy Space Center for integration. 

Explorer Program. The International Cometary 

Explorer (ICE) and the Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP)-8 continued during FY 1991 to collect scientific information. ICE was collecting data on solar coronal 

mass ejections and IMP-8 was studying solar modulation 

of cosmic rays, solar wind/magnetosphere coupling, 

solar wind dynamics, and magnetospheric dynamics. 

IMP-8 remained critical to the support of deep-space 

missions such as Ulysses, Pioneer, and Voyager and has 

become the primary monitor of solar activity during the 

new maximum period. Dynamics Explorer was officially 

retired by NASA on February 28, 1991. The spacecraft, 

which acquired the first global images of the Aurora, 

performed in space and collected data for nine years. 

Two small Explorers, the 1992 Solar, Anomalous, and 

Magnetospheric Particle Explorer and the 1994 Fast 

Auroral Snapshot Explorer, were in development (see 

above). Spacecraft integration for SAMPEX began in 

1991. The four particle detectors aboard SAMPEX will 

measure electron and ion composition of solar energetic 

particles, anomalous cosmic rays, and galactic cosmic 

rays. Scheduled for launch near solar maximum during 

1992, SAMPEX will be able to observe at least one major 

flare event and several smaller flare events. 

Suborbital Program Scientific experiments in 

space could often be performed inexpensively through 

the use of sounding rockets or balloons, allowing project 

teams to design, build, and fly experiments within a 

period of 1 to 2 years. The quick turnaround time not only 

allowed for major scientific results but also served very 

effectively as a means of training graduate students and 

young scientists and engineers for advanced experimental research. 

NASA can support 30-40 sounding rocket launches 

annually. Fiscal year 1991 was an active year for sounding 

rocket experiments. In November 1990, two sounding 

rockets launched within 20 minutes of each other to 

capture images of the same solar flare. In this highly 

difficult and unusual procedure, soft x-ray images of the 

flare and data showing surprisingly broad ultraviolet 

spectra lines were obtained. In May 1991, a sounding 

rocket carried out a test of technology when it carried aloft 

a telescope using the newly developed, multilayer-coated, 

extreme ultraviolet grating. This telescope obtained 

20 
spectra with an optical efficiency superior to those of 

other telescopes by a factor of six. Also, sounding rocket 

observations were made in conjunction with the total 

solar eclipse on July 11, 1991. Launched at the precise 

time of total eclipse in Hawaii, a telescope developed by 

the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and IBM 

obtained soft x-ray images of coronal structures against 

the bright disk of the Sun. These images provide a unique 

comparison for the visible light images of the corona off 

the limb of the Sun obtained by ground observations. 

NASA continued to maintain the capacity to launch 

40-50 scientific balloons annually. In December 1990, a 

long-duration balloon flight successfully occurred in 

Antarctica. The 9-day flight with high energy particle and 

photon sensors was the longest balloon flight sustained at 

an altitude of over 120,000 feet. This significant new 

capability in the scientific balloon program was the 

product of a joint NASNNational Science Foundation 

effort. 

Advanced Studies. During 1991, NASA conducted 

intense preliminary definition studies for a number of 

smaller, low-cost missions. Activities were especially 

intense for the Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere 

Energetics and Dynamics (TIMED) mission, which will 

carry the first comprehensive space borne investigation of 

the physical and chemical processes acting in the terrestrial mesosphere and lower thermosphere/ionosphere. A 

TIMED Science Definition Team began operations in 

December 1990, and planning continued in 1991, preparing TIMED for a possible FY 1994 new start. In 1991, 

definition studies began for a number of missions, including the High-Energy Solar Physics (HESP) mission, which 

will study solar high-energy astrophysics and solar flares; 

the Grand Tour Cluster mission, which will provide the 

first comprehensive study of the micro- and mesoscale 

processes of the magnetosphere; and, the Inner Magnetosphere Imager (IMI) mission, which will obtain the first 

global images of the Earth’s magnetosphere and component regions. 

Earth Science and Applications 

The Earth Science and Applications program conducted broad, space-based scientific studies of the Earth 

system. It sought to understand its component parts and 

their interactions, how they functioned, and how they 

may be expected to change over time. Almost all of 

NASA’s Earth Science and Applications program continued to contribute to the Mission to Planet Earth 

initiative. This initiative is the NASA contribution to the 

US. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), coordinated by the Committee on Earth and Environmental 

Sciences through the Office of Science and Technology 

Policy. The programs of Mission to Planet Earth are 

planned and coordinated to contribute to the scientific 

objectives outlined by the USGCRP. Mission to Planet 

Earth includes near-term flight missions, the Earth Probes 

program, in situ and aircraft observations, research and 

analysis programs, a comprehensive data system, interdisciplinary science and modeling efforts, an education 

program, and the Earth Observing System (EOS). These 

continued to involve not only NASA efforts but extensive 

cooperation and coordination with scientific and governmental organizations from around the world. 

Earth Observing System (EOS). The Earth Observing System was designed to make comprehensive, 

long-term measurements of various aspects of the Earth 

system. EOS is a critical element of the Mission to Planet 

Earth program. The EOS program was included in the FY 

1991 budget as a new start. In January 1991,ll instrument 

investigations that will monitor the Earth’s surface, radiation budget, and atmospheric properties were confirmed 

for flight on the first EOS-A series spacecraft. At the same 

time, NASA also confirmed the 29 EOS interdisciplinary 

investigations that are criti-cal to the science objectives of 

the program. NASA decided to delay the confirmation of 

EOS-B instruments until late 1992 to conduct a review of 

potential spacecraft configurations that would satisfy the 

EOS-B series science requirements. After evaluating the 

science requirements for the EOS-B series, NASA issued 

a Request for Information (RFI) to industry in late May 

1991, soliciting alternative concepts and approaches to 

the implementation of the EOS-B series. 

There was significant progress on the EOS Data and 

Information System (EOSDIS) during FY 1991. The first 

major EOSDIS development product will be the Version 

0, a prototype system that connects a set of distributed 

21 
users of science to specific existing data systems and 

selected data sets to test system design and inte-gration, 

and to enable early research efforts in support of the 

USGCRP. Meetings during the year sought to develop 

and adopt the approach to be taken to implement Version 

0. The Version 0 development process that was under 

way supported on-line capability by 1994. NASA released 

an RFI on EOSDIS in October 1990 that produced a large 

number of comments and suggestions. After incorporating these comments, NASA released a Request for Proposal (RFP) for the EOSDIS Core System (ECS) contract in 

July 1991. A contract award was expected in late 1992. 

This award date supports an operational core system by 

The EOS Science program provides support for 

interdisciplinary investigations, algorithm development 

for facility and principal investigator instruments, and 

coordination with field campaigns necessary for validation and refinement of algorithms. The EOS Investigator 

Working Group, which provides guidance and advice 

concerning all major scientific issues relevant to the 

mission, met twice during FY 1991. In June 1991, it 

selected an additional 61 students to receive global 

change fellowships through a program designed to encourage the next generation of global change researchers. 

International cooperation continued through meetings of the Earth Observations International Coordination 

Working Group (EO-ICWG) and its subgroups. The EOICWG was coordinating the payload planning for polar 

spacecraft from NASA, European Space Agency, and the 

Japanese Space Agency (NASDA), as well as addressing 

other elements of mission planning. 

In 1991, due to budgetary constraints, emerging 

launch vehicle options, and other factors, NASA reevaluated its planning for the EOS program. NASA asked the 

IWG to prioritize the EOS science objectives and to study 

how required measurements could be acquired using 

various spacecraft types and sizes. The reconfiguration 

process was scheduled to be completed for inclusion in 

the President’s FY 1993 budget submission. 

In late September 1991, the EOS Engineering Review Advisory Committee released its report concerning 

the implementation of the EOS program. The Committee 

considered the most critical issues facing the EOS program, including budget, scientific priorities, sensor capabilities, and spacecraft and launch vehicle options. The 

1996-97. 

Committee encouraged NASA to proceed with EOS using 

smaller spacecraft, to foster greater cooperation with 

other agencies, and to conduct an additional review of its 

implementation planning for the EOSDIS core system. 

Ozone Observations, Research and Assessments. During FY 1991, NASA continued its broad 

program aimed at improved understanding of the nature 

of ozone dep1e:ion and the ozone layer. A Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SBW) instrument flew on the Shuttle 

in October 1990 and August 1991 to gather on orbit data 

needed to calibrate direct ozone measurements by the 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS, see below) 

and other NASA and National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) satellite instruments. NASA researchers confirmed that the ozone hole over Antarctica 

was as severe in 1990 as in previous years. In addition, 

researchers at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) 

reprocessed nearly 12 years of measurements of total 

column ozone from the TOMS instrument aboard the 

Nimbus-7 satellite. These indicated that the ozone 

depletion over the northern mid-latitudes-including the 

United States-was approximately twice as severe as 

originally reported based on uncorrected data. NASA 

scientists will also be making substantial contributions in 

updating the Scientific Assessment of Stratospheric Or0 ne 

prepared under the auspices of the United Nations 

Environment Program (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). All three assessments will 

be completed and distributed to the participating govemments by January 1992,6 months in advance of the review 

of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the 

Ozone Layer. (See also coverage below.) 

Climate Research. NASA researchers participated 

in the global research effort to study and understand the 

global consequences of the oil well fires that resulted from 

Iraqi actions during the war in the Persian Gulf. In 

addition, NASA researchers using aircraft and satellite 

data began studying the global effects of the eruption of 

the Mount Pinatubo volcano in the Philippines in June 

1991. 

UpperAtmosphere Research Satellite. The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was the first 

mission in the long-term international program to study 

22 
The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was 

photographed by the Discovery astronauts as the solar array 

deployed with the satellite attached to the manipulator arm. 

UARS represents the same advance in the environmental 

monitoring of Earth as does the Arthur Holly Compton 

Observatory for astrophysics. 

global change. UARS, launched September 12, 1991, 

aboard Space Shuttle Discovery, was designed to study 

atmospheric chemistry, energy balance and dynamics. 

UARS will help establish the comprehensive data base 

needed to understand the depletion of stratospheric 

ozone, a component of the atmosphere critical to protecting life from harmful ultra-violet radiation. It will also 

assist our understanding of the effects of human activity 

on the atmosphere and lay the foundation for a broader 

study of the upper atmosphere’s influence on climate and 

climatic variations. UARS included 10 instruments, all of 

which were operational. Several of these are precursors 

to instruments for the Earth Observing System. 

TOPEX/POSEIDON. TOPEWPOSEIDON will be a 

joint U.S. (NASA) and French (CNES) mission to study 

global ocean circulation. Ocean circulation has a direct 

impact on regional climates. It also plays a key role in 

global climate through the absorption of carbon dioxide, 

an atmospheric constituent that contributes to global 

warming. The mission is comprised of highly accurate 

radar altimeters on a precisely tracked satellite that will 

observe sea-surface topography. The data will enable the 

study and more accurate modeling of oceanic circulation 

and heat transport, and its interaction with the atmosphere. TOPEWPOSEIDON is a precursor to the altimetry 

instruments that will be included in the Earth Observing 

System. In 1991, the TOPEWPOSEIDON instruments 

were delivered, and the development of the spacecraft 

neared completion. Delivery of the fully integrated 

satellite for launch is expected in the spring of 1992. 

TOPEWPOSEIDON will be launched from the Kourou 

launch site in French Guiana on an Ariane IV unmanned 

launch vehicle. 

Earth Probes. A New Start in FY 1991, the Earth 

Probes program consisted of a series of small- and 

moderate-sized missions that will address highly focused 

problems in Earth science. Earth probes will provide a 

pre-EOS start/continuation of long-term data sets and will 

capture measurements that are not possible with EOS or 

other instrument suites. Each instrument has a specific 

purpose, providing critical measurements of a particular 

phenomenon but requiring a unique orbit or configuration not available from other EOS precursor missions. 

Earth Probes were composed of the Total Ozone Mapping 

Spectrometer, the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT), and the 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM). 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer. The Total 

Ozone Mapping Spectrometer instrument has measured 

total ozone concentrations. The TOMS instrument flown 

on Nimbus 7 has provided continuous data on changes in 

global ozone since 1978. This data was instrumental in 

discovering the ozone hole over the Antarctic. TOMS also 

provided data on lower stratospherehropopause dynamics. In August 1991, a TOMS instrument flew aboard a 

Soviet Meteor-3 unmanned launch vehicle. The instrument was operating nominally. TOMS instruments were 

also scheduled to fly in 1993 aboard a U.S. small expendable launch vehicle, and in 1995 on the Japanese Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (ADEOS), both as part of 

the Earth Probes program. Contractors were selected in 

1990 for the instruments, in 1991 for the spacecraft, and 

development began before the year ended. 

NASA Scatterometer. The NASA Scatterometer is 

an instrument that will measure ocean surface wind 

velocity and provide data on air-sea interactions. NSCAT 

23 
will be part of the Japanese Advanced Earth Observing 

Satellite payload, scheduled to be launched on an H-I1 

launch vehicle in 1995. In 1991, development of NSCAT 

hardware continued. The Preliminary Design Review for 

the overall AIIEOS mission occurred in Japan in Septem1x3. 1991. 

TropicalRainfaUMeasuringMission The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission will measure diurnal 

variation of precip-tation and evaporation in the tropics, 

providing insight as to how sulxtantial rainfall affects 

glolxil climatic patterns. TRMM is a joint venture with 

Japan and will lie launched on the H-I1 launch vehicle in 

the late 1990s. In 1991, l’hase H definition studies for 

’TIIMM ended, and design and development Ixgan. 

Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor. The Sea-Viewingwide Field Sensor (SeaWIFS) is an instrument that will 

:iccluire high cludity global ocean color measurements. 

This information is important to understanding biogeochemical processes, climate change and oceanography. I’lanned ;IS a precursor to the Earth Olxw-ving 

System, SeaWIFS will serve as a follow-on to the Coastal 

Zone Color Scanner that flew aboard Nimbus-7 in 1978. 

SeaWIFS is being developed commercially, with a contract in place for the provision to NASA of data. ‘The 

owner of the satellite will lxiild and operate the instrument and retain rights to sell the data to other clients. 

SeaWIFS data may be of particular commercial interest 

I>ec:i~ise it can be ~ised to pinpoint the locations of large 

concentrations of fish that feed on observable phytoplankton. Development of SeaWIFS began in Ma); 

1991. It is expected to he launched in the summer of 1993. 

Operational Meteorological Satellites. NASA 

supported the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration’s operational geostationary and polar 

weather satellite program, managing satellite procurement and arranging for launch and on orbit checkout. 

I Jnder this arrangement, NASA then turned the satellites 

over to NOAA for operation. NOM-D, replacement for 

the NOAA-IO polar orhiting satellite in operation since 

September 1986, launched in May 1991, NOAA-I, replacement for NOAA-11, underwent final testing during FY 

1991. NOM-I will he ready for launch as early as 

Felmiary 1992 and will Ix flown as it is needed. Since the 

Failure of the Geostationaiy Operational Environmental 

Satellite (GOES)-6 in January 1989, the tracking of severe 

storms near the llnited States has been pi-ovicled hy a 

single satellite, GOES-7 (launched in February 1987). 

GOES-I, the next satellite in the series, is planned for 

launch in 1993. During 1991, development of the GOESI instruments continued, and the GOES-I spacecraft 

development reached completion. Both the instruments 

and the completed spacecraft lxgan themial vxumi 

testing. Integration and subsequent testing of the GOESI satellite is expected to begin in early 1992. (See the 

coverage I~elow under NOAA.) 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition II. 

The 1991-1992 Airlmrne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 

(USE 11) involved an extended aircraft campaign designed to investigate the Arctic polar stratosphere over the 

complete annual lifetime of the northern heniisphere 

polar vortex. This is a period in early winter when polar 

stratospheric chick are most likely to form. The AASE 11 

consists of five or six 2-week data-gathering phases 

planned to take place between Octolxr 1991 and April 

1992. It expected to employ the NASA ER-2 research 

aircraft and the NASA DC-8 “flying laboratory.” AASE I1 

was king staged from Fait-banks, AK, during Octolxr 

1991, with the base of operations shifting to Hangor, ME, 

for the remainder of the mission (ending April 1992). 

Life Sciences 

Basic research in life sciences wx predicated upon 

the goals of ensuring the health, well-heing, and productivity of humans in space; developing an understanding 

of the effects of gravity upon living systems; expanding 

the understanding of origin, evolution, and distribution of 

life in the universe; and promoting the application of 

research in life sciences to improve the quality of life on 

Earth. The program encompassed Ixisic mcl applied 

research, plus clinical practice. The core spxe life 

sciences program comprised ongoing programs, enhancements to the research Ixise, sm:ill and moderate 

missions, and Space Station Freedom iise and support. 

Space Life Sciences-I. Space Life Sciences I,at,oratory (SLS)-1, the first Space Shuttle mission dedicated to 

life sciences research, launched on June 5, 1991, for a 9- 

24 
day mission. While previous flight investigations have 

characterized gross physiological changes in space, research on SLS-1 was primarily devoted to understanding 

the underlying biological processes and mechanisms of 

adaptation to microgravity and readaptation to Earth’s 

gravity. The Shuttle crew conducted 18 primary investigations, along with a greater number of secondary 

investigations, on themselves as well as upon rodents and 

jellyfish. Preliminary results from the SLS-1 investigations 

indicated that the experiments not only achieved their 

objectives but revealed new, unexpected information. 

Operationally, as well as scientifically, the mission 

was an outstanding success. SLS-1 provided more life 

sciences data than any previous mission. The crew 

employed a number of new techniques and procedures, 

including tracers for measuring fluid volumes, state-ofthe-art automated cardiopulmonary tests, and many measurements that were never before made in flight, establishing a new standard of scientific excellence for space 

life sciences research. 

Several of the more dramatic findings included: (1) 

evidence that the body begins to adapt to microgravity 

earlier than expected and that the nervous and endocrine 

systems play a significant role in regulating that adaptation; (2) new insights into the ways in which the circulatory and renal systems participate in reducing the fluid 

content of the body in space, which will cause a refinement of ground-based models; and (3) the puzzling 

finding, resulting from an assessment of pulmonary functions, that regional differences in the lung ventilation and 

blood flow, previously thought to be a gravity effect, still 

exists in weightlessness. 

Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program. 

The Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program (EDOMP) 

was designed to develop medical countermeasures to the 

effects of microgravity and other features of life in orbit for 

Space Shuttle missions of 10 days and longer. The 

EDOMP has two phases: extension of missions to 13 days, 

and then to 16 days. The main areas to be investigated 

are the capability of the crew for a safe landing, unaided 

and timely egress, and a safe spacecraft environment. The 

knowledge acquired will feed into the overall data base 

to support more advanced missions on Space Station 

Freedom. The first extended duration (13-day) Shuttle 

flight was planned for the United States Microgravity 

Laboratory mission scheduled for mid-1992. 

Space Physiology and Countermeasures. The 

Space Physiology and Countermeasures program was 

responsible for studying the physiological changes and 

deconditioning resulting from space flight and for developing predictive models, methods, and countermeasures. 

The experimental results from SLS-1 have advanced our 

knowledge about the effects of space flight on humans. 

In 1991, NASA and other agencies developed plans for all 

biomedical disciplines included in the program. Meanwhile, the Fourth Meeting of the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Joint 

Working Group on Space Biology and Medicine had 

occurred in September 1990, and NASA was participating 

in the Interagency “Decade of the Brain” program. A 

workshop on the musculoskeletal effects of space flight 

was held jointly by NASA and the National Institute of 

Musculoskeletal and Skin Disease in October 1990. NASA 

selected the University of Rochester as its Specialized 

Center of Research and Training (N-SCORT) for Environmental Health. The Radiation Health program sponsored 

a workshop in 1991 that explored new directions in 

radiation health research. NASA plans to establish an NSCORT for Radiation Health in 1992. 

Centrifuge Facility. During 1991 NASA completed Phase B studies for the Centrifuge Facility to be 

used on Space Station Freedom. The Centrifuge was 

expected to be the single most important research facility 

for space life sciences. This facility will provide controlled 

levels of artificial gravity (between 0 and 2 gs) for 

experiments using plant and animal subjects. Engineers 

were designing it to separate the effects of weightlessness 

from other environmental factors. The Phase C/D Request for Proposals is expected to be released in AprilJune 1992, with the contract to be awarded in November 

1992-January 1993. A memorandum of understanding 

between NASA and the Italian Space Agency is expected 

to be signed in October 1991. It would allow AS1 to build 

a minilab to house the Centrifuge Facility on Space Station 

Freedom. If an agreement cannot be reached, the 

Centrifuge Facility will be housed in a node of the Space 

Station. 

Cosmos. Cosmos is a joint US.-U.S.S.R. program 

including US. investigators who have conducted life 

25 
sciences investigations aboard unmanned Soviet biological satellite missions. Since the biosatellite program 

began over 15 years ago, the U.S. has participated on 

seven missions and flown experiments involving plants, 

insects, rodents, fish, and rhesus monkeys. Life sciences 

participated in the Cosmos Biosatellite Symposium (August 1991) in Leningrad, which reviewed all the results 

from the Cosmos missions to date. Negotiations were 

under way at the end of FY 1991 for a mission in late 1992. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems. 

The goal of the Controlled Ecological Life Support System 

(CELSS) program is to design and construct a biologicallybased, regenerative support system that could reduce the 

need for costly resupply from the Earth. Experiments 

accommodated by the CELSS Test Facility on Space 

Station Freedom are expected to permit the systematic 

development of the capability to control, monitor, and 

evaluate the growth of crops in a closed system in space. 

A laboratory version of a “salad machine” for the provision of fresh vegetables on Space Station Freedom has 

operated successfully on Earth. The effects of lighting and 

temperature on crop growth were being investigated in a 

Crop Growth Research Chamber, while the CELSS Breadboard Project continued to investigate the effect of fullscale simulation of conditions in space on different plant 

crop yields. 

Operational Medicine. The Operational Medicine Program provided for medical care and support for 

Space Shuttle crews before, during, and after space flight. 

Follow-up exams and longitudinal studies were part of 

the ongoing program in health maintenance. The primary 

goals of the program were to identify and anticipate 

potential health problems, develop preventive and therapeutic procedures, and establish research priorities to 

address biomedical challenges. Other areas of activity 

included the development of medical standards for astronaut selection and retention and the definition of requirements for advanced health care systems, protocols, and 

procedures for long-duration space missions. 

Telemedicine Spacebridge. The initial goal of the 

Telemedicine Spacebridge was to provide expert medical 

consultation, in real time, to the medical personnel of 

Armenia and Ufa, in the U.S.S.R., to help them address two 

major disasters-an earthquake in 1988 and a gas explosion in 1989. The Spacebridge became the first example 

in history of the use of a system of satellite communications in support of systematic, long-term, multidisciplinary 

collaboration between the medical personnel of two 

nations. Both the U.S. and U.S.S.R. have reaffirmed their 

common interest in developing an experimental 

telemedicine program both within the framework of the 

bilateral agreen-,ent on space and for the good of the 

international medical community, especially in the areas 

of manned space flight and disaster relief. Both countries 

have agreed to further explore the financial and technological requirements for reestablishing a telemedicine 

capability between American and Soviet medical institutions. 

Space Biology. The Space Biology program is 

aimed at understanding the effects of gravity on plants 

and animals at the most fundamental levels and providing 

basic knowledge of biological processes through experimentation in microgravity. An active flight experimental 

program continued with a study of circadian rhythms in 

space in the fungus Neurospora, conducted on STS-32 in 

1990, and an experiment investigating muscle metabolism in rats on STS-48 in September 1991. Space Biology 

experiments in the neuroscience, musculoskeletal, and 

cell biology areas were key parts of the highly successful 

SLS-1 investigations performed in the summer of 1991. 

Flight experiments will continue with studies in plant 

phototropism and gravitropism, plant and bone cell 

culture, and plant reproduction scheduled for flight in 

1992. 

Exobiology. Current research in the Exobiology 

Program has addressed the hypothesis that life is a natural 

consequence of the origin and evolution of stars and 

planets. The Gas-Grain Simulation Facility (GGSF) will 

accommodate experiments in exobiology on Space Station Freedom. Several ground-based studies have been 

selected and will begin in 1992; these will lead to the 

development of the GGSF. The Search for Extra-terrestrial 

Intelligence (SETI) Microwave Observing Project, a 10- 

year program to probe our galaxy for radio signals of possible extraterrestrial origin, is scheduled to begin operation with prototype systems in 1992. A primary activity for 

this project in 1992 will be to continue building and testing 

26 
the operational systems in preparation for their later 

deployment. 

Biospheric Research Program This program 

used ground- and space-based studies to understand how 

biological processes and planetary properties affect one 

another and how human activities affect this interaction. 

Research emphasis during 1991 was on biogeochemical 

cycling, particularly the global production of greenhouse 

gases from biological sources in wetlands, temperate and 

tropical forests. In the temperate forest research project, 

investigators were studying experimentally controlled 

burns to quantify greenhouse gas and particulate production. The Global Monitoring Disease Prediction Project 

sought to identify potential sites of malarial outbreaks and 

to develop a model, using remote sensing, that will 

establish the links between the presence of malariabearing mosquitos and certain environmental conditions. 

Microgravity Science and Applications 

During the past year, the Microgravity Science and 

Applications program has experienced an exciting period 

of intense experimental activity looking forward to, and 

preparing for, three focused microgravity science missions during 1992. The program has used the unique 

attributes of the space environment to conduct research 

in three primary areas: fundamental science, materials 

science, and biotechnology. In space, the absence of 

gravity-induced phenomena, such as buoyancy-driven 

convection, sedimentation, and hydrostatic pressure, provides a unique opportunity to study many physical 

processes and materials. Involved disciplines include 

fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, combustion, 

materials science, and biotechnology. In 1990 and 1991, 

the microgravity payloads flown on Space Shuttle flights 

focused on protein crystal growth and combustion experiments. In addition, work continued on the development of experiments and hardware to be flown on 

upcoming 1992 Spacelab flights, such as the International 

Microgravity Laboratory, the United States Microgravity 

Laboratory, and the United States Microgravity Payload. 

Protein Crystal Growth. The Protein Crystal 

Growth (PCG) Facility flew aboard Space Shuttle missions 

STS-37, STS-43, and STS-48 in 1991 (see below). Results 

of the experiments will help refine methods for growing 

high-quality crystals in micro-gravity and will help define 

the commercial potential for this process. Protein crystals 

grown in microgravity are often larger and more defectfree than crystals grown on Earth. Protein crystals are 

used to determine the three-dimensional molecular structure of proteins through the use of x-ray diffraction 

analysis. Determination of protein structures is an area of 

tremendous scientific and commercial importance. 

Combustion Experiment. It is also extremely 

important to understand how a flame spreads in 

microgravity, especially because of the importance of firesafety in the spacecraft. However, notwithstanding the 

issue of fire-safety, many of the complex physical and 

chemical processes of combustion can be more readily 

understood in the absence of buoyancy and particle 

settling, such as the processes of radiation and diffusion. 

The Solid Surface Combustion Experiment, which measured the rate of a flame spreading in thin paper samples, 

flew successfully on STS-41 in October 1990; STS-40 in 

June 1991; and STS-43 in August 1991. The experiment 

will fly several more times with paper samples and with 

thicker slabs of Plexiglas to explore the influence of 

ambient atmospheric pressure. 

Ground-Based Research. Ground-based research 

facilities, such as drop towers and aircraft, play an 

important role in microgravity-science investigations. 

Extensive testing occurs in these facilities before committing to costly experimentation. In 1991, numerous 

investigations in fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, combustion, and materials science took place at the 

Lewis Research Center. Studies at the Marshall Space 

Flight Center focused on materials science and containerless 

processing. These facilities allow wider access to 

microgravity by the research community, including handson student involvement in microgravity research. 

Space Flight Facility Development. In 1991, 

NASA continued to support the development of over 30 

experiments flown on the Shuttle. The hardware being 

developed included both investigator-specific and 

multiuser apparati. Several of the multiuser facilities were 

precursors to the six facilities that are planned for Space 

Station Freedom. These include the Space Station Fur27 
nace Facility, the Modular Containerless Processing Facility, the Advanced Protein Crystal Growth Facility, and the 

Fluid Physics/Dynamics Facility. This is an evolutionary 

approach to Space Station use that will allow NASA to 

benefit from on orbit experience gained on Shuttle flights. 

Flight Sys terns 

The flight systems program managed Spacelab 

missions and plans for scientific use of Space Station 

Freedom. 

Spacelab Flight Program During FY 1991, two 

Spacelab missions flew on the Shuttle-Astro-l and Space 

Life Sciences-1 (see above)-and extensive preparations 

occurred for several other Spacelab flights scheduled for 

EY 1992. In early 1992, more than 200 scientists from 13 

countries will collaborate with NASA on the first International Microgravity Laboratory (IML), which will carry life 

and microgravity sciences payloads to study how life 

forms adapt to weightlessness and how materials behave 

when processed in space. Preparations were also under 

way at year’s end for the Atmospheric Laboratory for 

Applications and Science (ATLAS) missions, the first of 

which will fly in the spring of 1992. The ATLAS missions 

will measure, over the 1 1-year solar cycle, the long-term 

changes in the total energy radiated by the Sun, the 

variability in the solar spectrum, the effect of the Sun’s 

radiation on Earth’s upper atmosphere, and the global 

distribution of key molecular species in the middle 

atmosphere. Using 11 instruments, scientists will conduct 

12 investigations in atmospheric science, solar physics, 

space plasma physics, and astronomy. 

The U.S. Microgravity Laboratory (USML), the first in 

a series of missions dedicated to microgravity research, 

was a pressurized Spacelab module scheduled to fly in 

1992. It will be followed soon after by the U.S. Microgravity 

Payload (USMP), which will consist of pallet-mounted 

instruments. Preparations were also in work for a joint 

microgravity mission with Japan, known as Spacelab J, 

scheduled for late FY 1992. 

Space Station Activities. During 1991 NASA 

conducted accommodations analyses and Phase A concept studies for numerous experiment facilities planned 

for Space Station Freedom. (See above for coverage of 

Phase B definition studies for a Life Sciences Centrifuge 

Facility.) The feasibility and costs required to divert 

payloads from the third planned U.S. Microgravity Laboratory (USML-3) to take advantage of early opportunities 

aboard the Station were also being examined. The Crystal 

Growth Facility (CGF), Advanced Protein Crystal Growth 

(APCG) experiments, Combustion Research experiments, 

and the Space Acceleration Mapping System (SAMs) were 

identified as technically feasible and scientifically productive “transition payloads.” Supporting engineering and 

accommodations studies will occur in the coming year. 

NASA also established requirements for development of 

capabilities at NASA Field Centers to support payload 

integration, ground processing, and flight operations. As 

a result of the restructuring of the Space Station, the Office 

of Space Science and Applications and the Office of Space 

Flight reduced the Station’s capability to support external, 

attached payloads. The investigations previously selected for these payloads were being evaluated for 

alternative missions as EY 1991 ended or had already 

been deselected. 

Space Transportation 

As part of NASA’s mission, derived from the 

President’s National Space Policy, the Office of Space 

Flight was responsible for developing space transportation capabilities, carrying out space flight operations, and 

planning for men and women to work in space. In 

addition, the Office continued to support future scientific 

and human exploratory missions in the solar system and 

the permanent presence of human beings in space. It has 

also assisted in the commercialization of space and the 

privatization of space transportation systems. 

The Space Shuttle 

Orbiter. The Space Shuttle’s primary purpose is to 

transport people and cargo into low-Earth orbit (100 to 

350 nautical miles above the Earth). As of the end of the 

year, there were four active orbiters: Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Each orbiter could accommodate a flight crew of up to seven people. Typical 

missions have ranged from four to nine days in duration, 

with crews numbering from five to seven. The newest 

28 
Kennedy Space Center, R-The Space Shuffle Discovery 

heads skyward at 7:47 a.m. EDT, October 6,1990, carrying 

the Ulysses spacecraft on its journey to reveal the mysteries 

of the Sun. 

orbiter, Endeavour (OV-l05), joined the fleet on schedule 

and within budget in May 1991. Its first flight, STS-49, was 

scheduled for April 1992. Changes made to this vehicle 

included a drag chute, improved nose wheel steering, and 

the capability to upgrade easily to an extended duration 

orbiter configuration. 

In addition to work on Endeavour, several modifications were in the process of being incorporated into the 

fleet. Among the improvements were an upgraded 

general purpose computer, new carbon-carbon brakes, 

an improved auxiliary power unit, a fixed-orifice oxygen 

flow control valve, and a redesigned helium-system 

regulator. These and other improvements will help to 

enhance the orbiter fleet’s performance and safety margins. The historical data trend on in-flight anomalies has 

already shown continued improvement. 

Work continued in 1991 on the Extended Duration 

Orbiter program to provide up to a 16-day mission 

capability. NASA was modlfying Columbia for this 

capability and constructed Endeavour in such a way that 

the option for extended duration could easily be implemented. Modifications that enable extended missions 

include the addition of a new cryogenic pallet containing 

four tank sets of oxygen and hydrogen for additional 

power generation, a regenerative carbon dioxide removal 

system, an improved waste management system, and 

increased stowage. Extended missions will be approached incrementally with 10- and 13-day flights prior 

to the first 16-day extended duration orbiter flight. During 

1991, several missions included data-gathering experiments in support of the first 13-day mission planned for 

June 1992. 

A special crew transport ground vehicle has been 

added to the program to gain rapid access to the crew 

upon landing so that medical tests can be performed 

before readjustment to the Earth’s environment. 

FY 1991 Shuttle Missions. NASA successfully 

completed eight Space Shuttle missions during fiscal year 

1991. The missions included STS-41, STS-38, STS-35, STS37, STS-39, STS-40, STS-43, and STS-48. STS-41 (Discovery) was a four-day mission, launched on October6,1990, 

from the Kennedy Space Center, FL. The primary 

objective of the mission was the deployment of the 

Ulysses spacecraft. This probe’s primary mission, in turn, 

will be to study the environment of the Sun. (See above, 

Space Science and Applications.) The orbiter landed 

safely at Edwards Air Force Base (AFB), CA, on October 

10, 1990. 

The next mission, STS-38 (Atlantis), launched on 

November 15, 1990. The 5-day flight was a classified 

Department of Defense mission. The orbiter landed 

safely on November 20, 1990, at the Kennedy Space 

Center. 

The last flight of calendar year 1990 was STS-35 

(Columbia). Columbia lifted off on December 2, 1990. 

The highlight of the mission was the successful use of the 

Astro-1 ultraviolet telescope (see above). Columbia 

returned safely to Edwards AFB on December 10, 1990. 

The first launch of calendar year 1991, STS-37 

(Atlantis), occurred on April 5, 1991. The 6-day mission’s 

primary objective was the deployment of the Gamma Ray 

29 
Observatory (see above). Atlantis returned safely to 

Edwards AFB on April 11, 1991. 

The next mission, STS-39 (Discovery), launched on 

April 28, 1991. Its primary mission involved supporting 

the Strategic Defense Initiative by observing the spectral 

signature of several plasma and gas sources in the upper 

atmosphere and in the orbiter’s exhaust plume. On May 

6, 1991, Discovery landed safely at Kennedy Space 

Center. 

STS-40 (Columbia) launched on June 6, 1991, from 

Kennedy Space Center. Also known as Space Life 

Sciences (SLS-I), it was the first Spacelab mission devoted 

exclusively to life science research (see above). Columbia 

returned safely to Edwards AFB on June 14, 1991. 

STS-43 (Atlantis) launched from Kennedy Space 

Center on August 8, 1991. The 9-day mission deployed 

a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDKS-E). The TDKS 

satellites provide communication and data links between 

Earth and spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle. On August 

11, 1991, Atlantis returned safely to the Kennedy Space 

Center. 

Discovery flew the final shuttle mission of fiscal year 

1991. STS-48 launched on September 12, 1991. The 

primary objective of the 6-day mission was the deployment of the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UAKS, 

see above). Discovery returned safely to Edwards AFB on 

September 18, 1991. 

Space Shuttle Main Engine. The Space Shuttle 

Main Engine (SSME) program continued its active test 

program in 1990 and 1991. Some 112 ground tests totaling 

more than 43,000 seconds took place in support of its 

development, certification, and flight programs during 

1990. During the first nine calendar months of 1991, there 

were 80 tests for a total of 26,523 seconds. This increased 

the total since January 1986 to 541 tests for just over 

200,000 seconds with a renewed emphasis on reliability, 

safety, and life enhancements. In 1991, the alternate 

turbopump began engine-level development tests for 

fleet implementation in FY 1994, and the redesigned high 

pressure fuel turbopump was certified for flight use. In 

addition, during FY 1991 the Technology Test Bed 

Program, which furnishes NASA with critical basic propulsion research and technology capability, initiated testing 

on the highly instrumented SSME to characterize engine 

internal operating environments for advanced SSME designs. 

On-boanlSTS37-AstronautJerome (Jay) Apt, STS37mission 

specialist, participates in a lengthy extravehicular activity in 

Atlantis’ cargo bay. Astronauts Apt and Jerry L. Ross 

evaluated translation devices that could be predecessors of 

hardware to be used on Space Station Freedom. Here, Apt 

moves along a beam on a device called a Tether Shuttle. 

Solid Rocket Booster. The Solid Rocket Booster 

continued to perform without significant problems in 

eight flights during FY 1991. There were two static test 

firings of motors manufactured before the Challenger 

accident, performed to qualify a new source of rayon 

material as well as design improvements in the motor 

nozzle. A limited development effort was continuing to 

improve the design, including redesign of the igniter seals 

for added safety margin and to improve manufacturing 

processes to minimize defects. 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor. The Advanced 

Solid Kocket Motor program made significant progress 

during FY 1991 in both motor design and in facility 

construction. NASA released drawings for manufacture of 

the first motor case that incorporated bolted field joints 

and welded factory joints. It selected a specific formulation for the propellant and activated a pilot plant for the 

propellant’s continuous mix and cast process. It conducted two 48-inch diameter subscale-motor static-firing 

tests to evaluate nozzle and insulation materials. It obtained environmental permits for all construction sites, 

and site preparation at Yellow Creek manufacturing plant 

at Iuka, MS; the Stennis Space Center at Bay Saint Louis, 

30 
MS; and the Michoud Assembly Facility at Slidell, LA, 

neared completion. Construction at Yellow Creek has 

begun with foundation emplacement for the motor case 

preparation building. Finally, the National Kesearch 

Council completed an assessment of the program plans 

for quality assurance and testing. 

Shuttle Systems Integration. Development of a 

Day-of-Launch I-Load-Update (DOLILU) System started 

early in 1990 and proceeded throughout 1991. The 

DOLILU considers the actual winds on launch day and 

updates the software that directs the optimum trajectory 

during ascent of the Space Shuttle. In so doing, it will 

reduce structural loads during ascent, thereby providing 

a higher probability of launch and an expected reduction 

in launch delays and launch holds. 

A Critical Design Review, safety and hazard analyses, a series of demonstration tests, seven operational 

simulations, and a Design Certification Review generated 

confidence in DOLILU. It was certified for flight use in 

August 1991. On September 12, during the countdown 

for STS-48, unusually strong winds aloft were measured 

in the hours leading up to launch. A launch hold was 

prevented since the DOLILU trajectory update was ready 

and put into use on the very first flight for which it was 

available that day. 

DOLILU was continuing to be used in parallel with 

existing ascent guidance commands to compare its ability 

to generate trajectories that are safer than currently 

available in the face of actual launch day winds. NASA 

expected the DOLILU system to provide the prime I-Load 

trajectory software starting early in 1992. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

1991/1992 Launches. NASA successfully launched 

two missions from the West Coast in 1991, a NOAA polar 

meteorological satellite on a United States Air Force 

(USAFI-provided Atlas-E in May and a USAF radiation 

experiment payload on a Scout launcher in June. Seven 

missions were scheduled as of the end of the year for 

launch in 1992, beginning with the Extreme Ultraviolet 

Explorer aboard a USAF procured Delta 11; another NOAA 

polar meteorological satellite in February; the Solar, 

Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer on a 

Scout in June; followed by two launches of commercially 

procured Delta 11’s to support the launches of the Japanese/NASA cooperative Geotail payload and the Wind 

spacecraft. The Mars Observer spacecraft was expected 

to begin its journey to Mars aboard a commercially 

procured Titan 111 vehicle using a commercial Transfer 

Orbit Stage (TOS). NASA’s Expendable Launch Vehicle 

(ELV) flight rate for 1993 and beyond was expected to 

average approximately five to seven launches per year. 

NASA’s use of commercial ELV services made significant progress this year. The Agency signed a contract 

for commercial launch services in November 1990 with 

McDonnell Douglas for three firm Delta I1 launches to 

support the Geotail, Wind and Polar missions targeted for 

launch in 1992 and 1993. The contract also includes an 

additional 12 optional launch services, which will enable 

NASA to support future science missions requiring Delta 

launch services without the need for individual procurement actions. This contract approach has provided NASA 

the economic benefits associated with a quantity buy 

while providing the launch service contractor with a 

stable business base. NASA signed a similar contract in 

September 1991 for seven firm Pegasus launches and 

three optional launches with Orbital Sciences Corporation for support to NASA’s small explorer program. NASA 

also signed a contract with General Dynamics in April 

1991 for Atlas IIAS launch services to support the NASA/ 

ESA cooperative Solar Heliospheric Observatory mission 

scheduled for launch in July 1995. At year’s end, NASA 

had 32 missions scheduled for launch under commercial 

ELV service contracts. 

In an effort to maximize low cost flight opportunities, NASA initiated a secondary ELV payload program in 

1991. The purpose of this program was to increase the 

utility of each ELV launch by identifying and using any 

excess capacity on those missions beyond that required 

for the primary payload. NASA had four secondary 

payloads currently scheduled for launch aboard Delta 11s. 

The first secondary payload, the Diffuse Ultraviolet Experiment, was scheduled to be launched aboard the 

Geotail vehicle in July 1992. The next three scheduled 

secondary payloads were targeted for flight aboard USAF 

Delta 11s in 1992 and 1993. 

NASA’s activities over the past year have demonstrated the Agency’s strong commitment to a balanced, 

mixed fleet launch strategy using both the Space Shuttle 

and unmanned expendable launchers, in accordance 

with national policy established following the Challenger 

accident. 
Upper Stages Tethered Satellite System 

Inertial Upper Stage. The USAF-developed Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) rocket successfully transported two 

payloads launched from the Space Shuttle in low earth 

orbit to the payloads’ final destinations. The Ulysses 

spacecraft launched in October 1990 into an interplanetary trajectory, and a TDRS launched into a geosynchronous orbit later in August 1991. NASA planned use of two 

additional IUSs in 1993 and 1995 to complete the TDKS 

constellation. 

Transfer Orbit Stage. The commercially developed Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) was scheduled to make 

its first flight in September 1992 aboard a commercially 

procured Titan I11 carrying the Mars Observer spacecraft. 

Qualification and mission integration activities continued 

throughout 1991, Orbital Sciences Corporation, manufacturer of the upper stage, developed the TOS for use on 

both the Space Shuttle and ELVs for those missions that 

require an extra boost to place the payload in its final 

orbit. The second flight of the TOS is scheduled to 

transport NASA’s Advanced Communications Technology Satellite from the Space Shuttle in early 1993. At the 

end of FY 1991, there were no other identified NASA 

missions for the TOS. 

Spacelab Flight Program 

During 1990 and 1991, two Spacelab missions 

(Astro-1 and Space Life Sciences-1) were successfully 

completed. Three Spacelab module missions and two 

Spacelab pallet missions were planned for FY 1992. The 

three module missions were the International Microgravity 

Laboratory (IML), the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML), and a microgravity mission with the Japanese, called Spacelab-J. The pallet missions planned for 

FY 1992 included the first of a series of Atmospheric 

Laboratory for Applications and Science missions and the 

first Tethered Satellite System (TSS) mission (see above 

and below). Integration of experiment and carrier 

systems hardware was well under way at the end of FY 

1991 at Kennedy Space Center in preparation for these 

missions. 

The Tethered Satellite System (TSS) is a Shuttlebased facility for deploying a satellite connected by a 

tether to the Shuttle for distances up to 62 miles, as 

discussed in part above. In 1991, the integration of the 

deployer system with the Spacelab hardware was completed. Mission planning and integration of the flight 

experiments with the deployer/Spacelab system was 

nearing completion at the end of FY 1991. 

Advanced Programs 

Advanced Programs activities focus on future space 

transportation concepts and related operations plus onorbit space systems. The scope of Advanced Programs 

includes concept definition (Phase A), systems definition 

(Phase B), and advanced development efforts to demonstrate emerging technology for application in existing as 

well as future transportation systems. The Civil Needs 

Data Base (CNDB)-a compilation of civil space-mission 

needs from 1990 to 2010-is a key tool for advanced 

program planning. Following are some of the studies and 

advanced development activities currently under way in 

Advanced Program Development. 

New Launch System The New Launch System 

(NLS) is a joint DOD/NASA program to develop a new 

launch capability to meet civil and military space needs. 

This program is responsive to the direction of the National 

Space Council to greatly improve national launch capability, reduce operations costs, and improve launch system 

reliability, responsiveness, and mission flexibility. The 

new launch system will provide a range of lift capabilities 

from medium to heavy-lift and to facilitate evolutionary 

change as requirements evolve and new technology 

becomes available. The design will use some existing 

components from the Shuttle and existing expendable 

rockets in order to expedite initial capability and reduce 

development costs. While initially unmanned, the NLS 

will be defined as “human-ratable” in the future. The 

program, which was in the definition phase at the end of 

the fiscal year, was being planned for a first flight in FY 

2002. 

32 
NASA and the DOD first received direction from the 

National Space Council to develop the New Launch 

System on April 16, 1991. During the remainder of FY 

1991, they set a number of milestones for the program, 

including the first firing of the Space Transportation Main 

Engine (STME) by the end of 1996, the delivery of the first 

set of flight engines for the STME in 1999, and the delivery 

of the common core pathfinder vehicle in 1999. On April 

16, 1991, NASA announced that it had awarded three 10- 

month study contracts, each valued at $500,000, to 

support the definition of the New Launch System. The 

new contractors were Lockheed Missiles and Space Co., 

Sunnyvale, CA; McDonnell Douglas Corp., Huntington 

Beach, CA; and TRW, Kedondo Beach, CA. 

During 1991 NLS developers established the program baseline, defined the basic elements of the program, 

and produced an overall cost estimate. They performed 

a level zero flight environment analysis for the baseline 

vehicle in order to validate the design and performance 

of the NLS-1 and NLS-2 vehicles. From a hardware 

standpoint, the primary focus was on the propulsion 

system technology. In the course of the year, a 25 kw 

prototype electro-mechanical actuator was built and 

tested; a single piece thrust chamber was cast; a 40K thrust 

injector design was tested; and hydrostatic bearings for 

the liquid oxygen turbopump were also tested. (For 

further details, see coverage below in the section devoted 

to NLS in the DOD section of this report.) 

Cargo Transfer Vehicle. The Cargo Transfer 

Vehicle (CTV) is planned as the orbital transfer element 

of the NLS. This unmanned stage is intended to boost 

payloads from the NLS delivery orbit to the Space Station. 

The CTV definition studies were in progress at year’s end. 

The schedule for design and development of the CTV is 

planned to coincide with the NLS schedule. 

Future Manned Transportation System Studies were continuing to examine options for assured 

human access to space in the future, including potential 

replacement of the Shuttle. The primary focus of the 

manned transportation activity has been on the Personnel 

Launch System (PLS) concept and a two-way personnel 

transportation system discussed in December 1990 by the 

Advisory Committee on the Future of the U.S. Space 

Program. Planners have placed relatively minor emphasis 

upon the Advanced Manned Launch System concept. A 

study, initiated in 1991 by a NASAAndustry team, examined transportation needs, requirements and architectural 

issues for future manned space activities. 

Advanced Upper Stages. Concepts for high performance space transfer vehicles (Sllrs) to support scientific and exploration missions beyond low-Earth orbit 

continued to be examined. Since the President’s statement in 1989 affirming the goal of manned missions to the 

Moon and to Mars, the STV studies have been focused to 

provide support for that goal. Two parallel contractor 

study teams were in the process of defining STV concepts 

for the delivery of cargo and humans to the lunar surface. 

These studies were also considering commonality with 

upper stage requirements for the NLS. Trade studies for 

mission scenarios, vehicle concepts, and use of advanced 

technology were being coordinated with the development of advanced launch vehicles to provide costeffective capability and operational flexibilities for the 

nation’s space transportation system. 

Advanced Space Systems. Activities focused on 

advanced space systems included hardware development, flight demonstrations, satellite servicing, tether 

applications, and orbital debris. Advanced developmental projects applied existing technology to flight hardware 

for use on the Shuttle, other NASA spacecraft, and for 

satellite servicing. 

In 1991, advanced development work continued on 

an automated fluid interface system, a flight-supportsystem servicing aid tool, and a superfluid helium coupler. Flight demonstrations of the Voice Command 

System and the Optical Communications Through the 

Window System were successfully carried out on STS-41 

and STS-43, respectively. These demonstrations provided 

on-orbit experience with voice command of the Shuttle’s, 

closed circuit television cameras and of high-rate and 

fiber-optic communications through the aft flight deck 

window between the pressurized area of the Shuttle and 

the payload bay. 

Preparatory work on the Superfluid Helium On33 
Orbit Transfer Demonstration planned in early 1993 has 

already yielded many cryogenic management techniques 

that can be used on the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics 

Facility, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility, and other 

spacecraft. Phase B procurement for the Satellite Servicer 

System Flight Demonstration, on the other hand, was 

terminated following cancellation of the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle. 

Orbital Debris. The population density of manmade orbital debris in space at both low-Earth and 

geostationary orbits has been growing as a direct result of 

an expanding space launch rate. In recent years, 

spacefaring nations have been increasingly concerned 

that orbital debris could pose a hazard to future space 

missions-possibly to unacceptable risk levels early in 

the 21st century. NASA has devoted a considerable effort 

over the years toward understanding the orbital debris 

environment and its trends. Using up-to-date models of 

the debris environment, the Agency has performed hazard analyses for space programs and has instituted 

protective measures to assure a high probability of safe 

and reliable space operations. 

In 1991, NASA updated its space debris population 

density model, baselined for the Space Station Freedom 

design and hazard analyses, with new data from debris 

measurements and hypervelocity testing. In addition, it 

has made significant progress during the past year in the 

collection, processing and analysis of orbital debris data 

using the Haystack Radar at MIT/Lincoln Laboratory. 

These data provided the first statistically significant comparison with the Kessler orbital debris flux model in the 

critical size regime between 0.5 centimeters (cm) and 10 

cm of debris diameter. Two computer models for 

processing the Haystack Radar data were developed and 

implemented. The first model estimated ability to detect 

the debris passing through the “parked” radar beam. The 

second model related the radar cross section of the debris 

to its physical size. The early measurements from the 

Haystack radar indicated that the measured detection 

rates were 30-100 percent higher than predicted by the 

Kessler model in the important 350-450 kilometer (km) 

altitude band. This will be determined further as additional data are processed. Moreover, NASA has funded 

the U.S. Air Force to begin construction of the Haystack 

Auxiliary Radar (HAX) to be used for continued observations of orbital debris during the remainder of the 1990s. 

The U.S. held discussions for the first time in 1991 

with representatives of the People’s Republic of China 

(PRC) on the problems associated with orbital debris. We 

specifically discussed with the PRC the impact of the 

December 1990 explosion of its Long March 4A thirdstage rocket and the implications of a similar event for the 

future debris population. Consultations continued during 

1991 on the modeling and mitigation of orbital debris with 

Europe, Japan, and the Soviets. In late 1991, the U.S. 

negotiated a protocol with the Soviets that will lead to an 

exchange of unclassified catalogs of space objects published in each country and of materials (witness samples) 

that have been exposed to space and returned, together 

with the analysis of these materials. These exchanges and 

discussions will continue to expand our knowledge and 

understanding of the orbital debris environment. In 

addition, they will lead toward the development of 

coordinated plans to reduce the continued proliferation 

of orbital debris. 

Space Station Freedom 

The aim of the Space Station Freedom program is to 

establish a world-class laboratory in low-Earth orbit 

enabling scientists to conduct a variety of life and 

materials science experiments that will take advantage of 

the microgravity environment of space. The program was 

being developed by three each of NASA Field Centers, 

prime contractors, and international partners. The Space 

Station Program Office in Reston, Virginia, coordinated 

technical aspects of the program. 

In spite of technical and budgetary challenges in 

1991, the Space Station Freedom project made progress 

on several fronts. The three most significant of these 

were: completing the preliminary design review, which 

included efforts to reduce weight, power, and EVA 

(Extravehicular Activity) maintenance requirements; restructuring the program to fit within new 6-year budget 

guidelines provided by Congress; and implementing 

recommendations made by the Advisory Committee on 

the Future of the U.S. Space Program. Although each of 

these developments was important in and of itself, taken 

together they represent a solid step forward at a pivotal 

juncture in the Space Station Freedom program. 

The program consisted of two steps: “man-tended” 

capability and “permanently manned” capability. Even in 

its early stage, Space Station Freedom was expected to 

34 
have several times more research capability than any 

previous orbiting facility-U.S. or Soviet, It will be the 

largest and most sophisticated orbiting laboratory ever 

built and operated, and its designs will retain the ability 

to be upgraded as requirements dictate and funding 

allows. The program currently is examining an assured 

crew recovery capability in the permanently manned 

phase of the program to ensure crew safety. 

One of the greatest advantages Freedom will hold 

over other orbiting facilities will be its ability to provide 

substantially more electrical power to its users. This will 

allow significantly more research equipment, some with 

unique high porn-er requirements, to be operating at any 

one time. Power available to the users will initially be 11 

kilowatts (kw) and will be at least 30 kw by the 

permanently manned phase. This is roughly ten times 

that of Skylab and Spacelab and more than double the 

power available for science on the Soviet space station 

Mir. 

During the man-tended stage of the program, the 

free flying time on Space Station Freedom will offer an 

excellent environment to conduct untended research on 

materials, such as crystal growth experiments. While the 

Shuttle is docked and crew are present, materials science 

will continue along with the addition of life sciences 

research. At permanently manned capability, the space 

Station will provide full support to life sciences with 

addition of long-duration stay times and a 2.5 meter 

centrifuge. It will also continue to support microgravity 

research. During the man-tended phase, the Space 

Shuttle will fly three utilization (research) flights and up 

to four assembly flights per year. The Space Station 

design can accommodate a follow-on phase including 

additional capability to increase crew size from four to 

eight and power to 75 kW. This phase would use the New 

Launch System if it is available. 

Program Accomplishments 

In fiscal year 1991, the program’s three prime 

contractors assembled several development test articles. 

These test articles are used to evaluate component design 

integrity and the manufacturing process. Although test 

articles will not become actual flight elements, their 

designs are very similar or identical to flight elements. 

Completion of the testing of these articles represents the 

final design stage prior to the critical design review. At 

this point, designs will be approximately 90 percent 

complete and significant development testing will have 

been accomplished. 

Production of the photovoltaic cells for the Space 

Station power generation system was well under way. 

The solar array design was validated during 1991 in a test 

series equal to 10 years of in-orbit thermal cycles. The first 

engineering model battery arrived and began long-term 

cycling tests. Also, tests successfully demonstrated the 

ability to interrupt current levels at 160 volts direct current, 

a higher voltage than achieved in any previous spacecraft. 

Fabrication of the verification article for airlock welding 

procedures also began during 1991, and an early version 

of the Space Station data management system was delivered to test designs of related Space Station subsystems. 

Another development test article having to do with a 

prototype control-moment gyro was fabricated and subjected to testing. Additionally, engineers completed 

comparative testing on the environmental control and life 

support system, allowing initial development of hardware 

that will be used for flight qualification of the system. 

Several Space Station-related flight experiments took 

place on board the Space Shuttle in 1991. An EVA flight 

experiment concerned three design concepts to move 

astronauts and equipment along the Space Station truss 

structure. Additionally, the crew successfully tested a 

Space Station radiator design to evaluate fluid dynamics 

in weightlessness. 

International Partners ’ Activities 

Early in fiscal year 1991, NASA successfully completed an agreement with the Space Station Freedom 

international partners-the European Space Agency, the 

Canadian Space Agency, and the National Space Development Agency of Japan-on the design of payload racks 

to allow use of common racks throughout all three 

laboratories on the Station. This agreement benefits the 

U.S. as well as each individual partner by allowing easy 

exchange and operation of research equipment. Each 

laboratory will provide standard interfaces, standard 

interface options, and module-specific interfaces for 

payload racks. The synergy of equipment use will 

increase the efficiency of the entire Space Station manned 

base and significantly enhance overall program flexibility. 

All the international partners continued to move 

forward in their respective programs. Each played key 

35 
roles in both the program preliminary design review and 

the restructuring assessment. The Japanese completed 

program requirements reviews on the second and third 

Japanese Experiment Module’s (JEM) safety and product 

assurance as well as the operations and utilization requirements aspects of the program. The Europeans 

received new proposals for their polar orbiting platform, 

the Attached Pressurized Module and its Man-Tended 

Free Flyer. They also conducted a program requirements 

review covering all aspects of their program. Canada 

completed its interim preliminary design review of the 

Mobile Servicing System, as well. Additionally, for the first 

time, NASA and the international partners met jointly to 

discuss plans and programs for the evolution of Space 

Station Freedom. Also, NASA signed an agreement in 

1991 with the Italian Space Agency for provision of two 

mini-pressurized logistics modules and potential provision of a mini-laboratory in exchange for more Italian use 

of the Space Station. 

Utilization and Operations 

Progress was made during 1991 in accommodating 

utilization payload requirements. The Space Station 

program assessed and approved requirements for externally mounted experiments and the accommodation of a 

2.5-meter life sciences centrifuge. Early plans for the 

Station now include an 8-flight Utilization Sequence for 

the man-tended phase. These utilization flights will 

involve up to 13-day Shuttle missions for payloads 

installed in the U.S. Lab and on the Station preintegrated 

Utilization and operations capability of Space Station Freedom and associated ground support capabilities 

were better defined at the end of FY 1991 than ever 

before. The Functional Control Documents that described ground systems functions, such as payload integration and operations, command and control, ground 

processing, and crew training, were extensively reviewed 

and baselined. The Network Program Requirements 

Document that identified the communication and data 

transfer capabilities required to effectively support the 

Space Station Control Center, Payload Operations and 

Integration Center, and other program and user facilities 

was also baselined. Early in the year, participants 

tNSS. 

approved formal joint program management plans as 

well. 

Also in 1991, a multilateral exercise of the Space 

Station payload and systems strategic planning activities 

occurred. The four partners rehearsed the process of 

developing 5-year plans for Station operations and use. 

The rehearsal provided significant insight into how the 

partners will plan for Station operations and utilization. 

Development of the first official Consolidated Operations 

and Utilization Plan was expected to begin soon after the 

beginning of FY 1992. 

The partners presented the status of user accommodations on the restructured Station to the Space Station 

Science and Applications Advisory Subcommittee and to 

commercial and technological users during 1991. Information about Space Station utilization and potential 

benefits to users, industry, teachers, students, and the 

general public will be widely distributed as well. 

Safety and Mission Quality 

Recognizing the inherent risks and uncertainties in 

“frontier” ventures such as space exp!oration, NASA 

continued during FY 1991 to accord high priority to 

operational safety and quality. Thus, in the course of the 

year, the Office of Safety and Mission Quality expanded 

its oversight of NASA programs. The goal of mission 

quality was to achieve 100% mission or operational 

success. Ensuring quality for current and future missions 

was a function of the combined efforts of the safety, 

reliability, maintainability, and quality assurance (SRM8rQA) 

disciplines. 

Assurance oversight entailed Safety and Mission 

Quality personnel working closely with program managers and engineers to develop SRM&QA policy and requirements for NASA programs. Affected personnel then 

implemented these criteria throughout each phase of 

program development and operation. For significant 

(critical) program issues, assurance engineers conducted 

independent analyses to evaluate or devise preventive or 

corrective measures. In FY 1991, the Office addressed a 

wide range of assurance-related program issues. A 

representative cross-section of these areas included risk 

analysis, human factors, advanced technology require36 
ments, trend analysis, software assurance, and supplier 

quality. 

Mission Safety 

The primary objective of mission safety was to 

minimize risks through early identification and resolution 

of problems, hazards, or adverse trends. In FY 1991, as 

the use of statistical or quantitative analysis techniques 

increased, probabilistic risk assessment (PKA) became an 

integral part of several program areas. For example, a 

PRA performed on the 8-foot-high temperature wind 

tunnel at the Langley Research Center in FY 1991 revealed 

significant risk factors involved in tunnel operation and 

identified mitigative measures to keep risk within acceptable limits. Further, PRA-based methods as applied to 

selected Advanced Solid Rocket Motor design trade-off 

issues and other possible applications in the Space Shuttle 

program were under consideration as the year ended. 

The Mission Safety Evaluation Report, which Safety 

personnel prepared for each Space Shuttle flight, exemplified the role of the Safety organization in identifying, 

assessing, documenting, and resolving program issues. In 

1991, this report became a primary tool for communicating results of qualitative risk analyses on a permission 

basis to the Associate Administrator for Safety and Mission 

Quality and key Shuttle program managers. Data compiled prior to each launch included safety evaluations of 

any problem, concern, anomaly, and issue that could 

adversely impact the risk baseline. For each factor 

identified, the report specified the safety criteria and the 

rationale for risk acceptance or rejection. 

Mission Quality 

In FY 1991, the Office of Safety and Mission Quality 

strengthened its role in identifying significant programmatic SRM&QA issues in the areas of mission definition/ 

mission requirements, system and subsystem design, and 

hardware performance or validation. Engineers from 

Safety and Mission Quality, assigned to each program 

element, supported all major milestone reviews and 

programmatic decisions. Over 70 special studies addressed systems engineering issues for the missions flown 

in FY 1991. Assurance oversight entailed working with 

the programs to ensure that adequate program planning 

occurred and appropriate resources were allocated to 

meet SRM&QA requirements. 

Senior managers used the findings from independent system assessments and trend analyses conducted 

by engineers in specific disciplines to mitigate high risks 

and resolve safety and quality problems or concerns. In 

addition, the Office of Safety and Mission Quality provided support to the Administrator for internal quality 

management initiatives and functioned as the prime focus 

for the Agency’s external quality and productivity initiatives in FY 1991, such as the George M. Low Trophy for 

Excellence and Productivity Improvement, established 

but not yet awarded during the fiscal year. (George M. 

Low became the Deputy Administrator of NASA in 1969 

after a distinguished career in which he had been 

responsible for the Mercury and Gemini programs and 

later the Apollo program both in Washington, D.C., and 

at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston, TX-later 

the Johnson Space Center. He served as Acting Administrator of the Agency in 1970-71.) 

Diverse Challenges 

Areas of concentration for Safety and Mission Quality ranged from high-profile programs such as the Shuttle 

to less visible (but still vitally important) issues such as 

small supplier assistance. Based on NASA’s reliance on 

contractors and suppliers, the quality of the goods and 

services provided to the Agency must be reviewed 

constantly. While there is a natural tendency to focus on 

the large-scale hardware manufacturers, the Office recognized that small suppliers were just as integral to NASA 

programs. In FY 1991, the Associate Administrator for 

Safety and Mission Quality was instrumental in establishing a NASA small supplier quality assurance program to 

assist firms in identifying and meeting the Agency’s 

hardware requirements. 

A major challenge continued to be the determination of next-generation assurance requirements and contingency plans for future system hardware/software applications that may not have been obvious. In FY 1991, 

the Office established a Technical Standards Division to 

support the applied technologies required to design and 

build advanced hardware. The objective was to work 

37 
with the appropriate NASA, industry, and the Department 

of Defense organizations to develop and upgrade standards for emerging and changing technologies. 

Although technology-based programs traditionally 

have focused on hardware, the vital relationship between 

mission hardware and software was attracting industry 

attention. Particularly for flight-critical applications, software assurance has evolved into a notable program issue. 

Safety and Mission Quality engineers have been active in 

the ongoing planning for the Independent Validation and 

Verification (IV&V) facility that NASA has earmarked 

funds to build in E?( 1992. 

Commercial Programs 

The mission of the Office of Commercial Programs 

(OCP) during FY 1991 continued to be the encouragement of private investment in commercial space and the 

facilitation of the application and transfer of existing 

technologies to U.S. industry. OCP encompassed a range 

of activities that provided a focus for addressing one of 

America’s preeminent concerns-our ability to compete 

economically in the world environment. 

Making Strides in Commercial Marketing 

Historically, initiatives developed by private markets to meet their own needs have shown themselves to 

be many times more effective in expanding our nation’s 

economy than have those that rely on the public sector as 

the investor and user. To develop commercial products 

and markets, NASA’s Centers for the Commercial Development of Space (CCDSs) drew at the end of FY 1991 on 

the participation of 71 universities and 241 companies, in 

industries ranging from pharmaceuticals to fisheries. 

There were also 16 competitively selected consortia of 

university, industry, and government affiliates that performed industry-driven research on technologies with 

potential commercial applications during the year. 

In promoting commercial products and markets, the 

CCDSs’ strategy was twofold: to establish a technological 

and developmental base that could lead to new products 

and markets and to encourage the development of 

infrastructure and transportation industries that could 

directly contribute to the creation of these markets. As 

products and markets matured from a base in technology 

to actual development and growth, NASA expected that 

the necessary infrastructure and transportation would be 

maturing to support future commercial operations. 

Already by the end of IT 1991 NASA funds, leveraged by those of industry, universities, and other state and 

Federal institutions, had yielded many accomplishments. 

By that time, the CCDSs had acquired 59 patents and 20 

licensing/equity agreements for their research work; 113 

technologies had transitioned to CCDS affiliates; and nine 

spinoff companies had formed to move product offsprings to the commercial market. 

Sixty-one industry-driven technologies continued 

to be developed in FY 1991 to determine their commercial 

potential. Product developments were still in the experimental phase but showed great promise for maturing to 

commercial availability within the next decade. Zeolites 

that can be used as filters and catalysts, protein crystals for 

designing new and improved drugs, superconductors 

that increase computers’ computational speed, and remote sensing systems for large-scale mapping and mineral exploration were just a few of the promising new 

products that illustrate the breadth of CCDS research. 

The growth of this program can be measured in the 

number of experiments that flew from the beginning of 

the program in 1985 to the end of Ey 1991: 1,041 drop 

tube/drop tower experiments, 60 Lear/KC-135 flights, 28 

Space Shuttle flight tests, and 37 sounding rocket flight 

tests. Measured by these statistics, the program clearly has 

made great headway. But the real surge in transportation 

requirements will come as the CCDSs progress further in 

their research. Meeting their future transportation needs 

is a critical objective of the Office of Commercial Programs. Consistency and flexibility are needed to assure 

the successful development of these projects. 

To match space transportation and support capabilities with anticipated growth in materials processing 

requirements, NASA continued in FY 1991 to fund a 

commercial sounding rocket program through the CCDS 

program. EER Systems, Inc. provided the Consort launch 

series with a fourth launch scheduled for the fall of 1991. 

The next series of sounding rocket launches, scheduled 

to take place early in 1992, will be provided by Orbital 

Sciences Corporation using the Prospector vehicle, which 

38 
Commercial Experiment Transporter (COMET), a system for 

launchingand recoveringspaceborne experiments, scheduled 

to be launched in the fall of 1992 from Wallops Island, VA. 

will give experimenters about 14 minutes of microgravity 

exposure for their payloads. 

The CCDSs were also in the process at the end of the 

year of developing the Commercial Experiment Transporter (COMET), a system for launching and recovering 

space borne experiments. The CCDSs, which initiated the 

program, were totally responsible for overseeing system 

design, fabrication, and operations. EER Systems, Inc., 

Westinghouse Electric Company, and Space Industria, 

Inc. were the three primary industry contractors selected 

to provide key hardware and services for the COMET’S 

develcpment and operations. COMET was scheduled to 

be launched in the fall of 1992 from Wallops Island, VA. 

As part of the CCDS’s goal of providing cost-effective 

hardware for conducting experiments in space, NASA has 

contracted with SPACEHAB, Inc., to provide the services 

of a Commercial Middeck Augmentation Module for 

Space Shuttle operations. As a commercial customer of 

the contractor, NASA has leased space to provide flight 

research opportunities for the CCDSs and the cooperative 

agreement partners. 

As FY 1991 ended, the Office of Commercial Programs was in the process of selecting at least one 

additional CCDS to specialize in the commercial development of advanced satellite communications technologie5 

and other space-based telecommunications technologies. 

Establishment of the new CCDSs was anticipated for the 

fall Of 1991. 

New Cooperative Agreements 

In FY 1991, NASA further expanded its partnership 

with U.S. industry by signing a 2-year technical exchange 

agreement with Autometrics, Inc., for analysis of high 

resolution and electronic still-camera imagery. Through 

digital data processing and data compression techniques, 

high-resolution pictures taken of the Earth, middeck 

experiments, and the payload bay by astronauts aboard 

the Space Shuttle could be sent back to Earth quickly and 

easily. Access to imagery generated by the process will 

enable researchers to perform real time analysis of natural 

disasters and other crises. 

In July 1990, Orbital Sciences Corporation signed a 

5-year support services agreement that gives Orbital 

Sciences Corporation access to NASA-owned launch 

facilities. The agreement, similar to those signed by the 

big three rocket manufacturers, will support the company’s 

Pegasus and Taurus commercial launch programs. 

During FY 1991, NASA signed a 2-year memorandum of under-standing with Technical and Administrative 

Services Corporation that allows the two parties to share 

research information associated with closed environmental systems. The two partners have mutual interests in 

development of hydroponic technology for life sustenance on space missions of long duration and for 

agricultural applications in hostile terrestrial environments. 

Cooperative agreements such as these have pro39 
vided technical assistance and access to launch facilities 

and services to support industrial space research, commercial space transportation, and the private development of space infrastructure and services. NASA has used 

these and other innovative agreements to help reduce the 

risks associated with commercial development of space. 

A New Role in Enhancing Satellite Communications 

The accomplishments of NASA in fostering the 

continuing leadership of U.S. industry in the highly visible 

and economically successful use of space technology for 

domestic and global telecommunications are well recognized. Plans call for the next major contribution in this 

field to occur in 1993 with the launch of the Advanced 

Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS). As NASA 

turns its attention to the development of a strong experimental program for ACTS and to the strategy for NASA’s 

future activities in this vital area of technology, it will be 

important that NASA design its organization to assure that 

decisions regarding implementation of new technologies 

for telecommunications services be responsive to needs 

determined by industry as opposed to governmental push 

in specific directions. The Office of Commercial Programs 

will now manage NASA’s programs for advanced technology, designed to contribute to the introduction of new 

and innovative communications satellite services and to 

the maintenance of US. leadership in the key technologies required to accomplish the services efficiently. 

Specifically, NASA expects to do the following: 

Establish one or more CCDSs to create an 

infrastructure for infusing NASA’s technology 

into the satellite-based telecommunications 

industry. 

Manage the ongoing radio science and support 

studies and communications data analysis. 

Define and conduct an innovative and thorough 

experimental program for the ACTS mission 

based upon the specific interests of industry 

and in conjunction with industry-provided 

resources. 

Manage an experimental program using mobile 

satellite resources. 

Expanding Satellite Communications Capabilities 

ACTS represents an important government contribution to satellite communications development and is 

expected to demonstrate the feasibility of a variety of 

technologies that will be incorporated into future operational satellites. The ACTS demonstration and experiment 

program and the verification of ACTS innovative technologies that are applicable to various satellite communications frequency bands hold the key to continued 

industry growth and improved customer service in the 

satellite communications field. 

Future operational systems like ACTS could add a 

new dimension to communications services by combining the technologies of satellites and fiber optics. Athough fiber systems offer excellent performance for 

point-to-point, high-volume “trunk” communications, 

advanced satellites will be competitive with fiber systems 

in capacity, cost performance, and reliability for point-topoint services, especially in rural and remote areas. More 

importantly, advanced satellite links have the capability of 

teaming with fiber systems to expand the communications capabilities of users who are not part of the main 

fiber backbone. Without satellite connections, these 

users would not have access to high-capacity transmission media. 

Increasing User Capabilities 

Technologies devised by the ACTS program are 

likely to narrow the gap separating the information 

services “haves” from the “have nots.” Because of the 

wideband transmission needs associated with the information processing technologies that will be perfected in 

the 1990s, there is concern that these capabilities will be 

employed only by users in limited areas who are connected by fiber-optic cable. However, advanced communications satellites incorporating ACTS-validated technologies will expand the availability of wideband transmission and, subsequently, increase access to the services and advantages offered by the “Information Age.” 

Increasing Commercial Opportunities 

Signs of ACTS technology being adapted to the 

commercial realm could already be seen in the United 

States as FY 1991 ended. Several of the technologies that 

40 
will be flown on ACTS, including the baseband processor 

and Ka-band components, will be used commercially in 

future satellite systems. Recently, Motorola, Inc., one of 

the major contractors on ACTS, announced the introduction of its Iridium system, which will be based on 77 lowEarth-orbit communications satellites to provide global 

coverage for data and cellular telephone communications. 

An Enriched Technology Transfer Structure 

NASA missions have often been culminations of the 

latest technological advances in engineering, computers, 

materials, and dozens of other fields. These advances not 

only were critical to space exploration and aeronautical 

research, but they also provided valuable resources to 

industry, a primary customer of the Office of Commercial 

Programs. Companies, organizations, and institutions 

from coast to coast have been applying information 

provided by NASA’s Technology Utilization program to 

solve problems on Earth. 

NASA’s Technology Transfer program is a continuum that begins from the moment a new technology is 

developed and concludes with the commercial application of a new or existing product or service by the private 

sector. Technology transfer has occurred primarily through 

two mechanisms: technology dissemination and applications projects. The cornerstones of the program have 

been the comprehensive data bases that incorporate not 

only NASA technology but also that of other Federal 

programs and the private sector, plus a distribution 

network that promotes these technologies and acts as a 

clearing house for the private sector seeking a solution to 

its technological needs. 

The principal medium for disseminating all the new 

technologies has been an electronic data base (the 

“RECON” system) that is accessible to a very large and 

broad population. More selective but equally important 

media have been NASA publications, particularly NASA 

Tech Briefsand Spinoffmagazines, that reach over 200,000 

subscribers throughout the United States. The primary 

announcement mechanism for new technologies available to the private sector has been the monthly NASA Tech 

Briefs, a compendium of abstracts, announcements, and 

full articles on the newest, emerging technologies from 

the NASA research and development (R&D) programs. 

The periodical had a circulation of over 200,000 at the end 

of FY 1991, including individuals and commercial firms. 

Furthermore, an analysis of the “pass-along” readership of 

NASA Tech Briefs indicates an average of five readers for 

each copy, or over a million readers per issue. 

Furthermore, the new series of Technology 2000 

conferences has been designed to enhance U.S. industry’s 

awareness of developing Federal technology in a more 

timely manner. On November 27-28,1990, NASA held the 

first of these national conferences, Technology 2000, an 

exhibition highlighting transferrable technologies for industry. It attracted 2,500 attendees-75 percent from 

industry. NASA scientists and engineers presented over 

90 technical papers describing new technological advances having commercial potential, and several papers 

focused on future NASA K&D missions, high-lighting 

possible emerging technologies that may be available for 

industrial use in the decade ahead. Additionally, over 160 

companies, universities, and government agencies (including NASA) were represented in the exhibit hall. 

Planning for the next conference, Technology 2001, 

was already under way in October 1991. The 1991 

Technology 2001 Conference was held on December 3- 

5 in the San Jose Convention Center in California. NASA 

broadened participation to other Federal agencies and 

laboratories by inviting technical papers in five major 

fields of interest: advanced materials, computers and 

software engineering, advanced manufacturing, electronics, and biotechnology and life sciences. Technology 

2001 attracted about 4,000 industrial executives and thus 

served as a national forum for governmental technology 

transfer. 

To facilitate the close interaction between NASA’s 

technology and the users, a network of Industrial Applications Centers began operation over 25 years ago. They 

have acted as clearinghouses and outreach centers for the 

NASA Technology Transfer program and supplemented 

the efforts of the various NASA laboratories. Many 

developments have taken place in the national technology transfer arena since the inception of the Industrial 

Applications Centers. For this reason, NASA has begun 

the process of restructuring, redefining, and renaming this 

network. 

The new technology transfer structure included, as 

of the end of FY 1991, a National Technology Transfer 

Center (NTTC) in Wheeling, WV, and six Regional Technology Transfer Centers (KTTCs) aligned with Federal 

Laboratory Consortium regions to cover all 50 states. The 

41 
NTTC will provide managerial, analytical, and training 

capabilities for facilitating the national technology transfer process. The six KTTCs will identify needs specific to 

their regions, developing relationships with specific organizations and providing user referral services and data 

bases. 

This new infrastructure will offer broader geographical coverage, establish linkages with the various 

states and local technology transfer programs, and act as 

a source for technology transfer from all Federal laboratories in the respective regions. NASA believes that this 

revised structure will foster greater participation than 

occurred in the past from Federal, state, and local 

governments and will reach a much larger business 

community. 

NASA has recently signed a memorandum of agreement with the Federal Laboratory Consortium to disseminate other Federal laboratory software to industry through 

NASA’s Computer Software Management Information 

Center (COSMIC). Plans for improving this facility include 

the development of an on-line capability that will enable 

COSMIC to enhance its software delivery capacity greatly 

and provide a more streamlined system for communications and software ordering. Such efforts should create a 

broader and faster capability at COSMIC for handling 

microsoftware products being developed more frequently 

today than ever before by NASA and other Federal 

laboratories. 

NASA’s direct support of technology application in 

1991 helped to advance a range of industries from 

medicine to transportation. Through interaction with 

public and private sectors of the economy, projects have 

identified specific needs or problems and developed 

potential solutions through adaptation of aerospacedeveloped technologies. 

Annually, there have been about 60 ongoing technology-applications projects at NASA’s nine Field Centers. In nearly 20 years, over 500 applications projects 

have been completed. One new technology resulting 

from applications projects was a portable fetal heart rate 

monitor developed by the NASA Langley Kesearch Center’s 

Technology [Jtilization and Applications Office. Using 

NASA sensor technology, the device detected irregularities in the fetal heartbeat and consequently informed the 

mother of potential health dangers to the unborn child. 

Another successful product, completed in 1990 by 

scientists at the NASA Lewis Research Center and Case 

Western Reserve University, was a computer software 

program for designing orthopedic implants that last up to 

20 years-almost three times the current lifetime-because they are fitted to the patient. 

Successful Products from Small Business 

Innovation Research 

Small Business Innovation Kesearch (SBIK) program objectives have included stimulating technological 

innovation in the private sector, strengthening the role of 

small business in Federal K&D programs, fostering and 

encouraging greater participation of minority and disadvantaged persons in technological innovation, and increasing private sector commercial development of innovations derived from Federal R&D. 

Since 1983, the SBIR program has proved its value 

both to NASA and the high-technology small business 

community. The SBIR program, funded by a 1.25 percent 

set-aside from the annual NASA K&D budget, has increased small business participation in NASA’s R&D 

activities and provided entrepreneurial firms the opportunity to develop and market innovative commercial 

products. Over the life of the SBIR program, more than 

2,200 awards have been made to approximately 770 

businesses. In FY 1991, NASA awarded 280 Phase I 

contracts for the initial definition of research and 125 

Phase I1 contracts, separately competed, for the actual 

development of a project. 

Final development and marketing of research results under this process uses private sector, not SBIK, 

funds. To gauge how well they have been progressing, 

NASA queried 61 of 250 SBIR contractors and, based on 

the information provided, was able to identify at least 88 

products that have or will become commercially available. One representative example of a successful product 

emerging from an SBIR contract was the underwater 

photosynthesis profiler, developed by the San Diegobased Biospherical Instruments. The device can be used 

to monitor fisheries, water treatment plants, and reservoirs. NASA was also using it to validate satellite sensors. 

In a separate project under way at the end of FY 

1991, Daedalus Enterprises of Ann Arbor, MI, was completing work on a 3-year program aimed at developing a 

commercial remote sensing system for the fisheries industry. The product, when completed, will help the industry 

to deploy its fleets in waters that have high concentrations 

42 
of marine life. 

Yet another SBIR success can be found in Lightwave 

Electronics, a California-based company that, since receiving a Phase I contract in 1985, has sold some 400 

ultranarrow linewidth lasers that can be used for fiber 

sensing, communications, and infrared interferometry. 

To stimulate the interest of potential customers and 

markets and to encourage private contracts with small 

firms that have commercially viable products, in late 1990 

the SBIR office published a catalog listing detailed information on the 88 products that have resulted from SBIK 

contracts. Thus far, the SBIR office has distributed more 

than 1,500 copies of the catalog through mailings and at 

the Technology 2000 Conference. 

In addition, the SBIK office has been working to 

include these products in the data base network of NASA’s 

Industrial Applications Centers. The New England Research Applications Center in Tolland, CT, has already 

integrated information on SBIR products in its data base 

system. Also, as part of its outreach program, the SBIK 

Office sent representatives to 16 conferences held in 1990 

by Federal and state agencies as well as small business 

development organizations across the U.S. and participated in two Federal high technology conferences. 

In short, NASA’s Office of Commercial Programs has 

been active in a variety of areas to promote private 

investment in commercial space and to transfer existing 

technologies to U.S. industry. There rcmain many challenges, foremost among them being the organization of 

OCP’s efforts into a program that fully develops commercial space markets and thereby strengthens U.S. industrial 

competitiveness. 

Space Communications 

The Space Communications functions are categorized as the Space Network, the Ground Networks, 

Communications and Data Systems, and Advanced Systems. The Space Network is the most complex, highly 

sophisticated tracking system in the world. This network 

provides tracking and communications for Earth-orbital 

and suborbital missions. The Ground Networks provide 

Earth-based tracking and data acquisition capabilities for 

all NASA planetary and deep space missions, and many 

of those in Earth-orbit. The Communications and Data 

Systems are the vital link between ground stations and the 

users. Communications are provided to link remote 

tracking stations with mission control and data processing 

facilities, and for administrative services such as facsimile, 

teleconferencing, telemail, and computer-to-computer 

data sharing for NASA Centers and Headquarters. The 

Data Systems provide data processing and mission control operations for numerous programs. The Advanced 

Systems specialize in research and development efforts 

focused on technological advances in telecommunications, electronic microcircuitry, and computer sciences. 

The Advanced Systems efforts are only in areas where the 

needed technology is not being developed by industry or 

other agencies. 

Space Network 

The Space Network provides tracking and communications service requirements to a variety of Earth-orbital 

missions demonstrating in dramatic fashion its versatility 

and functionality. During the past year, the Space 

Network accommodated a 4-fold increase in peak traffic 

over that provided 2 years earlier. Yet, services to the 

space mission were provided at a performance proficiency better than 99.8 percent. Increased frequency of 

Space Shuttle flights, the Gamma Kay Observatory, the 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, and the Hubble 

Space Telescope were the major contributors to this 

heavy workload and the beneficiaries of the high proficiency level. 

Key elements of the operational Space Network 

serving those spacecraft in Earth-orbit are: the Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite System (TDKSS) spacecraft; the 

White Sands Ground Terminal (WSGT); the Goddard 

Space Flight Center’s Network Control Center (NCC) and 

Flight Dynamics Facility (FDF), interconnected through 

the NASA Communications System (NASCOM). 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TDRSS). On August 2, 1991, the fifth Tracking and Data 

Kelay Satellite (TDKS-5) was successfully launched aboard 

STS-43. After a successful on-orbit checkout of this 

spacecraft in record time, it replaced TDRS-3 in the 174 

degrees West position of the TDKS constellation. TDKS3 was then moved to a central location and designated the 

on-orbit emergency backup spacecraft for the network. 

TDKS-1 remained on station at 171 degrees West to 

augment TDKS-5 during STS missions. Space Network 

43 
customer requirements in the eastern hemisphere continue to be met by TDRS-4. The on-orbit TDRS constellation, linked to the ground by the White Sands Ground 

Terminal (WSGT) in New Mexico, provided continuous 

communications coverage to network customers for over 

85 percent of each orbit. 

Second TDRSS Ground Terminal (STGT). The 

STGT, located a few miles north of the WSGT, was 

initiated to eliminate a critical single point of failure. It is 

scheduled to be operational in mid-1993. Major accomplishments during this fiscal year included delivery of 

substantial quantities of automated data processing equipment, fabrication of the 19-meter antennae, and substantial testing of electronic subsystems. In addition two more 

space-to-ground links were added to the system design. 

TDRS 11 Cformerly called the Advanced Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System). In order to meet 

the continuing needs for satellite tracking and communications through the first decade of the 21st century, the 

Office of Space Communications initiated the TDRS I1 

program. The three participating contractors completed 

the TDRS I1 Phase B study in December 1991. The 

principal objectives are to minimize life-cycle costs and 

technical risks, and to develop transition procedures for 

integration of new capabilities at the ground terminals 

without interfering with ongoing operations. The Phase 

C/D request for proposals is to be issued early in 1992. 

Ground Networks 

The mission of the Ground Networks is to provide 

Earth-based tracking and data acquisition capabilities to 

all NASA planetary and deep space missions and many of 

those in Earth-orbit. The Ground Networks also provide 

launch and emergency communications for the space 

transportation system and tracking and data acquisition 

services for aeronautics, balloons, and sounding rocket 

programs. The Ground Networks are comprised of the 

following elements: the Deep Space Network (DSN), the 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN), and a 

variety of facilities for the tracking and acquisition of data 

from aircraft, balloons, and sounding rockets. 

The Deep Space Network (DSN). The DSN, 

managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, consists of 

three deep space communications complexes located at 

Goldstone, CA; Madrid, Spain; and Canberra, Australia. 

This network has a world-class capability for receiving 

transmissions from spacecraft operating in our outer solar 

system and for performing the extremely accurate measurements necessary to navigate to the outer planets. 

Since its inception in 1958, the DSN has provided tracking 

and data services to over 30 space flight projects. All the 

planets of the solar system have been visited with the 

exception of Pluto. The capabilities of this network to 

communicate with and navigate spacecraft at distances 

beyond the Mars orbit are unique. The DSN routinely 

receives data originating from spacecraft over seven 

billion kilometers from Earth. 

In 1991, the DSN provided navigation, telemetry, 

and command activities for: Magellan’s mapping of 

Venus; Galileo and its successful encounter with the 

asteroid Gaspara; and Ulysses, a joint NASMESA mission 

on its journey to explore the polar regions of the Sun. The 

DSN continues to provide tracking and data acquisition 

for older spacecraft such as the Pioneer and Voyager 

series. One of the Pioneer spacecraft has been operating 

since 1965. The Voyagers, with their primary missions to 

explore the outer planets, are journeying in search of the 

heliopause, which marks the outer boundary of our solar 

system. Communication with many of these spacecraft 

will continue into the next century. 

The unique capabilities of the DSN are also used to 

provide emergency tracking and command functions for 

both national and international spacecraft. Groundbased astronomical radar observations of near-Earth 

asteroids and comets also took place. This activity will 

continue to increase in future years as more emphasis is 

placed on detecting and observing objects that approach 

the Earth’s orbit. 

New capabilities continued to be implemented in 

the DSN in preparation for future planetary missions, such 

as Mars Observer, Cassini and Earth/Solar observations of 

the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program, 

which involves a series of spacecraft missions. 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

(STDN). The STDN, managed by the Goddard Space 

Flight Center (GSFC), consists of three ground stations 

located at Merrit Island, FL; Bermuda; and Dakar, Senegal. 

The STDN provides communications for the preflight 

testing of the Shuttle with its integrated payloads, contin44 
gency communications throughout the Shuttle mission, 

and range safety functions for the Eastern Test Kange. 

Over the past 30 years, STDN has provided tracking 

and data acquisition to unmanned and manned space 

flight. Unmanned spacecraft have provided a myriad of 

Earth science observations ranging from global weather 

data to monitoring of the Earth’s crustal dynamics. In FY 

1991, the STDN primarily supported the Space Shuttle 

program with contingency voice, command, and telemetry communications for six Shuttle missions. In addition, 

it provided tracking and data acquisition communications 

for Earth-orbiting spacecraft incompatible with the TDKSbased Space Network. It also performed emergency 

tracking and command activities for other Earth-orbiting 

spacecraft. 

Tracking and data acquisition activities for suborbital research activities require a variety of permanent and 

mobile facilities positioned throughout the world. These 

facilities capture, record, and process data from instmmentation packages on aircraft, balloons, and suborbital 

rockets. These systems contribute to basic research in 

aeronautics programs-such as flight dynamics, 

hypersonics, supersonics-and rotary winged aircraft as 

well as to astronomy, astrophysics, and Earth sciences. 

In a typical year, the Ground Networks facilities will 

meet the requirements of over 1,600 flight research 

missions and approximately 75 balloon and sounding 

rocket launches. Future plans include enhancement of 

the mobile capabilities to satisfy requirements for limitedduration tracking and data acquisition for selected Earthorbital spacecraft, such as the Small Explorer series of 

spacecraft. 

Communications and Data Systems 

In 1991, the Communications and Data Systems 

program continued to form the vital link between the data 

acquisition stations and the scientific customers and 

project facilities. The basic elements are: two communications networks; spacecraft mission control centers; data 

processing; and flight-dynamics computations. 

Communications. The Communications Program 

provided two Agencywide communications networks. 

The real time space operations communications are 

provided by the NASA Communications (NASCOM) Network. This global network interconnects NASA’s launch 

complexes, missions and network control centers, NASA’s 

Field Centers, and NASA’s international partners. 

The NASA Select video service continues to broadcast Shuttle mission operations, as well as educational and 

public affairs events, with coverage to the continental 

U.S., Hawaii, Alaska, and the Pacific Basin. 

NASA’s nonoperational data delivery and administrative communications requirements are met by the 

Program Support Communications Network (PSCN). This 

network connects all NASA Field Centers, major contractors, scientific investigators, and it provides access to 

commercial network services. Among the capabilities of 

PSCN is an extensive video teleconference facility linking 

all NASA Field Installations and Headquarters. 

NASCOM. In 1991, NASCOM began working with 

the General Services Administration (GSA) to transfer 

most voice/data and wideband services from dedicated 

point-to-point services to multiplexed dedicated transmission services using the FTS 2000 network. Reliability, 

availability, and technical specifications required by 

NASCOM will be retained through a negotiated “Assured 

Service Plan” between GSA and AT&T. 

PSCN. PSCN completed the transition to FTS 2000 

during FY 1991. An upgrade to the PSCN network will 

continue through FY 1992 in the area of packet switching 

prior to recompetition of the overall contract in FY 1993. 

Enhancements in the field of videoconferencing will also 

take place with the addition of high resolution graphics 

(1000-line resolution) in the network. 

Mission Control. During 1991, the Mission Control Program provided the control and performance 

analyses of NASA’s unmanned Earth-orbiting spacecraft. 

These control facilities perform the essential function of 

instructing the spacecraft to make observations and 

measurements. 

A newly developed dedicated control center and 

data capture facility successfully initiated Hubble Space 

Telescope operations. This control center is the most 

complex developed to date for an automated satellite. It 

effectively handled the early on-orbit operations problems of HST by modifying the ground and spacecraft 

software to enable mission success. 

In 1991, the Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) satellite and the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) 

45 
were launched. Our existing Multi-Satellite Operations 

Control Center and the Packet Processor Data Capture 

Facility successfully initiated operations of these two 

spacecraft. 

During 1991, the data processing program captured 

space-acquired images and measurements from both 

manned and unmanned spacecraft. Engineers then 

converted the captured data to forms the science community can interpret and distribute to world-wide science 

facilities. 

Flight dynamics computations for in-orbit, free-flyer 

spacecraft and Shuttle-attached payloads continued to 

supply the necessary trajectory analyses. Computational 

functions of the flight dynamics system were expanded to 

include GRO and UARS. In 1992 operations will begin for 

the Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) and Small Explorers. 

Standards, During the past year, the Consultative 

Committee for Space Data Systems (CCSDS), for which 

the Office of Communications and Data Systems serves as 

NASA delegate and secretariat, and the International 

Organization for Standardization (ISO) joined forces in 

developing improved data system standards. These 

standards provide a mechanism for the space agencies of 

the world to work together on space missions. CCSDS 

proposed two technical recommendations as IS0 Draft 

International Standards that were approved unanimously. 

Advanced Systems 

The Advanced Systems program enables the realization of improved performance and higher efficiency of 

operations through the introduction of new technology. 

The development efforts are focused in areas where the 

needed technology is not being developed by industry or 

other agencies. 

This program has effected great improvement.. in 

spacecraft, tracking and command, reception of spacecraft data, ground communications, data handling, network and mission control. 

Through the improvements in spaceborne communications equipment and ground receiving facilities, capabilities for the reception of data from deep space 

missions have increased by a factor of a trillion over the 

lifetime of NASA. Over the same period, the ability to 

determine the position of deep space mission spacecraft 

from the ground has increased by a factor of a hundred 

thousand. The performance and efficiency of data 

collection from Earth-orbiting satellites has been revolutionized by the operational TDRSS, which was first 

studied and conceptualized in the Advanced Systems 

program. 

Long-Term Study and Development Efforts. 

Major gains for deep space and Earth-orbiting missions 

are largely the result of long-term study and development 

efforts in the Advanced Systems program. Research 

efforts during 1991 included studies of new modulation 

and coding schemes to allow higher data rates and new 

data compression techniques; new techniques for highly 

accurate navigation and tracking; improved human machine interfaces; and use of knowledge-based systems to 

augment the software development process and reduce 

the process cost. 

Development efforts in 1991 were aimed at advances in both hardware and software. Among the 

significant accomplishments was completion of a new 34- 

meter antenna that is performing research on the use of 

higher frequencies for communications with future deep 

space missions. The use of higher frequencies will allow 

performance improvements that can be translated into 

smaller antenna apertures. Using a number of smaller 

antennas with increased performance lowers the cost of 

future networks, increases the scheduling flexibility, and 

improves system reliability. The first test of these higher 

frequencies will come with the experimental 32 GHz 

communications space-to-ground link on the Mars Observer spacecraft scheduled for a 1992 launch. 

Also in 1991, specialized microcircuits employing 

VLSI technology for signal processing and various other 

applications such as signal acquisition, tracking, and 

communications were implemented in the development 

of future missions. The chips can be used for both 

spaceborne payloads and ground stations. A groundbased decoder (called the Big Viterbi Decoder) is being 

built for improved performance with the Galileo spacecraft in its approach to Jupiter in 1995. Development 

continues on advanced languages and scheduling systems for network control and resource allocation in both 

the Space and the Deep Space Networks. All of the above 

were being tested in an operational environment as 1991 

ended. Another series of developments consisting of 

expert systems for fault monitoring, diagnosis, and opera46 
tor assistance are being used in the COBE and GHO 

missions. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

Within NASA, the Office of Aeronautics and Space 

Technology COAST) is responsible for the planning, 

advocacy, direction, execution, and evaluation of projects 

and research activities concerned with aeronautics research and technology. NASA’s strategy for aeronautics 

research and technology represents a response to the 

challenges of the nation’s aviation leadership and the 

opportunities for technological advances identified by the 

Office of Science and Technology Policy’s (OSTP) 1985 

report entitled National Aeronautical KCD Goals: Technology for America’s Future. A second OSTP report in 

1987, National Aeronautical HCD Goals: Agenda for 

Achiecement, updated the earlier report and provided a 

detailed, 8-point action plan for coordinating the efforts 

of industry. academia, and the government to ensure that 

U.S. industry remains a viable competitor in the world 

aviation marketplace. Together these reports outlined 

national goals in the transatmospheric, supersonic, and 

subsonic flight regimes to focus high-leverage technological developments, and concluded with a broad strategy for revitalizing the nation’s capacities for innovation 

in aeronautical research and technology. To implement 

this strategy, the Agency is pursuing six key thrusts: 

Subsonic Transports-to develop selected new 

technologies that will ensure the competitiveness of 

U.S. subsonic aircraft and enhance the safety and 

productivity of the National Airspace System. 

High-speed Transport-to resolve the critical 

environmental issues and establish the technological 

foundation for an economical, next-generation 

supersonic transport. 

High-Performance Aircraft-to provide technological 

options for revolutionary new capabilities in future 

high-performance fixed and rotary wing aircraft. 

Hypersonics/Transatrnospherics-to develop critical 

technologies for the X-30 National Aero-Space Plane 

and future hypersonic vehicles. 

Critical Disciplines-to perform fundamental 

research, investigate cross-cutting technology, and 

validate numerical simulation techniques to design 

and operate advanced aerospace systems. 

Critical National Facilities-to enhance, maintain 

and operate NASA’s vital aeronautical research 

facilities. 

The program itself is conducted at NASA research 

Centers located in California, Ohio, and Virginia. Each 

Center has unique facilities and research staff expertise 

that provide a significant national resource for the pursuit 

of new advances in aeronautical technology. All Centers 

conduct extensive in-house research using special facilities and equipment. In addition, each center conducts 

research in close coordination with other governmental 

agencies, universities, and industry. 

The Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, CA, uses 

its unique capabilities in computational fluid dynamics 

and computer science applications to focus on the 

development of new analytical methods. Key items in the 

area of systems technology include hypersonic aircraft, 

propulsion/airframe integration, powered lift technology, and rotorcraft aeromechanics. The Center also has 

advanced aerodynamic testing and flight simulation facilities for validating analytical methods and conducting 

investigations of both small- and large-scale aeronautical 

configurations. Ames also conducts research in such 

areas as human factors, aircraft and air traffic control 

automation, flight dynamics, and guidance and digital 

controls. The National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Complex 

houses the world’s largest wind tunnel, providing capability to conduct ground testing of full-scale and largescale aircraft and their components. Additional wind 

tunnels offer unique test capabilities from the low subsonic to the hypersonic speed range. 

The Dryden Flight Research Facility at Edwards, CA, 

is NASA’s premier installation for aeronautical research 

and flight testing. Current research includes investigations in flight techniques and instrumentation, high angleof-attack flight characteristics, laminar flow at supersonic 

speeds, and design methodologies for integrated flight 

and propulsion controls. 

Propulsion is the primary focus of the Lewis Research Center in Cleveland, OH. The Center’s research 

and technology expertise address four main thrusts: 

47 
aeropropulsion, space propulsion, space power, and 

space science and applications. The objective of the 

aeropropulsion thrust is to advance and strengthen 

aeropropulsion technology that will contribute significantly to the development of U.S. civil and military 

aircraft. NASA’s research on aircraft icing and ice protection systems is being performed in the Lewis Icing 

Research Tunnel. Other areas of investigation include 

advanced turboprop systems, small turbine engine technology, high temperature composite materials, and advanced concepts for reduced engine noise and emissions. 

The Langley Research Center in Hampton, VA, 

pursues research in fundamental aerodynamics and fluid 

mechanics, computer science, unsteady aerodynamics, 

human factors, and aeroelasticity. Aerodynamic testing to 

support the research in each of these areas is a major focus 

of the Center. In addition, the Center is a leader in 

structures and materials research with a primary focus on 

the development and validation of methods and research 

in structural analysis of airframe metallic and composite 

materials. Langley also conducts fundamental research 

on fault tolerant electronic systems and flight control. 

Other research areas include: advanced airborne windshear 

technology, simulation and evaluation of advanced operational aircraft systems, acoustics and noise reduction, 

and propulsion/airframe integration. 

tivity of the National Aviation System. In recent experiments, radar and infrared sensors were flight evaluated on 

the NASA Transportation System Research Vehicle in a 

cooperative program with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to develop and validate airborne windshear 

detection and avoidance systems technology. In other 

cooperative activities with the FAA, the two agencies have 

initiated field evaluation of the NASA-developed CenterTracon Automation System (a concept to assist controllers 

in handling terminal area traffic) to meet future needs of 

Air Traffic Control in the airport terminal area. 

A cooperative flight test with the Boeing Commercial Airplane Group has successfully achieved aircraft 

drag reduction using hybrid laminar flow control. Analysis of the performance improvements from this technology was under way at the end of FY 1991. Active noise 

control techniques, tested in models, have been shown to 

reduce fuselage interior noise levels by 12 decibels (dB). 

Increased emphasis has been placed on engine source 

noise reduction. Advanced composites materials technology for high-strength, light-weight structures is progressing on a broad front. Representative results have included 

fabrication of Resin Transfer Molding stitched composite 

structures that exhibit minimal reduction in compression 

strength due to thermal and moisture exposure. 

Rotorcraft 

Applied Research and Technology 

Applied research and technology activities carry 

new and innovative technology from the laboratory 

experiment into experimental and verification systems 

testing. These programs are organized into a specific 

vehicle-class focus to provide for the design, fabrication, 

and testing of multidisciplinary aeronautical systems. The 

overall goal of the systems technology programs is to 

reduce greatly the technical risks associated with integration of diverse disciplinary technologies into their ultimate applications. 

Subsonic Transports 

The overall goal of the subsonic transport program 

is to develop selected, high-leverage technologies and 

explore new means to ensure the competitiveness of U.S. 

subsonic aircraft and to enhance the safety and producNASA has established two key rotorcraft objectives. 

The first is to develop critical technologies for safe, 

economical and environmentally acceptable operation of 

advanced rotorcraft in the National Aviation System. The 

second key objective is to develop the technology for 

revolutionary new capabilities in future high-performance rotary wing aircraft. 

Ongoing research under the first objective includes 

a recent joint NASA-Industry tail-rotor noise research 

program that resulted in the development of Sikorsky’s 

quiet tail rotor design. Tilt-rotor noise research included 

a project with the XV-15 tiltrotor equipped with advanced-technology blades. A flight test program has been 

completed providing an extensive data base of acoustic 

measurements for validation of prediction code. Rotorcraft Icing research is being conducted to provide prediction capabilities leading to icing protection systems that 

will permit all-weather operations. Future commercial 

48 
tiltrotor technology requirements are being studied, and 

a technology plan is being prepared for a potential 

enhanced tiltrotor technology program. 

The second objective involves a joint program with 

the Army to conduct wind tunnel and flight testing with 

highly instrumented blades to investigate rotor structural 

limits during high speed maneuvers. A UH-60 Blackhawk 

is being used in the flight research program to provide the 

necessary data for the development of advanced technologies such as active control for improved maneuverability. Future high-leveraged technologies including 

Nap-of-the-earth (low-level) flight and increased agility 

are also being developed in cooperative programs with 

the Army. 

High-Performance Aircraft 

NASA’s high-performance aircraft research program 

is an integral and critical part of the overall aeronautics 

program. The program is structured to develop and 

mature technologies with important military and civil 

applications. 

Supermaneuverability. Achieving Stdbk, maneuverable and controllable flight at angles-of-attack to 

70 degrees-and beyond-relative to the free stream 

airflow offers dramatic improvements in military effectiveness. Collectively the technology is referred to as 

“supermaneuverability.” Flight experiment, wind tunnel, 

and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) data are being 

integrated to develop design criteria and methodologies 

for future high-performance aircraft in the areas of flightvalidated aerodynamics, maneuver, and agility. Freeflying, powered wind tunnel models and simulation 

studies have demonstrated unprecedented high angle-ofattack capabilities, which were being verified in flight as 

the year ended. 

Flight tests of the NASA/Navy F-18 High Angle-ofAttack Research Vehicle (HARV) with a Thrust Vector 

Control System (TVCS) installed were taking place at the 

end of Ey 1991. The TVCS was developed to provide the 

HARV with additional control authority necessary for 

stable, maneuverable, and controllable flight at the previously mentioned angles of attack to 70 degrees and 

beyond. The ”VCS provides up to 20 degrees of vectoring 

in both pitch and yaw axes. The first HARV flight with the 

TVCS activated was successfully completed on July 15, 

1991. This aviation milestone was the first interrelated 

propulsion/flight control, multi-axis thrust-vectoring flight 

on a fixed wing aircraft. 

In addition to ongoing flight research, a Navy F-18 

was being tested in the Ames Research Center’s 80- by 

120-foot Low Speed Wind Tunnel. The results of this 

testing will permit the comparison of full-scale wind 

tunnel results with CFD solutions, subscale wind tunnel 

data, and flight research results. Future activities include 

the full three dimensional CFD modeling of the aircraft, 

full envelope expansion of the TVCS, ground and flight 

tests of aircraft forebody vortex generators for yaw 

control, and the integration of program results into flightvalidated design criteria and methodologies for future 

highly agile, high-performance aircraft. 

X-29 Program Status. The X-29 program was a 

joint program by NASA, the Air Force, and the Defense 

Advanced Research Projects Agency to investigate performance advantages and new options in configuration 

integration of forward swept wing fighter-class aircraft. 

Concurrently, researchers seized the opportunity to test 

several other emerging technologies of high potential. 

These include relaxed static stability; three-surface longitudinal control; aeroelastic-tailored, composite, thin 

supercritical wing; and digital flight control systems. 

At the end of FY 1991, the X-29 program had been 

successfully completed. The final phase, the X-29 highalpha program, completed the aerodynamic characterization using flow visualization and extended surface pressure instrumentation. During the X-29 high-alpha program, the aircraft successfully maneuvered to 45 degrees 

alpha and was flown pitch-only to 68 degrees alpha. One 

aircraft will be kept in flyable storage in order to maintain 

availability for potential follow-on research on this unique 

configuration. 

X-31 Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability Flight 

Test Program. The X-31 Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability (EFM) program is a joint US-German program. 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, Navy, 

NASA, and Air Force are the U.S. partners. NASA, along 

with the Navy and Air Force, will conduct the initial flight 

envelope expansion of the X-31 at the Dryden Flight 

Research Facility. After envelope expansion, X-31 flight 

49 
testing will explore the tactical utility of the high angle-ofattack flight regime. 

Short rake-off and Vertical Landing Aircraj2. 

In 1991 the United States and the United Kingdom 

pursued a 3-year extension to the 5-year program for 

developing advanced Short Take-off and Vertical Landing 

(STOVL) technologies aimed at reducing the technological risk associated with the next-generation STOVL aircraft. The two countries exchanged research and technical data for key STOVL phenomena such as hot gas 

ingestion, augmentation by burning, jet plume/aircraft 

interactions, ground temperatures and noise, and integration of flight and propulsion controls. Research under the 

original agreement is essentially complete except for the 

flight and propulsion controls flight research. Another 

technological thrust was to develop airframe configurations that minimize hot gas ingestion from the propulsion 

system recirculation and the associated performance 

degradation. Analysis of the Lewis Research Center’s 9- 

by 15-faot low speed wind tunnel results have identified 

aircraft design options for substantial reductions in the 

ingestion of hot gas. Studies and research under this effort 

have identified additional research needs for internal 

propulsion ducting and valving, hot gas ingestion and 

ground environment, vertical thrust nozzles, controls, and 

alternate approaches for thrust augmentation. 

Supersonic Cruise 

Studies conducted here and abroad continue to 

show that with sufficient technological development, 

future high-speed aircraft could be commercially competitive with subsonic aircraft and capture a significant 

portion of the growing long-haul intercontinental market, 

especially in the transpacific sector where travel is projected to quadruple by the turn of the century. However, 

environmental concerns regarding atmospheric impact, 

airport noise, and sonic boom present powerful privatesector disincentives at this time. NASA’s High Speed 

Research program, initiated in FY 1990, is directed at 

resolving these issues and developing a technical basis for 

informed decisions by U.S. industry on high-speed aircraft development in the future. Strong foreign interest 

and investment in high-speed transport research only 

serves as a reminder that a share of this multibillion dollar 

future market will not be won without a concerted 

X431 Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability flight test aircraft. 

national research effort. By addressing the key technologies that will resolve the environmental barriers, NASA’s 

High-speed Research program is helping assure U.S. 

manufacturers are well prepared for this next plateau of 

transport sales competition. The program builds on 

NASA’s extensive ongoing efforts in upper atmosphere 

research and previous experience in reducing aircraft 

emissions, noise, and sonic boom. 

Atmospheric Research. The Atmospheric Research program involves two elements: long-term atmospheric assessment and low emission combustor research. The long-term atmospheric assessment is refining 

and adapting atmospheric models to evaluate potential 

global ozone depletion due to high-speed transport 

engine emissions in the lower stratosphere. The initial 

assessments show that operational flight corridors are 

possible that would produce less than 1 percent ozone 

loss if engine nitrogen oxide (NO,) emissions could be 

reduced by a factor of 10 over current engines (to 5 grams 

equivalent NO, per kilogram of fuel burned). 

Engine Emissions Research. To achieve this 

goal, NASA’s low emission combustor research is developing and testing alternative methods for reducing or 

eliminating engine exhaust products that cause ozone 

depletion. The primary focus is to develop advanced 

technology combustor designs for low nitrogen oxide 

emissions. Progress to date is excellent with recent 

laboratory testing of two advanced combustion concepts 

having both demonstrated less than 5 grams equivalent 

50 
NO, per kilogram of fuel at simulated cruise operating 

conditions. (See above and below for other ozonerelated coverage.) 

Airport Noise Reduction. The airport noise 

reduction research for supersonic aircraft focuses on 

alternative engine cycles and jet noise suppression nozzles 

aimed at providing the technology to comply with Federal 

noise regulations (FAR 36 Stage 3 noise levels), the same 

levels required of today’s quietest subsonic aircraft. This 

research includes anechoic chamber tests of advanced 

technology noise suppressor nozzle designs and development of aircraft high-lift aerodynamics and advanced 

operational procedures during takeoff and landing. During 

the past year, 12-18 dB noise suppression has been 

demonstrated in acoustic testing of 2 small mixer-ejector 

nozzle models, thereby showing significant potential for 

achieving the noise reduction goals. 

Sonic Boom Research. The sonic boom reduction 

research addresses aircraft configurations aimed at reducing the sonic boom levels and also looks at human 

responses thereto in order to define the criteria for 

acceptability. The aircraft configuration research includes 

design analyses and wind tunnel testing of low sonic 

boom configurations, analysis and flight research on 

supersonic laminar flow control, and selected flight 

research efforts to verify the analyses and wind tunnel test 

results and evaluate atmospheric propagation effects and 

operational procedures. with respect to human response, recent testing of human subjects in a sonic boom 

simulator has been successful in developing a subjective 

noise metric for the relative acceptability of a wide range 

of aircraft pressure-disturbance signatures. 

Engine Materials Research. To meet the challenge of environmental acceptability, both of the candidate low-NOx combustor concepts preclude the use of 

internal cooling now applied extensively in current 

aircraft combustors, thereby placing a severe demand on 

materials. Similarly, the length and mechanical complexity of the exhaust nozzles necessary for low noise levels 

will also require much lighter-weight, higher-temperature 

materials than currently available to be economically 

viable. Both requirements place a demand on material 

properties that cannot be met with today’s technology. 

The FY 1992 Enabling Propulsion Materials augmentation 

to the program addresses these requirements by accelerating development of a new class of ceramic-based 

composite materials capable of operating uncooled to 

3000 degrees Fahrenheit (F) for the combustor, and of 

high-temperature, high-strength intermetallic composites 

to reduce jet exhaust nozzle structural weight. As the 

development and introduction of new materials have 

historically required from 12 to 15 years, efforts on these 

new materials must start now to ensure their availability 

by 2005, the year when these new materials will be 

required. Early work will focus on advanced hightemperature fibers that are critical to both these composite-material systems. 

Generic Hypersonics 

The Generic Hypersonic program is a long-range 

endeavor that stresses fundamental understanding of the 

physical processes controlling flight and promotes new 

ideas. The program emphasizes research and technology 

development, primarily for slender air-breathing hypersonic vehicles that use highly integrated airframe/propulsion concepts; however, the scope is quite broad and 

includes various forms of accelerator and cruise aircraft, 

space and planetary vehicles, hydrogen and hydrocarbon 

fuel systems. The program also stresses technical issues 

as opposed to commitment to particular missions, and it 

advances high pay-off technologies, some of which have 

been identified by the National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) 

program (see below), as well as other aeronautics and 

space programs. Key problems exist in the areas of 

hypersonic boundary layers and high-speed transition, 

mixing and combustion at supersonic speed, real gas 

effects at high temperature, rarefied flows at high altitude, 

and high-specific-strength metal-matrix composite materials. The overriding objective of the program is to 

provide a capability to respond to the future mission and 

application needs of both NASA and the DOD. 

In addition to the classical disciplines, the program 

introduces new elements in the areas of technologyintegration research, advanced instrumentation research, 

facilities research, and flight research. An important focus 

of this program will be the enhancement of overall 

hypersonic capability through activities in ground-based 

facilities research, flight experimentation, development 

of advanced nonintrusive flow-field instrumentation, 

multidisciplinary research addressing the highly coupled, 

51 
complex interaction of integrated components, and the 

development of CFD algorithms of unprecedented accuracy. 

Ames Research Center has conducted investigations 

in aero-heating, control concepts, lightweight ceramic 

matrix composites, and improvements to an arc-jet facility 

used to test and evaluate high-temperature insulation 

concepts. Langley’s efforts consisted of the development 

of three-dimensional, nonequilibrium computational fluid 

dynamics flow field code; characterization of thin-gauge 

metallic substrate material formed by deposition; evaluation of waverider configurations with high lift/drag ratios; 

investigations of the effects of contaminants on supersonic-combustion ramjet combustion; and analysis of 

actively cooled structural concepts. Lewis’ efforts focused 

on advanced high-speed propulsion inlet configurations, 

fundamental fuel/air mixing, and development of hightemperature reinforced composites. 

NASA’s expertise in hypersonic technology is being 

fully applied to the National Aero-Space Plane with the 

realization that its extremely broad range of technological 

needs challenges all disciplines. Future hypersonic 

vehicle concepts will be designed with the data base 

developed from the multidisciplinary technology of the 

generic hypersonic program. 

Disciplinary Research and Technology 

NASA’s disciplinary research is aimed at establishing and maintaining a solid foundation of technology in 

the traditional areas of aerodynamics, propulsion, materials and structures, information sciences and human 

factors, and flight systems and safety. Research objectives 

include development and validation of computational 

methods for analysis and prediction of complex external 

and internal flows, structural mechanics, control theories 

and their interactions; development of design and validation methods for highly reliable, integrated, and interactive control of aerodynamics, structures, and propulsion 

systems; development of human-error tolerant, computer-aided piloting systems; development of design 

methodologies and life prediction modeling techniques 

for advanced high temperature materials; and development of a solid research base to enable new innovative 

concepts. 

F-26XL flight test with supersonic laminar flow control test 

section glove. 

Aerodynamics 

The NASA aerodynamics effort provides the technology upon which vehicle advances can be made 

throughout all speed regimes and aerospace vehicle 

classes. Disciplinary research in aerodynamics has been 

structured in a program of closely integrated efforts in 

theoretical analyses, numerical simulation, wind-tunnel 

testing, instrumentation development, and flight research 

projects. 

Fluid Physics Research. Fluid physics activities 

explore fluid mechanics phenomena theoretically, 

computationally, and experimentally. Emphasis has been 

placed on the development and validation of computational design tools, advancing the technologies of aerodynamics configuration surface modeling and grid generation, development of advanced testing methods of visualization both experimentally and computationally, and 

the investigation of viscous phenomena for accurate 

prediction of aerodynamic characteristics. These advanced and validated methods will be integrated into 

vehicle design through technology transfer to the aircraft 

industry. The continued efforts in transition and turbulence in terms of understanding, modeling, and direct 

simulation will provide improvements in prediction techniques for both transition and turbulence. The totality of 

this research in fluid physics continues to move toward 

achieving the goal of accurate design-analysis capabilities 

52 
Wind tunnel study of high Reynolds number transporf wing 

design. 

across the speed regimes for all types of aerospace vehicle 

configurations. 

Computational Fluid Dynamics. NASA’s CFD 

program is focused on the present and future technological needs of the aerospace community. These needs 

include: (1) developing faster and more efficient numerical algorithms to facilitate solutions of the full NavierStokes equations by large-eddy simulation/small-scale 

turbulence modeling; (2) developing advanced geometric techniques for complex, three-dimensional configurations; (3) improving understanding of the efforts of grid 

characteristics on solution accuracy, convergence, and 

stability; (4) enhancing computational capabilities through 

development and use of advanced computer architectures and expert systems concepts; and (5) developing 

improved methods for numerical simulation of 

aerothermodynamic flow phenomena associated with 

hypersonic cruise and maneuver vehicles, including realgas chemistry. CFD techniques are now capable of 

accurately simulating full-flight configurations. Recently, 

NASA computed the complex flow field over an F-18 

aircraft. These flow field computations display the vortex 

behavior and breakdown at high angles-of-attack and can 

cause buffeting of the vertical tail surfaces. The results 

compare very well with flow visualization photographs 

taken in flight of a testbed F-18 aircraft. 

Hybrid Laminar Flow Control Flight Experiments. Hybrid Laminar Flow Control (HLFC) is a recently 

developed technique for maintaining low-drag flow on an 

aircraft wing by air suction near the leading edge and by 

contouring a special wing surface. Research has suggested that substantial reductions in aircraft drag can be 

realized by employing this technique. During 1990-1991 

a cooperative research program involving NASA, Boeing, 

and the United States Air Force applied and flight tested 

an HLFC research section to a B-757 transport aircraft 

wing. The experiment established that HLFC operation 

for the wing mid-span is feasible. Kesearchers observed 

laminar flow back to 65 per cent of the wing chord, which 

extrapolates to a 6 percent reduction in total aircraft drag. 

In addition, the requirements for wing suction to maintain 

laminar flow proved to be considerably less than expected. Tests to further refine the feasibility of the 

technique were continuing at year’s end. Engineers also 

tested laminar flow control (LFC) techniques at supersonic speeds on an F-16XL testbed aircraft. They maintained laminar flow to 26 percent chord in these initial 

tests, suggesting that LFC may be an applicable dragreduction method across the speed range. Plans were 

under way at the end of the year to modify an F-16XL with 

a larger suction glove in an attempt to obtain laminar flow 

back to 60 percent chord at supersonic speeds. 

Wind Tunnel Test Techniques. Research efforts 

were under way at the end of FY 1991 to explore the use 

53 
of heavy gases for wind tunnel test media. These gases 

can provide high test Reynolds numbers at low dynamic 

pressures, reducing model loads and distortion. High-lift 

models are particularly susceptible to deformation at 

elevated dynamic pressures; yet precision tests of this 

nature are crucial in advanced transport development. 

These gases do not have the same compressibility and 

thermodynamic properties as air, and investigations will 

determine the feasibility of accurately adjusting the heavy 

gas test results to predict the aerodynamic characteristics 

in air. Recent instrumentation research has resulted in a 

photoluminescent paint technique that provides for real 

time sensing and visualization of surface pressures or test 

articles. This work promises to greatly reduce the 

difficulty and expense of obtaining static pressures. The 

method was also proven valid for the supersonic flight 

environment with experiments performed on an F-104 

aircraft test fixture. 

STOVL E-7A Tests. The E-7A program is part of an 

overall NASA effort in the development of STOVL technology (see related coverage above). Early tests of the 

full-scale powered model demonstrated acceleration and 

deceleration performance that enabled transition from 

hover to forward flight and back to hover in level flight. 

In 1991, initial tests at the Outdoor Aerodynamic Research 

facility sought to determine the hover performance without wind tunnel wall interference. The results demonstrated that the aircraft has adequate out-of-ground effect 

lift capability. These test efforts provided technological 

assurance toward the development and deploy-ment of a 

new class of supersonic STOVL combat aircraft in the 

United States. 

Propulsion 

Advanced propulsion technology is the key to 

realizing major improvements in performance for many 

new aeronautical-vehicle concepts. The current Propulsion System Technology Program is built upon a solid 

base of focused research in areas of Internal Fluid 

Mechanics (IFM), high-temperature materials, advanced 

control concepts, and new instrumentation techniques. 

Discipline research in IFM has provided analytical 

tools necessary for describing complex flows in 

turbomachinery, high-speed inlets, exhaust nozzles and 

ducts, and chemically reacting flows in combustors. The 

research has shown that high-temperature materials, 

including nonmetallic ceramic matrix composites, can 

provide operational capability up to 3000 degrees F and 

are thus the key element in achieving high performance 

and reduced specific fuel consumption. Advanced control concepts, such as fiber-optic based controls, are 

aimed at providing increased safety and protection from 

electromagnetic interference and atmospheric phenomena, such as lightning. New instrumentation techniques 

not only provide accurate measurements of the fundamental properties of materials and fluids necessary to 

validate computational tools but also precisely monitor 

critical operating parameters of the propulsion system 

that have increasingly severe temperature and pressure 

environments. 

Advanced Ducted Propeller. In a cooperative 

program, NASA's Lewis Research Center and Pratt and 

Whitney tested a 17-inch-diameter Advanced Ducted 

Propeller (ADP) at takeoff conditions in the Lewis 9- by 

15-foot Low Speed Wind Tunnel. The simulated ultrahigh-bypass-ratio model was run with a conventional, a 

mid-length, and a short inlet installed. Inlet duct and fan 

total pressures and temperatures and inlet surface static 

pressures were measured while the model was taken to 

high angle of attack. This parametric low-speed (Mach 

0.2) testing indicated that the best high angle-of-attack 

performance was obtained with the short inlet duct 

configuration. Additional tests also confirmed that this 

ADP concept can generate required levels of reverse 

thrust. At year's end, NASA and contractor personnel 

were installing the model in the Lewis 8- by 6-foot 

Supersonic Wind Tunnel for Mach 0.8 performance tests. 

High Efficiency Core. The high efficiency core 

program is specifically directed to provide the enabling 

technologies for achieving overall cycle-pressure ratios of 

100:l and peak temperatures of 3000 degrees F in 

advanced ultrahigh-bypass-ratio turbofan engines for the 

next generation (Year 2015) subsonic transport. Parametric cycle studies have provided the definition of technological needs for the high efficiency core program. Effort 

was under way at the end of FY 1991 to establish the 

optimum-configuration turbofan engine incorporating a 

high efficiency core. 

54 
High Speed Research. The high speed research 

program is focused to address critical environmental 

issues and provide enabling propulsion technology for 

economically viable, high-speed civil transports. A major 

technical challenge is the development of propulsion 

systems that will meet acceptable emission and noise 

standards and provide substantial reduction in fuel consumption while offering extended engine life at high, 

sustained operating temperature. (For a related program, 

see above under Applied Kesearch and Technology.) 

The engine emissions of primary concern are nitrogen oxides which, through a series of catalytic reactions. 

could adversely impact the Earth’s protective ozone layer. 

Kecently completed combustion experiments at the Lewis 

Research Center have demonstrated the potential of leanpremixed-prevaporized and rich, burn-quick, quenchlean-burn combustor concepts to achieve emission levels 

at or below the emission index goal of five grams of NOx/ 

kilogram of fuel burned. 

Aircraft noise and its propagation in and around 

airport communities continues to be a subject of significant concern. Technological development for supersonic 

transport noise reduction will combine propulsion-source 

noise reductions and the effects of improved lift-to-drag 

ratios on aircraft operations into an integrated program for 

reducing overall noise levels near airports. In 1991, the 

Langley Research Center completed source noise tests of 

single-flow generic nozzles (that is, circular, rectangular, 

elliptic). These tests quantified the noise reduction 

advantages of nonaxisymmetric jets. Approximately a 15 

dB reduction in sound pressure level was achieved with 

a shock-free elliptic jet configuration as compared to a 

conventional circular nozzle exhibiting a typical strongshock structure. 

Generic Hypersonics. The generic hypersonics 

propulsion program focused on development of improved understanding of supersonic combustion processes. The program used advanced laser-based optical 

techniques to define and map temperature and speciesconcentration profiles for flow downstream of a transverse jet injecting hydrogen into a Mach 2 air stream. Also 

completed in 1991 were the first tests of a new, variablegeometry hypersonic inlet concept that demonstrated 

enhanced low-speed (Mach 2-3) mass capture while 

retaining high-speed (Mach 5) performance. 

Materials and Structures 

The performance gains for future civil and military 

vehicles depend on technological advances in new, 

strong, lightweight materials and innovative structural 

designs. Equally important, the lifetimes of current 

aircraft have been increasing. To ensure the current fleet 

remains safe, NASA and the FAA have begun an aging 

aircraft program to develop methods for quick and 

inexpensive inspection for corrosion and structural degradation; to examine the nature of fatigue in the materials 

in use today; to develop new crack and corrosion resistant 

materials and structures; and to develop analytical procedures for evaluating in-service aircraft and predicting their 

residual life. 

AdvancedEngine Structures. Materials and structures play an important role in the development of 

advanced turbine engines. New materials will permit the 

development of turboprop and turbofan aircraft with 

increased range and thrust and enable development of an 

economically and environmentally acceptable high-speed 

civil transport. The goal of the enabling-propulsion 

materials initiative is to make a quantum leap in the 

development of materials to withstand the stress and 

temperatures found in these engines. Tests of advanced 

engine-structures technology, completed this year on 

new magnetic bearings with increased load capacity and 

reduced fuel consumption, demonstrated a 5 percent fuel 

savings and 15 percent weight savings for turbofan 

engines. 

Advanced Composites Technology. The advanced composites technology program emphasizes innovative fabrication concepts to make composites cost 

competitive. NASA selected an automated fiber placement process for a fuselage crown structure, then fabricated and tested panels to validate the concept. Compared to current aluminum technology, the tests demonstrated a potential 25 percent cost and a 40-50 percent 

weight savings. 

Computational Structures Technology. At the 

current rate of improvement in computational power, the 

computers of the 1990s will be invaluable design tools. 

The computational structures technology program has 

55 
been examining ways to exploit the evolving highperformance computers to increase the efficiency of the 

computer-analysis tools used to design novel structures 

employing advanced materials. 

Tire Design. Recently, NASA distributed a national 

tire-modeling computer program to the tire industry. This 

analysis method performs detailed, three-dimensional 

tire design based on material and geometrical parameters. 

Coupled with the national data base for bias-ply, radialbelted and H-type tires, this program will allow superior 

tires to be designed so as to enhance aircraft safety during 

ground operations under adverse weather conditions. 

Aircrafl Noise Reduction. Noise has always been 

a concern. Not only is it bothersome to airline passengers; 

it fatigues the airframe. The final phase of the advanced 

turboprop interior flight program was under way at year’s 

end. This program, a combination of predictive techniques and testing, is developing ways to reduce the noise 

in the aircraft cabin. One innovative technique of 

reducing cabin noise is the application of piezo-electric 

actuators to the fuselage, resulting in a reduction of cabin 

noise by an average of 12 dB. 

Active Flexible Wing Program. High-performance aircraft encounter the severest loading conditions. 

Their control systems must therefore be more flexible and 

expected to perform a wide range of roles, exhibiting 

significant aerodynamic and structural interaction, than 

those of commercial aircraft. In 1991 NASA completed a 

wind tunnel program in which the control system was 

designed to actively control wing loads during a rolling 

maneuver. The modified aircraft exhibited significant 

load reduction during rapid roll maneuvers, and its 

operating envelop was increased in dynamic pressure by 

more than 20 percent. 

Flight Systems 

In each discipline area such as aerodynamics, 

structures, flight controls, and propulsion there exists a 

need to validate research through actual flight testing of 

new components and systems. In some instances, 

aeronautical research can only be performed or validated 

in flight. This in-flight validation has frequently been 

Full-scale F-18 undergoing high-anglmfsttack testing in the 

Ames 80x120-foot wind tunnel. 

accomplished using high-performance aircraft as test 

platforms. 

Aircrafl Icing Research. NASA has been conducting tests jointly sponsored by the United States Air 

Force to define the capabilities on new low-power 

deicing systems for aircraft. Engineers using the Lewis 

Kesearch Center Icing Kesearch Tunnel (IKT) have evaluated eight concepts from six companies. The result has 

been an extensive data base of residual ice, shed-ice 

particle size, and power requirements. One of the 

important results of these studies has been the development of techniques that permit the recording and post-test 

analysis of ice-shedding events. 

Engineering personnel at Lewis have developed a 

three dimensional ice-accretion computer code, LEWICE 

3D, to permit the prediction of ice buildup on an actual 

56 
airfoil, whereas past codes have been limited to twodimensional shapes. Experimental ice shapes on a 30- 

degree swept wing in the IKT have shown excellent 

agreement with code predictions for icing times up to 7 

minutes. This new code will lead to more realistic 

evaluations of the effects of ice on aircraft performance. 

Lewis personnel have incorporated an electrothermal deicer computer code into the two-dimensional iceaccretion code, LEWICE. With this addition, the system 

can predict the effects of electrothermal deicer gerformance on ice shape and quantity, allowing designs and 

operating procedures to be optimized quickly and inexpensively. 

Vortex Flap. NASA has completed aerodynamic 

and performance flight tests of the vortex flap fitted to the 

F-106B research aircraft. Tests have evaluated wing/flap 

pressure distributions, handling qualities, performance, 

and stability and control characteristics for the modified 

configuration under sub-sonic and transonic conditions. 

The flight test results have generally confirmed the 

predicted characteristics, and engineers presented a summary of these results at the NASA High-Angle-of-Attack 

Technology Conference in November 1990. 

The results of the F-106 vortex flap flight experiment 

will provide validated design methods and computational 

fluid dynamics predictions to enable improved subsonic 

lift/drag performance for supersonic aircraft. At the 

design lift coefficient of 0.5, a 60 percent improvement in 

lift/drag was obtained. Applied to a High Speed Civil 

Transport (HSCT), this would permit reduction in engine 

power during climb-out after takeoff with significant 

noise reduction. In the case of a fighter aircraft, this would 

provide for increase in maneuvering “G” for a specific 

thrust setting. Preparation of the formal documentation 

for these results was in process as the year ended. 

HighAngle-of-Attack Technology Program This 

comprehensive aerodynamics, flight dynamics, and control research program contains analytical, computational, 

wind tunnel, and flight research elements. The program 

has placed its emphasis on the acquisition of detailed, 

flight-validated data bases in high angle-of-attack environments (that is, to 70 degrees and beyond). A thrust 

vectoring control system installed on the test aircraft will 

enable extended pitch and yaw control. The system was 

*. .. . 

F-15 flight test of Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control. 

midway through envelope expansion at year’s end; 

preliminary results indicated that it was producing predicted levels of control in-flight. Forebody vortex control 

devices, both mechanical and pneumatic, that enable yaw 

control at high angle of attack through the manipulation 

of forebody vortices, were in detailed design and test at 

the close of Fiscal Year 1971. 

The detailed data base developed for the conventionally controlled F/A-18 aircraft was in the process of 

being extended using the thrust vectoring capability. 

Engineers have obtained data enabling comparisons 

between predicted and flight-measured aero-dynamic 

flow characteristics. Computational fluid dynamics techniques have been extended, allowing for the modeling of 

the full aircraft configuration at high angle of attack and 

sideslip for correlation to flight data. A retired Blue Angels 

F-18, installed in the Ames National Full-Scale Aerodynamic Complex Wind Tunnel, has begun to obtain highfidelity wind tunnel data for correlation to subscale tests, 

CFD, and flight tests. 

Flight Research of F-15 Ait-crafi. The NASA 

Performance Seeking Control (PSC) flight validation program began in 1990 at the Dryden Flight Research Facility 

using the F-15 Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control 

(HIDEC) aircraft and will continue into 1992. PSC 

optimizes the engine controls and the aircraft flight 

controls in combination. Tests have demonstrated thrust 

increases in the 10 to 15 percent range at constant fuel 

flow for the subsonic conditions tested to date. 

SR-71 Research TestbedAircrafi. By July 1991, 

three SR-71 aircraft had arrived at NASA’s Dryden Flight 

57 
Research Facility. NASA’s Dryden-based flight operations 

for pilot training began in July 1991 using the dual cockpit 

SR-71B trairwr aircraft. Flight research experiments were 

being defined for these testbed aircraft as the year ended. 

The experiments identified to date primarily support the 

National Aero-Space Plane and NASA’s High-speed Kesearch program. In August 1991, the SR-71B conducted 

sonic boom research flights. Other flights under consideration include investigation of an Optical Air Data 

System and an inlet-spike Flush Air Data System. 

Supersonic Laminar Flow Control Research. 

NASA has conducted a cooperative laminar flow control 

flight test program using an active and passive glove 

attached to the left wing of an F-16XL aircraft. Rockwell 

International designed the glove and active boundary 

layer suction system for a military requirement. Results of 

this test in 1991 indicate significant laminar flow of the test 

glove airfoil can be achieved at low-unit Reynolds number supersonic flight conditions. Laminar flow sensitivity 

to angle-of-attack and sideslip were also investigated. 

Between 1992 and 1995, NASA plans to conduct extensive 

flight research of a new glove design. The new and larger 

active and passive glove will include an airfcil section and 

pressure distribution designed to achieve maximum laminar flow during supersonic cruise for the HSCT application. Development and delivery of validated methodologies for a high degree of HSCT supersonic cruise laminar 

flow is the goal of this program. 

Information Science and Human Factors 

New missions that stretch piloting capability and 

integrated systems that demand high-speed computational processing are the challenges confronting the 

NASA Information Sciences and Human Factors program. 

The technologies emerging from this rapidly expanding 

field of science provide the key to understanding, controlling, and optimizing the new families of aeronautical 

vehicles. 

Controls and Guidance. Controls and guidance 

research has been providing advanced technology to 

exploit concepts that dramatically improve the operational capabilities of civil and military aircraft., NASA has 

conducted the first airborne windshear flight experiment 

for detection and avoidance to evaluate radar clutter 

models and airborne infrared radar systems. The Federal 

Aviation Administration selected the Center-TKACON 

Automation System as the basis for the Terminal Air 

Traffic Control Automation program field evaluation. An 

F-18 High Angle-of-Attack Research Vehicle demonstrated automated testing techniques, along with multifunction test and analysis techniques, in an integrated 

computer environment. Further, researchers have completed the initial integration of heat transfer code and 

have developed enhanced actuator models for 

aeroservoelastic analyses to support hypersonics research. 

Human Factors. Human factors research supports aeronautical research and technological development by providing new methods and tools to increase 

flight crews’ capabilities to manage complex flight conditions. NASA researchers have developed and published 

a new concept of human-centered aircraft automation. 

The report describes rationale, concepts, and guidelines 

for the use of automation by flight crews. In other areas, 

there have been extensive tests of countermeasures to 

combat pilot fatigue during long flights, and simulator 

tests have demonstrated electronic display of procedural 

checklists. 

High Performance Computing and Communications. NASA’s High Performance Computing and 

Communications (HPCC) program participates in all four 

components of the Federal program in this area of 

endeavor. HPCC is focused on grand challenges through 

a vertically integrated program composed of: computational aerosciences, Earth and space sciences, and remote 

exploration and experimentation. The goal is to accelerate the development and application of high performance 

computing technologies in order to meet NASA’s science 

and engineering requirements. In cooperation with other 

Federal agencies, NASA’s program will deploy teraFLOPS 

computer capabilities essential for computational design 

of integrated aerospace vehicle systems and for predicting long-term global change, and it will enable the 

development of massively parallel techniques for 

spaceborne applications. 

NASA’s program is focused on bringing together 

interdisciplinary teams of computer scientists and computational physicists to develop these technologies within 

three vertically integrated projects that are unique to 

58 
Artist's concept of the X-30 National AeroSpace Plane. 

KASA's missions. These technologies include applications algorithms and programs, systems software, peripherals, networking, and the actual high performance 

computing hardware. NASA plans to develop a suite of 

software tools to enhance productivity. These include: 

load balancing tools, run-time optimizers, monitors, and 

parallization tools, as well as data management and 

visualization tools. 

NASA's role includes coordinating the Advanced 

Software Technology and Algorithm component for the 

Federal program; acquiring experimental hardware for 

testbeds in computational aerosciences, earth and space 

systems sciences, and remote exploration and experimentation; and supporting the development of the National Research and Education Network. NASA's considerable expertise in experimental parallel computer testbeds 

and small, scalable testbed systems will be used to 

demonstrate high performance computing technologies 

as a step toward full-scale computational capabilities. 

National Aero-Space Plane 

The National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program, 

begun in 1986 as a joint venture by NASA and the DOD, 

has continued to be focused on key technologies for 

hypersonic cruise and single-stage-to-orbit flight using 

airbreathing primary propulsion. This program is currently progressing through a technology-development 

phase that relies on analytics and ground-based testing. 

The next program phase will require building and flighttesting a NASI' experimental vehicle, the X-30. This 

vehicle will demonstrate numerous new technologies and 

explore phenomena that cannot be adequately simulated 

on the ground. The decision on whether to proceed to 

the X-30 will be made in 1993. 

The five major contractors for NASP have integrated 

their work under a joint-venture partnership. Pratt & 

Whitney and Kocketdyne continued to advance propulsion-system technology, while General Dynamics, 

McDonnell Douglas, and Rockwell International were 

jointly responsible for the airframe and total vehicle 

integration. Government research centers and laboratories, the other part of the national team, were responsible 

for numerous technological tasks that span a wide range 

of disciplines. 

Participating engineers have achieved progress in 

propulsion through both CFD and tests of both engine 

components and subscale engines. New data for improved engine concepts was gained in the Mach 4 to 8 

range with special facilities for supersonic combustion 

ramjets. (These facilities use arc-heaters or combustion to 

preheat the inflow air, simulating shock-wave heating at 

the front of an actual hypersonic vehicle.) Tests at speeds 

up to Mach 17 defined the performance of advanced 

engine components, such as fuel injectors, as well as the 

chemistry of nozzle flows; advanced laser-based diagnostic tools yielded much of the data. CFD for internal flows 

was sufficiently advanced to apply to detailed engine 

design. Continued work on slush hydrogen fuel, a 

cryogenic mixture of solid and liquid hydrogen, has led 

to improvements in fuel production, storage, and handling for the projected X-30 aircraft. 

The development of NASP structures has progressed to the testing of large-scale assemblies representative of parts of the final vehicle design. During 1991, for 

example, a fuel tank installed in a fuselage segment 

successfully endured harsh thermo-mechanical loads that 

simulated NASP flight profiles. Results of such tests 

contributed to the selection of graphite epoxy for the fuel 

tank and a titanium metal-matrix composite for the 

fuselage shell. Heat shields of baked carbon and panels 

cooled with internal flows of cold hydrogen will protect 

the parts of the fuselage shell that experience the most 

severe aerodynamic heating. 

Advances in NASP aerodynamics have refined the 

X-30 configuration. Results of wind-tunnel tests have 

59 
allowed better simulations of engine flows from takeoff 

through hypersonic speeds. Improvements in the use of 

CFD predictions include applications of new, more sophisticated mathematical models of hypersonic boundary-layers. This work has led to configuration refinements, such as a recontoured fuselage forebody as well 

as selection of the best nozzle shape. 

Space Research and Technology 

The Space Research and Technology program consists of a continuum of activities ranging from initial 

research conceptualization to the full-scale testing of 

prototype equipment in space. The program’s mission is 

to provide both technology for future civil space missions 

and a base of research and technology capabilities to 

serve all national space goals. This mission includes 

identifying, developing, validating, and transferring technology to increase mission safety and reliability, reduce 

program development and operations cost, enhance 

mission performance, and enable new missions. In 

addition, the program provides the capability to advance 

technology in critical disciplines and respond to unanticipated mission needs. Activities include work that is 

performed by in-house staff at the NASA Centers, university researchers supported by NASA-funded grants and 

contracts, and industrial aerospace organizations under 

contract to NASA. The Office of Aeronautics and Space 

Technology manages and coordinates the work through 

a process that integrates the best available talent and 

capability in NASA, industry, and the universities into a 

national civil space research and technology program. 

To accomplish its goals, the Space Research and 

Technology program is composed of two complementary 

parts: the research and technology (R&T) base program 

and the focused technology programs. The R&T base 

serves as the seed bed for new technologies and capability enhancement. Through the R&T base program, 

usually at a subscale level, scientists and engineers 

develop forecasts regarding the potential applicability, 

usefulness, and overall benefit associated with new 

technologies. These diverse efforts provide evolutionary 

advances in technology in all important space disciplines 

and technological breakthroughs that may revolutionize 

a technical discipline or mission concept. Once the 

potential applicability of a new capability is established, 

decisions are made to carry selective discoveries into 

focused technology. A key element of the space research 

and technology program is developing and sustaining a 

strong partnership with the university community. The 

goal of the university space technology research is to 

enhance and broaden the capabilities of the nation’s 

engineering community through active research participation in the US. civil space program. The program is an 

integral part of the strategy to reinforce the space research 

and technology capabilities of the nation. 

Focused development is initiated based on the 

identified and projected needs of both current and future 

space missions. The strategy is to provide a balanced, 

multidisciplinary program to meet these needs. Three 

focused programs have been initiated since 1988, the civil 

space technology initiative, the exploration technology 

(formerly called Pathfinder), and the in-space technology experiments program. In the focused programs, 

technologies are developed for specific applications, and 

products are delivered in the form of large-scale hardware 

technology demonstrations, software, and design techniques and methods. This technology development is the 

vital first step in providing the capability to improve our 

understanding of the planet Earth and in allowing us to 

move out from Earth and expand our presence into the 

solar system. Because the focused programs are committed to meeting the needs of the user community, they are 

structured into five technology thrusts: space science, 

planetary surface, space platforms, transportation, and 

operations. This five-thrust approach correlates well with 

the capabilities that will be needed for current and future 

missions and organizes the space research and technology program for alignment with future NASA or national 

technology needs. The program addresses requirements 

developed through an intensive and continuous dialogue 

with technology users from NASA, US. industry, and the 

academic community. 

Significant progress was made in 1991 in each of the 

principal thrusts, and continuing efforts promise to show 

even greater results. Recent examples have included: 

Space Science Technology Thrust 

In the 1990 Report of the Advisory Committee on the 

Future of the US. Space Program, chaired by Mr. Norman 

60 
Augustine, science was identified as the fulcrum of the 

entire civil space effort. “Science,” the committee said, 

“gives vision, imagination, and direction to the space 

program.” The space science thrust is committed to 

developing advanced observation, information, spacecraft, and operations technologies that will maximize the 

return from NASA space and Earth science missions over 

the next 20 years. 

The coming era will witness dramatic increases in 

the use of robotic spacecraft for space science missions, 

including Earth science, solar system science, astrophysics, space communications, and microgravity. These 

missions will advance our understanding of the Earth as 

a system; explore and characterize the planets in our solar 

system; study the complex interactions between the Sun 

and planetary magnetospheres; expand our understanding of the birth and formation of stars and stellar systems; 

search for evidence of planets around other stars; and 

contribute to our continued leadership in space. 

The space science thrust is aimed at developing 

space-based instrument component and detector technologies to enable new space science measurements and 

space instrument support and observation technologies 

to maximize scientific returns from these missions. Areas 

of research in FY 1991 included direct detectors, submillimeter sensing, laser sensing, telescope optical systems, 

coolers and cryogenics, and sample acquisition, analysis, 

and preservation. 

During FY 1991, space science technologies provided concrete examples of the benefits of technology 

investments on a number of crucial NASA missions. In 

support of space science missions in the early 1980s, the 

Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology developed 

the technology for the world’s first large-swath, real time 

synthetic aperture radar ground processor. Capable of 

performing over 6 billion floating point operations per 

second, the system consists of 76 circuit boards containing over 27,000 integrated circuits with a capability to 

process data in real time. This technology became the 

heart of the Magellan ground image processing system, 

producing the remarkable images of the planet Venus that 

we have seen during the past year. The system has 

processed over 1500 orbits of Magellan data over the last 

year without major failure. Yet, without the initial 

investment in technology, this capability would not have 

been possible. 

Technology provided by the space research and 

technology program was also critical to the development 

of Star Trackers used on the recent Astro-1 Space Shuttle 

mission in December 1990. (See above.) Star trackers are 

a special class of star sensors that image an area of the sky 

to provide precise star position data relative to a fixed line 

of sight. Based on charge-coupled device sensor technology, the Astro Star Tracker tracked objects over a 10,OOO:l 

brightness range and allowed very accurate and stable 

position determination at any point within its field of 

view. 

The Astro Star Tracker took on a vital role early in 

the mission when problems with the prime star trackers 

prevented the automated Instrument Pointing System 

from locking onto the operational guide stars. The Astro 

Star Tracker then became the primary means of target 

acquisition. The Shuttle crew was able to compare star 

positions acquired with the Astro Star Tracker with 

onboard small-field-of-view star maps and manually 

point the instruments to the science target with a joystick. 

Problems for the mission were compounded when the 

Shuttle’s onboard digital display units failed. Star positions could then no longer be displayed to the crew. 

Ground support crews were able to resolve this glitch by 

identifying each star field acquired by the Astro Star 

Tracker in real time and issuing instructions to the 

astronauts who then manually repointed the telescopes. 

The mission manager stated that this capability was 

essential to the success of the mission. 

The accomplishments of space science technology 

also included the demonstration of a diode-pumped twomicron solid state laser. This laser was being researched 

as a potential candidate for use in NASA’s Mission to 

Planet Earth program to better understand the complex 

and dynamic natural and manmade forces that interact to 

create weather and climate. Two-micron laser research is 

motivated by numerous atmospheric remote sensing 

applications that require an efficient, long-life, eyesafe 

laser. Potential applications include both the measurement of global winds and atmospheric CO, concentrations. In the past year, researchers were able to demonstrate in 2.122 micron lasing at 30” Celsius (room temperature) with good efficiency. Additional experiments demonstrated for the first time both high efficiency and gain 

for the same laser amplifier. The laser obtained optical 

gains of 10 for low amounts of incident light. These 

61 
accomplishments will enable eye-safe lidars ("light detection and ranging" laser radar) with greater range and 

sensitivity. 

Transportation Technology Thrust 

The transportation technology thrust is comprised 

of technologies enabling expansion of space transportation systems capabilities for future ambitious missions, 

including full studies of the Earth and its environment, 

robotic missions to explore the Solar System fully, and 

manned exploration of the Moon and Mars. It has 

included technologies that allow for evolutionary improvements in current transportation systems as well as 

technologies that provide the foundation for the development of major new transportation systems as needed. The 

goal has been to provide vehicle systems technologies 

that substantially improve safety and reliability, increase 

system availability and provide new capabilities, while 

reducing life-cycle costs. 

This thrust is segmented into three technology 

areas: Earth-to-orbit transportation, space transportation, 

and technology flight experiments. Earth-to-orbit transportation is necessary to provide access to low-Earthorbit. Space transportation, meanwhile, is focused on 

developing the critical technologies needed for transportation to, and return from, the Moon, Mars, and other 

planets and bodies in our Solar System. Technology flight 

experiment5 consist of efforts to develop, through space 

experimentation, information not available from groundbased research, and in some cases, to provide a technological validation that could not pragmatically be achieved 

otherwise. 

Elements of research in FY 1991, included Earth-toorbit propulsion, aerobraking, advanced cryogenic engines, autonomous landing, autonomous rendezvous and 

docking, cryogenic fluid systems, nuclear thermal propulsion, and the aeroassist flight experiment. 

There were many significant accomplishments in 

FY 1991. The program developed an advanced manufacturing process that could greatly decrease the time and 

cost of fabricating rocket engine combustion chambers 

for the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME). The two major 

components comprising a typical combustion chamber 

are a structural outside jacket and an internal liner. An 

advanced low cost investment casting process was used 

in the fabrication of the outer structural jacket, and NASA 

developed promising construction methods for the internal liner fabrication. One method employed a technique 

of vacuum plasma spraying a copper alloy material onto 

the internal surface of the outer structural jacket to form 

the liner in which slots were milled to form coolant 

passages. Analyses suggest that an SSME main combustion chamber fabricated by these approaches would 

decrease the fabrication time to 50 weeks (instead of 150) 

and reduce the cost significantly. Although primarily 

aimed at the next generation of rocket engine developments, the application of these techniques to our current 

family of expendable launch vehicles or to the SSME itself 

is a distinct possibility. 

In another area, researchers used advanced computational fluid dynamics techniques that will enable the 

design of turbines, pumps, and other rocket engine parts 

with higher operating efficiencies and greatly reduced 

dynamic loading. Using these tools for engine component design prior to the initiation of a flight hardware 

development program has the promise of greatly reducing program risk and cost. As an example, in FY 1991, the 

use of computational fluid dynamics tools in the design 

of a generic technology turbine stage permitted the use of 

a single instead of a two-stage turbine. This advance 

resulted in a turbine efficiency increase of 10 percent and 

a 55 percent reduction in the number of blades required. 

Analyses suggest that these design improvements would 

result in significant life-cycle cost savings for future 

engine developments, such as the SSME. This work is 

essentially laying the ground work for all future rocket 

engine turbopump designs. 

Space Platforms Technology Thrust 

The space platforms technology thrust is primarily 

concerned with providing the technology needed for 

future space platforms. This thrust seeks to provide 

technologies for the following mission classes: unmanned Earth orbiting platforms in low-Earth-orbit or 

geosynchronous Earth-orbit, manned Earth orbiting platforms (space stations), and deep-space platforms. The 

overall technological goal is to enhance future scientific, 

explorational, and commercial missions by providing 

lightweight and durable platforms. In addition, these 

platforms must have the capability to compensate for the 

vibrations and disturbances that structures experience in 

space. Once achieved, these advances will lead to reduc62 
tions in spacecraft launch weight, increased lifetime, and 

reduced life-cycle costs by decreasing on-orbit maintenance and logistics resupply needs. Ongoing efforts at the 

end of FY 1991 included research in platform structures 

and dynamics. 

This program made great strides in FY 1991. Kesearchers continued to analyze results obtained from the 

Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), retrieved in 

January 1990 after 5 1/2 years in space. The preliminary 

findings of radiation investigators yielded a few surprises. 

The LDEF measurements of anomalous and ultra heavy 

cosmic rays were 6 times more sensitive than any other 

measurements that will be available this decade. In 

addition, beryllium 7 was discovered on the front surfaces 

of LDEF in quantities 1,000 times that predicted by 

atmospheric diffusion. An explanation of the presence of 

beryllium 7 on the surface of LDEF posited that it must 

have been first rapidly and efficiently transported to 

higher altitudes and then absorbed onto the surface of the 

spacecraft. Neither process had been expected. This data 

has contributed to the understanding of radiation issues 

and has improved the models used to develop Space 

Station Freedom (SSF) radiation protection requirements. 

Ultimately, this knowledge will result in significant weight 

savings for the Station. 

In addition, materials data from LDEF will provide 

the “benchmark” for design data bases for spacecraft that 

will have to be maintained in the low-Earth-orbit environment. Some materials were encouragingly resistant to 

that environment. Protective techniques involving the 

coating of polymer materials with very thin metallic layers 

proved to be quite durable. Overall, most systems on 

LDEF worked well. No failures of electrical or mechanical 

systems that could be attributed to the low-Earth-orbit 

space environment have yet been detected. A variety of 

low cost electrical/electronic components were used 

successfully on the facility. Additionally, no evidence of 

cold welding has been detected to date. 

Also during the past year, researchers used a 

computer program known as the NASA Charging Analysis 

Program (NASCAP) to model the electrodynamic environment that Space Station Freedom might encounter. Use 

of the program identified a potential problem from 

deleterious high-voltage interactions. Space Station solar 

cells are larger than standard solar cells and have a 

peculiar geometry. NASCAP determined that the floating 

potential of the cells in the space plasma resulted in a 

negative ground (about -140 volts) relative to the plasma. 

The magnitude of this voltage is high enough that the 

incoming positive ions in the plasma will hit with sufficient energy to “knock off‘ material from the Station (that 

is, sputtering will occur). Moreover, dielectric breakdown 

could occur (that is, the voltage is high enough that there 

would be arcing or breakthroughs of the anodized 

surface). The calculated arc rate is one arc every 2 

seconds. If this occurred all surfaces would be denuded 

in 2 to 3 years. Awareness of this problem and quantitative predictions by NASCAP about its effect have permitted a solution to be devised to change the floating 

potential by either increasing the ion collection or decreasing the electron collection. 

NASA is planning an array of ambitious science 

missions to explore the Solar System and better understand the Earth as an entire system. To make these 

missions possible, engineers need advances in the precision control of space structures that support sensitive 

scientific instruments. The key is to develop designs that 

compensate for the vibrations and disturbances that 

structures experience in space so that these instruments 

can acquire the data they need. In the past year, 

researchers have conducted initial ground test experiments which indicate that an increase in precision control 

of 20-30 percent is possible. In addition, analytical studies 

show significant improvements in precision pointing jitter 

(vibration) for large space antennas. These results hold 

the promise of reducing the jitter for antennas of 20 to 80 

meter range by a factor of 500. 

Planetary Surface Technology Thrust 

The objective of the planetary surface technology 

thrust is to develop the critical technologies required for 

future Solar System exploration missions including establishment of a base on the Moon and manned exploration 

of the planet Mars. This effort will develop a broad set of 

technologies that will enable new and innovative capabilities, increase reliability, and reduce risk for human 

missions beyond low Earth orbit; reduce development 

and operations costs for long-term exploration efforts; 

and enhance performance for human and robotic missions. 

As a partnership between NASA, industry, and 

academia, this thrust will enhance our nation’s “cutting 

edge” in the highly competitive arena of aerospace 

63 
technology. The focus of effort is on developing new 

technologies in several broad areas to enable future 

robotic and piloted Solar System exploration: space 

nuclear power, high capacity power, surface power and 

thermal management, planetary rovers, regenerative life 

support, radiation protection, extravehicular-activity systems, human factors in exploration, and explorationtechnology analysis. 

During FY 1991, there was progress in a number of 

key areas. In regenerative life support, researchers 

developed a systems analysis tool with the capability to 

perform rigorous system and technology trade-off analyses quickly and inexpensively. This modeling tool identifies the relative benefits of each technology without 

having to commit to costly hardware designs. It has been 

shown to be versatile for analyzing a wide variety of 

regenerative life support systems. This tool has proved 

useful in analyzing potential systems for both lunar and 

Mars base missions. These include carbon dioxide 

removal, carbon dioxide reduction, oxygen generation, 

potable water processing, hygiene water and human 

waste processing. These studies will support NASA’s 

definition and evaluation of hybrid physical-chemicalbiological life support systems for potential development. 

This thrust also supports NASA’s contribution to the 

SP-100 technology development program for space nuclear 

power. The program’s objective is to develop and 

validate technology for nuclear reactor power systems in 

space that can produce tens to hundreds of kilowatts of 

electric power and be capable of 7 years of operational 

life at full power. 

In FY 1991, the SP-100 Program, which is a joint 

NASA, Department of Defense, and Department of Energy endeavor, successfully completed development of 

uranium nitride fuel pellets for a generic 100-kilowattelectric space reactor power system. Researchers also 

achieved the design goal of burn-up to 6 percent with 

prototypic fuel in representative fuel pins. In addition, the 

program successfully demonstrated the bonding of the 

fuel pin cladding to the rhenium liner. This liner is needed 

to protect the fuel pins from fusion gases. With these 

advances, the fuel pin design and fabrication process for 

the reactor is now complete. These were all critical steps 

toward bringing this technology to maturity for application in a lunar outpost in the next century. A mature lunar 

base will require nuclear power because the lunar nights 

are too long (approximately 14 Earth days) to make nonnuclear energy storage practical. 

The past year has also witnessed a true watershed 

in robotics research. Researchers developed and demonstrated a semi-autonomous navigation system for unmanned wheeled planetary rovers and tested the vehicle 

on a 100 meter test course. This advance represented the 

first use of an autonomous navigation and control system 

for recognizing and traversing natural terrains without 

human teleoperation. For potential future unmanned 

missions to Mars, rovers will need onboard intelligence or 

semi-autonomous navigation systems to enable the machines to think and see for themselves under conditions 

of long communications delays. For manned missions, it 

offers the potential of freeing the astronauts for more 

creative tasks. 

In another accomplishment, researchers developed 

and demonstrated a low-power, legged vehicle on extreme terrains. Known as Ambler, this system demonstrated extremely high mobility, with an ability to cross 

large obstacles while maintaining a low power profile. 

Legged systems provide realistic alternatives to wheeled 

rovers, which can be limited to benign terrains. These 

experimental robots will form the foundation for continuing development of mobile robotics software and navigation technologies to support future exploration of challenging but scientifically intriguing areas of both the 

Moon and Mars. 

Operations Thrust 

The objective of the operations technology thrust is 

to develop and demonstrate technology to reduce the 

cost of NASA operations, improve the safety and reliability 

of those operations, and permit new, more complex 

activities to be undertaken with robust and flexible 

support systems. This thrust is directed towards developing those technologies that offer potentially significant 

benefits in all of the major operational areas of the 

Agency, as well as in support of the US. commercial 

satellite industry. 

The major operational areas of NASA are physical 

operations and activities in space, including flight operations and mission control for both manned and unmanned missions; ground support operations to process 

payloads, spacecraft, and launch vehicles (both pre- and 

post-flight); and those special operations that will be 

necessary to support activities on the surface of the Moon 

64 
and Mars, as the Space Exploration Initiative unfolds. The 

technology program that responds to these needs is 

directed to those specific areas where the greatest needs 

exist, where the greatest impact can be made, and where 

U.S. industry is not expected to develop the required 

capabilities independently. Work was ongoing at year’s 

end in telerobotics, artificial intelligence, in-space assembly and construction, and space data systems. 

Automation and robotics activities received special 

emphasis with a number of significant accomplishments 

in 1991. Advances were made in real time data systems 

and automated structural assembly among other programs. By introducing state-of-the-art techniques in 

expert systems, software engineering, human/computer 

interfaces, and distributed systems, the Space Kesearch 

and Technology program improved the quality of flight 

decision making and the cost effectiveness of Space 

Shuttle Mission Control Operations. As manned spacecraft missions and flight operations have increased in 

frequency and complexity, greater demands have been 

placed on flight controllers to perform more problem 

solving tasks. The goal of the real time data system is to 

relegate the repetitive, monotonous monitoring tasks in 

mission control to automated systems and free the flight 

controller to concentrate on the more challenging aspects 

of space flight such as schedule modifications and trouble 

shooting. In FY 1991, the Johnson Space Center added a 

number of real time expert systems into its Mission 

Control Center consoles. The principal mission benefits 

from the applications were improved data monitoring and 

more thorough analysis of fault data in a shorter period of 

time. By supplying this capability, real time data systems 

should produce much needed savings in manpower. As 

an example, the Mission Control Center (MCC) recently 

installed a data communications expert system for operating the flight recorders on board the Space Shuttle. 

Providing a color graphics display in order to be user 

friendly, this system monitors the flight recorder data for 

failures or errors. Once the system is complete, it will 

replace a data communications officer. 

Real time data systems have resulted in other 

dramatically new capabilities. For example, by acquiring 

real time telemetry, these systems permit an animated 

view of the position of the Space Shuttle’s Remote 

Manipulator System. Flight controllers who monitored 

the Remote Manipulator System traditionally had to 

determine the position of the robot arm by observing 

digital readouts of the angles of each of the arms joints. 

A combination of off line tools and mental gymnastics 

allowed operators to ascertain the arm’s position. The 

new data system not only lowers the flight controller’s 

workload but also allows the controller to view and thus 

prevent collisions between the Shuttle and payloads. 

Advances were also made in the automated assembly of large space structures. This program focused on the 

actual automated assembly of a generic structural truss 

that is the basic element for both observation antenna and 

aerobrake configurations. Proposed space missions, both 

to and from Earth, require large structures to provide stiff 

and stable platforms for experimental measurements. 

This program conducted robotics research with the goal 

of making the construction of these platforms both 

practical and cost effective. In FY 1991, complete 

assembly and disassembly of a 102-member truss took 

place in a supervised autonomy, computer control mode. 

The reliability of the system was good and the test monitor 

was successful in correcting most operational errors. 

Operations have now been expanded to include the 

assembly of panels that are removed from a canister by 

the robot and attached to the truss during assembly. 

University Space Research 

In April 1988, NASA’s Office of Aeronautics and 

Space Technology announced the competitive selection 

of nine University Space Engineering Research Centers. 

These university centers have supported NASA’s goal of 

broadening the nation’s engineering capability in order to 

meet the critical needs of the civilian space program. As 

stated in the August 1987 program notice, “these centers 

are expected to perform research and to develop technologies relevant to operational bases on the moon, to 

manned and unmanned operations to Mars, to space 

flight missions to other parts of the solar system, and to 

space flight operations in the future, such as envisioned 

by the National Commission on Space.” 

The centers foster creative and innovative concepts 

for future space systems while conducting focused research in one or more of the traditional space engineering 

disciplines and in cross disciplinary combinations. This 

effort enhances engineering education by directly involving students in space engineering research tied to future 

NASA mission needs. The centers promote the teamwork 

that technological systems problems demand and bring 

65 
individuals from a wide range of engineering and scientific fields into a single research structure. 

In FY 1991 the centers have already shown exciting 

technical and educational benefits. For example, the Mars 

Mission Kesearch Center at North Carolina State University and North Carolina A&T University combined fragile 

carbon fibers with hardened resin to create strong, 

lightweight, damage-tolerant, heat resistant materials that 

may one day be used in the construction of a spacecraft 

for a mission to Mars. These materials, known as composites, are made by combining two or more elements to 

yield a final product that is much stronger than its parts. 

Using a technique known as three dimensional braiding 

and weaving, students are employing high tech fibers to 

make beams and cylinders for use as components in 

future heat shields and aerobrakes. 

A team of faculty members and graduate students at 

the University of Cincinnati, meanwhile, was developing 

a series of microsensors to indicate the health of spacefaring 

vehicles. Since they fly into space repeatedly, being able 

to determine the condition of Shuttle components like the 

main engines is critical. These devices could monitor gas 

and liquid fuel flows inside a Shuttle engine and its 

associated support systems to ensure they are functioning 

properly. Advanced micromachining techniques make it 

possible to include valves, heaters, or even motors in a 

device with a diameter less than that of a human hair. The 

sensors are so small that even if one came loose, it would 

be like a speck of dust, having negligible impact on 

engine performance. 

The potential spin-off applications of this technology are limitless. Kesearchers at the University of 

Cincinnati’s Medical Center were already exploring their 

use in the care of premature infants as the year ended. A 

significant number of these infants suffer respiratory 

disorders. Many have to be connected to a ventilator 

around the clock. But setting the controls on the 

ventilator remains a relatively imprecise science. Improper oxygen levels and pressures can contribute to 

more severe problems, such as mental retardation. Researchers were thus studying the possibility of putting a 

microsensor inside the plastic tube inserted in a baby’s 

trachea. Their work to date indicates that these 

microsensors can produce the information needed to 

improve premature infant care. 

In-Space Technology Experiments Program 

NASA’s partnership with the university community 

also passed a major milestone when the first university 

flight experiment supported by the In-Space Technology 

Experiments Program flew aboard the Space Shuttle in 

September, 1991. Known as MODE for Mid-deck 0- 

gravity Dynamics Experiment, the project, developed by 

students and faculty at MIT, flight tested the influence of 

zero-gravity on the sloshing behavior of fluid in a tank and 

the vibration characteristics of truss structures in space. 

This experiment will help the Agency develop technologies that will compensate for the vibrations platforms 

encounter in space. The truss structure contained various 

Components including a model of the Space Station solar 

array support structure. Astronauts used a device to excite 

vibrations within the structure as it floated in the Shuttle’s 

middeck cabin. The knowledge gained from this experiment will be applicable to Space Station Freedom. 

Another advance for the In-Space Technology Experiment program took place when the Tank Pressure 

Control Experiment rode aboard Atlantis on STS-43 inJuly 

1991. This project demonstrated how cryogenic storage 

tank pressures can be controlled by actively mixing the 

fluids to eliminate temperature stratification. Transfer and 

control of very cold (cryogenic) fluids in microgravity for 

propulsion or power purposes is critical to plans for 

several future space efforts. The technology would allow 

lightweight cryogenic tanks to be used in advanced space 

projects, thus saving weight for additional payloads. 

Integrated Technology Plan 

The Advisory Committee on the Future of the U.S. 

Space Program, chaired by Mr. Norman Augustine, recommended in its final report that an Agencywide technology plan be developed by NASA with inputs from the 

associate administrators responsible for the major developmental programs. The recommendation was based on 

the analysis that “NASA has not been permitted to sustain 

an adequate level-of-effort program in space technology 

due in recent years to externally imposed budget reductions.’’ In response to this recommendation, NASA’s 

Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology has developed an Integrated Technology Plan (ITP) for the civil 

66 
space program that entails substantial changes in the 

processes, structure, and the content of NASA’s Space 

Research and Technology program. This plan will 

provide strategic direction for the space technology 

program. The major aspects of the planning process 

include employing a technology user driven process to 

establish program content, using well defined decision 

rules and evaluation criteria to establish program priorities, and creating an annual cycle for Space Research and 

Technology program planning, involving both user office 

participation and external review of proposed plans. 

The ultimate measure of success in the Space 

Research and Technology program is the incorporation of 

a technology into an operational mission. The evolution 

of a technology from proof-of-concept, through validation in successively more realistic environments, to eventual development can be a complex and time-consuming 

process. The objective of the Space Research and 

Technology program is to facilitate this process and 

minimize the time required. Involving the technology 

“users” as early as possible in technology development is 

critical to achieving this goal. The Integrated Technology 

Plan focused on facilitating this involvement at the critical 

phases of technology development. Concurrent participation by technologists and mission developers in the 

selection and maturation of technologies should lead to 

a level of understanding and a sense of ownership that 

will improve all aspects of technology development and 

transition. In this way, all our future national space 

endeavors will be enhanced by an investment in NASA 

space research and technology. 

Exploration of the Moon and Mars 

During 1991, the Space Exploration Directorate 

made significant progress toward developing a strategy 

for planning and implementing the Space Exploration 

Initiative (SEI), President Bush’s challenge to establish a 

permanent outpost on the Moon and explore Mars. 

Synthesis Report 

The Synthesis Group, an independent panel of 

government, industry, and academic experts chaired by 

former astronaut Lt. Gen. Thomas P. Stafford, USAF (Ret.), 

was established to assess and distill the results of the 

nationwide Outreach Program conducted in 1990. The 

Outreach Program solicited innovative ideas for lunar and 

Mars exploration from universities, industry, professional 

societies, Federal agencies, and the general public. Over 

2,200 ideas reached the Synthesis Group. In June 1991, 

it released its report, “America at the Threshold,” which 

made several recommendations for lunar and Mars exploration and outlined six exploration “visions” that formed 

the foundation for subsequent technical and programmatic recommendations. It also added to the body of 

policies and goals guiding the development of SEI. The 

six visions are to: 

Increase our knowledge of the Solar System and 

beyond; 

Rejuvenate interest in science and engineering; 

Refocus U.S. position in world leadership; 

Develop technology with terrestrial application; 

Facilitate further space exploration and commercialization; and 

Boost the U.S. economy. 

In addition, the report identified over a dozen key 

technologies, ranging from nuclear propulsion to advanced life support systems, that would be required to 

achieve the nation’s goals in space. The Synthesis Group 

also developed four explorational architectures-each a 

mixture of rationale, objectives, and technical approachthat should be considered as options for future 

explorational activities. 

Mars Exploration-The major objective of this architectural option was the first human exploration 

of Mars. The object of this exploration would be to 

address major scientific questions, including whether 

there was ever life on Mars. The emphasis of 

activities performed on the Moon would be preparation for the Mars missions, for example testing 

67 
surface power system technologies and life-support 

systems. 

Science Emphasis for the Moon and Mars-This 

option features a range of scientific activities on 

both the Moon and Mars. Lunar science would 

include the installation of astronomical observatories, studies of lunar geology, and observations of 

the Earth’s atmosphere. Scientific activities on Mars, 

in addition to addressing the question of past life on 

the planet, would include geology, climatology, and 

comparative studies designed to increase human 

understanding of our own planet, Earth, and its 

behavior. 

The Moon-to-Stay and Mars Exploration-Here, the 

focus was on a permanent human outpost on the 

Moon, followed by missions to Mars. In addition to 

all of the scientific activities previously mentioned, 

a continuing presence on the lunar surface would 

enable us to conduct extensive biological and 

manufacturing studies in low gravity environments, 

as well as to assess the potential for using lunar and 

Martian resources. 

Space Resource Utilization-This option emphasizes the use of natural resources found on the 

Moon and Mars. Such resources could be used 

locally to support subsequent exploration, for example the production of oxygen for life support and 

propellant, or for use on Earth, for example mining 

lunar Helium 3, a potential fuel for fusion reactors. 

This architecture might also include networks of 

satellites to collect and transmit solar power to Earth 

receiving stations, as well as missions to asteroids 

for purposes of mining their resources. 

Strategy and Technical Studies 

To provide a context for the Synthesis Report and 

lend coherence to space exploration efforts at NASA and 

other Federal agencies including the DOD and DOE, 

NASA developed a long term strategy for planning and 

implementing national exploration goals. Near term 

activities will focus on detailed analyses of architectural 

options with the goal of providing the President with 

recommendations for the first exploration “waypoint” or 

goal. This will be a significant technical and programmatic achievement in its own right, accompanied by 

identifiable benefits for exploration while maintaining 

maximum flexibility for planning and implementing future explorational missions. 

The technical challenges associated with exploration, particularly human trips to Mars, are immense. In 

1991, technical studies and analyses continued, building 

on past studies by NASA’s Space Exploration Directorate 

(formerly the Office of Exploration). These studies 

focused on mission design, trajectory analysis, systems 

concepts, and implications for research and technology of 

lunar and Mars exploration. By conducting these types of 

studies, the Space Exploration Directorate could more 

effectively work with other NASA program offices, other 

Federal agencies, and industry to define exploration 

requirements and formulate an action plan that takes 

advantage of each group’s unique capabilities, making 

the best use of limited resources available to meet the 

nation’s exploration goals. 

Interagency Cooperation 

As a result of such studies, in 1991 NASA and the 

DOD signed a memorandum of understanding speci@ing 

those agencies’ respective roles in the development of 

SEI. NASA and the National Science Foundation also 

signed a memorandum of agreement covering potential 

research activities in Antarctica that would benefit future 

SEI missions. Potential Antarctic analog activities include 

research into the effects of long-duration isolation and the 

conduct of scientific investigations in hostile environments. These new agreements build on the MOU signed 

by NASA and DOE in 1990. 

Making Space Exploration Responsive 

to National Needs 

In 1991, the Space Exploration Directorate made 

significant strides toward reaping early benefit from space 

exploration activities, particularly in the area of education. The highlight of the year’s activities was the 

Education Strategy Planning Conference, held in June 

1991 at the Johnson Space Center. NASA representatives 

from the Space Exploration Directorate and the Educa68 
tional Affairs Division met in Houston with educators and 

representatives of industry to discuss strategies for maximizing the benefits of exploration for all levels of the 

educational system from kindergarten through postdoctoral study. 

The primary objectives of the conference were to 

identify the ways in which space exploration in general, 

and SEI in particular, could contribute to meeting our 

national educational goals and to discuss the tools and 

mechanisms by which these contributions could he 

realized. In addition, the conference led to the establishment of an educational network for the Space Exploration 

Initiative, designed to foster future partnerships among 

academia, industry, and government. 

Work also began in 1991 to enhance the benefits of 

SEI to the U.S. economy. The Space Exploration Directorate has been working with NASA's Industry Relations 

Division and the Office of Commercial Programs in this 

area. Preliminary efforts were focused on encouraging 

timely transfer of technology through government-industry-academia partnerships in SEI-related research and 

development program$. 

69 
Department of Defense 

Space Activities 

Spacehunch 

Shuttle. The NASA Shuttle continued to support the 

DOD in Fiscal Year 1991 with a total of three launches. On 

November 15, 1990, STS-38 successfully launched a 

classified payload. Shuttle mission STS-39 lifted off on 

April 28, 1991 and carried the Air Force Space Test 

Program 1, P-675, and the Infrared Background Signature 

Survey (IBSS). On June 5,1991, STS-40 launched the SLS1 and successfully deployed it. 

Titan In FY 1991, the US. Air Force successfully 

launched two Titan IVs, including the first from Vandenberg 

Air Force Base (AFB), CA. Because of a reduction in 

satellite launch requirements, the Titan IV program was 

restructured in FY 1991. This restructure included the 

cancellation of another launch pad-Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6) at Vandenberg-and a slowdown in the 

production rate. At the end of FY 1991, two launch pads 

were in operation, one on each coast. A third pad was 

being constructed at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

(CCAFS), FL. When it is completed in 1993, the USAF will 

have the capability to launch up to six Titan IVs per year 

from Cape Canaveral and two from Vandenberg. 

Medium Launch Vehicles 

In FY 1991, the Air Force launched three Delta I1 

carrying NAVSTAK Global Positioning System (GPS) 

satellites, in addition to providing launch support for four 

commercial launches. The Atlas I1 launch system was in 

development to meet the needs of the Defense Satellite 

Communication System (DSCS). The first Atlas I1 launch 

vehicle was brought to the new stand at SLC-36 at CCAFS, 

FL. At Vandenberg AFB, two Atlas E vehicles launched in 

support of the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration. 

Small Launch Vehicle 

Pegasus. The Pegasus booster is a 3-stage, solidpropellant, inertially-guided, winged launch vehicle. A 

conventional transport or bomber class aircraft carries it 

aloft to an altitude of about 40,000 feet where ignition of 

its first-stage motor occurs. The Defense Advanced 

Research Project Agency (DARPA) conducted the second 

successful test flight of the Pegasus air launched space 

booster on July 17, 1991. The launch mission placed 

seven small Ultra High Frequency (UHF) communications 

satellites, known as Microsats, into low earth orbit. 

DARPA developed these satellites under the LightSat 

initiative. The Armed Services will demonstrate them in 

military exercises. The Flight 2 Pegasus booster incorporated several enhancements, including a new monopropellant liquid for the stage known as Hydrazine Auxiliary 

Propulsion System (HAPS), weight saving modifications 

to the Flight Termination System, and the first ever 

experimental application of a Global Positioning System 

receiver on a launch vehicle. The incorporation of GPS 

for aided navigation (to complement the inertial navigation system), together with the HAPS liquid motor upper 

stage, will provide a precision orbit injection capability for 

future defense space missions. Knowledge and experience gained in DARPA’s first two successful test flights of 

Pegasus was undergoing technical review at year’s end, 

while the transition of this new state-of-the-art booster to 

the USAF was proceeding. The USAF awarded the Small 

Launch Vehicle contract to Orbital Sciences Corporation 

on June 4, 1991. That company offered an improved 

Pegasus capable of delivering 459 pounds to a 400 

nautical mile circular orbit with a 90 degree injection. 

Taurus. Progress in the development of the mobile 

Taurus, or Standard Small Launch Vehicle, continued this 

year. The Taurus is designed to be launched from 

unimproved areas and is expected to deliver a minimum 

payload of 1,900 pounds to a 400 nautical mile orbit. The 

Taurus Critical Design Review has recently been conducted, range coordination was continuing, and test 

firings were scheduled beginning in February 1992. 

Future Launch Systems 

New Launch System In FY 1991, the USAF and 

NASA formulated the New Launch System (NLS) program. 

This program combines elements of the previous USAF 

Advanced Launch System program and NASA’s Heavy Lift 

Cargo Vehicle program. Together, the USAF and NASA 

have devised an evolutionary approach to satisfying the 

nation’s space launch requirements in the next century. 

The NLS program will develop a modular family of three 

70 
expendable launch vehicles and the attendant infrastructure. The family of vehicles will share many components 

and parts, especially the Space Transportation Main 

Engine (STME). The STME is a 600,000 pound thrust class, 

liquid hydrogen/oxygen engine that is on the critical path 

for the program development. With the addition of this 

system in the next century, the DOD will have a fully 

operational, low-cost, and responsive space launch system for the nation. 

SEALAR. The Navy was continuing its research on 

low cost, responsive, and flexible launch concepts with 

the system called SEALAK (Sea Launch and Kecovery). 

The plan for SEALAK calls for the design of a fully 

reusable, two stage vehicle in order to achieve its low-cost 

goals. The at sea launch and recovery will provide a level 

of responsiveness, flexibility, and environmental acceptability that is very attractive; a small scale version of the 

SEALAK booster was being built as part of the Kesearch 

and Development (K&D) program. During FY 1991, 

essentially all of the subsystems of the vehicle and its sea 

based support system were completed including tanks, 

engine assembly, pressurization system, avionics, recovery system, barge modification, and a ballast system. 

Integration and testing of these subsystems were occurring on a schedule that will result in a series of launches, 

recoveries, and relaunches starting in the spring of 1992. 

Because a low cost launch system would have great 

commercial potential, the Navy was studying a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement to transition 

this technology to the U.S. commercial sector, consistcnt 

with, and encouraged by, the National Commercial Space 

Policy. 

Commercial Launch Activities. The Department 

of Defense continued to support the fledgling American 

commercial space launch industry in a number of ways. 

The Air Force space launch centers at Patrick and 

Vandenberg Air Force Bases have supported commercial 

programs with government supplied services, facilities, 

and expertise on a direct cost basis. Commercial space 

launch services are part of the Navy’s Ultra High Frequency (UHF) follow-on program. The Navy has entered 

into a memorandum of agreement with Space Science 

Incorporated of America to conduct four sounding rocket 

flights at the Naval Ordnance Test Station, White Sands, 

NM. One launch was scheduled for FY 1992. 

Space Operations 

To support the growth in numbers of DOD and 

NASA space assets, the Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) was transitioning to its new command and 

control system, scheduled for full operational turnover in 

1993. The new system is being installed at the Consolidated Space Test Center at Onizuka AFB, CA, to replace 

the current system and to provide dual-node 

interoperability. The command and control system was 

also being installed as the core for the new Consolidated 

Space Operations Center at Falcon AFB, CO. The AFSCN 

upgrade of its worldwide network of tracking stations 

started with a new automated remote tracking station at 

Falcon AFB in Colorado Springs, CO. Upgrading of all 

existing tracking stations will be completed by 1993. 

Satellite Systems 

Satellite on orbit mission capability improved, and 

data distribution to military users grew in volume and 

quality in FY 1991. This measure of merit for responsive 

DOD space operations has become increasingly relevant 

as research and development efforts in satellite survivability, mobile ground processing centers, and secure information distribution become integrated into the operational inventory. Following is the status of the various 

defense satellite programs as of the end of the year. 

Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS). The DSCS is the current long-haul, high-capacity 

communications system supporting worldwide command 

and control of U.S. armed forces. The system provided 

communications connectivity for: tactical warning and 

assessment information transfer; intelligence data transfer 

to processing segments from remote locations as well as 

overhead intelligence platforms; missile warning conference; survivable emergency action message dissemination to the launch control complexes; and command and 

control between the national command authority and all 

deployed military commanders. DSCS also supported 

other government agencies with wideband transmission 

connectivity. The DSCS was a five-satellite constellation 

with two reserves. On orbit satellites current at the end 

of FY 1991 were three DSCS 111s located in the west 

Atlantic, east Atlantic, and east Pacific areas, and two 

DSCS 11s located in the west Pacific and Indian Ocean 

71 
areas. The reserve satellites were one DSCS I1 and a DSCS 

111, launched in 1982. Three DSCS 111s were scheduled for 

launch in 1992. The remaining stored satellites are 

scheduled for launch by 1997. The mean mission 

duration (MMD) of the DSCS I1 increased to 5 years on the 

final acquisition phase; however, some of these satellites 

continued to provide service beyond their MMD. The 

DSCS I11 had an MMD of 7 years and, while these satellites 

were far more complex than the DSCS Ils, they were 

expected to meet their MMD. The DSCS control segment 

provided semi-automated management of DSCS resources 

to maintain the satellite communications network in 

alignment with the needs of the operational commanders. 

Efforts continued to consolidate all DSCS operations 

centers under the Army Space Command. Contracts were 

also in place to move toward a contingency control 

capability in the period 1991-94. The DSCS ground 

segment consisted of a mix of strategic and tactical 

terminals. The strategic terminals ranged from small, 30 

inch antennas supporting the National Emergency Airborne Command Post to fixed 60 foot antennas supporting major fixed facilities. The tactical terminals were 

ground mobile force equipment with 8 and 20 foot 

antennas, and Navy shipborne terminals equipped with 6 

foot antennas. 

In support of the Desert Shield/Desert Storm operations, the DSCS constellation and these terminals supported the tactical users of the DSCS and provided 95 

percent of the inter-theater, long haul communications 

between the continental U.S., Saudi Arabia, and Iraq. In 

addition, DSCS provided over 80 percent of the intratheater communications in support of the ground (tactical) mobile forces. To better support tactical ground 

mobile terminals during operations Desert Shield/Desert 

Storm, a DSCS I1 satellite was moved from the Indian 

Ocean satellite area by 109 degrees longitude between 

November 17 and December 19, 1991. Ultimately, this 

spacecraft, designated the Indian Ocean Reserve, supported the communications requirements of 48 terminals 

directly involved in the war-fighting requirements of the 

Commander-in-Chief, Central Command. 

The strategic special users of DSCS enjoyed end-toend, survivable communications connectivity. These 

users were equipped with anti-jam modems located at the 

ground terminals. Some of these modems have been 

modified to operate in both a jamming and nuclearscintillated environment for the highest-priority critical 

users. These protected users were only accommodated 

on DSCS 111 satellites and assigned to specific channels in 

the satellites. 

Milstar. Milstar, the cornerstone of the Department’s 

MILSATCOM architecture, is a multichannel, EHF/UHF 

satellite communications system that will provide survivable, enduring, jam-resistant, and secure voice/data communications for the President, the Secretary of Defense, 

and the Commanders-in-Chief (CINCs) of the unified and 

specified commands, tactical and strategic forces, and 

other users. It will provide the worldwide command and 

control of U.S. strategic and tactical forces during all levels 

of conflict. The USAF is the lead service for the procurement of Milstar satellites, the dispersed mission control 

network, airborne terminals, and ground command post 

terminals. The Army and Navy also have terminal 

development and procurement programs. 

During FY 1991 the program underwent a major 

restructure that will increase the tactical utility of the 

system and will decrease program life-cycle cost by 

approximately 25 percent. Major effects of the restructure 

include: (1) reduction of the satellite constellation by two 

satellites, (2) reduction of the number of mission control 

stations from 24 to 9, (3) reduction of the overall number 

of terminals from 1,721 to 1,467, (4) an increase in the 

number of Army tactical terminals from 330 to 607, and (5) 

the addition of a new medium-data-rate payload to the 

satellite with the terminal changes to optimize use of this 

‘significant’ new capability. 

In FY 1991 the first satellite achieved full integration 

and was in a period of intensive ground testing prior to 

an early 1990s launch. Fabrication of the second and third 

satellites continued. As part of the restructured program, 

the Air Force planned to start development in 1992 of a 

new, medium-data-rate payload that will be added to 

satellites beginning with satellite four. The terminal 

program continued in low-rate initial production of 

command post terminals. Major terminal milestones in FY 

1991 included modification of a Strategic Air Command 

aircraft with a Milstar terminal and installation of a 

Strategic Air Command ground command-post terminal. 

The terminal program was preparing to initiate development of a compact terminal for bomber aircraft applications. 

72 
Navstar GlobalPositioning System The Navstar 

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space based radionavigation system satisfying requirements for highly precise, worldwide, three- dimensional position, velocity, 

and timing data for military aircraft, ships, and ground 

personnel. The system consists of user, satellite, and 

control segments. The GPS satellites operate in inclined, 

semi-synchronous (Le., 12 hour) orbits. At the end of FY 

1991, GPS was still being deployed. When fully operational (1993), it will consist of a constellation of satellites 

that will provide continuous three-dimensional, worldwide coverage. 

In 1991, approximately 64,000 DOD receiver terminals were on order or in use. The first two operational 

GPS satellites (Block IIA) launched during the year on 

Delta boosters. The control segment updates the satellite 

broadcasts, which provide positional accuracies to within 

16 meters for military users and to 100 meters for civil 

users. 

Initial deliveries of user equipment to all three 

armed services began in 1989. Installations were well 

along on many different ships and aircraft at the end of FY 

1991. The then-existing mix of five developmental and 

eleven operational satellites provided worldwide, twodimensional coverage at least 23 hours a day and worldwide, three-dimensional coverage at least 18 hours a day; 

the completed constellation of 24 satellites (21 active, 3 

backups) will provide full-time, three-dimensional navigational information. 

GPS was a key contributor to the success of Desert 

Shield/Desert Storm operations. As US. forces arrived in 

Saudi Arabia, they confirmed the fact that navigating in a 

featureless desert posed significant challenges. Because 

there were almost no man-made or natural features by 

which soldiers could confirm their positions, GPS served 

as the primary space-based navigation system. 

GPS receivers were used throughout the theater, 

from navigating warships and tank columns to “locating 

the mess tent.” GPS provided the grid coordinates for 

maps. The Air Force used GPS to guide aircraft to targets. 

At sea, GPS served to fix positions during mine clearing 

operations and to provide launch coordinates for GPSequipped ships firing Tomahawk cruise missiles. The 

Army used GPS to maneuver units, keep them out of each 

other’s fire, and fix positions of land mines. The Marines 

used GPS to set up artillery. Special Operations Forces 

employed GPS for many operations. 

Because of immediate need for GPS receivers, U.S. 

and coalition forces were forced to rely on commercial 

equipment. Almost 90 percent of receivers used by U.S. 

forces were commercial, non-crypto capable. By March 

1991, there were 4,490 commercial and 842 military GPS 

receivers deployed to the area of operations. 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program In 

this program a third satellite, launched in December 1990, 

provided improved weather updates. The three-satellite 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) provided timely, high quality, worldwide visible and infrared 

cloud imagery and other specialized meteorological, 

oceanographic, and solar geophysical data to support 

DOD strategic missions. DMSP also provided real time 

direct readout of local weather to ground- and ship-based 

tactical terminals supporting DOD forces worldwide. 

This system was particularly important during operations 

Desert ShieWDesert Storm. DMSP weather data provided real time support to the on-scene mission planners 

to direct the air war against Iraq. This was especially 

critical for proper employment of smart weapons. To 

meet urgent needs of mobile forces, the DMSP program 

procured six Rapid Deployable Imagery Terminals to get 

DMSP data real time to the mobile forces in-theater. 

DMSP imagery significantly enhanced military planning during Desert Shield/Desert Storm and enabled the 

successful execution of operations during the worst 

desert conditions the Army ha faced in combat since 

World War I1 in North Africa, 

Defense Support Program An upgraded Defense Support Program (DSP) satellite (DSP-I), the second 

in the series, launched in November 1990 on a Titan IV 

space launch vehicle. DSP-I will provide DOD with 

enhanced missile warning and surveillance capabilities 

and will include a second-color focal plane array and 

mission data message broadcast. The program’s 

endurability/ survivability is provided by its mobile ground 

processing system, geosynchronous orbit, and satellite 

characteristics. In FY 1991, the DSP supported operations 

Desert Shield/Desert Storm by detecting Iraqi Scud missile launches and providing warning data to allied forces. 

Air Force planning was under way as the year ended for 

a DSP follow-on threat warning/attack assessment 

73 
system, which will enter the demonstration/validation 

phase in FY 1992. 

Space Technology 

Hardened Space Electronics Program The 

radiation-hardened electronics program of the Defense 

Nuclear Agency (DNA) has successfully demonstrated the 

design, fabrication, and technology transfer of very-largescale integrated (VLSI) circuits. Significant progress in 

this advanced VLSI technology included the demonstration of a 256-kilobit static random access memory (SRAM) 

fabricated on advanced silicon-on-insulator material. 

During 1991, development of radiation-hard, one-million-bit SRAMs began. These SRAM devices, used in all 

space based computer systems, are immune to the 

degrading effects of trapped, high energy charged particles and random erroneous computer states caused by 

cosmic rays. The use of hardened electronics eliminates 

the need to remove power from space systems as they 

pass through the radiation belts. 

In addition, hardened, power integrated circuits are 

considered essential components in advanced space 

systems. The DNA demonstrated high power integrated 

circuits that are immune to circuit burnout and gate 

rupture from high energy particles and cosmic rays. It also 

evaluated hard fiber-optic links to these power circuits. 

Progress has also been made in the transfer of immuneelectronics technology to space systems through the joint 

DNMNASA hardness assurance working group. The 

development of radiation test facilities, uniform test 

methods, and radiation test standards has increased the 

application of advanced electronics in space systems. For 

example, space systems such as Galileo, Voyager, TIROSN, GPS, DMSP, and Mars Probe have employed hardened 

electronic circuits. 

DARPA 's Advanced Technology Initiatives. The 

major theme in DARPAs Advanced Space Technology 

Program (ASTP) has been the development of leading 

technologies to enhance the performance, capabilities, 

survivability, and accessibility of military space systems 

while simultaneously minimizing the size, weight, cost, 

and power consumption of these systems. The generic 

space technologies being pursued by DARPA will be 

applicable to both large and small defense satellites, and 

additionally they may benefit other sectors of government 

space endeavors (SDI, Earth Observing System, etc.) as 

well as strengthening our nation's commercial space 

sector. DARPAs significant accomplishments this year 

included technologies and studies to support the military 

satellite communications (MILSATCOM) architecture. 

DARPA developed a Dual Common Bus architecture with 

the objective of demonstrating the flexibility and costeffectiveness of architectures that integrate both large and 

smaller satellites working in unison. 

DARPA's efforts also focused on the critical Extremely High Frequency (EHF) satellite-communication 

area with an off-site meeting that gathered all the players 

to lay out the EHF technology program for the future as 

part of the Department's MILSATCOM architecture. This 

effort exploits enabling technology developments contained within ASTP's advanced technology initiatives. 

Among other technology areas, the inflatable Torus 

Solar Array Technology project was yielding up to onethird more watts per kilogram than current arrays, with 

potential for even better performance. A Small Business 

Innovative Research (SBIR) project has determined a 

method of heat dissipation that can yield up to 200 

percent improvement over current techniques. Spacecraft platform stability can be significantly enhanced 

through techniques developed as part of the ASTP's 

advanced technology initiatives. The Lightweight Reaction Wheel project was exceeding expectations by being 

able to rotate faster with less drag, thereby improving 

platform stability. A space-qualified miniature GPS receiver was scheduled to fly on several satellites in the next 

several years, giving them increased position accuracy. 

Developments in the laser and laser filter area 

yielded promising results. An order of magnitude improvement occurred in filter efficiency with the cesium 

atomic resonance filter. It attained nearly 50 percent 

throughput, which would benefit satellite communications. 

LightSat Initiative. The two store and forward 

UHF Multiple Access Communications Satellites 

(MACSATs) launched by DARPA in May 1990 were 

extensively exercised during their first year on orbit. 

These satellites provide global relay of messages, data, 

facsimile, and graphics. Most notably, these R&D satellites (originally intended solely for demonstrations in 

conjunction with military tactical exercises) served successfully in daily support of the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing 

74 
during Operations Desert Shield/Desert Storm. In addition to this major activity, which spanned the period 

August 1990 through April 1991, the MACSATs demonstrated their capabilities in a number of military exercises, 

including operations to recover data from unattended 

sensors and to deliver command information to those 

sensors plus support provided in remote regions of the 

Antarctic. 

The launch of the Microsat constellation by the 

Pegasus on July 17, 1991, completed DARPA’s first 

generation LightSat demonstration system. The seven 

Microsats then available provided radio relay service in 

the military UHF band, as well as limited capacity store 

and forward capability. Though small in size (7.5 inches 

high by 19 inches in diameter) and weight (less than 50 

pounds), the Microsat is nonetheless a sophisticated small 

satellite featuring both analog and digital regenerative 

transponder capabilities, an all digital, fully autonomous 

attitude control system, and a miniature propulsion 

system for on orbit maneuvering. The armed services 

have employed the Microsats in applications such as ship 

to shore communications. 

Laser Communications System. In FY 1991 

DAKPA conducted a successful field demonstration of the 

Laser Communication System technology, which could 

eventually be used for satellite-submarine communication. Specifically, the demonstrations included: the first 

medium power, diode-array-pumped, prime power efficient solid-state laser; over 33 million pulses from a solidstate laser without measurable energy degradation; a 

projected solid-state diode-array lifetime of greater than 

10” pulses; the first submarine-safe certified laser; a 

submarine-safe certified optical hull penetrator; the first 

two-way laser communications between an airplane and 

a submerged submarine; an initial assessment of link 

covertness; and the first submarine-initiated communications link. The completed field experiment and its 

associated technology demonstrations were an important 

step in establishing the feasibility of affordable, covert 

tactical submarine communications at reasonable depths 

and speeds. 

Other Space Communications Applications. The 

Army’s technology base efforts in exploiting space technology began to mature in FY 1991 and provided important contributions to the military success in Operations 

Desert Storm/Desert Shield. A space communications 

capability was pulled out of the technology base arena 

and “patched” into existing networks to provide early 

warning to the Patriot launch sites with a 3-4 minute 

warning prior to impact. Computer work stations developed to process commercial multi-spectral imagery from 

LANDSAT and SPOT were used extensively by Topographic Engineer Battalions deployed to Saudi Arabia. 

Technologies provided to Army units under the Army 

Space Exploitation Demonstration Program, such as Wrasse 

receivers (weather) and Global Positioning System (positioning), were used extensively by the Army during 

Desert Storm/Desert Shield. 

Space Control 

Kinetic Energy Anti-Satellite Weapon System. 

The Kinetic Energy Anti-Satellite (KE ASAT) Program is an 

effort to develop a near-term, surface-launched weapon 

system capable of non-explosive neutralization of satellites. The KE ASAT program is part of a national ASAT 

capability to include space- and ground-based surveillance sensors, battle management/command, control and 

communications elements, and both kinetic and, ultimately, advanced technology weapons, including directed energy. 

In FY 1991, the KE ASAT program was restructured 

based on DOD budget reductions that resulted from an 

FY 1992 Secretary of Defense program review. Demonstration/validation activities in FY 1991 included a Systems Requirement Review, a continued technical risk 

reduction program including Weapons Control System 

prototype and booster optimization design review, and 

component tests to support resolution of engineering 

issues. A Joint Cost Operational Effectiveness Analysis 

started to address the overall KE ASAT system during the 

year. 

As a complement to KE ASAT, the Army was 

continuing Directed Energy (DE) ASAT research and 

development to support U.S. Space Command’s mission 

needs. The DE ASAT program also had to be refocused 

due to funding reduction to the Ground Based Free 

Electron Laser system. The High Energy Laser Test Facility 

completed a full aperture upgrade to the Mid-Infrared 

Advanced Chemical Laser/Sea-Lite Beam Director system. 

Research and development tests against terrestrial objects 

were successful, and the system may have a limited near 

75 
term contingency capability to complement the KE ASAT 

system. 

Strategic Defense Initiative. During the last year 

the Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) performed vigorous research on the technology required to 

develop the Global Protection Against Limited Strike 

(GPALS) system and for potential follow-on systems. 

SDIO advances in astronautics and space involved the 

following five areas: 

(1) Sensor Technology and Phenomenology, 

where significant progress occurred in the detection, 

discrimination, acquisition, and tracking of targets. During 1990, two successful sounding rocket experiments 

showed that laser radars can be used for discrimination of 

targets up to 1,000 miles away. The Firepond laser radar 

performed precision measurements of deployment dynamics, images, and ranging of inflatable decoy targets 

launched from Wallops Island, Virginia and viewed at an 

800-kilometer range. In the beam control area of component development, the program demonstrated an innovative, lightweight, mechanical system capable of assessing 

50 targets per second. Additionally, several experiments 

improved our understanding of detection and discrimination of targets in space. 

The Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS) 

and the Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for 

Shuttle (CIRRIS) were successfully launched during 1991, 

to observe and characterize the spectral and radiometric 

signatures of several space objects and natural phenomena. In the IBSS experiments, measurements of firings of 

the Shuttle main engines gathered data on the optical 

signature of rocket plumes. IBSS also measured the 

interaction of four neutral gases with the plasma and 

characterized the environment around the Shuttle payload bay. CIRRIS collected infrared background signatures of the earths surface and atmosphere during the l 

week Shuttle mission. The IBSS and CIRRIS data combined with the data from the Space Infrared Imaging 

Telescope I1 Experiment provided the specific bands and 

processing techniques to limit the impact of the natural 

background on target acquisition. 

Two experiments involved a STRYPI three-stage 

sounding rocket. The first experiment measured the 

successful acquisition, tracking, and imaging of ultraviolet (UV) rocket plumes from STRYPI thrusting boost 

segments. The W Plume Instrument onboard the Low 

Power Atmospheric Compensation Experiment satellite 

provided the imaging. A second onboard experiment 

measured the intensity of UV emissions in the rocket 

plume and the aerodynamic bow shocks surrounding the 

vehicle. 

During 1991, SDIO integrated the long-wavelength 

infrared (LWIR) focal plane arrays, optics, and on-array 

processors into the LWIR Advanced Technology Seeker to 

provide enhanced detection, tracking, and discrimination 

throughout all phases of flight for both ground- and 

space-based systems. 

Also during 1991, SDIO conducted the ZEST flight 

test. During this experiment, tungsten dust was released 

200 miles above the earth to investigate alterations of a 

sensor’s field of view caused by cloud cover and to 

determine the ability of space-based sensors to locate 

objects flying through the cloud-like formations. 

In 1991, SDIO calibrated data from the April 1990 

launch of the EXCEDE I11 experiment and began its 

evaluation. This two- part rocket experiment excited the 

atmosphere with an electron beam while observing 

optical emissions in ultraviolet through infrared wavebands. 

Preliminary results confirmed some of our understanding 

of nuclear effects on the upper atmosphere, but they also 

identified significant and surprising anomalies. Analysis 

of data was continuing at the end of the year. 

(2) Interceptor Technology, where the Ground 

Based Interceptor (GBI) was developing and testing 

kinetic kill vehicles to intercept ICBM warheads in the 

exoatmosphere. In January 1991, GBI successfully intercepted a warhead in the presence of decoys with the 

Exoatmospheric Reentry Vehicle Interceptor Subsystem. 

GBI tests were planned through the end of 1991. 

During the summer of 1991, SDIO and the U.S. Air 

Force Systems Command successfully completed the 

hover test of the highest performance kill vehicle yet 

developed for the SDIO’s Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric 

Projectile (LEAP 111) program. The half-meter long, 22- 

pound LEAP 111 flew as planned for 17 seconds with 

LEAP’s high speed, on board computer in full control of 

the test flight. The projectile was propelled from its 

launch cradle to a height of approximately 13 feet within 

1 second and held steady for five seconds. During this 

flight the LEAP’s infrared sensor viewed a simulated 

missile plume target more than 100 meters away. The 

76 
projectile then performed lateral movements with its high 

performance lightweight thrusters for 8 seconds, simulating the 5 g maneuvers it will need to execute to “leap” in 

front of the target during actual space engagements. 

The second Brilliant Pebble flight experiment in 

April 1991 deployed a payload consisting of sensors, a 

computer processor, and an attitude control system at an 

altitude of 100 miles. The experiment successfully 

demonstrated the sensor’s ability to acquire and track the 

solid rocket booster, do star tracking, and perform a series 

of attitude control maneuvers. 

In the area of interceptor avionics technology, a 

high throughput, high density signal processing packaging design (SPPD) brassboard went through design, 

fabrication, and testing in FY 1991. This new SPPD 

weighs less than 75 grams in a volume less than 75 cm-) 

with a throughput greater than 100 million operations per 

second. This SPPD represents a reduction in mass by a 

factor of 30 and an increased processor throughput by 

more than a factor of four over the existing technology. 

This new SPPD is now integrated with a micro-mechanical inertial guidance system with a weight of less than 30 

grams to develop an advanced stellar navigation sensor. 

(3) Simulation, Modeling, and Battle Management, in which the SDIO has continued to be successful 

in integrating human resources with man-in-the-loop 

control in the development of the National Test Bed 

(NTB), a network of geographically distributed test facilities; connecting nodes of the Army, Air Force, and Navy; 

and national laboratories. The National Test Facility 

(NTF) serves as the operational hub of this integrated 

system of satellites and ground linked test facilities. In 

1990 SDIO established a super computer at the NTF to 

perform modeling of U.S. Space Command’s command 

operations. The NTB has successfully enhanced system 

simulation with increased level of details in tracking and 

correlation computations during simulation. 

(4) Power and Power Conditioning, in which 

design and testing of two survivable solar power subsystem demonstrators, called SUPER, met performance 

requirements and survivability specifications. To reduce 

battery mass for the SUPER program, a 16-cell sodium 

sulfur battery was completed. Experimental low-earthorbit cells have been life-tested through approximately 

4,000 charge/discharge cycles. The present test now 

includes 42 sodium sulfur battery cells. 

Life cycle testing of thermionic fuel elements (TFEs) 

indicate a potential for a 7 year operational life for a multiunit TFE to be used in a thermionic nuclear reactor. New 

thermionic reactor system technology was being developed as an alternate reactor project. Arrangements were 

being made as the year ended to purchase an unfueled 

Soviet TOPAZ I1 class reactor and test facilities for nonnuclear testing. 

During 1991, SDIO continued one of the more 

innovative technologies embodied in the Space Power 

Experiment Aboard Kocket (SPEAR) program. The SPEAR 

program examines the use of low Earth orbit (LEO) space 

“vacuum” for electrical insulation. After a successful test 

in 1987 exposing two spheres charged to 44,000 volts in 

the LEO environment in a suborbital flight, SDIO tested 

the actual operation of a high voltage system in the order 

of 100,000 volts and a high current system of 500,000 

amps using the simulated space vacuum to insulate the 

conductors. At the end of the year, design guidelines for 

the operation of electrical components (batteries, capacitors, transformers, switches, pulse forming network, etc.) 

were being documented and developed as proposed 

engineering guidelines for future SDI space system designers. This innovative insulation technique has the 

potential for major reductions in both weight and volume 

of high power electrical components and could be useful 

for Space Station Freedom. Another positive feature is 

that the proposed insulation, the space vacuum, is automatically “replenished” and does not deteriorate with 

time, or arc, as do solid, liquid, and enclosed gas 

insulators. A contract for SPEAR 111, awarded in April 

1991, had the primary objective of comparing the effectiveness of different spacecraft grounding techniques as 

a function of altitude in the LEO region, attitude relative 

to the geomagnetic field, and voltage levels between the 

payload and the space plasma. Other objectives include 

characterizing solar cell performance in spacecraft charging/discharging environment and examining the role of 

effluents in the grounding process. SPEAR 111 was 

scheduled for launch in January 1993 from Wallops 

Island. 

(5) Materials and Structures, in which SDIO 

continued to develop improved spacecraft components 

by doing vigorous research in structural lightweight 

composites, space environment effects, optical materials, 

superconductive materials, and diamond films. The most 

77 
important contributions in the materials area during the 

last year were: (1) the demonstration of survivable 

thermal control coatings and atomic oxygen protective 

coatings during orbit, (2) the firing of a lightweight, low 

cost booster nozzle showing that the carbon-carbon 

composite technology can be transitioned for advanced 

nozzle options, (3) the demonstration of superconducting 

Josephson-junction in analog-to-digital converters for 

infra-red (IR) focal plane array processing, which can be 

developed for improved target acquisition, tracking, and 

discrimination, (4) the fabrication of free-standing diamond-mask substrates for x-ray lithography, which has 

both a tremendous commercial and military market 

potential, and (5) the discovery of a new solid propellant 

oxidizer, ammonium dinitramide that, compared to conventional ammonium perchlorate propellant, has a higher 

specific impulse, is environmentally cleaner, and is not 

detonable. 

In the material area, the program developed and 

was evaluating a housing for the LEAP hover test made of 

advanced thermoplastic composite materials. Finally, 

plans were proceeding in the development of the Space 

Active Materials Modular Experiments to provide an 

industry standard module for materials testing in the 

space environment. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Aircraft Programs 

B-1B During 1990-1991 the B-1B continued to 

improve on its capabilities. With the exception of the 

defensive avionics suite, the aircraft has achieved all of its 

baseline requirements, including the ability to fly low 

level at high subsonic speeds both at night and in weather. 

with regard to the defensive avionics, in February 1991 

the B-1B successfully completed the ALQ-161 “core” flight 

test. The system demonstrated it will significantly improve the maintainability of the ALQ-161 system. 

The B-1B successfully demonstrated its capability as 

a conventional bombing platform in July 1991. At that 

time, follow-on test and evaluation of the conventional 

capability with the Mk-82, 500 pound bomb was completed. During this test, the aircraft dropped eighty-four 

Mk-82s with an accuracy that was well within its specifications. 

Air Force and contractor personnel discovered and 

solved a potentially serious engine problem in early 1991. 

There had been a problem with retention of the first-stage 

fan blades when one failed. The problem lay in the 

strength of the retainer ring that holds the blades in place. 

A team of Air Force and contractor personnel identified 

and solved the problem in less than 4 months at a minimal 

cost. 

B-2 Advanced Technology Bomber. Throughout 

this year, the B-2 continued to make steady progress in its 

flight test program. Two more aircraft have joined the 

flight test team at Edwards Air Force Base, and by the end 

of the year the team had more than 300 hours of flight test 

time behind it. The most interesting development thus far 

was the determination that the extensive pre-testing done 

on the program appears to have paid off. Nearly all of the 

aircraft’s performance has mirrored the engineering predictions. 

During 1991 flight tests explored over 90 percent of 

the operational envelope. The test team completed one 

lifetime on the durability and damage tolerance test 

aircraft with no significant problems, and the static test 

article completed over 50 percent of its testing. 

The aircraft successfully passed its first block of low 

observable tests, again matching or exceeding predictions. Late in the summer of 1991, during the second 

block of low-observable testing, a low-observable anomaly 

appeared. Aircraft performance did not meet predictions 

in a very narrow band of radar energy. The problem was 

being worked and several potential solutions were being 

analyzed as the year ended. 

Air Vehicle-3, the first full avionics aircraft, has 

demonstrated in flight both the radar and the navigation 

system. It has worked various modes of the radar and has 

updated the inertial navigation system with the radar. The 

1,500 hours of airborne testing of the avionics in a C-135 

flying test-bed aircraft has made this possible. 

C-17. The Air Force’s C-17 is a newly-designed, air 

refuelable, airlift aircraft with intercontinental range. It is 

capable of routine operations onto 3,000-foot runways 

and austere airfields as well as airland/airdrop delivery of 

outsize cargo. The program was in the Engineering 

Manufacturing and Development phase of its development. it received low-rate initial production approval on 

January 18, 1989. Major events in FY 1991 were the 

78 
completion and assembly of the first test aircraft in 

December 1990 and the first flight from Long Beach, CA, 

to Edwards AFB, CA, on September 15,1991, initiating the 

2 year flight test program. 

Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) - F-22. The F22 program, previously known as the Advanced Tactical 

Fighter, was developing the next generation Air Force 

fighter. As the F-15 follow-on, the F-22 was designed to 

penetrate high threat enemy airspace and support the airland-sea battle forces with “first look, first kill” capability 

against a technologically advanced, numerically superior 

enemy. The F-22’s improved capabilities will be made 

possible by significant technological advances in the 

areas of signature reduction, aerodynamic design, flight 

controls, materials, propulsion, sensors, and integrated 

avionics. 

The F-22 completed the demonstration/validation 

(Dem/Val) portion of its development in July 1991 and 

entered the next phase, Engineering Manufacturing and 

Development, on August 2, 1991. The F-22 Dem/Val 

program demonstrated combined stealth and maneuverability with four flying prototypes in over 150 flight hours. 

The program also demonstrated supercruise, the ability to 

fly at supersonic airspeeds using intermediate power 

settings. Two airborne flying avionics laboratories, flying 

over 100 sorties, demonstrated that the radar, electronic 

combat, communication, navigation, identification, and 

infrared search and track systems were conceptually 

correct and technically feasible. Avionics integration was 

accomplished, and over one million lines of Ada computer code were designed, coded, and tested. The F-22 

program ensures air superiority in the future. The 

schedule in effect at the end of FY 1991 called for the 

purchase of 648 aircraft. 

Light Helicopter - Comanche. The Light Helicopter program, recently designated the Reconnaissance 

Attack Helicopter-66 (RAH-66) “Comanche,” is developing the next generation Army aerial scout/attack helicopter to counter worldwide threats in the late 1990s and 

beyond. The Comanche exploits advances in propulsion, 

materials, electronics, and sensor technologies to provide 

day and night target acquisition capability and a helicopter capable of operating in high altitude and hot temperature environments with a full design payload, a capability 

not now widely available to the Army. Additionally, the 

Comanche will incorporate low observable signature 

reduction and other survivability improvements, such as 

advanced composite armor, to improve the effectiveness 

and survivability in future battlefield environments significantly. 

During FY 1991, the Army made major decisions on 

the program. On April 5, 1991, it selected Boeing/ 

Sikorsky, the “First Team,” to develop and produce the 

Comanche helicopter. Also, by the end of FY 1991 the T800 engine, which was undergoing final qualification 

tests, had accumulated approximately 1 1,000 test hours. 

In January 1992, the Commanche program was 

restructured. Because of threat changes and the interim 

capabilities provided by other aircraft, the development 

program was extended to provide three aircraft prototypes and full-up proof of principle for avionics, the 

upgraded T-800 engine, and the Longbow system. The 

extension will also resolve aircraft weight and engine 

issues. 

Aeronautics Technology Development 

Pilot’s Associate Program The Pilot’s Associate 

program applied many of the technologies being developed under the DAKPA Strategic Computing Program to 

aid pilots in making decisions in combat. The Pilot’s 

Associate was designed as a knowledge based system to 

be embedded in future avionics systems, both for new 

production and for retrofit to existing aircraft. The 

specific technologies being developed and applied include artificial intelligence, automated planning, advanced man-machine interface, and the supporting computer technology necessary for their implementation. 

Technological advances would provide the pilot of a 

single-seat fighter aircraft assistance in the highly dynamic 

and demanding environment of aerial warfare. The 

program includes increasingly challenging demonstrations in advanced flight simulators representative of the 

fighter aircraft of the mid-1990s. 

In 1991, the program demonstrated a hnctional 

prototype of a Pilot’s Associate supporting the air-toground mission in an advanced F/A-18 fighter. This 

prototype primarily supported the pilot during preparation and execution of the target acquisition and attack 

phases of the mission. Progress has also continued on 

development of air-to-air versions of the Pilot’s Associate. 

Initial design and architecture were completed, and 

79 
software was developed. 

Application studies, completed for the F-16 and F/ 

A-18, identified near-term opportunity for transition of 

mission planning and display management functions. A 

similar study began to evaluate a multicrew associate 

application for a Special Operations Forces transport 

aircraft. 

National Aero-Space Plane. The National AeroSpace Plane was a Presidentially directed, joint DOD and 

NASA program. The objective is to develop and demonstrate the enabling technologies for an entirely new 

generation of hypersonic flight vehicles including space 

launch vehicles capable of single-stage-to-orbit operations with horizontal takeoff and landing and aircraft 

capable of long range hypersonic cruise within the 

atmosphere. Subject to revision by the National Space 

Council as to cost and feasibility, the requisite technologies will be integrated into the design and fabrication of 

an experimental research aircraft, the X-30, for flight test 

and demonstration. These demonstrated technologies 

would then provide the basis for follow on military and 

civil vehicles capable of: global unrefueled operation, 

reaching any point on Earth in less than two hours; 

providing routine “on demand” access to space; reducing 

payload-to-orbit costs by at least an order of magnitude; 

and flexibly based, rapid response space launch. Such 

NASP-derived aerospace systems would provide a revolutionary increase in civil and military capability. 

While the X-30 design was not yet firm at the end of 

FY 1991, the X-30 was envisioned to be a manned 

aerospacecraft powered by ramjet/supersonic-combustion ramjet engines that will be fueled by liquid or slush 

hydrogen. It will have auxiliary rocket engines for final 

orbit insertion and maneuvering during orbit. The vehicle 

structure will be manufactured from advanced high 

strength, lightweight, heat resistant materials, and critical 

portions of the structure will be actively cooled with the 

super-cold hydrogen fuel before it is burned in the 

engine. 

The NASP program has made solid progress. Component hardware fabrication and ground tests have 

produced impressive results. Among recent accomplishments of the program, it: 

Completed the first airborne test of the external 

burning drag reduction concept. 

Tested a titanium matrix composite fuselage section 

with integrated carbon epoxy cryotank to 1,300 

degrees Fahrenheit. 

Tested a subscale integrated engine (inlet combustor and nozzle) at NASA’s Langley Research Center. 

Completed first and second design cycles of the 

National Contractor Team’s selected X-30 configuration. 

Defined lines for airframe aerodynamic wind tunnel 

models based on the selected X-30 configuration. 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration The 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTI/F-~~) 

program continued evaluation of advanced-technology 

integration in support of aircraft with the air-to-surface 

attack mission. This Air Force/balanced technology 

initiative program completed aircraft modifications in FY 

1991 to incorporate: head steered forward looking infrared, helmet mounted displays, night vision goggle-compatible lighting, data link, and multiple digital terrain data 

based systems (automatic terrain following, ground collision avoidance, threat avoidance, route replanning, and 

terrain aided navigation) required for safe day/night, all 

weather, low altitude combat mission accomplishment. 

The total integration and automation of these systems, 

coupled with color pilot vehicle interface displays, is 

required to provide single seat fighters with the desired 

kill and survive capability for the air to ground combat 

scenario. Flight test of these technologies started in July 

1991, gathering data on several key system components 

including: radar altimeter, pilot activated recovery system, 

low altitude radar autopilot, all terrain ground collision 

avoidance, and silent attack radar altimeter. Further flight 

testing was planned for FY 1992 subject to availability of 

funds. 

X-29 Advanced Technology Demonstrator. This 

unique aircraft has demonstrated the viability of forward 

swept, aero-elastically tailored, composite wings; successful digital control of a 35 percent statically unstable 

aircraft; and excellent stability and longitudinal control 

derived from the synergism of the integrated technologies. The aircraft has pitch pointed up to 67 degrees angle 

of attack (AOA) and maneuvered in all axes up to 45 

80 
degrees AOA. It has demonstrated superb roll-rate 

performance-70 degrees per second at 30 degrees AOA 

and 200 knots calibrated airspeed. The X-29 high AOA 

flight tests at Edwards AFB, CA, have also yielded a wealth 

of data regarding agility and military utility. The performance of the X-29 in a rolling scissors basic flight 

maneuver matched or exceeded the F-18’s performance, 

with the loaded roll capability at high AOA giving the X29 the advantage over the F-18. Several different guest 

pilots flew the X-29 in FY 1991 and all of them commented 

on the X-29’s high AOA controllability and roll rate 

capability. The X-29 program has already transitioned 

technology with agility data being used by the Advanced 

Tactical Fighter program and the high-g simulation group 

at Armstrong Laboratory. Extensive tail-buffet data was 

being put into the data base for DOD-wide use. Plans for 

FY 1992 include using the X-29 aircraft as a test bed for 

the Vortex Flow Control critical experiment, which will 

provide valuable data to the Air Force Multirole Fighter 

and F-16 upgrade program. 

F-15 Short Takeoff and Landdng/Maneuver 

Technology Demon-strator. The Air Force’s F-15 Short 

Takeoff and Landing/Maneuver Tecllnology Demonstrator (STOL/MTD) is a highly modified F-15B design with 

enhanced maneuver capability and STOL performance. 

Aircraft modifications included: pitch-axis thrust-vectoring/thrust-reversing (TV/TR) engine exhaust nozzles, 

full-authority canards, integrated flight and propulsion 

controls, and rough-field landing gear. The result has 

been an aircraft with additional control in the pitch axis 

and improved up-and-away performance. It is designed 

to take off and land on a 1,500 foot icy runway during 30 

knot crosswinds with no external, ground based landing 

aids. The first flight with all modifications (including the 

two-dimensional nozzles) took place on May 10, 1989. 

STOL/MTD accomplishments in FY 1991 included: successful short landings in crosswind/wet runway conditions; touchdown dispersion tests that validated the 

landing precision benefits of the STOL/MTD’s control 

laws, which use reverser vane thrust modulation to 

decouple airspeed and pitch attitude on landing approach; a nozzle software revision that resulted in a 

program-best landing of 1,366 feet; inflight surveys of the 

infrared signature properties of the two-dimensional TVl 

TR nozzles and demonstration of their potential to reduce 

vulnerability to IR threats; an evaluation of thrust reverser 

jet interaction with ground effects for NASA Langley; and 

a night, short landing demonstration combining the 

autonomous landing guidance system and thrust reversing nozzles for the first time. 

X-31A Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability. The 

X-31A Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability (EFM) program 

is a joint DARPA/Navy effort with Germany to develop an 

experimental aircraft to explore the technical and military 

implications of dynamic post-stall maneuvers for close-in 

aerial combat. The participants in the program have 

fabricated and checked out two unique, low-cost flight 

vehicles and were supporting the conventional envelope 

expansion as the year ended. Milestones achieved in FY 

1991 included: 

First flight (Aircraft #1) 

Airworthiness test complete 

First government 

Flutter testing complete 

5 g load limit 

Thrust vector vane calibration August 14, 1991 

Maximum conventional 

AOA (30 degrees) 

October 11, 1990 

(Aircraft #2) January 19, 1991 

January 23, 1991 

pilot evaluation May 3, 1991 

July 18, 1991 

July 26, 1991 

September 19, 1991 

Dynamic, post-stall flight testing will occur next 

year at NASA’s Ames-Dryden Flight Research Facility. An 

international test organization (with NASA, Navy, Air 

Force, U.S., and German prime contractors and German 

government participation) will perform those activities. 

Following the demonstration of safe flight in the post-stall 

regime, the aircraft will begin the final flight test phase to 

assess the tactical utility of the EFM technologies. 

81 
Department of Commerce 

Space Systems 

Satellite Systems 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), through its National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS), continued to 

operate its polar-orbiting and geostationary spacecraft for 

remote sensing of Earth’s environment, collection and 

relay of data from in situ observing platforms, search and 

rescue, and sensing of the space environment. In full 

operation, the polar-orbiting system consisted of two 

NOAA spacecraft, one each in sun-synchronous morning 

and afternoon orbits at a nominal height of 850 kilometers. The geostationary system, called GOES for Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, lost the older 

of its two satellites, GOES-West, in January 1989. The 

remaining GOES spacecraft was subsequently moved to 

a more centralized geographic position and continued to 

function normally as the year ended. 

Instruments carried by the polar-orbiting spacecraft 

included a Television-and-Infrared-Operational-Satellite 

Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) for profiling atmospheric temperature and moisture from Earth’s surface to 

the top of the atmosphere; an Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) to obtain visible and 

infrared imagery; an Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

(ERBE); a Solar Background Ultra-Violet (SBUV) sensor 

for measuring ozone distribution and concentration; a 

Space Environment Monitor for observing near-Earth, 

charged-particle spectra; a Canada/France-provided 

search-and-rescue package to detect and locate emergency distress signals; and a France-provided Data Collection System (DCS) to collect, relay, and pinpoint 

observations sensed by moving and stationary platforms 

such as buoys, balloons, and wildlife. 

The instrument complement on the GOES satellite 

included a Visible-and-Infrared-Spin-Scan-Radiometer 

Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) for visible and infrared 

imaging and sounding; a space environment monitor; a 

search-and-rescue package; and a DCS to collect and 

relay observations from fixed stations such as river 

gauges, tide gauges, and anchored and drifting buoys. 

The communications systems onboard the GOES were 

also used to broadcast a weather facsimile (WEFAX) 

service, consisting of satellite pictures, weather charts, 

and other environmental information to properly equipped 

ground stations in the Western Hemisphere. 

NOAA Series. The NOAA-9, NOAA-10, and NOAA11 satellites continued to provide a polar-orbiting service 

throughout FY 1991. NOAA-9, launched in December 

1984, operated in a standby mode providing limited Earth 

Kadiation Budget Experiment and Solar Background 

Ultra-Violet data. NOAA-IO, launched in September 1986, 

had provided the primary morning orbit coverage but was 

replaced in that role in September 1991, following operational checkout of the newest polar satellite, NOAA-12. 

NOAA-11, launched in September 1988, provided the 

primary afternoon orbit coverage. Finally, NOAA-12 

successfully launched on May 14, 1991. 

A feasibility study for a future series of polarorbiting satellites began in 1991 and was supplemented 

with preliminary design studies for upgraded and improved sensors and instruments later in the year. The next 

generation of polar satellites after NOM-K/M (see below), will involve the sharing of common interface 

instruments on U.S. and European polar orbiters, with 

Europe providing a series of morning polar spacecraft and 

NOAA continuing its afternoon polar series. NOAA and 

NASA were also continuing discussions with European 

counterpart agencies to determine how these instruments 

would be integrated and how their data would be 

exchanged. 

GOES Series. Two GOES spacecraft have usually 

been in service at any one time. Their combined views 

have provided coverage that extended westward from 

near Africa to beyond Hawaii. In the mid-I980s, a launch 

failure destroyed a GOES satellite; thus, in 1989 when the 

GOES spacecraft failed in orbit (after providing long 

service) there was no spare to replace it. Since that time, 

a single satellite, GOES-7, has been providing double 

duty. It is positioned at 108 degrees west longitude to 

better observe winter storms in season and moved to 98 

degrees west longitude in summer to improve coverage 

of Atlantic hurricane regions. 

A new series of five GOES satellites, designated 

GOES-I, -J, -K, -L, and -M respectively, was in development as the year ended. The Space Systems Division of 

the Loral Corporation continued their development after 

it purchased the Ford Aerospace and Communications 

82 
Corporation, the original contractor. Work on the first 

two spacecraft of the series included instrument falxcation and testing. 

The GOES-I/M clevelopment program has experienced significant technical problems, schecltile del;tys, 

and cost increases. Launch of the first spacecraft, GOESI, cannot occur before late 1993. GOES-7 is expected to 

continue in service thi-oiigli 1993. I3ecause catastrophic 

failure of the sole operating GOES-7 satellite would pose 

:I serious risk to detecting and tracking hurricanes and 

other severe storms, NOAA has asked for backup support 

from its European space partners in the Coorclination 

Group for hleteorological Satellites (CGMS). (In the past, 

NOAA has loaned or offered its GOES satellites to other 

CGMS memlxm for emergency lxickup. 1 As ;I result of 

these discussions, ;i European geostationary weather 

satellite will very likely be moved to ;I position over the 

[J.S. east coast by the end of 1992. 

The NESIIIS unit at the Cooperative Institute for 

Meteorological Satellite Studies :it Madison, WI, developed ;I syslem for evaluating the effect on products of 

pro1,lems associ;ited with the forthcoming GOES-1 imager 

and sounder. The system was used extensively to 

influence tlecisioiis reg;irding changes in specifications. 

Landsat Series. Pursuant to the Land Keinote 

Sensing Commercializ~ition Act of 1984, the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT) has operated hoth the 

L:incls:it 4 mcl 5 remote-scmsing satellite systems for 

NOAA since 1985. 

The National Space Council unclertook ;I policy 

review of the Lanclsat program during 1989. ‘The Council 

recommendecl and the I’resident approved a policy of 

ensuring continuity of Landsat-type data. EOSAT is 

continuing to manage the design and development of ;I 

1,anclsat 6 system, with the new satellite scheduled to he 

launched in 1992. A follow-on to Landsat 6 will he fiinded 

jointly by NASA Lincl the DOD. 

In 1991, 16 foreign ground stations received Landsat 

data. A ground station in Ecuador Ixgan operations in 

March 1991, 

Search-and-Rescue Satellite-Aided Tracking. 

The international search-~incl-rescLie, satellite-aided tracking service, COSPAS/SARSAT, proviclecl I>y Canada, France, 

the IJnitetl States, and the Soviet Union, continued to be 

responsihle for saving over 200 lives per year, Ixinging 

the total number of lives saved through this program to 

over 1,800. International participation in COSI’AS/SARSAT 

continued to grow. At least 29 nations were currently 

participating or had clcclared their intention to participate 

:is FY 1991 ended. 

Pan-Pacific Education and Communication Experiments by Satellite. In 199 1, the Pan-Pacific Education and Communication Experiments I>y Satellite 

(ITACESAT) program reestablished a satellite telecommunications network for exchange of social, environmental, health, and education:il information among the 

Pacific Island nations. The National Telecommunications 

and Information Administration (NTIA), another DOC 

component involved with space activities, was instrumental in setting up this network. Earth terminals funded 

by NTIA have been installed and PEACESAT service 

resumed in 71 territories and nations. 

ARGOS. Service AKGOS, Inc., which has operated 

the lJ.S. processing center for the ARGOS Data Collection 

and Location System, focused its activities during FY 1991 

on refining its services. ‘The French Space Agency provided AKGOS instruments for collection, relay, and position-cietermination of observations from sensors on balloons, Iiuoys, and the like for flight on NOAA polarorliting satellites. The NOM-I) satellite, launched in July 

1991, included the ninth ARGOS instrument flown on 

NOM satellites. In 1991 NOAA and CNES amenclecl the 

current AKGOS memorandum of understanding to include flight of one additional AKGOS instrument on the 

NOM-N spacecraft. Regarding services, Service AKGOS 

Ixgm clevelopment of new processing software for 

ARGOS environmental data that is put onto the World 

Meteorological Organization’s Glolxil Telecommunications System (GTS). This new processing will increase the 

amount and improve the quality of the data put onto the 

GTS. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite. NTIA continued planning and preparation for 

experiments that will use the Advanced Communications 

Technology Satellite, which was being developed by 

NASA ;is a testbed for advanced communications technology studies and is now expected to tx launched in early 

83 
1991. This technology effectively will put a high speed 

digital switch in the sky with the capability to establish 

megabit channels to hundreds of Earth stations within 

microseconds. This will allow the integration of satellite 

communication technology with other advanced communication system technologies such as optical fiber transmission, integrated services digital networks, and mobile 

and personal communication system services. 

Satellite Operations and Support 

Atmospheric Temperature and Moisture 

Soundings. The year 1991 marked the 12th year of 

operational atmospheric sounding production from 

NOMS polar-orbiting satellite system. These soundings 

have been used by both the military and civilian meteorological communities as input to numerical weather 

forecast models. NOAA honored numerous requests for 

sounding data and science softwarehechniques, from 

both military and civilian researchers. Preparations were 

under way at the end of the year for the development of 

the next generation operational sounding system, which 

will implement new science needed for the NOM-K 

satellite instrumentation (including an advanced microwave sounder). Like that from the NOAA satellite series, 

the data from the Special Sensor Microwave/Temperature 

(SSM/T) instrument onboard the Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program (DMSP) polar-orbiter were operationally processed into soundings. The use of data from the 

Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSM/I) also onboard 

the DMSP spacecraft, combined with the SSM/T data, was 

being explored as an option for improving the soundings. 

Upgrading of the DMSP sounding science software to be 

consistent with that developed for NOAA satellites was in 

progress as the year ended. Products from the DMSP 

satellites are operationally archived and distributed under 

the shared processing agreement between NOAA and the 

Department of Defense-specifically the Navy and Air 

Force. Development of the next generation geostationary 

satellite series (GOES-I/M) sounding product processing 

system was under way at the end of FY 1991. This system 

will provide temperature and moisture sounding information for the NOAA National Meteorological Center’s 

regional forecast models and images of atmospheric 

stability and moisture to the NOM National Severe 

Storms Forecasting Center and the NOAA National Hurricane Center. 

VAS Applications. GOES-7 Visible-and-InfraredSpin-Scan-Radiometer data continued to be used operationally by all of the NOAA National Weather Service 

National Centers-the National Meteorological Center 

(NMC), the National Severe Storms Forecast Center 

(NSSFC), and the National Hurricane Center (NHC). NMC 

used imagery, VAS-C02 slicing techniques, and moisture 

analyses in both its global forecast models and its national 

forecasting programs. The NSSFC used the GOES-7 water 

vapor channel to fine-tune locations and timing of outlooks and watch areas for severe weather. The NHC 

employed imagery and a special VAS-derived Deep Layer 

Mean (steering current) analysis in the monitoring and 

forecasting of hurricanes (including storms in the Atlantic, 

Gulf of Mexico, and Caribbean Basin) that affected the 

United States. 

GOES-Tap. GOES-Tap, a program enabling users 

to acquire high quality satellite imagery over telephone 

data circuits, continued to expand. At the end of FY 1991, 

there were approximately 350 primary users and over 500 

secondary users of GOES-Tap data. They consisted 

primarily of National Weather Service (NWS) field forecast offices but also included the Department of 

Transportation’s Federal Aviation Administration, other 

civilian agencies (both state and Federal), the Department 

of Defense, private companies, universities, and the 

media. A significant number of high schools have also 

started receiving NOAA satellite images via GOES-Tap. 

GOES-Tap data consists of visible and infrared facsimile 

images from the GOES and NOAA satellites, Geostationary Meteorological Satellite (Japanese), and Meteosat 

(European) spacecraft. During 1991, NOAA continued to 

expand its suite of available NOAA polar satellite products 

accessible to the NWS field offices. In addition, high 

resolution polar imagery was now gridded with geopolitical boundaries and contained a machine-readable identification code. 

Hurricane Operations. GOES continued to carry 

the major load in positioning and estimating the strength 

of tropical cyclones outside of the aircraft reconnaissance 

areas for the western Atlantic, Caribbean Sea, Gulf of 

Mexico, and the eastern Pacific. Meteosat supplemented 

GOES in the far eastern Atlantic Ocean. As a supplement 

to GOES-7 imagery, the National Hurricane Center continued to employ imagery from a Meteosat spacecraft 
located at 0 degrees west longitude. Additionally, NHC 

has begun to use imagery from a second Meteosat 

spacecraft, recently relocated to 50 degrees west longitude. The satellite provided continuous monitoring for 

early detection of change while the aircraft provided 

precise spot observations. 

In the Eastern Hemisphere (that is, the western 

Pacific and Indian oceans), the NOAA polar orbiters 

provided the essential coverage for tropical cyclone 

monitoring. The NOAA data were being used to provide 

estimates of position and intensity for the US. Joint 

Typhoon Warning Center in Guam and for foreign 

meteorological services, as part of the World Weather 

Watch Program of the World Meteorological Organization 

(WMO). 

NHC was using the Special Sensor Microwave/ 

Imager wind and rain-rate algorithm to improve products. 

The SSM/I algorithm has provided estimates of wind radii 

for marine advisories as well as rain projections (when the 

tropical cyclones are expected to make landfall) for public 

advisories. 

Satellite-Based Fire Alarms. The National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) of the NOAA National 

Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

(NESDIS), in partnership with the National Park Service 

and Bureau of Land Management in the Department of the 

Interior (DOI), has contracted with NASA to develop a 

prototype operational system for using the NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer for automated 

early detection of wildfires. Wildfires cause great loss of 

forests. Forest managers must decide which fires are 

constructive and which are destructive to overall forest 

development. The techniques developed under this 

program should assist managers in making such decisions. International organizations such as the United 

Nations Food and Agriculture Organization and other 

nations such as Italy have shown interest in this technology. NGDC’s involvement will be reduced in October 

1991. However, NGDC will continue to help the agencies 

in DO1 evaluate a possible follow up to the project. 

Volcano Hazards Support. GOES-7 and NOAA 

polar data continued to be used to define the horizontal 

and vertical extent of ash cloud, as well as the direction 

and speed of cloud movement. Although a few minor 

eruptions occurred during late 1990 and 1991 from the 

Redoubt Volcano in Alaska, the Mount Pinatubo eruption 

in the Philippines (although volcano and ash were not in 

U.S. controlled air space) emphasized the need for an 

expanded role of the United States to help detect, track, 

and forecast ash clouds. The First International Symposium, cosponsored by NOAA, on Volcanic Ash and 

Aviation Safety was held in Seattle, WA, during July 1991. 

Coastwatch. Operational support of Coastwatch 

activities and products began in 1989. At the end of FY 

1991 there were three regional Coastwatch sites providing operational support-in Beaufort, NC; Narragansett, 

RI; and Ann Arbor, MI. In 1991, development began for 

a Coastwatch site in Florida to serve the greater Caribbean. 

NOAA’s interagency Ocean Products Center provided the regional sites with operational products such as 

high resolution AVHRR satellite-derived sea surface temperature (SST) imagery, meteorological fields, and oceanographic information in near real time via the electronic 

delivery system known as the NOAA Ocean Communications Network. 

A new satellite mapping capability called IMGMAF’ 

began operating in mid-1991. An improvement over an 

older, non-operational routine, IMGMAP provided superior coastlines, better land/sea tags, more accurate satellite-derived SST’s, and most notably, the ability to remap 

high resolution satellite images automatically for each 

coastal state of the United States. 

An inexpensive, personal computer based workstation has been developed to interactively display and 

analyze satellite and other environmental information 

that supported Federal, state, and local decision makers 

and researchers responsible for managing coastal living 

marine resources and ecosystems. The NOAA Coastwatch 

Archive and Access System, an optical mass storage 

system on-line at the National Oceanographic Data Center for near real time capture and retrospective availability 

and distribution of Coastwatch data and products, provided data management for the system. 

Coastwatch-funded research efforts included water 

reflectance/turbidity studies in the Chesapeake Bay as 

well as in Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds; examination of 

phytoplankton “red tide” blooms; El Nino monitoring; 

coastal circulation analysis; and development of an ocean 

color index. As part of the Coastwatch program, the 

Change Analysis Program was developing a comprehen85 
sive, nationally standardized information system for land 

cover and habitat change in the coastal region of the 

United States. Satellite imagery, aerial photography, and 

surface level data will be interpreted, classified, analyzed, 

and integrated within a geographic information system. 

The program will delineate coastal wetland habitats and 

adjacent uplands and monitor changes in these habitats 

on a cycle of 1 to 5 years. 

Program products will strengthen conceptual and 

predictive models and improve policy planning and 

analysis with respect to coastal resources. Operational 

protocols were being developed through a series of 

interagency workshops and meetings focusing on coastal 

emergent wetlands and adjacent uplands, submerged 

aquatic vegetation, and user products. 

Strategic EnvironmentalAssessment Program. 

This program, managed by the Office of Ocean Resources 

Conservation and Assessment of the National Ocean 

Service (NOS) used NOAA and NASA satellite data to 

produce analyses that describe the physical and biological conditions within estuaries, adjacent coastal waters, 

and the continental shelf. It acquired and analyzed 

satellite imagery to determine: the location, movement, 

and spatial extent of estuarine plumes and shelf/slope 

fronts; the interactions and exchanges of water between 

estuaries and coastal oceans; and the distribution and 

concentration of primary productivity zones. The analyses produced by the Strategic Environmental Assessment 

Program were used by Coastal Managers to help in the 

continued monitoring and assessment of the environmental context within which living marine resources must 

survive. 

Fisheries Enforcement. In cooperation with the 

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), NOS provided, 

on an experimental basis, satellite imagery and other 

environmental data to the NMFS Enforcement Offices in 

Sitka and Juneau, AK, and San Jose and Monterey, CA. 

These NMFS offices used the environmental informa-tion 

provided by NOS to determine the most likely location to 

search for illegal foreign fishing activity. Coast Guard 

surveillance aircraft and ships were guided to these 

locations and reported an increase in the number of at-sea 

apprehensions. 

Aviation Applications. A color image display has 

been developed that shows the approximate thickness of 

fog and stratus clouds. It was based on the temperature 

difference of two GOES infrared channels. Such estimates 

are useful in determining the time required for fog to clear 

an airport terminal area. Preliminary data show the 

estimates to be accurate to about 100 meters. An effort is 

under way to determine the Northern Hemispheric distribution of clear air turbulence (CAT) based on monthly, 

seasonal, and annual averages of an index calculated 

from forecast winds aloft. Preliminary results have 

identified regions where CAT is relatively common. 

These compare favorably with pilot reports and the 

observation of turbulence signatures in satellite imagery. 

Additionally, work was nearly completed at the end 

of FY 1991 on developing a new procedure for classifying 

mid-latitude winter cyclones in the Atlantic Ocean. Preliminary results showed significant improvement over 

existing techniques for estimating the central pressure of 

full-latitude storm systems. An expanded study addressing north Pacific storms was planned for 1991-92. 

Precipitation. Improvements in the forecasting of 

heavy rainfall continued during FY 1991. Imagery from 

the GOES satellite was proving to be an excellent tool for 

quickly locating: mid-level systems associated with 

upward vertical motion; areas of relatively deep moisture; 

and unstable air masses. All of these are ingredients for 

producing thunderstorms, especially those associated 

with heavy rainfall. The presence of low level moisture 

can increase the rainfall efficiency from thunderstorms. 

When polar or subtropical moisture approaches or intersects tropical moisture, thunderstorms can develop, producing flash floods. Techniques employing microwave 

satellite data for monitoring global precipitation were 

quasi-operational at year’s end. Automated techniques to 

estimate rainfall from infrared satellite data were also 

being developed to improve the forecasting of flash 

floods and to lead to better water management. 

Aerosol Optical Thickness. Although experimental production of a measurement of aerosol optical 

thickness over global oceans began in July 1987, operational production began in January 1990 and continued at 

year’s end. A cooperative project with the Navy in the 

86 
Figure showing the distribution of aerosol particles before and after the Mt. Pinatubo eruption. Top figure shows the situation 

one week before; bottom ffgure, ffve weeks after the eruption. 

summer of 1990 resulted in an airdrop of drifting buoys 

in the eastern Atlantic off the coast of northwest Africa, an 

area where Saharan dust is prevalent. Close (time/ 

location) matchups of the buoy and satellite data have 

enabled development of an aerosol correction algorithm 

for AVHRR-based daytime sea surface temperature retrievals. 

The eruption of Mt. Pinatubo and the subsequent 

creation of a tropical belt of volcanic aerosol in the high 

stratosphere has been readily monitored by means of the 

weekly composite aerosol product. Five weeks after the 

eruption, the entire equatorial region, from 20 degrees 

South latitude to 25 degrees north latitude, was affected 

by the stratospheric aerosol particle layer generated by 

the eruption. This increase in reflected solar radiation 

could cause the Earth’s surface temperature to decrease 

by up to 0.5 degrees Celsius over the next few years. 

Satellite Applications Training. With increasing 

domestic and international awareness of the value of 

87 
satellite information in weather and oceanographic analysis and forecasting, demand for training in satellite 

applications continues to grow. During the 1990-91 

period, NESDIS has taught or coordinated almost 50 

courses and workshops, training more than 1500 forecasters and others in the National Weather Service (NWS), 

Department of Defense, and overseas weather services 

and in weather-dependent agencies. A renewed focus on 

“training the trainer” has allowed thousands of additional 

forecasters to be trained by attendees at these NESDIS 

courses. Training topics included synoptic- and mesoscale analysis, heavy rainfall, water vapor imagery interpretation, numerical model initial analysis, tropical meteorology, oceanography, and agroclimatic applications. 

NESDIS has completed its third self-study training 

module. Work was under way at year’s end on a 

comprehensive script-slide training module on tropical 

cyclones, and the second volume of the “Workbook on 

Tropical Cloud and Weather Systems” was nearly completed. NESDIS, working with NWS and the University 

Center for Atmospheric Research, has nearly completed 

several interactive video-disc learning programs on severe storms and convection. 

A technical report describing “Water Vapor Imagery 

Interpre-tation,” also completed in FY 1991, comprehensively summarizes nearly 10 years of work designed to 

improve understanding of weather systems through water vapor imagery and can be used for self-study. The 

report’s distribution included all. of the NWS, and the 

DOD was reprinting it for distribution to its forecasting 

units. 

The Service also printed nine Satellite Applications 

Information Notes (SAINs). These were designed to 

disseminate new satellite techniques to NWS operations 

staff in a timely manner. Aviation and heavy rainfall topics 

dominated this year’s SAINs. However, several addressed 

polar orbiter imagery as well. 

Space Environment Services. NOM, in cooperation with the U.S. Air Force, has operated the Space 

Environment Services Center to provide forecasts, alerts, 

indices, and data describing disturbances in the space 

environment that may affect the operations of satellites, 

data systems, manned space missions, and defense reconnaissance sensors. The center continued to collect data 

in real time from the Space Environment Monitors on the 

GOES and NOAA satellites. These data were then 

combined with real time data from Department of Defense satellites and telescopes, Department of Interior 

geomagnetic field sensors, and from national and international facilities, to synthesize a running description of the 

state of the solar-terrestrial environment, especially disturbances that might adversely affect space activities. 

Means of distributing these data have included satellite 

broadcasts, computer-to-computer links, radio broadcasts, and a facsimile-based alert system. Substantial 

portions of the data were being preserved for future 

research by the NOAA National Geophysical Data Center. 

NOAA also engaged in research and development directed toward improved monitoring, better physical understanding, and improved forecasts, primarily through 

the Space Environment Laboratory. 

Millimeter Wave Frequencies. The National 

Telecommunica-tions and Information Administration 

was continuing to study propagation effects at millimeterwave frequencies on Earth-space paths. Measurement of 

these millimeter-wave characteristics, employing laboratory instruments, will allow NTIA to analyze higher level 

atmospheric effects on millimeter-wave system performance more effectively and will provide important results 

for the operations of space-based remote sensing systems. 

Space Programs Support. Precisely synchronized Earth stations continued to be extremely important 

to NASA’s Deep Space Net used for space navigation. 

Commerce’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has assisted the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in 

synchronizing NASA stations in the United States, Australia, and Spain. 

The Hubble Space Telescope’s High Resolution 

Spectrograph (HRS) has two hollow cathode calibration 

sources for on-board wavelength calibration using a 

platinum spectrum. The precise wavelengths of the 

platinum spectrum measured by NIST have been incorporated into the calibration codes for the HRS and are also 

used in calibrating the ultraviolet spectra obtained with 

the International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite and other 

space missions. Astronomers have been using the HRS for 

such studies of stellar atmospheres. One early study 

provided data that furnish one of the few critical tests of 

88 
theories describing the first few seconds of the universe. 

Synchrotron radiation at the NET Synchrotron U1- 

traviolet Radiation Facility was being used as an absolute 

standard of spectral irradiance to calibrate spectrometer 

sensitivity. Users of this calibration service included 

scientists from government laboratories and academic 

institutions. A new detector, sensitive in the far ultraviolet 

and developed in conjunction with industry, had found 

several applications as of the end of FY 1991. 

Astronomers at NIST were continuing to participate 

in the scientific and technical design of several future 

IVASA scientific satellites, including the Advanced X-ray 

Astrophysics Facility, the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic 

Explorer, and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph. 

NIST has been supporting NASA’s development of 

a leak- standards capability that will serve all of NASA’s 

facilities. A large variety of space components and 

systems must either retain or exclude gases for continued 

proper functioning. NIST was also assisting in developing 

and calibrating vacuum instruments and techniques used 

to determine outgassing rates from space materials and 

satellite assemblies. Material outgassed from one component of a satellite was often readsorbed on other parts, 

obscuring optical components and detectors and causing 

catastrophic discharges in high density electronic assemblies. Prevention and evaluation of these phenomena 

require the kinds of quantitative measures of outgassing 

characteristics provided by the calibration. 

NIST has also provided regular calibration support 

for vacuum instrumentation to almost all of NASA’s 

facilities (five within the past year) and to numerous 

aerospace contractors. Each year, personnel from at least 

one NASA facility and several aerospace companies have 

participated in NIST’s vacuum calibration training course. 

NIST was developing a terrestrial version of the control 

system that will be used in NASA’s Flight Telerobotic 

Servicer (FTS). The FTS is a two-armed robot that will be 

used to build and maintain Space Station Freedom. As of 

the end of FY 1991, the robot was able to assemble Space 

Station hardware that connects the pieces of the station, 

using visually guided techniques. 

Cryogenic flowmeters were being developed and 

tested for use in the fuel supply system of the Space 

Shuttle and the proposed heavy lift vehicle as well. NIST 

was studying new refrigeration systems to achieve higher 

reliability and greater efficiency in cryocoolers. It 

provided research, calibration services, and standards to 

allow quantitative analysis of gases used in Space Shuttle 

ground support systems. 

Commercial Space Support 

Office of Space Commerce. Established in December 1988 in the Office of the Deputy Secretary of 

Commerce, the Office of Space Commerce (OSC) has had 

five main responsibilities: (1) to coordinate space related 

issues, programs, and initiatives within the Department; 

(2) to represent the Department on the National Space 

Council; (3) to act as industry’s advocate at the Federal 

level; (4) to participate in international negotiations on 

trade relating to space technology; and (5) to encourage 

the export of U.S. space technology except for sensitive 

items. 

To coordinate space policy within the Department, 

OSC chaired the Space Commerce Coordinating Committee, a group composed of representatives from bureaus 

and agencies within Commerce that had an interest in 

space related issues. Typical issues include reviews of the 

Landsat Remote Sensing Commercialization Act and 

modifications to U.S. export regulations affecting space 

items. OSC is also leading an interagency study on the 

worldwide status of launch vehicle and satellite technologies. 

As the Working Group representative on the National Space Council, OSC has participated in the development of specific statements of space policy, such as the 

National Launch Strategy, Commercial Space Policy Guidelines, and Commercial Space Launch Strategy. Representing the Department internationally, OSC has been involved in the negotiations for free and fair trade with 

respect to space launch services. OSC was working at 

year’s end with the European Space Agency to establish 

guidelines for commercial competition in the international launch industry. 

OSC supported the McDonnell Douglas sale of 

launch services to Indonesia; helped HughedGeneral 

Dynamics obtain Exporthmport Bank financing for the 

Telesat Canada project; and supported the Orbital Sciences Corporation’s sale of launch services to Brazil. OSC 

has encouraged the formation of the U.S. Global Positioning Satellite Industry Council to coordinate industry input 

89 
on export controls and has held discussions with industry 

on buying remote sensing data from lightsats. 

Commercial Space Support and Technology 

Transfer. Members of the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology participated in a number of governmental and private groups related to the commercial development of space. These included the Secretary of Commerce’s 

Commercial Space Advisory Committee, the National 

Security Council Space Policy Working Group, the National Academy of Sciences Microgravity Facilities Study, 

and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics-NASA Commercial Programs Strategic Plan Working 

Group. 

NIST was developing methods and techniques for 

measurement of materials processing and research in the 

microgravity environment. In order to test these techniques, NIST was a participant in the first study by a NASA 

Center for the Commercial Development of Space on 

suborbital flight. The work was performed in association 

with the Consortium for Materials Development in Space 

at the University of Alabama, Hunstville, AL. 

The Materials Microstructure Characterization Group 

at KIST was one of six research laboratories participating 

in the NASA Center for Commercial Crystal Growth in 

Space. The NIST part of the program involved characterization of vapor-grown cadmium-tellurium, nucleation 

and growth of zeolites, and solution growth of nonlinear 

optical materials. In these projects, the characteri-zation 

includes both Earth-grown and space-grown materials to 

permit a fundamental understanding of the quantitative 

differences in the processing-microstructure-property 

relationships of materials prepared on Earth and in space. 

This understanding was expected to lead to improvements in processing of materials, resulting in better and/ 

or unique properties for industrial applications. 

Research Applications 

The Climate and Global Change Program NOAA 

was continuing with its program of producing and 

maintaining the continuity of climatological products 

from operational satellites. (For examples, see last year’s 

report.) 

In addition, NOAA has undertaken new activities to 

improve and expand its suite of high quality climatological data to meet the goals of the U.S. Climate and Global 

Change Program. These included: 

An OPSAT ’90 Conference-A conference on Operational Satellites: Sentinels for Monitoring Climate 

and Global Change. It examined the role of operational satellites in observing global climate systems 

and helped define the climatological variables obtainable from current and future satellites. 

A Calibration Workshop-A Workshop on Kadiometric Calibration of Satellite Sensors of Reflected 

Solar Kadiation, hosted by NOAA. The calibration 

of the short-wave sensors is critical if these data are 

to be used for climatic studies. This workshop 

addressed the problem of obtaining the most accurate calibration of the visible and near-infrared 

sensors on the operational spacecraft that currently 

have no onboard calibration. 

Pathfinder Data. NOAA and NASA have initiated a 

joint program to generate and make available to the 

global-change research community quality data sets 

concerning “research/climate”. They have identified three NOAA operational satellite data sets as 

Pathfinder data sets under this activity: the fivechannel Advanced Very High Resolution Kadiometer data, since 1981; the TIKOS Operational Vertical Sounder data, since 1979; and the GOES data, 

since 1978. 

Operational Measurements Project. To provide ongoing data and informational products from operational satellite and in situ observations for the U.S. 

Global Research Program, NOAA has initiated a 

project on Operational Measurements as part of its 

Climate and Global Change Program. The Operational Measurements project will improve NOAA’s 

ability to observe the physical climate system. 

Because of its global observing capabilities, the 

emphasis of this project will be the operational 

satellite observing system. New and improved 

products will provide climatological products for 

studying the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and 

cryosphere. 

90 
Earth Radiation Budget. Since 1974, NOAA has 

been providing nearly continuous coverage of the outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR) flux and the planetary 

albedo from sensors on the polar-orbiting satellites. 

While current OLR products have been derived from a 

single channel on the AVHKK in the thermal infrared 

portion of the spectrum, an OLR product derived from 

four channels on the High-Resolution Infrared Sounder 

instrument has been developed and is being implemented. Beginning in May 1988, the planetary albedo has 

been computed from a scene-independent linear combination of two channels on the AVHRR and corrected for 

reflected radiation. 

The OLR and the albedo have been extremely useful 

in monitoring the climatic effects of the burning Kuwaiti 

oil in the Persian Gulf region. Large decreases in the 

cloudless albedo were observed over normally bright 

desert sand the day after the fires were set. These 

decreases remained at year’s end, although many fires 

had been extinguished, causing the surface temperatures 

to dip many degrees below normal values. NOAA also 

monitored the Mt. Pinatubo volcano by noting the very 

low values in the OLR of the ash clouds. 

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study. The National 

Ocean Service has been providing satellite image data, 

ship and buoy reports, and numerical forecasts to support 

this critical element of the Climate and Global Change 

Program. NOS has communicated these data in real time 

to the Joint Global Ocean Flux Study UGOFS) Time Series 

Stations at Bermuda and Hawaii. JGOFS scientists used 

them to direct data collection activities of participating 

research vessels and to establish a surface climatology for 

the region around the monitoring station. The measurements collected by JGOFS will assist in the determination 

of differences between daily, seasonal, annual, and 

decadal changes in the net flux of planetary carbon, one 

of the important indicators of statistically significant 

changes in global climate. 

Ozone. Analysis of the currently archived total 

ozone data derived from measurements by the Solar 

Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectrometer/2 instruments on 

the NOM-9 and -11 satellites have been merged along 

with data from the SBUV on the NASA Nimbus-7 satellite. 

The combined data set, normalized to data from the 

global Dobson spectrophotometer network, permitted 

analysis for trends over the resultant 11-year data record. 

While the analysis was preliminary at the end of FY 1991, 

the trend showed a decrease in the amount of total global 

ozone by about 3 percent per decade. This was in general 

agreement with trends derived from other satellite data. 

(See coverage above of ozone measurement.) 

Atmospheric Sciences Research. NIST has had 

several other projects related to the problem of ozone 

depletion of the upper atmosphere and the greenhouse 

effect. One project used Molecular spectroscopy to 

provide the data for monitoring molecular species present 

in trace amounts in the Earth’s atmosphere. NIST and 

NOAA were continuing to collaborate on measurements 

of concentrations of hydroxyl, water, ozone, chlorine, 

oxygen, and some nitrogen-oxygen compounds. Data 

from these and other measurements were being compiled 

into data base tables that will enable atmospheric modelers to predict equilibrium conditions for the atmosphere 

and its chlorine pollutants. 

Scientists investigated the spectra of carbon dioxide, chlorine dioxide, and cyanogen under high resolution. Subtle perturbations such as temperature and 

pressure-dependent mixing of spectral lines have a strong 

effect on the interpretation of the observed spectra in 

terms of appropriate theoretical models. NIST scientists 

were making laboratory determinations of the effect of 

pressure on the spectroscopic line widths of important 

upper atmospheric molecules. Other research organizations such as the Smithsonian Astrophysics Laboratory 

used these laboratory measurements to interpret NASA’s 

satellite and balloon measurements of atmospheric constituents. 

NIST scientists were continuing to perform laboratory mea-surements of the rates of the chemical reactions 

controlling the atmospheric lifetimes of replacement 

compounds for chlorofluoro-carbons. NIST was engaged 

in extensive calculations of electron precipitation events 

in the Earth’s atmosphere (auroras, sub-storms, magnetic 

storms) important in magnetospheric processes and interactions with the upper and middle atmosphere. Because 

direct measurements of the precipitating electrons were 

difficult, much experimental evidence has had to be 

based on indirect measurement from which researchers 

deduced initial electron distribution and the ionization 
profiles in the atmosphere. 

NIST developed a computer code for the rapid 

calculation of absorbed dosage from electrons, electromagnetic radiation, and protons, as a function of depth in 

the aluminum shielding material of spacecraft, given the 

electron and proton influences encountered in orbit. 

Since 1980, when the code was made available to the 

space radiation effects community, its use has become 

quite widespread, so much so that it has become a de 

facto standard for dose estimates by NASA and DOD 

agencies and their contractors in many project areas. A 

new code was being developed, under the auspices of 

NASA, that will incorporate new radiation transport cross 

sections and will extend coverage to wider energy ranges 

of incident radiations, to a larger number of detector 

materials, and to a larger variety of geometries. 

Several hundred scientists in more than 50 institutions and countries receive geophysical data records on 

a regular basis. The NESDIS National Geophysical Data 

Center continued, along with the NESDIS National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC), to provide the community 

of users with these publicly available Geosat data and 

selected derived data. 

Global Vegetation Index. NOAA’s experimental 

Global Vege-tation Index (GVI) provided a one-per-week 

view of Earths vegetation since May 1982. The GVI 

derived from daily data acquired by the AVHRR onboard 

the NOAA polar-orbiting series of satellites. Research 

efforts continued to improve the quality and use of the 

normalized-difference vegetation index data in global 

circulation models and as direct indicators of year-to-year 

and regional variations in climatic conditions. 

Snow Cover Observations. As of November 1990, 

NOAA began its twenty-fifth year of producing the NOAA 

satellite based Northern Hemisphere Weekly Snow and 

Ice Cover Chart. This has been the longest satellite based 

climate record ever available. Work continued to upgrade this product by evaluating microwave data from the 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program’s SSMA sensor 

and the daily United States Air Force global snow cover 

product. The National Weather Service was studying the 

use of snow cover data in improving its forecast models. 

Generic Cloud Algorithms. Under development 

at the end of FY 1991 was a multichannel algorithm for 

cloud detectjon. Its objectives were to provide a method 

for detecting clear pixels for remote sensing of surface 

parameters and to provide a means of estimating cloud 

amount and other cloud properties useful for diagnosis 

and initialization of climate and weather prediction models. 

Increasing concern in the scientific community 

regarding global cloud census has led to improved 

estimates from polar and geostationary satellites using 

radiances in the carbon dioxide bands in concert with 

atmospheric window measurements. A 2-year global 

climatology has been prepared as a pilot program. This 

research has also spawned an operational product that 

will be used by NWS to augment the Automated Surface 

Observing System of the Modernized Weather Service. 

Sea Surface Temperature Measurements. Since 

1981 the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and 

Information Service has provided sea surface temperature 

measurements in real time on a global basis. These SSTs 

are derived from 4 km resolution, multi-channel (visible, 

reflective, and thermal-infrared), and digital data from the 

AVHRR instrument. The nonlinear model, implemented 

in March 1990 to better correct for atmospheric attenuation by water vapor, has worked well, but a simpler and 

improved nonlinear version replaced it in April 1991. The 

eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines in June 1991 

has had a significant effect on AVHRR-based SSTs in the 

tropics. The impact was stronger but much like that 

experienced with the apparently weaker El Chichon 

eruption in 1982, a severe loss in daytime SST retrievals 

and a degradation in accuracy of the nighttime ones. 

Methods of correcting for these effects, which were 

developed from data during the El Chichon episode, were 

under investigation as FY 1991 ended. 

Dump Site Monitoring. NOS was using NOAA 

satellite imagery to monitor sea surface temperature as 

part of the 106-Mile Deepwater Municipal Sludge Dump 

Site project, carried out jointly with the Environmental 

Protection Agency and U.S. Coast Guard. SST imagery 

was being used for the identification of surface water 

92 
masses, as an aid in the interpretation of the tracks of 

drifters released at the site, and for monitoring significant 

physical features such as the Gulf Stream and warm core 

rings. 

Mesoscale andsevere Storm Research. NESDIS 

researchers continued to develop satellite based products 

to improve forecasting of severe and tornadic thunderstorms. Work this year has focused on using interactive 

computer systems to quickly and accurately analyze rapid 

changes in the thunderstorm environment. Recent research was pointing to the interaction of the thunderstorm with its environmental flow fields in defining the 

crucial difference between a storm that has beneficial 

rains and one that is destructive. NESDIS has developed 

products to look at these flow fields in real timeallowing the forecaster to look at satellite imagery in a 

storm-relative reference frame. 

Tropical Cyclone Research. NESDIS research 

used observational data from satellites and aircraft as well 

as conventional weather data to improve the understanding of tropical cyclones. Tropical cyclones occurring in 

the Atlantic, eastern Pacific, western Pacific, and Australian regions have been extensively analyzed using digital 

multi-spectral satellite images. The genesis, intensity, and 

motion of tropical cyclones were the primary topics being 

studied with these multi-spectral data sets. Objective 

techniques have been made available to operational 

tropical cyclone forecast centers at the National Hurricane 

Center, Miami, FL, the Joint Typhoon Warning center, 

Guam, and NESDIS, Washington, DC. 

National Marine Fisheries Research. Remote 

sensing of the oceans by satellite continued to play an 

important role in National Marine Fisheries Service research. Satellite observations provide the synoptic information needed for studying the effects of the ocean 

environment on the abundance and distribution of fish 

populations. 

The Alaska Fisheries Science Center (AFSC), in 

collaboration with the Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory and various academic institutions, was continuing 

a Fisheries Oceanography Coordinated Investigation in 

the Gulf of Alaska and the Bering Sea. A major objective 

of the study was to determine the effects of the ocean 

environment on the walleye pollock. Satellite measurements of ocean environmental parameters have been 

used in conjunction with data collected by ships and 

aircraft to describe and eventually predict the distribution 

of the parameters that affect the survival of the pollock. 

The AFSC and Service ARGOS completed testing 

during FY 1991 of an ARGOS Environmental Shipboard 

Observer Platform (AESOP). The AESOP, developed by 

Service AKGOS, is a portable data entry and transmission 

unit that allows an observer aboard a fishing vessel to 

transmit data and messages to the Alaska Center through 

the NOM polar orbiting satellites. The AESOP was tested 

by an observer placed aboard a U.S. factory trawler fishing 

off the northwest coast. The vessel transmitted daily 

information on the catch of Pacific whiting and salmon to 

the AFSC. Use of the AESOP significantly improved the 

ability of the observer to provide the Center with fisheries 

data required for management of fishery quotas. 

Fisheries scientists in Alaska developed and tested 

a prototype satellite tracking system to monitor the 

movement of several hundred radio-tagged salmon in 

remote Alaskan waterways. The data received through 

the satellite was being used by U.S. and Canadian fisheries 

scientists to determine the migration patterns and distribution of salmon stocks in several transboundary rivers. 

This information was required for management of the 

salmon stocks according to the provisions of the Pacific 

Salmon Treaty. 

The National Marine Mammal Laboratory used a 

satellite tracking system to monitor the movement of 

marine mammals fitted with radio transmitters. The data 

acquired with the system permitted researchers to study 

diving behavior, to locate feeding grounds, and to obtain 

information on habitats. Five studies took place in 1990 

and 1991 in collaboration with scientists from the Soviet 

Union, Japan, and the state of Alaska. 

The Southwest Fisheries Science Center was using 

satellite infrared imagery to monitor ocean conditions 

influencing west coast fisheries. The satellite data were 

used to locate and define features of the California Current 

that may affect the survival of early life stages and 

subsequent recruitment of commercially important fish 

93 
species. The Center also was a NOAA Coastwatch 

Regional Node responsible for providing satellite remote 

sensing data to decision makers and researchers who 

manage the nation’s marine resources and ecosystems. 

The Southeast Fisheries Science Center completed 

a multi-agency research project to develop remote sensing capabilities using an Airborne Ocean Color Imager. 

Ocean color data it collected directed fishing vessels to 

areas with a high probability of significant concentrations 

of fish. The project demonstrated to the commercial and 

sports fishing industries the advantages of using remote 

sensing data in their operations in the northern Gulf of 

Mexico. 

High Performance Aerospace Materials. The 

National Institute of Standards and Technology was in the 

process of studying the physics and chemistry involved in 

the combustion of metallic materials in high-pressure/ 

high-temperature oxygen environments. An understanding of the interaction between oxygen and metals was 

needed to improve the performance and safety of the 

Space Shuttle main engine. Researchers were looking at 

frictional generation of oxides to estimate actual temperatures experienced during Shuttle operations. 

NIST was continuing the study of the performance 

characteristics of state-of-the-art heat exchangers for use 

in high-mach aircraft. Fuel used in these high performance aircraft is preheated before injection into the 

engines by absorbing through these exchangers the heat 

developed by aerodynamic friction; this absorption also 

helps cool the skin of the vehicle. Development of 

predictive models based on theory and observed behavior is an important component of this research. 

NIST has developed a unique capability to study the 

thermal conductivity of insulating materials for application in advanced aircraft and rockets. The facility involved 

in this research includes systems needed to study classical 

thermal conductivity as well as heat flow with extremely 

large temperature differences imposed. 

Advanced ceramics offer significant advantages 

over conventional materials for a variety of aerospace 

applications where dimensional stability, stiffness, corrosion resistance, and high-temperature strength are required. To provide reliable data on the properties and 

behavior of these materials, NIST has conducted a program to develop the test methodologies required and to 

provide the critical data. These data as well as the test 

methodology are crucial to the design and operation of 

many aerospace components. 

NIST was also conducting research on the use of 

composite materials containing solid lubricants in mechanical system components for space satellites in a 

project sponsored by the Air Force. The aim of the project 

is to develop a fundamental understanding of selflubricating composites and also to suggest materials for 

actual systems. Project researchers have made recommendations to the Air Force on candidate materials (both 

metal- and ceramic-matrix composites) and deposited 

solid lubricant films for new designs of bearings and other 

moving mechanical systems. 

Long life and high efficiencies are critical requirements for alkaline fuel cells used in aerospace applications. Techniques involving molecular chemical synthesis have been developed to generate finely divided, 

conductive oxides. Evaluations of the new materials 

suggest that they will offer advantages in longevity and 

efficiency over the present system. Work was also under 

way at year’s end to establish the feasibility of using high 

temperature ceramic superconductors as radiant heat 

instruments for measuring temperature on missions to 

distant planets. 

During alloy solidification in the Earth’s gravitational field, it is difficult to avoid convection that arises 

from the thermal and density gradients inherent in the 

solidification process. Convection causes solute segregation that may degrade the properties of the solidified 

material. Using Floquet theory, researchers were making 

numerical calculations of the processing conditions for 

the onset of convection as a function of the magnitude 

and frequency of the acceleration. 

Space Sciences Research. Development of a 

comprehensive data base of evaluated atomic spectroscopy data, covering all atoms and ions of astrophysical 

interest, was continuing for general use of space research 

groups. The data base will be compatible with the NASA 

astrophysics data system and be incorporated into appropriate existing NASA data bases to facilitate easy dissemination to space science groups. 

NIST continued several studies of astronomical 

phenomena. Along with NASA investigators, researchers 

were determining accurate atmospheric parameters and 

94 
elemental abundances of hot stars by providing the results 

of sophisticated model calculations of stellar atmospheres. 

NIST astronomers were also pursuing a major program to 

measure surface magnetic fields of stars cooler than the 

Sun. They have developed a Doppler imaging technique 

to determine the location and sizes of bright and dark 

regions on the surfaces of rapidly rotating stars. 

NIST engineers have also designed and constructed 

a compact pulse heating system for microgravity simulations with NASA’s KC-135 aircraft. Experiments performed during a series of flights have yielded valuable 

information regarding the parameters affecting specimen 

stability above the melting point. As a natural extension 

of the work on specimen stability, engineers demonstrated a technique for measuring surface tension of liquid 

metals at high temperatures in a microgravity environment. NIST has performed analytical procedures on 

biological samples collected from separation experiments 

aboard the Space Shuttle and has prepared reviews of 

separation science under low gravity. NIST has also 

performed modeling studies in gravitational and space 

biology and has provided leadership in the physical 

analysis of low gravity and simulated low gravity. 

NIST was participating in work under the NASA 

Crustal Dynamics Project to determine worldwide tectonic plate motions and the intricacies of the Earth’s 

rotation. The model produced by project engineers 

calibrates the atmospheric transmission delay due to 

water vapor so that the accuracy of geophysical and 

astronomical studies based on microwave distance measurements through the atmosphere can be improved. A 

more accurate determination of the displacement rate 

across the San Andreas fault system in California has been 

made from satellite laser range data. 

A spectral irradiance intercomparison and instrument evaluation was conducted with NASA, NOAA, the 

Naval Research Laboratory, and two members of the 

European Space Agency. The main purpose is to put 

future radiometric space measurements on a common 

base. All of the participating laboratories developed and 

used a portable radiometric measurement setup. This 

project was useful in solving major measurement problems before the instruments were launched; the measurement evaluation maximized the success of the mission. 

NIST has developed a theoretical model capable of 

predicting the dynamic structure of both flames from and 

smoldering of a cellulosic material in a reduced-gravity 

environment. The model has been extended to include 

ignition and subsequent flame spread to examine fire 

safety in spacecraft. The relationship between sets of 

NASA and NIST test data with flammability in reduced 

gravity was being studied as well. 

Geosat Altimeter Program. Since 1986 the National Ocean Service has prepared Geosat altimeter data 

sets for distribution to the international scientific community. Although the involved satellite failed in early 1990, 

the 5-year U.S. Navy Geosat mission has been the most 

successful oceanographic mission of its kind. It has 

collected approximately 500,000 observations of sea 

level, wind speed, and wave height each day over the 

global oceans. NOS has used these data to study sea level 

variations in the tropical oceans as they relate to global 

weather and climate. During the past year, NOS has 

prepared a new Geosat data set for distribution by the 

NODC to the oceanographic community. The geophysical data records (GDKs) have been upgraded by incorporating a more accurate satellite orbit and improved 

corrections for water vapor, tides, dry troposphere, and 

the geoid. These new GDRs will be distributed on 7 CDKOMs (as opposed to 36 9-track tapes). NOS was also 

actively supporting the next satellite altimeter, the European Space Agency Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS-I), 

launched in July 1991. NOS will assist in areas of 

calibration and verification and will use the fast delivery 

altimeter data to perform monthly monitoring of tropical 

sea level, as was done during the Geosat mission. 

The Geosat altimeter data was also being used to 

enhance models of the geoid and the gravity field of 

Earth’s oceans. This information is fundamental to 

improving our understanding of numerous geophysical 

processes. 

Very Long Baseline Interferometry. During FY 

1991, NOS maintained the NOAA portion of the global 

Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) network. NOS 

continued monitoring continental motion parameters 

using a 3-station network in the United States (Westford, 

MA; Richmond, FL; and Mojave, CAI, plus the Wettzel 

station in Germany. These measurements are critical to 

remove the motion parameters from the global sea level 

record, which is an important indicator of global warm95 
ing. Also, NOS deployed a mobile VLBI system to a site 

near San Francisco to monitor ground motion in the 

aftermath of the Loma Prieta earthquake of 1989. 

Solar Geophysical Data. In 1990, the number of 

solar flares and related magnetic storms affecting the 

Earth dropped below the peak achieved in 1989, the year 

of sunspot maximum. However, as predicted by the 

National Geophysical Data Center, in 1991 both flares and 

major magnetic storms have returned to higher levels with 

serious effects on spacecraft, electrical power plants, and 

other high technology systems on Earth and in space. 

According to the classification system developed at NGDC, 

the March 1991 storm was the largest magnetic storm 

since the great one of March 1989. During the recent 

active flare period, several satellites experienced serious 

problems. Failures in electrical power subsystems on the 

ground at nuclear power plants were being studied by the 

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI). EPRI scientists 

and contractors were using data obtained from NGDC 

about solar activity and magnetic storms during recent 

activity and for historical times. 

National Oceanographic Data Center CDROMs. As a follow-up to the release of its initial prototype 

CD-ROM holding, concerned with temperature-salinity 

data for the Pacific Ocean, the National Oceanographic 

Data Center issued a 2-volume set of CD-ROMs containing global ocean temperature and salinity profiles. Late 

in the year, NODC and NOS began a cooperative project 

to issue Geosat data sets on CD-ROM. The first data to be 

issued will be a set of reprocessed Geosat Geophysical 

Data Records from the Exact Repeat Mission, collected 

from November 1986 through December 1989. These 

Geosat data incorporate improved water vapor and dry 

troposphere corrections, as well as a more accurate geoid 

model and modifications to the ocean tide model. 

Global Monitoring. The NESDIS National Geophysical Data Center began its Global Change Database 

Program, a cooperative effort with many other laboratories and individual scientists, to compile and integrate 

improved data for global environmental monitoring. The 

program integrated data derived from NOAA satellites 

with a wide variety of other data. Activity for 1991 has 

included distributing a CD-ROM to about 200 evaluators, 

who are providing reviews of the data and their presentation. In addition, NGDC is helping to stimulate laboratories to produce improved data sets, as well as analysis 

software. NGDC also helped to organize the First 

International Conference/Workshop on Integrating Geographic Information Systems and Environmental Modeling, held in Boulder, CO, in September 1991. It significantly advanced the exchange of information on these 

techniques. 

Earth System Data Directory. In 1991, NOAA 

expanded its Earth System Data Directory, an on-line 

computer directory of NOAA data sets. The system was 

part of the national and international Global Change 

Master Directory network of data directories, which 

includes the directories at European, Japanese, and 

Canadian space agencies. The NOAA Directory contained 680 descriptions of environmental data including 

over 100 descriptions of satellite data held in NOAA data 

centers. It was the keystone for the NOAA Earth 

Observing System Data and Information System and 

NOAA Data Management efforts. 

National Climatic Data Center Holdings. The 

National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) is responsible for 

the archiving and distribution of much of the nation’s 

environmental satellite data. NCDC satellite data archives 

consist of data originating from NOAA operational polar 

and geostationary satellites, the Defense Meteorological 

Satellite Program, and certain NASA satellites. The NCDC 

facilities in Suitland, MD, and Asheville, NC, and also the 

University of Wisconsin’s Space Sciences and Engineering 

Center performed data management, quality control, 

storage, retrieval, and distribution for this information. 

Data holdings at all locations were primarily in digital 

format; however, the NCDC Satellite Data Services Division at Camp Springs, MD, maintained a film library that 

primarily contained AVHRR imagery. This library served 

as a browse facility to support digital data selection. 

International Activities 

World Meteorological Organization. The Eleventh World Meteorological Congress, which met in May 

1991, recognized the critical need to continue the operation of environmental satellite systems and appealed to 

operators to ensure the continuity, quality, and coverage 

96 
of their satellite programs. The 43rd session of the World 

Meteorological Organization (WMO) Executive Council 

emphasized the important role of satellites in all WMO 

programs and took steps to ensure appropriate coordination of satellite activities among members. 

World Meteorological Organization Panel of 

Experts on Satellites. In March 1991, NOAA participated in the Ninth Session of the WMO’s Executive 

Council Panel of Experts on Satellites. The purpose of the 

Panel was to advise the WMO on technical and programmatic matters relating to meteorological systems and their 

contributions to WMO programs. 

The Panel discussions focused on: (1) an appropriate WMO structure for its satellite activities; (2) WMO 

relationships with international satellite coordination 

groups; and (3) satellite data requirements. Panel recommendations included: (1) restructuring of satellite activities within the WMO Commission for Basic Systems; 2) 

defining and establishing closer relationships and interactions with international satellite operator coordination 

groups; and 3) recognizing the need to develop satellite 

data requirements in such a way that they will be useful 

when presented to satellite operator groups. 

Coordination of Geostationary Meteorological Satellites. In December 1990, the Coordination of 

Geostationary Meteorological Satellites group, which 

served as an informal technical forum through which 

independent national meteorological satellite pro-grams 

can be harmonized in order to achieve common meteorological mission objectives, met in Tashkent, USSR. The 

group members, including the European Meteorological 

Satellite Program (EUMETSAT), India, Japan, the United 

States, the Soviet Union, the Peoples Republic of China, 

and WMO, adopted a charter on a provisional basis that 

renames the group as the Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (CGMS). Under the charter, the group 

will expand its focus from geostationary satellite systems 

to include technical and operational matters involving 

polar orbiting meteorological satellite systems. CGMS 

seeks to harmonize, to the extent possible, meteorological satellite mission parameters such as orbits, sensors, 

data formats, and downlink frequencies. 

Committee on Earth Observations Satellites. 

The Committee on Earth Observations Satellites (CEOS), 

formed in 1984 as an outgrowth of the international 

Economic Summit of Industrialized Nations, serves as the 

coordinating forum for the overall Earth observations 

space community. At the November 1990 CEOS plenary 

meeting, NOAA and NASA secured adoption of an 

initiative to strengthen CEOS interaction with both international scientific programs (International Council of 

Scientific UnionsAnternational Geosphere-Biosphere 

Programme, World Climate Research Programme) and 

intergovernmental user organizations (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, WMO, United Nations Environment 

Programme) in order to enhance and further focus space 

agency Earth observation mission planning on global 

change requirements. Scientific and intergovernmental 

agency representatives have been invited to participate in 

CEOS deliberations and technical coordination activities. 

Moreover, CEOS members agreed to provide to the 

international community non-discriminatory and full access to their Earth observation data. 

The goal of the CEOS Working Group on Data 

(WGD), chaired by NESDIS, is to facilitate the use of data 

from Earth observation missions by coordinating and 

standardizing aspects of data management where possible. WGD has created focused technical subgroups that 

address specific issues in detail and has established pilot 

projects and prototype systems to demonstrate and evaluate internationally coordinated approaches to Earth observations data management. Among WGD achievements were: (1) developed and supported standard data 

formats for digital user products; (2) the CEOS WGD 

Library; (3) an International Directory Network system; 

(4) a group to explore requirements for networks for 

exchange of data after the data are received on the 

ground; and (5) tutorials on data formats and format 

standards for use in training data managers. 

International Polar Orbiting Meteorological 

Satellite Group. The 1984 Economic Summit of Industrialized Nations endorsed the creation of the International Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite Group 

(IPOMS) to explore the mechanisms for increased international cooperation in support of polar orbiting meteorological satellites and to ensure their continuity. 

Since the September 1990 IPOMS plenary in Venice, 

Italy, NOAA and NASA have continued to explore with 

European counterpart agencies (EUMETSAT and Euro97 
pean Space Agency) arrangements to fly U.S. instruments 

as part of ESA’s Polar Orbiting Environmental Mission 

payload, and to fly European instruments on future NOAA 

polar orbiters. 

World Administrative Radio Conference. The 

National Telecommunications and Information Administration Institute for Telecommunication Sciences completed a series of field measurements of rain attenuation 

to assist the U.S. Study Group of the Consultative Committee International Radio, part of the International Telecommunication Union. These measurements were taken to 

assess the impact of rain on requirements for preventing 

interference between fixed microwave services and satellite broadcasting services. Results showed that an additional margin in signal strength was needed to protect 

against potential unacceptable interference. 

ZnternationalMarttime Organization/ZnternationalMaritime Satellite Organization Meeting. NTIA 

participated in the preparations for the joint meeting of 

the International Maritime Organization and the International Maritime Satellite Organization. The purpose of the 

meeting was to consider appropriate charging principles 

and a method of funding maritime distress and safety 

related communications in preparation for implementation of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System. 

International Training. The National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service continued 

its international training activity in collaboration with the 

world Meteorological Organization and the National 

Weather Service. In February and March 1991, they 

offered the second regional training course at Florida 

State University in Tallahassee. The object of this advanced satellite imagery interpretation training course 

was to train operational meteorologists in basic and 

advanced techniques for the purpose of forecasting 

convection, heavy rainfall, tropical cyclones, and synoptic weather features. Twenty-six operational meteorologists from 19 countries in the Central and South American/ 

Caribbean area participated. 

NESDIS conducted training in climate computing in 

many countries, including Venezuela, Trinidad, and 

Mozambique. This training assisted in the use of the 

climate computing system and in the applications of 

climate analyses. NESDIS was participating, along with 

the U.S. Geological Survey and NASA, in a United Nations 

98 

International Space Year 4-week international training 

course on remote sensing applications for environmental 

assessment and monitoring at the Earth Resources Observation System Data Center in Sioux Falls, SD (September 

8 through October 4, 1991). 

NESDIS has conducted several training courses at 

the Taiwan Central Weather Bureau on using satellite 

imagery to analyze and forecast heavy precipitation. It 

offered the most recent 2-week course in May 1991. 

NESDIS has continued to develop training aids that are 

geared to the international community. The U.S. Permanent Representative to WMO has made available a scriptslide training set entitled “An Introduction to Polar Orbiter 

Satellite Imagery Interpretation” to WMO Members and 

the WMO Library. In addition, the Representative has 

made available a stand-alone training tool for forecasters 

titled “Workbook on Tropical Clouds and Cloud Systems 

Observed in Satellite Imagery.” 

NESDIS also has periodically participated in United 

Nations and other training programs. For example, under 

the United Nations Development Program, scientists from 

Pakistan studied for 6 months at the National Climatic 

Data Center and completed detailed quality control and 

analyses of historical land and marine data collected in 

Pakistan. This data set will become an integral addition 

to NCDC’s Global Historical Climatology Network. During June 1991, a WMO trainee from Malaysia learned basic 

remote sensing techniques at the NESDIS Climate Applications Branch. 

NESDIS’s NGDC participated in several training 

missions: (1) a workshop in Dakar, Senegal (September 

1990) on global change analysis sponsored by the United 

Nations Institute for Training and Research; (2) another 

similar workshop in Buenos Aires, Argentina, (June 1991) 

sponsored by the Latin American Society of Kemote 

Sensing Specialists, Fundacion TUTELA, and the International Geosphere-Biosphere Program; (3) a workshop on 

global environmental data held at the First International 

Conference/Workshop on Integrating Geographic Information Systems and Environmental Modeling in Boulder, 

CO (September, 1991); and (4) a U.N. International Space 

Year Course on Remote Sensing Applications for Environmental Assessment and Monitoring, in Sioux Falls, SD 

(September 19911, sponsored by the United Nations 

Development Programme. The last two workshops, 

though held in the United States, were international in 

scope. All of the workshops incorporated satellite based 

(as well as other) data. 
Department of Energy 

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) provides nuclear 

power sources for highly specialized applications for the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration and the 

Department of Defense. Such power units have enabled 

spectacular events, such as the Voyager flyby of the planet 

Neptune and the Apollo scientific investigations on the 

lunar surface. These missions have provided us with 

detailed photographs and data on a variety of planetary 

bodies including Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and 

their moons, plus the discovery of the first extraterrestrial 

volcanos on the Jovian moon Io. 

The majority of the power sources used on these 

missions have been Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs), capable of producing between 2.0 and 

300 watts of electrical power. RTGs convert the heat from 

a decaying radioisotope into electricity by the use of 

thermoelectric materials. However, since some planned 

missions will require even higher power levels, a more 

efficient dynamic energy conversion process has also 

been under development. 

Space Nuclear Power Systems 

Thus far, radioisotope power units have used thermoelectric energy converters to provide electrical power 

for spacecraft operations. (See previous report for 

details.) Nuclear reactors offer a higher electrical power 

capability for space operations than is available from 

radioisotope power sources. The principal space reactor 

program currently in development at the end of FY 1991 

was the SP-100. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Genera tors 

The United States has successfully used 37 RTGs on 

over 20 spacecraft launches covering a variety of different 

space applications. An KTG is a static device (that is, 

without moving parts) that directly converts the heat from 

the decay of the radioisotope Plutonium-238 (Pu-238) to 

electricity. Kesearch and development has increascd the 

conversion efficiencies of radioisotope power systems 

from less than 5 percent to almost 7 percent, which 

increases the power output or reduces the weight of the 

power supply, both of which are critical design factors. 

RTGs have demonstrated the long lifetimes, self-sufficiency, environmental independence, and operational 

flexibility demanded by a variety of space missions, 

including the capability to operate well beyond specified 

mission lifetimes and above design power levels. For 

example, the multihundred-watt KTG on the Voyager 2 

spacecraft, launched in August 1977, continues to operate 

after its encounters with Jupiter, Saturn, IJranus, and 

Neptune and as it continues on into space. 

A new model KTG with a more efficient fuel design, 

called the General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS)-RTG is 

the latest in a series of nuclear power sources developed 

for space applications by DOE. The GPHS-KTG qualification unit life test ended after 54,588 hours of successful 

operation. Planning and facilities restart activities have 

begun to support the use of the GPHS-KTG design for the 

Cassini spacecraft to Saturn, and Comet Kendezvous 

Asteroid Flyby (CRAF) spacecraft scheduled for launch in 

the mid- to late-1990s (see above). 

Significant program activities in FY 1991 included 

issuance of the Ulysses Final Safety Analysis Reports 

(FSAK), the launch of a GPHS-KTG aboard Ulysses 

spacecraft, and the restart of the facilities at Savannah 

Kiver necessary to maintain the capability to process Pu238 in support of the CRAF and Cassini missions. An 

Environmental Assessment addressing the facilities at 

Savannah Kiver and Los Alamos National Laboratory 

needed in support of CRAF and Cassini resulted in a 

finding of no significant impact. 

In order to obtain the Office of the President’s 

approval for the Ulysses launch, the Interagency Nuclear 

Safety Keview Panel, made up of representatives from 

DOE, DOD, and NASA, conducted independent reviews 

and analyses of the FSAK and related safety tests. After the 

review, the Panel issued a Safety Evaluation Report, 

which the Office of Science and Technology Policy used 

in approving the launch of the nuclear powered spaceDOE initiated planning and restart activities for the 

production of both GPHS components and the GPHSRTG thermoelectric converters, in order to be prepared to 

meet NASA GPHS-KTG power system requirements for 

the CRAF and Cassini missions. The Department successfully completed an operational readiness review for the 

production at Oak Ridge of heat-source-clad vent sets 

made of iridium alloy and carbon bonded, carbon fiber 

insulator sets, and processing of qualification hardware 

began. Similar start-up activities for fueled clad fabrication, the GPHS module, and KTG assembly recently 

Craft. 

99 
began at Los Alamos National Laboratory and Mound 

Plant of EG&G Mound Applied Technologies, respectively. After the termination of the GPHS-RTG qualification unit life test, the qualification unit was defueled and 

the fuel stored at the Mound Plant pending shipment to 

Savannah River for recycling. In January 1991 DOE 

awarded a prime system integration contract. The 

contractor’s primary efforts have been focused on the 

reestablishment of the thermoelectric unicouple and 

converter production capability. 

In FY 1991 the modular radioisotope thermoelectric 

generator program (MOD-RTG) focused on the design, 

development, manufacture, and test of improved 

multicouples both in an electrically-heated, engineering, 

8-multicouple test module configuration and in individual 

multicouple test stations. Engineers collected over 6,000 

hours of module test data; however, they terminated the 

test when power degradation occurred due to contaminants associated with the test environment. Test of four 

new individual multicouples in a high purity environment 

has proceeded through 3,600 hours with no abnormal 

power degradation. Testing of a high purity eight multicouple module has recently begun. The MOD-RTG 

design with its capability to tailor power to meet specific 

mission requirements will provide a significant advance 

in RTG specific power (watts/ kilograms) and improved 

efficiency for use in NASA’s lunar, martian, and solar 

system exploration and DOD missions during the next 

decade. Other activities in FY 1991 included the development of a preliminary design for a new RTG shipping 

package and the continuation of construction on a new 

radioisotope power system assembly and testing facility. 

SP-IO0 Space Reactor Program 

The purpose of the SP-100 program is to develop, 

demonstrate, and make available to NASA, DOD, and 

other potential users of space, nuclear reactor power 

system technology that can provide electric power in the 

range of tens to hundreds of kilowatts. This program 

began in 1983 and is sponsored by NASA, DOD, and DOE. 

This year, two exhibits have been added to the SP-100 

Functional Requirements Document. They define NASA’s 

projected space reactor power system requirements for 

surface power on Mars and the Moon and for nuclear 

electric propulsion for interplanetary exploration. The Air 

Force has joined DOE, the Strategic Defense Initiative 

Organization (SDIO), and NASA as a participant in the SP100 Steering Committee and become a signatory to the 

memorandum of understanding. The Air Force has also 

provided an exhibit defining its requirements for space 

power but is not a funding agency. During FY 1991, the 

SP-100 program made progress in several major areas in 

its pursuit of a safe, reliable, long-lived, and versatile 

space power system. These advances were in the areas 

of thermoelectric cell development, fuel pin materials, 

and design of a viable radiation shield. 

An SP-100 thermoelectric power conversion cell 

operated for 639 hours at temperatures up to 1,100 

degrees centigrade. The cell produced 8.7 watts of 

electric power with a temperature gradient of 410 degrees. This represents a 17-fold increase in power output 

over the cells used in the Voyager/Galileo satellites. In 

addition, research conducted in 1991 demonstrated techniques that promise to improve the performance of future 

cell designs still further and should make it possible for 

the SP-100 program to realize its power output goal of 

12.5 watts per cell. 

Engineers were also making advances in the fuel 

pins for the SP-100 reactor. They successfully demonstrated manufacturing techniques to bond high-strength 

niobium zirconium (PWC-11) tubes to rhenium liners for 

fuel cladding. This cladding has greater creep strength 

and chemical stability in the reactor environment than 

cladding that uses standard niobium zirconium alloy 

tubing. This translates to greater design margins and 

improved reliability. All these attributes are important in 

designing and producing a space power system with a 10- 

year life. 

Engineers tested the uranium nitride fuel under 

development for the SP-100 reactor to the full burnup (6 

percent) required to support a 10-year mission. Upon 

examination after testing, it exhibited less outgassing and 

less swelling than predicted, which again contributes to 

a safer, more reliable design. 

Radiation testing was completed on the lithium 

hydride (LiH) material to be used as the neutron radiation 

shield for the SP-100 reactor. Based upon the test data, 

a shield design incorporated LiH, beryllium, and boron 

carbide. It will provide the required shielding, while 

accommodating the high temperature experienced in 

close proximity to the reactor. 

100 
Artist’s conception of SP-100 Space Reactor Power System 

being landed on the Moon. 

Thermionic Fuel Element (TFE) Verification Program 

The TFE program is a component development 

effort established to resolve outstanding technical issues 

associated with the use of TFEs in space reactor power 

systems, so that thermionics could be a viable future 

technology choice. Thermionics, like thermo-electrics, is 

a means of converting heat directly to electricity without 

moving parts. It offers the potential of conversion 

efficiencies that are higher than thermoelectrics. The 

primary emphasis of this program is demonstration of a 

7 to IO-year operational lifetime of TFE components sized 

for a 2-megawatt system through accelerated and real 

time testing in appropriate radiation environments. 

DOE, the Air Force, and SDIO have signed an MOU 

on the development of Thermionic Space Nuclear Power 

Systems. Under this MOU, a program will be initiated to 

develop thermionic space nuclear power system technology to provide electric power for military applications in 

the range of 10 to 40 kilowatts for a lifetime to 2 to 10 

years. 

Space Exploration Initiative (SEI) 

On July 20,1989, President Bush announced the SEI 

and challenged us to land people on Mars before 2019, the 

Artist’s conception of nuclear thermal propulsion. 

50th Anniversary of the Apollo lunar landing. In early 

1990, the Secretary of Energy was added as a permanent 

member of the National Space Council, and Presidential 

policy for SEI established a major role for DOE, including 

technology development and concept definition. This 

policy statement also directed that investments be made 

in high leverage, innovative technologies, such as space 

nuclear propulsion and nuclear power, which could 

potentially make major impacts on SEI costs, schedule, 

and/or performance. Nuclear propulsion, for instance, 

offers several potential advantages over chemical propulsion. These advantages include the potential for shorter 

trip times, thereby reducing radiation exposure for the 

101 
astronauts, and smaller system mass resulting in lower 

launch costs. Surface electrical power will also play a 

critical and enabling role in lunar and Mars operations. 

Additionally, the DOE SEI effort will include a general 

subcategory of concepts and technologies to pursue the 

most promising SEI supporting technologies in which the 

Department has demonstrated expertise. 

As part of the response to these directives, DOE, 

jointly with DOD and NASA, sponsored two nuclear 

propulsion workshops during the summer of 1990 to 

identify the technology status and issues involved in 

meeting the SEI propulsion requirements. After reviewing workshop results in early FY 1991, six DOE/DOD/ 

NASA technical panels began to further assess specific 

nuclear propulsion technologies and issues, including 

mission analysis, nuclear electric propulsion, nuclear 

thermal propulsion, facilities, safety, fuels, materials, and 

related reactor technologies. Each technical panel received specific charters and direction, including preparing a written report by the fall of 1991. 

Nuclear Detonation Detection 

Another important DOE responsibility in the space 

arena is providing the specialized sensors needed to 

satisfy national requirements for detection, identification, 

location, and characterization of nuclear detonations 

(NUDETs) anywhere within Earth’s atmosphere or in 

neighboring interplanetary space. From the beginning, 

this program has been a joint effort of DOD and DOE. The 

program today has three primary objectives: 

Verification of compliance with the Limited Test 

Ban Treaty and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 

wherein nuclear testing was banned in the atmosphere, under water, and in space and the nonweapons states pledged not to manufacture or 

otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or explosive 

devices. 

Characterization of nuclear tests that occur outside 

the jurisdiction of the treaties or clandestinely in 

violation thereof. 

Artist’s conception of nuclear power on the surface of the 

Moon. 

Detection and location of multiple atmospheric and 

near-earth nuclear bursts for strategic battle management in time of war. 

The two departments have developed detector suites to 

address all three of these objectives simultaneously. 

Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories maintain continuous development efforts for improving the 

underlying technologies. The goals of these efforts 

include better energy resolution, better timing, wider 

spectral coverage, greater reliability, and the development of advanced sensor concepts. In FY 1991 the labs 

placed emphasis on improved radiation hardening and 

miniaturization of the spaceborne electronic systems, on 

data compression logic to minimize communication channel demands, on the development of new detector 

concepts for the monitoring of x-rays, and on studying the 

effects of the space radiation environment on spacecraft 

systems. A highlight this year was the flight of the 

Uniformly Redundant Array Experiment aboard the Space 

Shuttle Discovery in April 1991 on STS-39. This was a 

coded aperture imaging system designed to investigate 

issues such as moving targets, thermal distortions, and 

background radiation rejection. 

102 
Federal Communications Commission 

Communications Satellites 

International Commercial Communications Satellites 

As of October 1, 1990, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization's (INTELSAT's) global 

communications system had deployed a total of fifteen 

satellites in geosynchronous orbit: seven over the Atlantic 

Ocean Region; four over the Indian Ocean Kegion; and 

four over the Pacific Ocean Region. The fourth INTELSAT 

VI series satellite, the INTELSAT VI (F-5) launched successfully on August 14, 1991, on an Ariane 44L commercial launch vehicle and was going to be ready for service 

in the Atlantic Ocean Region at the 335.5 degrees east 

longitude orbital location in October 1991. The last of the 

INTELSAT VI series, the INTELSAT VI (F-1) was scheduled 

for launch on an Ariane 44L launch vehicle in late October 

1991 to replace the INTELSAT VI (F-4) at 332.5 degrees 

east longitude. The INTELSAI' VI (F-4) will be moved to 

63 degrees east longitude to serve the Indian Ocean 

region. 

INTELSAT had plans to deploy the INTELSAT K 

satellite in March of 1992 to 338.5 degrees east longitude. 

Launch of the first two satellites in the VI1 series was 

scheduled for 1993. INTELSAT has also contracted with 

NASA for a shared STS mission in the April 1992 time 

frame in an effort to rescue the second INTELSAT VI series 

satellite, which failed to achieve geosynchronous orbit 

and was stranded in a low earth orbit some 300 miles high. 

On June 28, 1991, the Commission granted the 

Orion Satellite Corporation's request for final authority to 

construct, launch and operate two Ku-band international 

satellites for which the United States and the United 

Kingdom had completed technical consultation with 

INTELSAT in August of 1989, pursuant to Article XIV(d) 

of the INTELSAT agreement. 

In August 1991, the Commission granted conditional authority to Alpha Lyracom (doing business as Pan 

American Satellite) to construct, launch, and operate a 

hybrid satellite (PAS-4) with 24 C-band and 16 Ku-band 

transponders temporarily assigned to the orbital location 

at 192 degrees west longitude. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

Satellites authorized in 1988 continued to be launched 

during FY 1991, with six domestic fixed satellites launched 

during the period. Five of these were expansion satellites 

launched into previously unoccupied orbital locations; 

one was a replacement satellite launched into the location 

of a satellite that was nearing the end of its fuel life. These 

satellites will provide domestic satellite capacity through 

the 1990s and will offer users a wide range of services 

including video, high speed data, private network, and 

audio services. 

As of September 1991, 33 domestic fixed satellites 

were in orbit and located between 69 degrees west 

longitude and 141 degrees west longitude on the geostationary orbital arc. Thirty-five satellites were authorized 

for operation at that point in time. 

Maritime Satellite Service 

Efforts to establish a Global Maritime Distress and 

Safety System (GMDSS) were continuing. The GMDSS 

was expected to be phased in between 1992 and 1999. 

The International Maritime Organization (IMO) was developing the system, which initially will use the International Maritime Satellite organization (INMARSAT) space 

segment and INMAKSAT A, INMAKSAT B, and INMAKSAT 

C systems. On two other satellite systems, Emergency 

Position Indicating Radio Beacons (EPIRBs) were providing initial distress alerting information from ships to 

rescue coordination centers. The systems were the polar 

orbiting SAKSAT, a NOAA Weather Service satellite for 

search and rescue satellite data tracking, and the Russian 

equivalent, called COSPAS. The INMAKSAT Council, in 

mid-1990, approved L-band EPIKBs through the INMARSAT 

satellites at geostationary orbit. 

INMAKSAT served over 13,000 vessels through its 64 

member-country organization. Twenty-four coast stations in 19 countries are in operation, with several more 

planned. At the end of the fiscal year, INMARSAT was 

leasing one in orbit satellite from the European Space 

Agency in the Atlantic Ocean Region-West; three in orbit 

INTELSAT Maritime Communications Subsystem (MCS) 

satellite packages in the Atlantic Ocean Region-East, the 

Pacific Ocean Region, and the Indian Ocean Region; and 

three satellites from Comsat General-two in the Pacific 

Ocean Region and one in the Indian Ocean Region. 

The first INMARSAT second-generation satellite, the 

INMARSAT 2 (F-l), launched on October 30, 1990, and 

entered into service in the Indian Ocean Region in 

November 1990. It was followed by the INMARSAT 2 (F103 
2), which launched on March 8, 1991, in the Atlantic 

Ocean Region-East and entered into service in April 1991. 

Launches were planned for the INMARSAT 2 (F-3) in the 

Pacific Ocean Region in December 1991 and for the 

INMARSAT 2 (F-4) in the Atlantic Ocean Region-West in 

the first half of 1992. The second generation satellites’ 

capacity will roughly triple that of the leased first generation satellites. 

In 1989, INMARSAT had issued a request for proposals for a third generation satellite system, including 

specifications for spot beams and the capability to operate 

within the full maritime spectrum. Inearly 1991, INMAKSAT 

awarded a contract to General Electric Technical Services 

Co Inc. (GETSCO) for an initial order of four INMARSAT 

3 satellites. In mid-1991, INMARSAT released a request 

for proposals for the procurement of launch services for 

these satellites, with a view toward awarding the contract(s) 

in the first half of 1992. 

Aeronautical Satellite Service 

The process of adopting amendments to the 

INMARSAT Convention and Operating Agreement, which 

allow it to offer aeronautical services on a competitive 

basis, was completed in 1989 and the amendments were 

in effect during the period of this report. INMARSAT’s 

four second generation spacecraft had three megahertz 

(MHz) of bi-directional bandwidth in the Aeronautical 

Mobile-Satellite Service (R) band. Two of these satellites 

were operational in the Indian Ocean Region and the 

Atlantic Ocean Region-East, with two more to be launched 

by mid-1992. The third generation satellites were expected to be capable of operating over the entire Aeronautical Mobile-Satellite Service (R) allocation of 10 MHz 

of bi-directional bandwidth. 

The International Civil Aviation Organization through 

its subcommittee on Future Air Navigation Systems and 

the Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Service Panel (now 

called the Aeronautical Mobile Communications Panel) 

have been discussing standards for aeronautical satellite 

services and other issues involving the use of satellites in 

a coordinated program for civil aviation. The aviation 

community has developed, through the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee, aircraft equipment standards for satellite voice and data services. The aviation 

industry, in cooperation with INMARSAT, was developing 

aircraft antennas and avionics needed for this service. 

INMARSAT’s first second-generation satellite, launched 

October 30.1990. 

Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (Arinc), was providing intemational data messaging via the Arinc Communications 

Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS) format by 

interconnecting its terrestrial very high frequency nw 

work with ground earth stations in the INMARSAT system 

for oceanic coverage. Arinc will also be providing voice 

messaging via the INMARSAT system. In addition, the 

American Mobile Satellite Corporation planned to provide exclusive US. domestic aeronautical mobile satellite 

service on its system. 

Mobile Satellite Services 

The U.S. mobile satellite service (MSS) satellite 

network will provide a variety of domestic land, aeronautical, and maritime mobile satellite services. The mobile 

telephone, radio, and data services proposed for the 

system will be used for long range vehicle dispatch and 

location services, emergency communications, rural telephone service, and paging service. Aeronautical voice 

and data communications were planned for both safety 

and commercial purposes, such as air traffic control and 

airline passenger communications. 

The American Mobile Satellite Corporation (AMSC), 

the U.S. entity authorized to implement dedicated MSS 

space stations in 27 MHz of L-band spectrum, continued 

to build its system. The Commission granted AMSC 

temporary authority to continue to construct its system 

104 
pending final action on a 1991 D.C. Circuit Court decision 

remanding two aspects of the Commission’s 1989 decision to award the satellite system license to AMSC. 

The Qualcomm Corporation continued to expand 

its mobile data communications network. Qualcomm 

was authorized in 1989 to construct and operate a twoway mobile satellite network that uses capacity on 

domestic fixed satellites. Qualcomm’s network was 

designed to provide a variety of data services between a 

customer’s operation center and its mobile users. In 1991, 

it was authorized to construct and operate an additional 

20,000 mobile user units, bringing its total number of 

authorized units to over 40,000. Also, Canada and the 

United States agreed to permit cross-border roaming of 

certain mobiles without regard to normal U.S.-Canada 

border obligations. 

Finally, in FY 1991 the Commission issued a Notice 

of Proposed Rulemaking to reallocate frequencies in the 

137-138 MHz, 148-150.5 MHz, and 399.9-401 MHz frequency bands for a low Earth orbit satellite service. Low 

Earth orbit satellites orbit the Earth in a variety of orbital 

planes and would be able to provide a variety of low cost 

mobile data services to users. 

Direct Broadcast Satellite Service 

The Commission authorized the Direct Broadcast 

Satellite (DBS) service in July 1982, in order to provide 

satellite delivery of video programming directly to homes 

via small (2-3 foot diameter), relatively inexpensive 

($300-S500) receiving stations. The Commission granted 

the first several conditional construction permits later that 

year. 

The Commission has awarded DBS orbital positions 

and channels to three applicants. These parties are: 

United States Satellite Broadcasting Company, Inc.; Hughes 

Communications Galaxy, Inc.; and Advanced Communications Corporation. Each of the three permittees proposed to operate initially from a single orbital position 

cover-ing all of the continental United States, but they had 

plans to switch subsequently to paired east-west satellites, 

each covering half of the country. Six additional parties 

have received conditional DBS permits, and their requests 

for orbital positions and channels were being processed 

in order. Orbital positions and channels were awarded on 

a first-come, first-served basis. All permittees hoped to 

become operational in the mid-1990s. 

International Conference Activities 

In November 1990, INTELSAT’s Assembly of Parties 

agreed that use of a separate satellite system for 100 sixtyfour kilobit per second equivalent circuit5 interconnected 

with the public switched network would not result in 

significant economic harm to INTELSAT and could be 

consulted on an expedited basis by the Board of Governors. This policy was endorsed by the Executive Branch 

as consistent with U.S. plans. In March of 1991, the U.S., 

Bahamas, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, and Eastern Europe countries not members of INTELSAT, agreed 

at the Board of Governors meeting to use a Pan American 

Satellite (PAS-1) satellite for international public switched 

services comprised of not more than 100 sixty-four kilobit 

per second equivalent circuits. 

In September 1991, the U.S. and the United Kingdom received INTELSAT approval of Article XIV(d) consultation for two 12-transponder C-band satellites operated by Columbia Communications under lease from 

NASA on board the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

deployed at 174 degrees and 41 degrees west longitude. 

105 
Department of the Interior 

As the nation’s principal conservation agency, the 

Department of the Interior is responsible for the 

management, conservation, and development of land and 

water resources on much of the nationally owned public 

lands. The Department uses data acquired by satellite and 

aircraft sensors to inventory natural resources and monitor 

changes on land under its management, and it conducts 

an active program of research and technique development 

in remote sensing and spatial data handling. The following 

bureaus were involved in remote sensing activities during 

1991: Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land 

Management, Bureau of Reclamation, Minerals 

Management Service, National Park Service, Office of 

Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Geological Survey. 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition, 

Processing, and Production 

Satellite Data 

Landsat. The U.S.Geologica1 Survey maintained 

the U.S. Landsat archive at its Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center as part of the National 

Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive. The archive 

contained approximately 960,000 scenes of data and 

references to more than two million Landsat scenes held 

by foreign Landsat receiving stations. The U.S. Geological 

Survey has begun to convert the U.S. Landsat archive to 

high-density magnetic tape cassettes, a next-generation 

durable storage medium. Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) 

data will be converted first because these data have the 

highest current demand, followed by Landsat Multispectral Scanner data acquired since 1979. Even though MSS 

data acquired before 1979 are the oldest and face the 

highest probability of data loss, these data will be 

converted last because a new system to process the old 

wide-band video tapes is required. 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer. 

Since 1987 the U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center 

has been receiving and archiving NOAA Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer data for the conterminous 

United States and portions of Canada and Mexico. Tape 

recorded AVHRR data of foreign areas have been received 

and archived via a Domestic Communications Satellite 

System since 1990; the archive now totals more than 

22,000 AVHRR scenes. Uses of the data include Department of the Interior land science applications, global 

change research, and other Federal agency research 

projects. Discussions are under way with NASA, NOAA, 

and the European Space Agency to acquire a I-kilometer 

resolution global AVHRR data set on a repetitive basis. 

Aircraft Data 

National Aerial Photography Program The 

goal of the National Aerial Photography Program is to 

acquire complete aerial photographic coverage of the 

United States (except Alaska) at 1:40,000 scale every five 

years for applications in agriculture, forestry, soils, land 

and resource management, mapping, and Earth science 

studies. Approximately 75 percent of the United States 

(excluding Alaska) was covered during the first 5-year 

cycle using funds from Federal and state contributors. 

Federal agency participants include the U.S. Geological 

Survey (which manages the program), Bureau of Land 

Management, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation 

Service, Soil Conservation Service, National Agricultural 

Statistics Service, U.S. Forest Service, and Tennessee 

Valley Authority. Contracts awarded in FY 1991 covered 

all or part of Kansas, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, 

eastern and central Montana, northern New Mexico, 

western and central North Dakota, South Dakota, eastern 

Washington, and western Texas. Because black and 

white panchromatic film is less expensive (and has higher 

resolution and wider exposure latitude) than colorinfrared film, black and white film is a possible option to 

cover larger areas with limited funds. A commercial 

manufacturer also developed a new color-infrared film in 

1991 to better meet the program’s technical requirements. 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar Data. The US. 

Geological Survey acquires side-looking airborne radar 

(SLAR) data to support re-search applications for energy 

and mineral exploration, hydrologic studies, earth-hazards investigations, and glacier and ice-sheet mapping. 

Since 1980 the Survey has acquired these data for approximately 40 percent of the nation. During 1991 it acquired 

SLAR data for approximately 287,000 square kilometers of 

Alabama, Arizona, California, Colorado, Illinois, Kansas, 

106 
Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, Texas, 

Utah, and Wisconsin. Digital data for these study areas 

will be available on compact disc, read only memory for 

convenient storage and ease of use. 

Remote Sensing Research and Applications 

Renewable Resources 

Resource Inventory and Assessment. The National Park Service continues to use an integrated remote 

sensing and geographic information system approach to 

resource management and analysis on a bureau-wide 

basis. During 1991 it used two new techniques for park 

planning applications. In the first project, it used the 

Environmental Protection Agency’s aircraft-based thermal-infrared scanner to collect data with high spatial 

resolution (approximately 3.5 meters) for the developed 

areas and the entire road system of Yellowstone National 

Park. Geographic coordinates obtained by linking the 

scanner to the aircraft’s Global Positioning System allowed the Service to perform preliminary rectification of 

the thermal-infrared data. The data are being used to 

detect previ-ously unknown thermal areas that may affect 

decisions concerning alternative road realignments and 

the development of other park facilities. 

In the second application, the National Park Service 

cooperated with the University of Minnesota to merge 

Landsat TM and terrain-corrected panchromatic data from 

the French Satellite Pour I’observdtion de la Terre (SPOT) 

system to produce multichannel data sets. These data 

sets, which have the spectral information of the Landsat 

TM data while retaining the high spatial resolution and 

registration accuracy of the SPOT data, are being used for 

land cover classifications and view-shed analyses to 

support planning activities on the recently designated 

Mississippi National River and Recreation Area in Minnesota. 

The Bureau of Reclamation used remote sensing 

and geographic information system techniques to monitor irrigated lands in the Newlands Irrigation Project in 

Nevada and along the lower Colorado River in Arizona 

and California. Crop maps generated from Landsat TM 

data were being combined with other data to assist 

scientists and managers in studying consumptive water 

use and irrigation efficiency. 

The Bureau of Reclamation was also building a large 

digital geographic data base of selected sites encompassing 40 kilometers of the Colorado River within the Grand 

Canyon. This data base will aid in assessing environmental changes caused by the Glen Canyon Dam and in 

developing future operating criteria for the dam. This 

data base contains 0.6-meter topographic contours derived using photogrammetric techniques, river channel 

morphology, land cover data derived from current and 

historic aerial photographs, and other field-collected 

information. 

The Bureau of Reclamation also used current and 

historic aerial pholographs and ancillary data to develop 

geographic data b’ases in support of reservoir-management-plan development at Elephant Butte Reservoir, New 

Mexico; Owhyee Reservoir, Oregon; American Falls Reservoir, Idaho; and Bureau of Reclamation lands in the 

Columbia River Basin. 

The Bureau of Land Management obtained both 

aerial photographs and satellite data to aid in public land 

management. In addition to participating in the National 

Aerial Photography Program, the Bureau acquired aerial 

photographs for approximately 36,000 square kilometers 

of portions of New Mexico, Idaho, and Oregon for 

recreation site development, mineral development operations, wilderness study analysis, and forest and rangeland monitoring. It concluded a study in the use of largescale aerial photographs for the inventory and monitoring 

of surface resources and published a technical reference 

on this subject. In addition, it obtained large-scale aerial 

photographs for approximately 1,280 linear kilometers 

for riparian strearn studies being carried out in New 

Mexico, Nevada, Oregon, and Colorado. 

The Bureau of Land Management used Landsat TM 

data to map and monitor vegetative land cover on 28,000 

square kilometers of land in southwestern New Mexico 

and southwestern and north-central Wyoming. It used 

two dates of Landsat TM data to assess biophysical change 

in a designated wilderness area in New Mexico and other 

Landsat TM data to generate soil maps for a 900-squarekilometer area in 1Jtah. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs conducted several 

resource inventory and assessment projects that support 

its Indian Integrated Resource Information Program. It 

employed Landsat TM data to classify land cover digitally, 

107 
with emphasis on modeling fire fuels on the Northern 

Pueblos of New Mexico. Land use and land cover data 

were digitally extracted from Landsat TM data for forest 

management on the Colville (Washington) Indian Reservation. SPOT panchromatic images were visually interpreted to update existing road networks on the Northern 

Pueblos (New Mexico) and Jicarilla (New Mexico) Indian 

Reservations. Results of these projects were permanently 

archived as part of the Bureau of Indian Affairs National 

Data Base. 

The U.S. Geological Survey used aerial photographs 

from the National Aerial Photography Program to test new 

equipment and procedures for land use and land cover 

mapping for an area near Champaign, Illinois. The 

primary reasons for using these photographs were their 

suitability for interpreting the necessary land use and land 

cover categories and their good image quality. Because 

these photographs provide systematic coverage of the 

conterminous United States, they would be available for 

mapping land use in other parts of the country. These 

photographs were also being used to generate digital 

orthophotoquads, which can serve as a possible source 

for collecting land use and land cover data. (To make 

digital orthophotoquads, the Survey scans film diapositives to generate digital images and then uses control 

point coordinates and digital elevation model values to 

rectlfy the images and ensure their geometric accuracy.) 

Resource Mapping in Alaska. During the past 11 

years, the U.S. Geological Survey has worked cooperatively with Federal and state resource management agencies in Alaska to produce land cover and terrain maps and 

corresponding digital data bases for more than 1.13 

million square kilometers. In 1991 the U.S. Geological 

Survey and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began 

collecting and studying baseline satellite and thematic 

data to monitor large-mammal habitat and migration on 

the coastal plain of the Alaska National Wildlife Refuge. 

The two agencies were also using SPOT data and multitemporal aerial photographs to determine the extent and 

abundance of eel grass beds along the Pacific flyway from 

Mexico in the south to Alaska and the Soviet Union in the 

north. (Eel grass is the sole food source for the Pacific 

Black Brant goose during its biannual migration.) The 

Bureau of Land Management, relatedly, cooperated with 

Ducks Unlimited to identify and map waterfowl habitat 

using Landsat TM data for 14,000 square kilometers in 

east-central Alaska. 

Wetlands Mapping andznuentoty. The US. Fish 

and Wildlife Service continued to map the Nation’s 

wetlands, as mandated by the Emergency Wetlands 

Resources Act of 1986 and in keeping with the President’s 

challenge to conserve the Nation’s wetland resources. It 

used aerial photographs, acquired through both the 

National Aerial Photography Program and the National 

High Altitude Photography Program, to conduct the 

National Wetlands Inventory. Wetland maps derived 

from these data sources were available at the end of FY 

1991 for 70 percent of the conterminous United States 

(scale of 1:24,000) and 22 percent of Alaska (scale of 

1:63,360). The annual rate of map production is 3,200 

detailed wetlands maps for the conterminous United 

States and 60 maps for Alaska. The number of users has 

grown steadily since the maps were first released. Requests are common from individuals, all levels of Federal, 

state, county, municipal, and town governments, and 

educational and research groups including colleges and 

universities. More than 150,000 copies of wetlands maps 

are disseminated annually. Total wetland map dissemination is approaching 1.4 million copies. Maps are sold 

through 28 state distribution centers and a toll-free 

telephone service. 

The National Wetlands Inventory has also used 

aerial photographs to monitor changes in national wetland acreage. The national status and trends study 

updates vital information on wetland trends via a periodic 

report to Congress. As this monitoring evolves into a 

continuous process, the National Wetlands Inventory will 

take advantage of other remote sensing tools, such as 

AVHRR data, to further stratify wetland regions in the 

nation. Developments in automated airborne video 

imaging may also be useful for updating wetland acreage 

statistics in the future. 

The Bureau of Reclamation used historic and current large-scale aerial photographs to aid in studies of 

wetland dynamics in the James River Basin, North Dakota; 

the Klamath Lake area, Oregon; and the Black Sands area, 

Washington. Digitized maps stored in a geographic 

information system are easily compared to show trends in 

wetland vegetation over time so as to validate and 

calibrate ecological models. 

As part of the Colorado River endangered fish 

recovery program, the Bureau of Reclamation has used 

airborne video images to monitor endangered fish habitat 

in the Colorado River Basin. Maps of side channels and 

backwaters on more than 300 kilometers of river channel 

108 
each year document both the existence of critical habitat 

and river channel changes over time. The Bureau of 

Reclamation also uses large-scale airborne video sensing 

tech-niques to monitor aquatic weeds and other aquatic 

pests along the Hayden-Rhodes Aqueduct in Arizona. It 

targets areas with signif-icant problems for treatment, and 

it obtains video imagery again after treatment to determine its effectiveness. 

WiIdfre Mapping and Monitoring. The Boise 

Interagency Fire Center maintains a fire fuels and terrain 

data base that consists of fire fuel classes and the terrain 

parameters (slope, elevation, and aspect) for western 

lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management. 

The Bureau of Land Management developed the fire fuels 

data base using AVHRR data. In addition, a Remote 

Automatic Weather Station (RAWS) network developed 

by the Bureau of Land Management provided near real 

time remotely sensed weather information on a continuing basis for Bureau of Land Management lands in the 

conterminous United States and Alaska. The self-contained RAWS meteorological collection platforms collect 

and summarize weather data and then transmit it through 

the NOAA Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite system to central site operations at the Boise 

Interagency Fire Center. Fire Managers use the fire fuels 

and terrain and RAWS data in planning for firefighting and 

in predicting fire behavior. 

The Bureau of Land Management, U.S. Geological 

Survey, and U.S. Forest Service participated in a project to 

monitor seasonal changes in vegetation greenness using 

an AVHRR-derived vegetation greenness index. The 

purpose of this study was to determine the use of this 

index as a surrogate for assessing live fuel vegetative 

moisture for fire danger and behavior modeling. In 

another cooperative project with NOAA and the National 

Park Service, the Bureau of Land Management pursued a 

study testing the potential of using AVHRR data for the 

automated detection of wildland fires. 

Hydrology 

The Bureau of Reclamation used digital terrain data 

derived from stereoscopic aerial photographs or from 

topographic maps to quantify topographic characteristics 

of drainage basins for use in flood studies. It derived 

drainage basin parameters (such as basin perimeter, basin 

area, length of stream network, and slope of stream 

network) from the terrain data and used them to develop 

improved prediction equations for rain flood volume and 

lag time. These equations allowed the Bureau to assess 

the adequacy of existing flood control dams and set 

specifications for new dams. 

The Bureau of Reclamation continued to generate 

maps of water transparency, chlorophyll-a concentration, 

and surface water tem-perature from Landsat TM data. 

Landsat data provide a valuable indicator of the trophic 

condition of a lake that cannot be obtained from surface 

sampling methods. 

The Bureau of Reclamation continued to cooperate 

with the National Weather Service to develop new 

methods for snow-cover mapping using AVHRR data. 

Accurate estimates of snow-covered areas are critical for 

making accurate snowmelt runoff estimates. Emphasis in 

1991 was on obtaining more accurate snow-covered area 

information from oblique aerial photographs to calibrate 

estimates derived from AVHRR data. 

As part of the joint U.S. Geological Survey, NASA, 

and U.S. Department of Agriculture’s satellite passive 

microwave study of the snowpack in the Upper Colorado 

River Basin, an 8-year climatology of this vital snowpack 

was developed using AVHRR observations acquired from 

1979 to 1986. This study found a strong correlation 

between the Upper Colorado River discharge and the 

spatially averaged satellite observations. The cooperators 

have continued to collect snowpack property data at key 

sites across the basin. This unique 8-year data set contains 

the only synoptic information on the snowpack grain size, 

which is one of the two fundamental parameters that 

determine the passive microwave characteristics of a 

snowpack. The other parameter, the water equivalent, is 

obtained from the Soil Conservation Service. These data 

are being analyzed along with the satellite observations to 

develop algorithms for the determination of snowpack 

properties. 

Oceanography 

The Minerals Management Service sponsored research at Oregon State University to develop tags equipped 

with Argos satellite radio transmitters to monitor the 

migration of individual right whales along the Atlantic 

coast and bowhead whales in the Arctic Ocean. Two right 

whales were tagged and tracked along the northeast 

Atlantic coast for 6-week intervals. There was additional 

field work with right whales off Nova Scotia and with 

109 
bowhead whales in the Arctic. The information collected 

on marine mammal migrations is used in planning offshore oil and gas activities to minimize the impacts on 

marine mammals. 

Satellite-tracked drifting buoys, deployed in conjunction with a series of intentional oil spills off the coast 

of Norway, evaluated how well the buoys could follow 

surface slicks. Satellite-tracked drifter buoys, deployed in 

the Florida Straits, provided information on ocean currents for future modeling efforts. 

Geology 

Multispectral Data Analysis. U.S. Geological 

Survey scientists continued research using NASA Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer data for 

lithologic mapping and mineralogic determinations in 

semiarid terrains. The U.S. Geological Survey also has 

entered into collaborative research with the Center for the 

Study of Earth from Space at the University of Colorado, 

Boulder, to develop techniques to analyze data to be 

collected by the High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer 

(HIRIS) scheduled for deployment on the Earth Observing System. The Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging 

Spectrometer is already used to test numerous datavisualization techniques for atmospheric correction and 

information extraction as a precursor to HIRIS. 

Underground and Surface Mining Applications. 

The Office of Surface Mining continues to use aerial 

photographs as part of its program with coal mining 

companies and state regulatory agencies to design, monitor, and reclaim surface coal mines. Aerial photographs 

served as the base for topographic maps to help plan 

mines and calculate earthwork volumes. Other design 

uses included evaluating the soil resources of areas to be 

mined and identifying the location of pre-mining drillhole sites used to determine the geologic structure of 

mining sites. 

The Office of Surface Mining used aerial photographs to determine regulatory compliance by identifying 

and monitoring areas under construction, areas to be 

reclaimed, wildcat mining sites, spoil ridges, and acid 

mine drainage. In other cases, 35 mm and 70 mm aerial 

photographs and videotape of inaccessible areas detected 

large surface cracks created by underground mining and 

helped to assess the danger posed by abandoned surface 

mines. The Office of Surface Mining also used aerial 

photographs for surveying and mapping hot spots in 

burning coal refuse to aid in planning to extinguish the 

fires by moving the coal refuse. 

The Bureau of Land Management used SPOT panchromatic data to define areas of surface disturbance 

associated with gold mining activity near Ely, NV. Disturbances from mining were detected for a 12-squarekilometer area. 

Radar Applications. Synthetic aperture radar 

systems are well-suited for measuring geophysical parameters for use in geological studies. However, topographic 

variation of the land surface distorts radar geometry and 

strongly alters radar backscatter, obscuring information 

such as surface roughness and surface dielectric properties. The U.S. Geological Survey was investigating data 

processing approaches that use available digital elevation 

models to characterize these terrain-induced effects and 

to correct radar imagery to a map base. Current research 

has focused on the PKOgramme SPot Et Radar (PROSPER) 

initiative, a French program linking the use of SPOT data 

with radar data. The correction investigated in PROSPER 

was based on the geometric characteristics of the Seasat 

satellite sensor, the digital elevation models derived from 

SPOT data, and traditional photogram-metric techniques. 

Although local elevation differences in the digital elevation data sets introduced some discrepancies into the 

data, the results showed that the use of SPOT-derived 

elevation models for radar terrain correction and incidence angle modeling performed nearly as well as the 7.5- 

minute U.S. Geological Survey digital elevation model. 

The U.S. Geological Survey evaluated radar 

geocoding and terrain correction software packages from 

the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Defense Mapping Agency, 

and German Aerospace Research Establishment. Based 

on these evaluations, the U.S. Geological Survey developed radar geocoding and terrain correction routines 

(using digital elevation models of any resolution) and 

implemented them using the Land Analysis System image 

processing software. This system is able to correct radar 

imagery to any of 23 map projections. 

Planetary Studies 

GaCiCeo Encounter of the Earth and Moon The 

Galileo spacecraft flew past the Earth and Moon in 

December 1990 for a “gravity assist” on its way to Jupiter. 

110 
Basins and ridges on Venus appear in this computer-generated 

perspective viewproduced usingradar data from the Magellan 

mission. The spider-like fracture patterns ("arachnoids") are 

believed to be related to volcanic upwelling followed by 

subsidence that formed the basins; note the bright lava in the 

foreground. Topography has been exaggerated 20 times. 

The U.S. Geological Survey is cooperating with :he Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory to write computer programs that 

generate images from the multispectral data Galileo 

collected to produce various planetary maps of the Earth 

and Moon. One of these maps depicts the discovery of 

enhanced iron content within the giant lunar basin of 

South Pok-Aitken. 

Public Distribution of Magellan Data. The 

Magellan mission has provided the world of planetary 

science with a diversity of systematic, high resolution data 

of Venus. As part of the ongoing effort to distribute 

information about Venus to the public, the U.S. Geological Survey is cooperating with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to redefine the approach for Magellan science 

support. The plan includes the traditional compilation of 

global mosaics, airbrushed shaded relief maps, and high 

resolution maps of areas of particular scientific interest. In 

addition, several new products were generated to visualize scientific information using computer techniques to 

combine elevation and surface property information with 

radar measurements. Two new products-a series of 

computer-animated movies and a planet-wide set of 

stereoimage pairs-have been received enthusiastically 

as innovative ways to visualize scientific information. 

Cartography 

Shaded Relief Mapping. The U.S. Geological 

Survey uses digital image procesing technology to extract new information from older data gathered by aerial 

photography. It made one such product, a computershaded graphic of topographic land forms of the United 

States, by digitizing contour elevations from published 

topographic maps. The images portray surface features 

accurately and without distortion or interference from 

vegetation and clouds. They have uses in navigation, 

resource evaluation, mitigation of natural hazards, hydrologic studies, and analysis of regional and structural 

geology. Shaded relief mapping i:i complete for the entire 

conterminous United States. A recent image, computed 

from 12,000,000 elevation values at a relatively high 

spatial resolution (800 meters per grid cell), reveals more 

terrain detail than continent-wide maps compiled by 

manual (artistic) techniques. 

Satellite Image Mapping. The U.S. Geological 

Survey produces satellite image maps from data acquired 

by a variety of satellite sensors, including AVHKR, Landsat 

MSS and TM, and SPOT. It modi-fies image map formats 

to suit specific reqiiirements by using appropriate sensor 

band combinations, by imbedding projection grids and 

map collar annotation, or by combining other derived 

data with the base image data. The Survey completed 

projects in FY 1991 for a variety of Federal agencies, 

including the Department of Defense in support of 

111 
Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the Defense 

Mapping Agency, the Central Intelligence Agency, the 

Department of the Army’s Deputy Chief of Staff for 

Intelligence, the Agency for International Development, 

and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs continued to produce 

satellite image base maps by incorporating township grid 

and geographic coordinate information with Landsat TM 

data. It prepared such maps for the Ft. Peck (MA), Colville 

(WA), Yankton (SD), and Rosebud (SD) Indian Reservations. It produced a special image map with Landsat TM 

data for the region around the Franklin D. Roosevelt 

Reservoir (Washington) that is being used to address 

inter-jurisdictional issues along the lake corridor. 

The U.S. Geological Survey cooperated with NOAA 

and the National Remote Sensing Center in the United 

Kingdom to produce a satellite image map at 1:5,000,000 

scale for the continent of Antarctica from AVHKR data 

acquired between 1980 and 1987. The National Remote 

Sensing Center performed radiometric and geometric 

correction and compilation in preparation for the final 

image map. The U.S. Geological Survey conducted the 

geometric accuracy evaluation, edited the digital data, 

and rescaled and processed the materials for image map 

preparation. 

Global Positioning System. The Bureau of Land 

Management uses the Global Positioning System (GPS) as 

a surveying and mapping tool to support natural resource 

management activities. Field-portable GPS receivers 

allow the digitizing of resource data in real time at more 

than five times the previous accuracy levels. Programs as 

diverse as archeology, wildfire management, cadastral 

survey, and photogrammetric mapping can greatly benefit from this spatial capability. The Bureau of Land 

Management also used GPS in an experimental cadastral 

survey project in the Anchorage, AK, area that demonstrated the capability of positioning ground control points 

to within 1.5 meters of their true positions. 

The U.S. Geological Survey continued in FY 1991 to 

inves-tigate new applications for GPS technology. GPS 

systems are being used to develop cost effective techniques for establishing control for topographic mapping 

and the revision of 1:24,000-scale maps, to locate ground 

water test wells, to provide control data for subsidence 

projects, and to measure crustal motion in California and 

ground deformation in volcanic areas such as Hawaii. 

The U.S. Geological Survey is acquiring new hardware 

and data reduction software so that it can take maximum 

advantage of the space-borne GPS system when it becomes fully operational in 1993. 

The U.S. Geological Survey was also evaluating the 

potential of using satellite data and GPS technology for 

first-time mapping in the Amazon that meets conventional 

horizontal accuracy standards and acceptable image 

resolution at 1:50,000 scale. The project is being conducted under the auspices of the Pan American Institute 

of Geography and History in cooperation with the Servicio 

Autonomo de Geografia y Cartografia Nacional de Venezuela, Instituto Geograficao Nacional de Espaiia, and 

Instituto Cartogriifico de Catalunya. An unmapped area 

of approximately 12 by 20 kilometers in the Amazon 

territory of Venezuela serves as the test site. Preliminary 

findings show that the use of satellite image processing 

and geodetic positioning technology are a practical 

means of achieving accurate mapping in isolated, poorly 

mapped forest regions of the Venezuelan Amazon territory. 

The Bureau of Land Management uses satellite 

communications technology linked to LORAN (Long 

Range) navigation systems to determine the location of 

airplanes that have crashed or made emergency landings. 

This developing technology allows the identification of 

an aircraft’s last position to a few hundred meters for rapid 

emergency response. The aircraft’s location is derived 

from LORAN and is uplinked to the Geostar satellite. This 

“flight following” system will assist in quick rescue 

operations to the last recorded aircraft position, thus 

reducing loss of life. 

Global Change Research 

Ice and Climate Project. The U.S. Geological 

Survey Ice and Climate Project actively participates with 

international cooperators in research to understand the 

variations of the cryosphere-sea ice, snow, ice sheets, 

and glaciers-in the global hydrologic cycle. These 

variations strongly affect the world’s water resources 

through the complex interactions among the cryosphere, 

the atmosphere, and the ocean at time scales that range 

from days to decades and longer. Project investigators 

performed prelaunch experiments, developed data processing algorithms, and organized postlaunch experiments for the first European Space Agency European 

112 
Research Satellite, ERS-I, that was launched successfully 

in July 1991 and for the Franco-American Topex-Poseidon 

Satellite (TOPEX). The postlaunch Seasonal Ice Zone 

Experiment expedition will take place in 1992 and will 

involve remote sensing aircraft, ice-breakers, and oceanographic ships manned by scientists from eight countries. 

A TOPEX postlaunch experiment will take place in the 

Norwegian Sea in late 1992. 

Monitoring Desertification. Global warming 

causes an increase in desertification of continental interiors. It also increases the occurrence of dust storms, which 

are indicators of extreme aridity. The U.S. Geological 

Survey uses computer processing of satellite data to track 

dust storms in the continental United States as part of the 

environmental assessment of desert regions. Windblown 

sand and dust are a significant hazard to human activity; 

increased development of desert regions has long term 

implications to human survival. Hence, the need for this 

program. 

Earth Observing System. The U.S. Geological 

Survey EROS Data Center has been designated by NASA 

as the Distributed Active Archive Center for Land Processes data to be acquired by the NASA Earth Observing 

System (EOS). As part of the NASA EOS Data and 

Information System, U.S. Geological Survey prototype 

system- development activities have concentrated on a 

distributed information management system to link the 

various archive centers into a “one-stop shop” for earth 

science data. Additional tasks included early planning 

and design work to collect and process several types of 

global data, including digital topographic data, aircraft 

instrument data, and Landsat and AVHRR data. These 

“precursor” data sets are being used to develop algorithms and science scenarios in preparation for eventual 

data acquisition from the EOS instruments. (See related 

coverage above.) 

Global Land Information System. As one of its 

contributions to the U.S.Globa1 Change Research Program, the U.S. Geological Survey began testing a prototype of the Global Land Information System in 1991. It 

developed this interactive information system to assist 

scientists seeking information about, and access to, data 

on the Earth’s land areas for use in continental and global 

scale earth science and global change studies. The U.S. 

Geological Survey EROS Data Center archives of AVHRR 

and Landsat data are the major satellite remotely sensed 

data sets currently indexed by the system, but the data 

inventory will be continually expanded. The system 

contains references to a variety of regional, continental, 

and global land data sets, provides query features to assist 

in determining the availability of data sets, and supports 

online requests for data products. The system can be 

accessed through a personal computer-based user interface and will be fully opera-tional in 1992. 

Prototype Land Data Sets for Global Change 

Research. The U.S. Geological Survey continued to 

organize, produce, and distribute land-related data sets to 

support the global change research community. Scientists will use these data to quantify land surface parameters for land processes models, to detect and monitor 

land surface change, and to map land-use and land-cover 

conditions. Data set development efforts include the 

production of composited Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data sets using calibrated and registered 1-kilometer resolution AVHKR data including: (1) 

the 1990 and 1991 data for the coterminous United States 

(which are being distributed on CDROM media), (2) 15- 

day composites of Alaska for 1990 and 1991, and (3) 10- 

day composites for Eastern Europe and Western Asia 

during the growing season from 1986 to the present. A 

prototype 10-day NDVI composite data set of North 

America was produced from 1990 data in cooperation 

with the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, and periodic 

composites will be produced for North America during 

the 1992 vegetation growing season. 

The U.S. Geological Survey is also developing 

several Earth science data sets that can be integrated and 

analyzed with satellite-acquired data sets. Current activities include development of a 0.5-kilometer resolution 

digital elevation model data set for North America and a 

data base of global soils attributes using the United Nation 

Food and Agriculture Organization global soils map. 

Baseline Studies for Monitoring Global Climate Change. For the past 2 years the U.S. Geological 

Survey has monitored Arctic ecosystems in Alaska affected by global climate change. At year’s end it was in 

the process of establishing computerized, spatially-referenced data bases with historic and current remotelysensed and thematic Earth science data at multiple scales 

113 
for 10 study sites, each of which is about 100 square 

kilometers in area. The range of scales permits the 

extrapolation of local processes to global scales, and vice 

versa. Several data sets are also being organized into a 

statewide data base for Alaska: NDVI products from 

AVHRR data, mean annual precipitation from stream gage 

information, the 1965 permafrost map, a published map 

of the physiographic provinces, a statewide digital elevation-model mosaic from 1 :250,000-scale sources, and 

1 :2,000,000-scale boundary data. 

Sites have been identified foi microscale monitoring 

at the Colville Kiver Delta on the Arctic coastal plain, at the 

Bonanza Creek Long-Term Ecological Research site in 

interior Alaska, and on the coastal plain of the Alaska 

National Wildlife Refuge. Large data bases have been 

created for the first two sites with, in part, shared data 

from collaborators-the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service, the 

University of Alaska at Fairbanks, and the National 

Science Foundation. Data types include Landsat MSS and 

TM, SPOT, and AVHRR data, 1 :63,360-scaledigital elevation-model data, National Wetlands Inventory data, boundary data, and land cover and wildlife habitat data. The 

third site resulted from a cooperative agreement with the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to establish a cooperative 

monitoring program in the Alaska National Wildlife 

Refuge. High resolution airborne MSS data is being 

acquired over the entire coastal plain and foothills regions 

of the Alaska National Wildlife Refuge. 

The Bureau of Land Management established the 

Environmental Science and Technology Center, a cooperative research unit with Colorado State University. Part 

of the work of‘ this unit has been developing techniques 

for choosing ground based sites for global change monitoring using geographic information system technology 

to integrate Landsat TM and SPOT satellite images with 

other biophysical land attributes. 

Land Cover Characterization. U.S. Geological 

Survey scientists developed a Coterminous United States 

Land Cover Characterization Data Base to evaluate the 

potential of using 1-kilometer resolution AVHRR data and 

ancillary regionally-descriptive attributes in characterizing global land cover. The data base consists of: (1) a set 

of homogeneous, seasonally distinct land cover regions 

that are derived from classification of multitemporal 1990 

AVHRK vegetation index data and (2) corresponding 

regional descriptions consisting of vegetation and land 

cover composition, terrain elevation, climate, soil characteristics, growing-season parameters, and surface albedo 

or brightness. The attributes serve as a source of variables 

that can be aggregated to match specific classification 

systems. 

International Activities 

Africa 

The US. Geological Survey continued to support 

the U.S. Agency for International Development through 

technical assistance projects based on remote sensing and 

geographic information sys-tems on the African continent. In early 1989, the U.S. Geological Survey became 

involved in the U.S. Agency for International Development project called AGRHYMET (AGKiculture Hydrology 

and METeorology). Since its inception in the 1970s, this 

project has sought to improve hydrological and meteorological data management for agricultural decisionmakers 

in nine west African countries and the World Meteorological Organization. A U.S. Geological Survey project team 

assists the AGKHYMET Regional Center in Niamey, Niger, 

to provide support for the National AGKHYMET Centers 

in each of the member countries (Mauritania, Mali, 

Burkina Faso, Niger, Chad, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea 

Bissau, and Cape Verde). Successful technology transfer 

included computer hardware upgrades and the installation of image processing and geographic information 

systems software. The Center’s full capability to receive, 

process, and distribute AVHRK data has been successfully 

used to provide vegetative condition mapping for the 

nine member nations during 1991. 

The U.S. Geological Survey also continued to provide technical assistance to the USAgency for International Development’s Famine Early Warning System project. 

The Famine Early Warning System was established five 

years ago to assess and identify populations at risk for 

food shortages and famine in seven nations of the African 

Sahel. The U.S. Geological Survey provides technical 

expertise in: (1) the archive and management of a Famine 

Early Warning System data base, including AVHRR data, 

cartographic reference maps, and various socioeconomic 

data; (2) the development of data-handling and analysis 

114 
procedures on personal computer systems used in Africa; 

and (3) training in technology awareness, as well as 

specific computer techniques and data bases that are part 

of the famine analysis process. US. Geological Survey 

expertise in data analysis is most relevant to the use of 

AVHRR greenness index data to evaluate the vegetation 

condition in a growing season. 

Middle East 

The U.S. Geological Survey continued its support of 

remote sensing activities in the Middle East. It supported 

the Saudi Arabia Directorate General for Mineral Resources’ Remote Sensing facility with mineral-resource 

and general geologic mapping studies. Landsat image 

maps were produced at several scales for the Abu Dhabi 

Emirate, United Arab Emirates, to support ground water 

studies and general geologic mapping. At the request of 

the Yemen Government and U.S. Agency for International 

Development, the U.S. Geological Survey provides assistance in the application of airborne and satellite remotely 

sensed data to mineral resource assessments in North 

Yemen. 

The LJ.S. Geological Survey supplied digital data, 

satellite images, and more than 350 image maps of various 

areas of the Arabian Peninsula to the Department of 

Defense and intelligence communities in support of the 

Persian Gulf War. Enhanced Landsat TM images were 

produced at scales ranging from 1:50,000 to 1:250,000 for 

change detection, map updates, and terrain analysis of 

Kuwait and portions of Saudi Arabia and Iraq, including 

the city of Baghdad. AVHRR data provided the basis for 

a photoimage mosaic of the Middle East for Department 

of Defense agencies. In the final phases of Operation 

Desert Storm Landsat TM data helped to evaluate the 

extent of the Kuwait oil field fires and the oil slick in the 

Persian Gulf. These data also aided military operations 

and assisted in environmental monitoring. During Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm, the U.S. Geological 

Survey maintained a digital data archive and catalog 

system at the EROS Data Center of all civil satellite data 

purchased and all products produced for Department of 

Defense agencies. 

The Survey provided a set of AVHRR data products 

of the Kuwait and Persian Gulf area covering the entire 

war period to United Nations Environment Programme 

offices in Geneva, Switzerland, and Nairobi, Kenya. The 

United Nations Environment Programme also provided a 

copy of the digital data to the Government of Japan to 

assist it in developing funding alternatives to aid in the 

reconstruction of Kuwait. 

Latin America 

US. Geological Survey scientists conducted a training program on the use of Landsat TM data for mineral 

exploration in the central Andes of South America. The 

training covered techniques for digital image processing 

and interpretation and was coupled with field and laboratory studies of some important mineral deposits in the 

region. Geologists from Bolivia, Chile, and Peru participated in the training program, which the Inter-American 

Development Bank sponsored. 

In a cooperative mineral-resource assessment with 

the Geological Survey of Bolivia and the US. Trade 

Development Program, the U.S. Geological Survey used 

digitally processed Landsat TM data to prepare a map 

showing areas of potential hydrothermally-altered rocks 

in the Bolivian Altiplano. Landsat data also helped to 

identify volcanic features and geologic structures, to 

discriminate between lithologic units, and (as index and 

field maps) to locate potentially mineralized sites for field 

evaluation. Future investigations will center on identified 

anomalies that are related to areas of known mineralization and past mining and on other anomalies associated 

with geologic structures that are not known to be mineralized. 

The U.S. Geological Survey cooperated with the 

Direccion General de Geografia of Mexico and the InterAmerican Geodetic Survey of the Defense Mapping 

Agency to test the application of SPOT panchromatic and 

multispectral data, Landsat data, and personal computerbased technology for change detection and map revision 

at 1:50,000 scale. Approximately 70 percent of the 

changes in planimetric and thematic detail on the 

Aguascalientes, Mexico, map could be revised using the 

merged Landsat TM and SPOT panchromatic data set. 

Approximately 65 percent of the detail could be revised 

with SPOT panchromatic data alone. The use of personal 

computer-assisted techniques and satellite data produced 

a revised map at 1:50,000 scale that meets acceptable 

positional accuracy. 

115 
Antarctica aid in geologic interpretations by correlating geologic and 

aeromagnetic information. They show that old basement 

rocks have low magnetic relief and that younger volcanic 

rocks correlate with positive magnetic anomalies. This 

information helps identify ore deposits. 

The U.S. Geological Survey has prepared new 

hybrid maps of North Victoria Land that combine aeromagnetic, geologic, and Landsat image maps from the 

GANOWX IV expedition area of Antarctica. These maps 

116 
Department of Agriculture 

Agencies in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

continued to develop remote sensing techniques and 

methodologies to monitor major sensitive aspects of land 

cover and the environment-water quality, vegetation 

health, disease and insect infestations, and the effects of 

natural disasters such as fires, droughts, and floods. Aerial 

photography has been and will continue to be an 

important source of remotely sensed data in USDA. 

However, electronic sensors that provide digital data 

rather than film were becoming vital components of land 

cover and environmental analysis. The advantages are 

numerous. Analysis can be performed quickly and easily 

on computers, computer files can be more easily stored 

than hard copy products, and digital data from remote 

sensors can be combined with digital data from other 

sources for detailed analysis previously not possible or 

too expensive. 

Space Data Used to Monitor Crops Worldwide 

For more than ten years, the Foreign Agricultural 

Service (FAS) has used satellite imagery to routinely 

assess current crop conditions in various countries. Based 

on extensive research in the mid-l970s, FAS continued 

the development of techniques and procedures to use 

data from the Landsat satellite system and polar-orbiting 

weather satellites to obtain early indications of weatherimpacted harvests, both bumper grain crops and those 

reduced by drought. The FAS has been particularly 

interested in obtaining up-to-date information from areas 

that have not been readily accessible to its attaches or 

other observers or that do not have adequate crop 

reporting systems. 

In FY 1991, FAS continued to use data from Landsat 

satellites and NOAA polar-orbiting environmental satellites to monitor and assess the conditions of agricultural 

crops around the world. The remotely sensed data 

provided critical information so that USDA personnel 

could make timely and realistic production assessments 

for key commodities in world markets. 

Remote sensing specialists assigned to FAS also 

assisted in the Department's U.S. drought assessment 

effort with analysis of crop conditions in the Mississippi 

Valley, corn belt, and winter wheat areas of the United 

States. The analysis of satellite data, weather information, 

and ground observations together gave Department officials reports that helped delineate and more clearly define 

drought impact at the local level. 

Anticipating the launch of Landsat 6 in 1992, the FAS 

began preparing for the receipt and use of data from the 

satellite. During 1991, the FAS upgraded and augmented 

its remote sensing analytical capability with an advanced 

graphic information system. 

Paralleling the efforts of the FAS in assessing foreign 

agricultural areas, the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS) was responsible for similar activities covering 

the United States. Space related activities of NASS have 

focused on the use of satellite remote sensing data as one 

of the sources of information for direct estimation of crop 

area, assessment of crop condition, and land-use stratification for area frame sampling (see below). An extensive 

on-going NASS remote sensing applications research 

program has benefitted from lessons learned from earlier 

research. 

One application was in the construction of general 

purpose area sampling frames (ASF). As an aid to crop 

and acreage estimation within the 48 contiguous states, 

NASS has selected a number of small sample areas from 

which it has collected detailed information on crops, 

livestock, and other agricultural topics. Stratification 

based on land use allowed concentration of samples in 

appropriate areas. The areas have been relatively small 

(averaging about one square mile) and were originally 

sampled and delineated using low-level aerial photograA major research effort over the last three years that 

became operational in 1991 was the Computer Aided 

Stratification and Sampling (CASS) project. This was a 

joint and cofunded project between the Agency and the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. CASS 

involved developing and sampling area frames using 

digital satellite data and U.S. Geological Survey digital 

map boundary data. The data, displayed on a color 

graphics work station, permit a cartographer to draw 

primary sampling units on screen rather than using paperbased inputs such as Landsat prints, high altitude photography, and county maps. This efficient new procedure 

will save substantial time, do a better job than the old 

(essentially manual) system, and facilitate revision of state 

ASF's as required. 

Research in the mid-1970s on digital satellite information led to the creation of an operational procedure for 

large-area crop estimation. Researchers developed a 

statistical relationship, called a regression estimator, bephy. 

117 
tween the ground-gathered area frame data and computer-aided analysis of information contained in Landsat 

MSS images. The regression approach using satellite data 

markedly improved estimates of crops at regional, state, 

and county levels. By 1987, this project covered an eightstate region and benefitted acreage estimates for corn, 

winter wheat, and soybeans. 

Estimation based on data from the Landsat Multispectral Scanner Sensors (MSS) ceased in 1988 in order to 

implement the increased capabilities of higher resolution 

sensors in a similar approach. Results from sensor 

comparison experiments and the operational eight-state 

program showed that the regression approach was most 

effective for rice and cotton estimation. The regression 

estimation approach became operational again in 1991 

with the Delta Kemote Sensing Project. It produced state 

and county estimates of rice, cotton, and soybean areas 

for two states in the Mississippi Kiver Delta region. These 

estimates were based on computer analyzed Landsat 

thematic mapper data. 

Other techniques that derived originally from remote sensing research directly affected 1991 operational 

surveys. Aerial photographs still served as a qualitycontrol measure for field enumeration of area segments. 

Digitization procedures developed in satellite research 

studies have replaced manual measuring for size determination of land areas for sampling purposes. NASS analysts 

used data wholly or partially derived from remote sensing 

sources for interpretation of survey crop estimates and 

forecasts. These data sources included snow cover maps, 

soil moisture and temperature maps, and drought indices. 

Research on crop-condition assessment measures using 

the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric 

Administration’s Advanced Very High Resolution Kadiometer data began in fiscal year 1991 as a cooperative 

project between NASS and the Agricultural Research 

Service (ARS). 

Management of Forest Resources 

Using Remote Sensing 

Remote sensing has long been a significant source 

of information for the Forest Service. This USDA agency 

is charged with the administration and management of 

over 191 million acres of national forests and grasslands. 

The Forest Service is also responsible for assisting state 

and private forest owners. 

Airborne Laser Profilers used by the Forest Service and 

Agricultural Research Service to study changes in landscape 

patterns due to erosion and other activities of man. 

Aerial photography-from hand-held 35 millimeter 

(mm) cameras in low-flying aircraft to high altitude 

photography taken by U-2 planes-has been the primary 

form of remote sensing used to map and conduct inventories of the timber, forage, wildlife habitat, soil, water, 

recreation, and mineral resources on the National Forests. 

All types of aerial photography were used, including 

bhck and white, color, and color infrared films. Some of 

the newer forms of remote sensing have involved video 

cameras, laser profilers, thermal sensors, and earth observing satellites. 

The Forest Service has the responsibility to conduct 

surveys of insect and disease infestations across all 

forested lands in the United States, and many of the 

remote sensing activities with state and private landowners have been concerned with forest pest management. 

The most recent technology to be incorporated in insect 

and disease surveys has been the use of a video camera 

in a fixed-wing aircraft. 

Data from satellites were beginning to provide new 

118 
ways to inventory and monitor U.S. forest resources. 

Imagery from weather satellites was being used in this 

period to monitor changes in vegetation, and in the 

Western United States, to map forest fuels and to assess 

forest fire suppression activities. Imagery from the 

Landsat satellites permitted rapid mapping of vegetation 

resources on National Forests in California, Oregon, and 

Washington. Landsat data, combined with imagery from 

other satellites, allowed the updating of maps showing 

new roads and clearcut areas in California. Vegetation 

maps of Forest Service land in the Pacific Northwest 

Region (Oregon, Washington) were being prepared 

through the use of remote sensing techniques, photograph interpretation, and riled data collection. In one 

segment of the project, Landsat data assisted in the 

assessment of old-growth timber. 

The layers of digitized data, including data from 

satel-lites, aircraft, and other sources were already being 

used for a variety of analytical needs, including the 

analysis of the habitats of significant animal species, 

ecologically significant forest areas, and the development 

of a predictive model for the abundance of certain tree 

species, an example being the Pacific yew. 

Video Remote Sensing 

Recognizing the utility of airborne video imaging 

systems for rapid observation of conditions on the ground, 

scientists in the ARS have taken advantage of recent 

improvements and advances in video- and computerimage processing technology. Black and white, color, 

and color-infrared systems with sensitivity in the visible to 

infrared (just beyond the visible light energy spectrum) 

have been developed and used successfully to characterize a variety of natural-resource factors. 

Video from aircraft has many advantages, but the 

most sig-nificant is the near real time availability of 

imagery. Video action can be viewed during acquisition 

on a monitor in the airplane or assessed within minutes 

after landing. This is particularly important in highly timesensitive applications in monitoring catastrophic events 

such as hail or flood damage to crops. Airborne video has 

also been used for a variety of agricultural and rangeland 

applications. Important agricultural applications studied 

in fiscal year 1991 included detection or assessment of soil 

drainage and salinity, soil erosion, crop vigor and production, plant diseases and nutrient deficiencies, and insect 

and weed infestations. Due to the generally great 

expanse of range-lands and their low productivity per 

unit area, low-cost video systems were becoming attractive tools for assessing these areas. Rangeland applications include detection or discrimination of plant communities and species, brush and weed infestations, grazing 

intensity, plant production, drought stress, and rodent 

and insect infestations. 

Mkcro wave Sensor Sys tems and Soil Moisture 

Information on the amount of moisture in the soil is 

in-valuable in many farm management decisions; an 

obvious example is determining when to irrigate crops. 

But soil moisture information has been difficult and 

expensive to obtain. Research in fiscal year 1991 included 

development and testing of sensor systems that will 

provide soil water measurements from airplanes and 

satellites. These sensors measure the amount of microwave energy coming from the soil. Recent research has 

shown that the amount of this energy depends primarily 

on the amount of water in the soil. Current research by 

ARS and NASA focuses on systematic testing of prototype 

instruments on airplanes and comparing their measurements with those made on the ground. 

Microwave remote sensing offers three unique 

advantages over other types of remote sensing. First, 

clouds and rain have no effect, making microwave 

remotely sensed data available in all weather conditions. 

Second, microwave remote sensing does not require 

sunlight for illumination, which means that measurements can be made at any time of day or night. Finally, 

the effects due to most vegetation on the ability to sense 

moisture in the soil below are correctable. To be of value, 

soil moisture information must be available on a frequent 

and repetitive basis, so as to be in the hands of users 

almost immediately before changes in crop conditions, 

weather, or soil water content make the information 

worthless. As an added bonus, new research using 

microwaves shows great promise for determining the 

depth or water equivalent of the snowpack. 

Water Forecasting Assisted by Snow Monitoring 

The snow covering the high mountain ranges in the 

Western U.S. is the source of 50 to 80 percent of that 

region’s annual water supply. Accurate and timely 

119 
information on the extent and content of the snowpack is 

essential for efficient management of the growing and 

often competing water needs of households, agriculture, 

and industry. Kemotely sensed data from weather satellites and ground-based untended sensors have been used 

in forecasting water supply available from snowfall. 

Satellite measurements of the snow-covered area in 

specific river basins have recently been made by NOAA 

and transmitted to other Federal agencies. Snow cover 

maps can be sent over telephone lines and used for 

snowmelt analysis by computers. The data on snow cover 

derived from the satellite images, combined in a computer 

model with temperature data, yield the daily amount of 

snowmelt runoff and forecasts of future runoff. Using this 

technique, forecasters can predict water supplies for 

irrigated agriculture, hydropower, domestic supplies, and 

recreation. 

Unattended sensors on the ground relay data on 

local snow conditions to centrally located receiving 

stations for weather analysis and for water supply forecasts. The Department’s Soil Conservation Service (SCS) 

operated the SNOwpack TELemetry (SNOTEL) network, 

which measures snowfall in remote areas of the Western 

United States where manual surveys are difficult to carry 

The automated SNOTEL remote sites include various sensors and measuring devices, such as “snow 

pillows” (which measure the weight of the snow), precipitation gauges, and temperature sensors. Other sensors 

out. 

may be present to measure wind speed and direction, 

snow depth, soil temperature, and other weather variables. A shelter at the site has protected the radio 

telemetry equipment and the communications antenna. 

The weight of the accumulated snow as it pressed on 

flexible pillows of stainless steel or synthetic rubber was 

converted into an electrical reading of the snow’s water 

equivalent-that is, the actual amount of water in a given 

volume of snow. 

During FY 1991, Over 500 remote SNOTEL sites 

transmitted data daily with radio signals from the sites 

reflected off the ionized layer of the Earth’s atmospherethe “meteor burst” zone-to master receiving stations at 

Boise, ID, and Ogden, UT. The network of stations has 

covered ten states in the Western US.-about one million 

square miles. Data from the receiving stations went to a 

centralized forecasting system computer in Portland, OK, 

where they could easily be accessed by forecasters, SCS 

agency personnel, and the public. Data provided by the 

SNOTEL network, ground snow surveys, and information 

derived from weather satellites provided up-to-date information on streamflow potential-information that was 

especially valuable during periods of flood or drought. 

SCS offices issued water-supply forecasts monthly from 

January to June in cooperation with the National Weather 

Service. Major sectors of the western economy-agriculture, industry, and recreation-then used them for planning. 

120 
Department of Transportation 

The Department of Transportation (DOT) has two 

components engaged in aeronautics and space 

endeavors-the Federal Aviation Administration and the 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation. 

Federal Aviation Administration 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has the 

dual responsibility of regulating air safety and fostering 

the progress of civil aviation. The Agency conducts a 

broad range of research and development to reduce the 

hazards of flight, increase civil aviation security, and 

improve the efficiency of the national airspace system. 

demonstrated the need to improve the bins’ resistance to 

crash impact forces. Upgrading proceeded to enable the 

program KKASH computer model to simulate the impact 

of water and soil upon an aircraft. Two full-scale vertical 

drop tests of a Cessna 421B low-wing commuter aircraft 

yielded data on occupant survivability as well as on metal 

aircraft structures, data that will be used for comparison 

with future tests on composite structures. To collect 

further data on low-wing commuter aircraft, the Agency 

was preparing a Metro Ill fuselage for a vertical drop test. 

The FAA was also engaged in developing a method of 

estimating the effects of repairs on damaged composite 

structures, and it concluded new agreements with elements of NASA and the DOD for joint research on 

advanced aircraft structures made of both composite and 

metallic materials. 

Aviation Safety 

Aviation Weather 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) 

This new system will use air-to-air interrogations of 

transponder-equipped aircraft to provide pilots with 

traffic advisories that indicate the range, bearing, and 

altitude of aircraft posing a potential threat. Some of the 

three TCAS versions will also provide a resolution advisory when potential conflicts occur involving aircraft 

equipped with altitude-reporting transponders. 

TCAS I, a low-power system that will provide 

alerting without recommended escape maneuvers, will 

be required in turbine-powered airplanes with 10 to 30 

passenger seats in the mid-ninetys. The FAA had brought 

six TCAS I units to an advanced stage of fabrication by 

September 1991. The TCAS I1 version, which not only will 

alert the pilot to traffic but also advise whether to climb 

or descend, will be mandatory in all aircraft of more than 

30 seats by December 31, 1993. The FAA implemented 

a transitional program to monitor the performance of the 

TCAS I1 systems, approximately 1,400 of which were in 

operation by the end of fiscal 1991. The Agency continued to develop minimum operating standards for TCAS 

111, which will provide traffic alerts and resolution advisories that include right or left turns as well as altitude 

changes. 

Aircraft Crashworthiness 

The Agency completed testing and analysis of the 

overhead storage bins in transport aircraft. The results 

Aviation Weather Services. During FY 1991, the 

FAA initi-ated three new efforts to improve aviation 

weather services. The first was the Aviation Gridded 

Forecast System (AGFS), which NOAA will develop and 

implement in stages under FAA sponsorship. AGFS will 

provide a high-resolution aviation weather analysis and 

forecast over the continental United States. Secondly, the 

two agencies will develop the Aviation Weather Product 

Generator to receive the improved AGFS forecasts from 

the National Weather Service and create a new class of 

alerting and forecasting products for aviation. Thirdly, the 

Integrated Terminal Weather System will provide veryshort-range forecasts and warnings for pilots and controllers at larger airports, using input from AGFS, Automated 

Weather Observing Systems, and radar systems. The FAA 

worked cooperatively with NASA on ways to present and 

display these new weather-data products effectively to 

the pilot in flight. 

Meteorologist Weather Processor. The FAA 

started during FY 1991 to deploy a computer-based 

interactive meteorological data processing service for use 

by meteorologists at weather units located at Air Route 

Traffic Control Centers (ARTCCs). The system will be 

deployed at all ARTCCs and at the Air Traffic Control 

System Command Center. 

Low Level Windshear Alert System. The Low 

Level Windshear Alert System (LLWAS) measured wind 

121 
speed and direction from sensors located around the 

periphery of airports and analyzed this data to detect the 

presence of hazardous windshear. Phase-2 systems 

upgrade the basic LLWAS with a microburst detection 

algorithm developed by the National Center for Atmospheric Research. During 1991, all 110 LLWAS sites 

completed the implementation of phase 2. The FAA 

continued to improve LLWAS by expanding to a phase3 configuration. Two prototype phase-3 systems, in 

operation since 1988, have a record of effectiveness that 

includes a documented aircraft save. The FAA awarded 

a contract during FY 1991 to upgrade seven additional 

major airports to phase-3 as an interim measure and 

completed a study recommending phase-3 for a total of 

82 airports. 

TerminalDoppler WeatherRadar. During 1991, 

the FAA completed an operational evaluation of two 

Terminal Doppler Weather Kadar (TDWK) test systems. 

The evaluation yielded positive results for establishment 

of procedures for use of TDWR data and assessment of air 

traffic displays. Site construction for a complete TDWK, 

meeting all Agency specifications, neared completion at 

Oklahoma City. The equipment will be used for operational testing, evaluation, and system integration while 

preparations continue for implementing TDWK at the first 

operational sites. 

Airborne Windshear Program. The FAA and 

NASA continued joint development of airborne equipment for windshear detection and avoidance. Airborne 

tests of sensors using microwave radar and infrared 

technology and preparations for flight testing of laser 

radar sensors both occurred during the fiscal year. Initial 

analysis of data on predictive technologies produced very 

promising results, and transmission/processing of ground 

based data also proved a useful tool. The FAA began 

work on systems requirements documents as an initial 

step toward certification of airborne windshear equipment. 

Icing. The FAA and the National Center for 

Atmospheric Research continued their 6-year program, 

begun in 1989, to address basic research issues relating to 

the icing hazard and to improve forecasting. Tests 

conducted in the winter of 1990/91 showed the feasibility 

of using multiple sensors to detect icing aloft. 

The Terminal Doppler Weather Radar Facility nearing 

completion at Oklahoma City. 

Weather Observing Systems. In addition to 

awarding grants for partial funding of Automated Weather 

Observing Systems (AWOS), the FAA continued to acquire advanced AWOS 111 units for installation at airports 

without towers. Forty more were ordered during fiscal 

1991, primarily for use in Alaska, and the Agency had 

placed approximately 120 AWOS 111 units in operation 

nationwide by the end of September. In cooperation with 

the Xational Weather Service, the FAA also continued its 

program to acquire Automated Surface Observing Systems, which offer additional precipitation sensing capabilities. A production contract was awarded in February, 

and installation of the FAA’s initial lot of 37 units began 

in August 1991. 

Electromagnetic Environment Program The 

FAA completed tests during 1991 using a Sikorsky S76 

helicopter to measure disruption caused by both low- and 

high-level emitters of electric and magnetic fields. It also 

completed bench-level testing to determine the Electronic 

Flight Instrumentation System’s vulnerability to electromagnetic interference. The FAA Research Electromagnetic Database (FRED) for lightning strike measurement 

122 
became operational during the year. The Agency also 

participated in sponsoring an annual international conference on lightning and static electricity, and it drafted new 

publications on protecting aircraft against lightning and 

high intensity radiated fields. 

Airport Pavement Research 

The FAA sponsored research on factors affecting the 

durability of airport pavements, including load transfer 

efficiency and sealing joints between slabs in rigid pavements. The Agency investigated the use of chemical and 

fibrous additives to extend the life of flexible pavements 

and improve marginal materials. Research continued on 

updated criteria for sealing and protecting pavements, on 

using grids and membranes to increase the load-bearing 

capacity of weak subgrades, and on formulating the loadresponse characteristics of pavements under all service 

conditions. The FAA also reported on methods to assure 

smooth runway surfaces during overlay construction and 

on materials (such as soft grade asphalt, geotextiles, and 

foam) that mitigate cold weather damage. 

it sponsored flight simulator experiments to validate a 

model of pilot error in using flight management computers. Pilot response-time parameters for certain types of air 

traffic control instructions were determined for use in 

warning-system criteria. Two projects related to pilotcontroller communications errors began: an analysis of 

pilot and controller reports on altitude deviations and a 

study of phraseology used in transmitting and acknowledging numerical data. The Agency also participated in 

developing a preliminary model for integrating evaluations of crew response management and flight technical 

skills under the Advanced Qualification Program for 

airline crew training. 

The FAA completed a study of the effects of coursedeviator indicator sensitivity on instrument approaches 

using the LORAN (long range)-C navigation system, and 

it began the flight testing of pilot performance using 

positive guidance for missed course approaches. The 

Agency also completed experiments on format improvements for the charting of instrument approach procedures. 

Aging Aircraft 

Human Factors Research 

In November 1990, the FAA released a draft National 

Plan for Aviation Human Factors developed by leading 

scientists from within the Agency, NASA, DOD. and other 

organizations. A 3-day conference in January centered on 

the Plan. A working group was formed to report on 

industry comments, and a FAA-NASA technical advisory 

group was established to coordinate activities under the 

Plan. 

After evaluating 66 proposals received under a 

broad Agency announcement, the FAA awarded 15 

research contracts dealing with a variety of human factors 

in flight operations and air traffic control. The FAA 

evaluated inexpensive air traffic control training simulators at two terminal radar approach control facilities 

(TKACONs). On the basis of preliminary results, it 

initiated further development of a personal computer 

based system to support training for the future combined 

Southern California TKACON. The Agency also developed an experimental computerized test battery as part of 

an effort to improve the controller screening process. 

The Agency also completed an analysis of commuter and air taxi accidents caused hy human error, and 

In association with NASA and the Air Transport 

Association, the FAA prepared to sponsor an international 

conference on aging aircraft and structural airworthiness 

in November 1991. The Agency continued to study issues 

pertaining to fatigue and fracture, mechanics of corrosion 

fatigue, airframe repairs, corrosion control, and maintenance requirements for aging aircraft. The FAA completed 15 evaluation-team visits to commuter operators, 

and it circulated for coordination a long-range integrated 

plan for aging aircraft that will consolidate ongoing efforts 

and provide overall program direction. 

Turbine-Engine Rotor-Failure Safety 

The FAA initiated research to identify technology 

that will improve measures to protect against failures in 

turbine-engine rotors and resultant damage to the engines. The Agency completed an initial feasibility 

demonstration on an inspection method that would use 

a unique x-ray system to detect turbine disk cracks in an 

operating engine. Another research effort produced computer-based methodology and a prototype design for an 

integrated system to predict failure of rotating parts in 

123 
The results of turbofan overspeed failure, which caused 

multiple liberated-fan blade damage. chemical. 

A Cessna 210 fuel fire being extinguished with dry powder 

turbine engines. The Agency also continued to research 

and develop a variety of light-weight, advanced materials 

designed as barriers to absorb high energy fragments 

liberated by small failures in turbine engines. Testing in 

a rotor-spin facility established penetration-threshold 

thickness geometries, and baseline tests were completed 

on ceramic-based protective materials. 

Aircraft Digital Sys terns 

The FAA continued to assure the safety of aircraft 

digital systems through its validation research in cooperation with NASA. The Agency prepared new handbook 

materials on avionic data-bus integration, and it extended 

research to include such emerging fields as fiber-optics 

technology. 

Aviation Fuels 

FAA activity in the field of fuels for light aircraft 

related primarily to the impact on general aviation of 1990 

legislation on removal of lead from fuels. The Agency 

supported workshops on this issue sponsored by industry 

and user groups, and it planned follow-on research on 

unleaded fuel usage. The FAA also began cooperative 

efforts with industry regarding use of ethanol in aircraft. 

Aircraft Rescue and Fire fighting 

The Agency completed a first series of full-scale fire 

tests on damage tolerance and firefighting agent requirements for small aircraft and rotorcraft. These tests will 

assist in determining an optimal balance between response quickness and firefighting-agent capacity for fire 

trucks at small airports. The FAA also initiated work to 

improve skin-penetration nozzle systems that could expedite suppression of cabin fires in large aircraft. 

Fire Safety 

The Agency completed two years of testing an 

onboard cabin water spray system for suppressing postcrash fires. The system proved highly effective, providing 

as much as two to three addi-tional minutes for passengers to escape, and the FAA initiated research on such 

issues as weight optimization and the effects of an 

accidental discharge. The Agency published a handbook 

providing detailed documentation of all FAA-required 

aircraft-material fire-test procedures. The FAA also completed a study on recycling Halon 1301, an extinguishing 

agent used in aviation that will be banned from production no later than the year 2000 due to the stratospheric 

ozone depletion it helps to cause. The study demon124 
strated that appropriate recycling can meet needs through 

the year 2020. The FAA also initiated full-scale tests to 

define design modifications and firefighting procedures 

to safeguard against cargo fires in combined passenger/ 

cargo aircraft. 

Low Impact Resistance Structures 

The €AA continued development of a computerbased analytical model for predicting the response to 

aircraft impact of low impact resistance structures (those 

designed to offer little resistance when struck by an 

aircraft). It likewise continued to develop computer 

software for evaluating break-away mechanism test results. The FAA performed preliminary calculations of 

break-away mechanism impact using state-of-the-art fracture analysis methods and National Institute of Standards 

and Technology testing equipment. Preparation of a 20- 

foot tower as a specimen for full-scale dynamic testing at 

the Naval Air Engineering Center was about 80 percent 

completed. 

Jet Engine Bird Hazard Program 

The Agency continued to collect and analyze worldwide service data on bird ingestion into jet engines. The 

information provided threat definition and damage characterization for use in updating engine certification standards and airport bird hazard studies. The FAA published 

the final report on a 2-year study of commuter and 

executive aircraft powered by small jet engines. It 

completed the final draft report on a 3-year study of the 

Boeing 737 transport fleet powered by jet engines of both 

older, low-bypass and modern, high-bypass design. The 

FAA also finished 2-year data collection on a group of 

seven large, modern, high-bypass jet engine models 

installed on eight types of contemporary transports. 

Aviation Medicine 

Activities in aviation-medicine research included 

active monitoring of the involvement of both therapeutic 

and illicit drugs in fatal aircraft accidents. Systematic 

assessment of all accidents in which sudden or subtle 

incapacitation was strongly suspected became a new part 

of the research program. Researchers validated a prototype automated cognitive function test to improve early 

detection of subtle cognitive loss from injury or disease. 

The FAA also developed and validated practical, jobrelated tests for the detection of color vision performance 

deficiency in air traffic controller applicants. 

Aviation Security 

In response to the Heport of the President’s Commission on Aviation Security and Terrorism and the Aviation 

Security Improve-ment Act of 1990, the FAA quickened 

the pace and broadened the scope of its aviation security 

research. The Agency continued research to identify 

technologies for the next generation of explosives detection systems, while beginning development of prototype 

devices to screen both people and baggage. Developmental efforts included nuclear, x-ray, and vapor detection technologies. As a short term strategy, the Agency 

evaluated a broad range of commercially available explosives and bomb detection devices that might be rapidly 

deployed in high risk circumstances. 

The FAA began construction of an explosives detection research laboratory at its Technical Center. The first 

of its kind in the world, the laboratory will permit 

research, testing, and evaluation on the full range of 

nuclear and analytical technologies applicable to security. 

Thermal-neutron-analysis (TNA) explosives-detection systems were in operation at New York Kennedy, 

Miami International, London Gatwick, and Washington 

Dulles airports as part of the FAA’s program to demonstrate the system’s capabilities in an operating environment. A high-technology system for screening passengerchecked baggage, TNA was capable of detecting given 

amounts of commercial explosives, including plastic 

explosives. The Agency planned for additional demonstrations at San Francisco International Airport. 

The FAA filled program manager positions and 

began research into such new areas as threat/risk analysis 

and systems integration. Particularly noteworthy was the 

aircraft hardening effort, which aimed at quantifying the 

risk posed by an inflight explosion. The program will 

concentrate on increasing aircraft survival probability by 

such measures as strengthening baggage containers and 

cargo holds. Another new initiative involved the development of methods (and related systems architecture) for 

deploying and linking sensors together at airports. 
The Agency defined and initiated a program for 

human factors involved in aviation security, including 

research, advice for the Agency on security operations, 

and cooperation with industry, academia, and other 

agencies. This growing program encompassed all significant human roles within the aviation security system. 

These roles included performance of passengerhaggage 

screeners and security system maintenance personnel, 

threat counteraction by security personnel and air crews, 

reactions of the flying public and airport customers, and 

security features of airport design. The Agency developed detailed plans and began research to improve 

screener performance. 

Air Navagation and Air Traffic Control 

Capital Investment Plan 

During FY 1991, the FAA placed in effect its first 

annual Capital Investment Plan (CIP), a blueprint for 

major improvements in the air traffic control system to 

meet changing user needs. The plan replaced the 

National Airspace System Plan and encornpassed its 

remaining projects. The CIP supported the Agency’s 

Strategic Plan and was consistent with the Secretary of 

Transportation’s National Transportation Policy. 

Advanced Automation System 

The Advanced Automation System (AAS) will be a 

wholly new replacement for automated equipment now 

used in controlling en route and terminal air traffic. The 

system will increase controller productivity, upgrade the 

capacity and reliability of the airspace system, and provide the flexibility needed for future enhancements. AAS 

will include new computer software, processors, tower 

position consoles, and controller workstations called 

sector suites. 

The system’s first element, the Peripheral Adapter 

Module Replacement Item (PAMRI), arrived at four facilities during FY 1991, and one of these sites, Seattle, 

achieved initial operating capability. Development of 

nearly one million lines of computer code for the initial 

sector suite system was approximately 80 percent completed at year’s end, and a critical design review conferAdvanced Automation System equipment under evaluation 

at the FAA ’s new Development Demonstration facility. 

ence on the terminal AAS took place. The FAA oversaw 

construction of the Development Demonstration Facility 

for early evaluation and risk mitigation of AAS segments, 

and the first suitability evaluations in the facility began. 

Ground-breaking also occurred for construction of a new 

laboratory to house added AAS equipment and personnel 

at the FAA Technical Center. 

Automated En Route Air Traffic 

Control System (AERA) 

This program will provide higher levels of interactive and automated software as evolutionary enhancements for use with the Advanced Automation System. 

AERA’s goals are to improve airspace system capacity and 

efficiency, increase flexibility for individual users, and 

reduce operational errors. The FAA continued progress 

during 1991 toward an introductory set of AERA services, 

formerly known as AERA-2. Laboratory evaluations of 

prototypes resulted in refinement and clarification of 

problem resolution and computer-human interface requirements. The Advanced AERA Concepts program, 

formerly known as AERA-3, defines the next evolutionary 

step toward a higher level of automation. Activities under 

this portion of the program included concept development and evaluation aimed at the complete automation of 

aircraft separation and of many planning functions, which 

126 
will allow human attention to concentrate on managing 

the overall safe flow of traffic. Work continued on the 

integration of key functional elements into a “Protocenter” 

for demonstration and evaluation. These functional 

elements will ensure that aircraft pairs do not violate 

separation standards, that sufficient airspace is reserved 

for aircraft in clusters to maneuver safely, and that aircraft 

meet metering and central flow-control requirements. 

Advanced Traffic Management System 

The aim of the Advanced Traffic Management 

System (ATMS) is to develop enhanced automation 

capabilities for air traffic flow management. ATMS 

products that had been transitioned to the operational 

system by the end of FY 1991 included the Aircraft 

Situation Display (ASD), which collected and displayed 

the near real time position of every controlled aircraft 

operating in the National Airspace System within the 

continental US., and the Monitor Alert function that 

provided automated alerts of projected congestion and 

delay. Initial algorithms for automated generation of 

alternative flow management strategies were installed on 

the testbed system at the Command Center for evaluation 

and refinement during fiscal 1991. 

Voice Switching and Control System 

This system will provide air traffic control centers 

with efficient and economical computer-controlled voice 

switching for intercom, interphone, and air-ground communications. As FY 1991 ended, the FAA had brought 

testing of two prototype systems to an advanced stage in 

anticipation of contract award in December 1991. 

New York TRACON 

During 1991 the FAA completed Stage I1 of a 

complex program to upgrade the New York Terminal 

Radar Approach Control Facility, which serviced three 

major and 40 satellite airports. The tracking capability of 

the facility’s ARTS IIIE radar control system thereby 

increased to 2,800 aircraft, with potential expansion to 

3,400. Final improvements included local area networking and distributed processing with separate systems for 

three types of processing: common, tracking, and display. 

The upgrade also provided enhanced intruder conflict 

alert for aircraft with Mode C transponders. Five radar 

antennas were operating as sensors, with potential expansion to six sensors. 

Aeronautical Data Link 

The FAA completed implementation of Pre-Departure Clearance service at 29 major airports during €3’ 1991. 

lhis new data link application enabled pilots from four 

major airlines to receive their departure clearances in text 

form in the cockpit or at the gate through data communications, in lieu of standard voice transmissions. The 

system benefitted both pilots and controllers by reducing 

workload and frequency congestion and by improving 

reliability of communications. The program was being 

rapidly expanded to include other major air carriers, 

regional carriers, and general aviation service providers as 

the year ended. 

The Agency completed testing of the Data Link 

Processor and installed this computer system at the first 

site. The system will manage all future data link cornmunications in the national airspace system once it is 

installed at each en route center. Development of future 

data link applications for air traffic control, flight service, 

and weather service continued in cooperation with the 

international aviation industry. 

Airport Visual Aids and Lights 

The Agency completed an in-service evaluation of 

an FAA-developed “hold-short” lighting system at Boston 

Logan airport, and it intended to adopt this system as a 

national standard. In-service evaluation of a runway stop 

bar lighting system began at New York Kennedy airport 

in March. 

Airport Capacity 

Airport Capacity Design Teams. Airport capacity design teams are local groups operating with FAA 

sponsorship and participation to produce coordinated 

plans for improving capacity. They identify the causes of 

delay, study current and anticipated demand, evaluate 

new applications of technology, and quantify the benefits 

of options for enhancement. By the end of September 

127 
1991, teams had submitted their final reports at 23 

airports, and approximately 700 task-force projects had 

been designed. 

Simulation Models. The FAA’s SIMMOD computer model addressed capacity and delay problems 

through detailed simulation of airports, terminal airspace, 

and en route airspace. Improvements to SIMMOD, which 

nearly 150 users had acquired since its public release in 

1989, included a new version for use with workstation 

type computers. The FAA also upgraded the National 

Airspace System Performance Capability, which simulates 

the entire en route air traffic control system and the 

nation’s busiest airports, to provide such additional practical information as the monetary impact of delays. The 

Agency developed a prototype sector design analysis tool 

that computes metrics, such as potential conflicts, to assist 

planners in designing en route sectors. The FAA established the Integration and Interaction Laboratory as a 

proof of concept for the National Simulation Laboratory, 

which will develop techniques for simulation studies of 

advanced air traffic management concepts. 

Precision Runway Monitor. The goal of this 

program is to increase airport capacity through safe 

reduction of constraints on the use of parallel or converging runways during instrument meteorological conditions 

(when visibility is minimal). The FAA has developed two 

monopulse radar prototypes that are much faster and 

more accurate than current equipment. In one, an 

electronically scanned (E-scan) antenna updates the 

aircraft position as fast as every half second. The other 

prototype adds a second antenna to a Mode S-type 

ground interrogator to achieve a 2.4 second update rate. 

Both systems include improved radar display, automated 

predictor, and visual/aural alerting. They are expected to 

reduce by perhaps 40 percent the spacing required 

between parallel runways used for simultaneous, independent parallel approaches. 

In February, the FAA published a report on operational demonstrations of both prototypes held during the 

previous fiscal year. The report provided recommendations on radar accuracy, update rate, controller display 

characteristics, and procedures for monitoring approaches 

to parallel runways spaced less far apart than the current 

4,300 foot standard. It specifically recommended a 2.4 

second update rate as satisfactory for spacings 3,400 feet 

or greater. Analysis and simulations continued as the year 

ended in order to develop a recommendation for less than 

3,400 feet. 

Airport Surface Traffic Automation. This 

program’s purpose is to develop techniques to prevent 

runway incursions and more fully automate aircraft 

ground movement, thereby speeding traffic flow and 

increasing all-weather airport surface capacity. The FAA 

accelerated work with the aim of deploying a system by 

1996, and it released a broad Agency announcement 

soliciting demonstrations of alternative technologies. 

Terminal Air Traffic ControlAutomation. This 

program developed automation aids to increase safety, 

fuel efficiency, and capacity in terminal airspace. Work 

was under way on two projects, including a Converging 

Runway Display Aid (CRDA) to allow continued use of a 

pair of converging runways during instrument meteorological conditions. CRDA underwent an operational field 

evaluation at St. Louis Lambert airport in preparation for 

eventual national deployment. The second project was to 

develop, in cooperation with NASA, the Center-TRACON 

Automation System (CTAS) to reduce delays and facilitate 

fuel efficient descent paths. Air traffic controllers participated in rapid prototyping activities in a laboratory 

environment in preparation for CTAS operational evaluations. FAA controllers also participated in completion of 

the Final Approach Spacing Aid (FASA) study in the real 

time terminal area simulation facility at NASA Langley 

Research Center. The automation assistance afforded by 

the FASA displays resulted in a significant decrease in 

controller workload, increased precision in spacing aircraft, and greater “throughput” to the runway. 

Terminal Area SuweiUunce System The new 

Terminal Area Surveillance System (TASS) program was 

investigating sensor technologies to meet increased requirements for future airport capacity and air traffic safety. 

Research areas included func-tional capabilities for aircraft surveillance and tracking, detection and monitoring 

of hazardous weather, detection of aircraft wake vortex, 

and airport surface surveillance. TASS is envisioned as a 

multi-purpose system that will relay timely information 

about the total airport environment. The program explored modular design concepts to allow site-to-site 

custom configurations and reduce system costs. It 

128 
proceeded toward establishing a set of operational requirements in cooperation with the aviation community, 

academia, and national laboratories. 

Work began during FY 1991 under a contract to integrate 

all components into a working flight system aboard a 

Gulfstream I1 for evaluation and demonstration of the 

concept. 

Satellite Applications for Civil Aviation 

Rotorcraft/Po wered Lift-Vehicles Program 

When it becomes available to assist civil aviation, 

the U.S. Global Positioning System will provide an 

additional navigation aid and improve approach/landing 

capability at airports not served by any instrument approach aid. The FAA cooperated with the International 

Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in developing worldwide satellite system standards as part of the Agency’s 

effort to promote the international acceptance of satellite 

navigation, which will be essential if U.S. civil aviation is 

to receive the full benefit of GPS. The FAA and the Soviet 

Union examined the combined use of GPS and the Soviet 

Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS) for solemeans civil aviation navigation. The two countries 

exchanged GPS and GLONASS receivers and conducted 

tests. Another rapidly emerging technology was the use 

of satellite communications for air traffic control clearances and for Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) 

periodic position reporting, capabilities that will improve 

the safety and efficiency of oceanic flight. The FAA 

awarded a contract to add the ADS function to the 

Oceanic Display and Planning System, an automated aid 

to controlling oceanic flights that was operational in 

California and near operational status in New York at 

year’s end. In September 1991, ICAO’s Air Navigation 

Commission fully endorsed both GPS navigation and 

ADS, and the FAA announced that the U.S. was offering 

use of GPS to world civil aviation for a minimum of ten 

years, starting in 1993. 

Synthetic Vision 

The FAA and the Air Force continued their joint 

management of the Synthetic Vision Technology Demonstration, a governmedin-dustry project to develop a 

visual-imaging system for landing under conditions of 

very low visibility. Relying principally on millimeterwave technology, the system will give pilots a processed 

image of the runway area. Sensor development neared 

completion and testing began on a tower overlooking an 

unused airfield. A study team organized and documented 

over 100 issues involved in certificating this technology. 

Vertical Flight Planning. In November 1990, the 

FAA published a Rotorcraft Master Plan (RMP) that 

describes the relationships between FAA and industry 

research and development programs and highlights actions necessary for the rotorcraft industry to realize its full 

potential. The Agency began to develop a detailed 

Vertical Flight Program Plan for accomplishing RMP 

projects, and it continued research and development on 

infrastructural issues to improve vertical flight operations. 

Vertical Flight Operations. The Agency began a 

multi-year project to identify requirements and improve 

procedures for instrument flight rule (IFR) operations at 

heliports and verti-ports, addressing steep angle approaches and noise abatement control. The FAA began 

two studies on minimum airspace requirements for IFR 

heliports, which should result in a revision of the design 

advisory circular used by heliport planners and in changes 

to criteria for helicopter approach instrument procedures. 

In cooperation with NASA, the Agency also began research addressing operational and certification issues 

relating to tiltrotor aircraft noise. The initial focus was on 

collecting data to use in optimizing technology and flight 

procedures for noise abatement. The FAA continued 

flight tests and analyses of obstacle avoidance systems, 

concentrating during the year on use of night vision 

goggles for emergency medical service operations. 

Heliports and Vertiports. The FAA developed 

two video programs on recently published guidelines for 

incorporating helicopters into disaster relief planning. 

Other key publications included analyses of operations at 

Downtown Manhattan Heliport, helicopter accidents at 

various landing sites, and air ambulance helicopter operations, as well as a five volume set of reports on minimum 

heliport airspace requirements for instrument flight rule 

operations. 

Civil Tiltrotor. The FAA and NASA jointly published a study of civil tiltrotor applications that included 

129 
assessment of the commercial passenger market and 

appraisal of research necessary for developing a tiltrotor 

aircraft suitable for commercial application. FAA grants 

enabled state and local governments to complete several 

civil tiltrotor feasibility studies. Work was begun to 

quantify potential reductions in delays at major airports if 

passenger-carrying tiltrotors were used for certain shorthaul missions. 

Vertical Flight Performance Analysis. The 

Agency completed an advisory circular detailing the 

advantages of aeronautical decision making training, and 

it prepared various slides and videotape presentations for 

use by training schools and FAA accident prevention 

specialists. 

Commercial Space Transportation 

To date, a total of 19 successful U.S. commercial 

launches have taken place. These launches reflect a 

growing and diverse industry, including international 

business and foreign government customers, communications satellite and suborbital research payloads. According to the latest DOT Commercial Launch Manifest, 

issued in October 1991, more than 30 commercial launches 

are expected to take place in the next few years. 

Licensing Division Activities 

In FY 1991, the Department of Transportation’s 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation (OCST) issued at least 6 licenses that authorized at least 18 

launches. In addition, several applications are expected 

for new on orbit, space applications, and reentry events. 

As of 1992, OCST will have supervised launches from 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, Cape Canaveral, White 

Sands, Barking Sands, Kwajalein, and Wallops Island. 

OCST has also studied proposed reentry vehicle landing 

sites at White Sands, NM, and in other states. 

OCST developed and issued launch operators licenses to General Dynamics, Orbital Sciences Corporation, and McDonnell Douglas Corporation. OCST continued to develop a computer system that tracks the progress 

of license processing, investigations, and enforcement 

actions. 

Regulatory Activities 

OCST planned to issue regulations, vehicle design 

and approval procedures, and/or standards for commercial launch ranges and certain on orbit activities. In 

support of the licensing of commercial launch and 

recovery activities, OCST was developing criteria for 

determining the adequacy of tracking, telemetry, and 

other vehicle/site requirements related to public safety. 

To aid establishment of commercial range personnel certi-fication standards, OCST was conducting research to document and evaluate range-safety personnel 

requirements and training at the various national ranges. 

OCST was also carrying out studies using safety experts 

to ensure that commercial safety-personnel certification 

was effective, efficient, and consistent with the changing 

hardware and concepts employed by the commercial 

industry. OCST and the State of Hawaii were working at 

the end of FY 1991 on a joint environmental impact 

statement for a proposed Hawaiian commercial launch 

facility. 

OCST has developed a comprehensive research 

plan. This plan was designed to respond to anticipated 

developments in commercial space transportation activity. It defined a systematic program that included risk 

analyses and assessments; the development of risk management strategies and options; regulatory impact analyses; and the development of licensing procedures and 

standards for new space vehicles and activities, including 

those associated with on orbit operations and reentry 

transportation vehicles and their operating procedures. 

OCST was also studying options jointly with NASA and 

DOD for reducing orbital debris. 

Industry and Policy Planning Division Activities 

At the National Space Council, OCST has participated in developing Federal policies affecting the commercial space launch industry, including the Commercial 

Space Launch Policy, Commercial Space Policy Guidelines, National Space Launch Strategy, and the National 

Nuclear Space Strategy. OCST has conducted rigorous 

economic impact evaluations of regulations and rules 

affecting the commercial space transportation industry, 

such as evaluations for regulations dealing with user fees, 

financial responsibility, and the licensing process. 

130 
OCST has analyzed the potential economic impacts 

of converting excess government space launch equipment, including former ballistic missiles, to non-governmental uses in order to minimize harm to the commercial 

launch industry from contemplated disposal options. 

OCST has developed a methodology to assess fair market 

value of excess government space assets, including 

ballistic missiles and space launch components, made 

available to the private sector. 

OCST continued to participate in interagency talks 

to establish free and fair trade principles with the European Space Agency. OCST has also drafted and disseminated a major issue paper regarding participation of the 

People’s Kepublic of China (PKC) in the international 

launch market as required by the US-PKC memorandum 

of agreement on International Trade in Commercial 

Launch Services. In addition, OCST continued to monitor 

the actions of the PRC in the international launch market 

to ensure compliance with the provisions of the agreement and to obtain current information on the status of the 

PKC in the international launch market. 

Program Affairs Division Activities 

OCST was continuing to expand its program of 

support and representation for the U.S. commercial space 

transportation industry to include a full schedule of 

domestic and international conferences, exhibits, and 

symposia. In keeping with the Department’s National 

Transportation Policy, OCST has continued to participate 

in conferences and programs fostering the exchange of 

knowledge and innovative ideas with both professionals 

and students. 

Through public outreach, the news media, industry 

activi-ties, and printed and audiovisual materials, OCST 

has continued to create better public and Congressional 

understanding and support for commercial space transportation and the role it can play in the economic, 

scientific, and national security interests of the country. 

131 
Environmental Protection 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

primarily through its Environmental Monitoring Systems 

Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV, with assistance from its 

Atmospheric Research and Exposure Assessment 

Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, NC, routinely 

conducted research and provided technical support using 

remote sensing as part of an overall environmental 

monitoring program. It collected and interpreted largescale aerial photo-graphy to support the provisions of the 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and the 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, 

and Liability Act (CERCLA). It used medium-scale 

photography to support studies of nonpoint pollution, 

wetlands and coastal-zone protection, and forest-ecosystem 

decline caused by acid deposition. High-altitude 

photography enabled broad area studies in the coastal 

zone and contributed land use and land cover information 

in risk assessment studies. Finally, the Agency collected 

and interpreted airborne and satellite multispectral data to 

support investigations of water quality, nonpoint-source 

pollution, hazardous waste, and critical-habitat areas. It 

was in the process of developing and applying airborne 

laser systems to air and water monitoring. And it was 

using a geographic information system (GIs) to integrate 

multiple data sets in support of many EPA programs. 

Hazardous Waste 

The Agency used aerial photography to develop site 

charac-terization data during remedial investigation and 

feasibility studies under CERCLA, among a host of other 

uses (see previous year’s report). For example, it could 

also support site selection and monitoring at hazardous 

waste facilities operating under the RCKA. In this 

connection, airborne multispectral scanner data and satellite imagery also played a part in helping engineers 

develop detailed site characterizations. 

Water Quality 

The EPA developed and used remote sensing systems such as a second-generation Laser Fluorosensor to 

support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. Aerial 

photography and satellite data also supported studies of 

nonpoint-source pollution. For example, the Agency 

documented the system contamination from activities like 

leaking barrels and tanks, industrial effluent, and municipal sewage using satellite and aircraft passive remote 

sensing in Commencement Bay near Tacoma, WA. Output from drainage models combined with contaminant 

distribution information permitted prediction of potential 

pollution in the bay. 

Air Quality 

The EPA was continuing to use an airborne, aerosol 

Light Detection and Ranging laser radar to monitor 

particulates asso-ciated with major urban plumes and 

emission sources. It also continued (with NASA support) 

developing an airborne Ultraviolet Differential Absorption Light Detection and Ranging laser radar to measure 

ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulates simultaneously. 

In conjunction with NOAA, the EPA was also 

involved in a project to characterize dry deposition of 

sulfur and nitrogen on a regional scale. Surface vegetation, land-use type, and terrain were important input 

parameters for the deposition model. Landsat satellite 

systems (see above) were to be used to provide multispectral data of the Earth’s surface in digital form. New satellite 

data has permitted the generation of databases on vegetation class, vegetation index, slope, aspect, and elevation. 

The two agencies will use this data to compute modeled 

sulfur dioxide deposition velocities and then compare 

that to deposition velocities calculated from data at 

ground monitoring sites. 

Ecological Risk Assessment 

The EPA has continued to champion an interagency 

program known as the Environmental Monitoring and 

Assessment Program (EMAP) to determine the status and 

long-term trends affecting the nation’s ecological resources (see coverage in previous year’s report). An 

example of the program’s employment was its Forest 

component, in which high-resolution aerial photography 

supplemented the field monitoring activities at study 

locations. The photography characterized the landscape 

around these sites. This high-resolution characterization 

provided the material for linking the field measurements 

to the lower-resolution characterization derived from 

Landsat Thematic Mapper data. Both the Forest and the 

Integration and Assessment components of EMAP used 
satellite-derived landscape characterization and indicators to assess functions of the program. The EPA 

integrated the data within a GIS with other environmental 

information for purposes of assessment. 

Interagency Cooperation 

The EPA continued to work with other Federal 

agencies, state and local governments to coordinate 

environmental monitoring. For example, experts from 

the EPA have become members of the science teams for 

proposed NASA satellite sensor systems, including the 

Laser Atmospheric Wind Sounder and the Moderate 

Resolution Imaging Spectrometer. These experts have 

been helping define the sensor and data parameters for 

such systems based upon the EPA's need for this technology for environmental programs. Also, the use of other 

EPA systems, such as the previously mentioned Ultraviolet Differential Absorption Light Detection and Ranging 

laser radar were planned for use in NASA programs such 

as Global Change and Tropospheric Chemistry. 

133 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Founclation (NSF) continued to lie 

the principal supporter of academic research in atmospheric 

sciences and ground-based astronomy. NSF provided this 

support partly through grants to individual investigators 

and partly through contracts and cooperative agreements 

with universities and con-sortia operating ol>servatories 

and other large fiicilities. 

Astronomical Sciences 

'To test whether at sufficiently large scales the 

universe is hotnogeneoiis, astronomers have to cletermine the distribution of galaxies over the largest possible 

sky areas and the distances to these galaxies must lie 

determinecl. Kecent surveys have shown extensive sheetlike concentrations of galaxies and extensive voids with 

few galaxies. Thus, the sutveys have found no evidence 

of homogeneity at these distance scales. 

Quasi-stellar olijects, so-named Iiecause their optical images appear unresolved and stell;ir. ;ire the most 

clistmt objects in the universe and produce the most 

energetic and explosive events ever seen. 'I'hese two 

properties make :in unclerstancling of their nature essential to cosmology, general relativity, and high energy physics. lintil recently, the only spatially resolved features 

associated with these oljects were regions of extended 

I.:idio emission. These features were sitnilx in nature to 

radio emissions arising from some elliptical galaxies, 

providing ;I possilAe link Ixtween galaxies and clmsistcll;ir oljects. Increased sensitivity of new detectors :it 

Kitt I'eak National Olxervatory in TLKSOII, AZ, have made 

it possilde to o1,tain sp:iti:illy resolved images of 15 quasistellar objects, typically 300,000 light years in size. They 

:ippe;ir :isyminetric or elongated, :ind these features 

appe:ir to I>e :iligned with the radio emission. Olwxvations have suggested the underlying olject is ;I system of 

st;i rs. 

Astronomers have hypothesized that disks surround 

many :istro-nomical oljects. from young stars to galactic 

nuclei to q~i;is:ii-s. Although they have never Ixen clirectly 

ol~setved. indirect evidence for such disks iiiay have heen 

atkiinecl recently. Olxet-wtions at Kitt Peak National 

Ol>setvatory of the star K Acprii showed that it is :I binary 

system. Images olitained strongly suggest that there is an 

accretion disk surrounding the hot ohject in orbit around 

I< Acliixii. If this is so, these are the first ground-lxised 

olxerv:itions of an accretion disk. 

At the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, 

headquartered :it Cornell Liniversity, astronomers have 

identified the first near-kirth metal asteroid. Thc :isteroid's 

orbit around the Sun extends from just I~eyond Earth to 

just inside Jupiter's orbit. The asteroid's diameter is 1.6 

miles and its t-aclar reflection is Ixigliter than that of other 

asteroids. The asteroid is prolxibly composed of iron, 

nickel, or other metals, and it is likely that it originated in 

the asteroid Ixlt Ixtween Mars and Jupiter. 

New tneaswetnents at Kitt Peak Nationd Ol~setvatory have indicated that the universe may he ;il>out 12.5 

1,illion years old or less. This age, much younger than 

many mtronomers are pi-eparecl to accept, W;IS determined I>y measuring the rate of expiinsion of the universe, 

known 21s the H~ilhle constmt. The age of the universe 

is 1)elievecl to I,e inversely proportional to its rate of 

expansion. A determination of the constant Liffects how 

long one Ixlieves the universe has Ixen expancling since 

its origin. To olitain the new estimate. one team measured 

the distance to the Virgo Cluster of galaxies (alwut 50 

million light years away) and to ;I nuinher of other 

galaxies. Another team determined the average apparent 

brightness of stars in galaxies to determine distances. 

Both teams calculated the v:ilue of the Hulhle constant 

and obtained an es-timate for the age of the universe of 

;ihut 12.5 hillion years. However, c:dcuhtions ofthe age 

of older stars indicate that they are hxit 15 Iillion yexs 

old. The discrepancy Ixtween estimates ofthe ages of the 

oldest stars mcl the universe itself remainecl unresolved 

at the end of FY 1991. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

In FY 1991, significant intellectual advmces in 

under-standing the upper atmosphere emerged from the 

Coupling, Energetics, and 1jyn;imics of Atmospheric 

Kegions (CEDAK) and Geospace Ilnvironment Modeling 

(GEM) programs, components of the IJ.S. G1ob:il Change 

Research l'rogratn. CEDAR adclressecl development of 

grouncl-based remote sensing techniques for studying the 

upper atmosphere, including the mesospliere/lowet- thermosphere region, often called the "ignorosphere" hecause it is too low to study hy satellites and too high to 

rexh hy aircraft or Iialloons. Nevertheless, important 

structures found there include the ozone layer, noctilucent clouds, airglow layers, meteoric layers, and sporadic 

sodium and iron layers. 

I34 
The Airlmrne Lidar and Obseilrations of Hawaiian 

Airglow (ALOHA) campaign adclressed the dynamics of 

the “ignorosphere.” I Jsing instruments distrilxited around 

the low htitucle 1’:icific region. nine groups from four 

countries collalxxited on ol>sei-wtions designed to explore ecpi:itorial gr:ivity wave activity. The centerpiece 

instrument w:is :in airlmi-ne liclar system for studying the 

liorizontd density \miations antl temperature structure of 

the upper stratosphere :incl upper mesospliere/lo\ver 

thermospliere regions. Scientists validated the airborne 

litlar antl spectrometer IiieasLirements against ground 

Ixisecl :iirglow and rxlar instruments. Strong wave 

activity u‘x apparent thi-oughout the region. A surprising 

conclusion w:is that airglow intensities :ind sodium densities in this region may be more related to dynamics than 

to chemistiy. 

The iirecilx) Initiative on I>ynamics of the Atmosphere (AIDA), ;I CEDAR cmipaign at Arecilm, PR, 

1m)ught prtial reflection ~-atlars, meteor wind raclars, 

lidars, and interference spc‘ctro~nc~rs to tlie site of tlie 

Ai-ecilx) incoherent scatter ~idar for characterizing spati a 1 - ;in d ti me -v:i ry i ng 21 t m os p lie r i c s t ~LI c t u res, 

Intercomparisons of measui-ements c1emonstr:ited that 

the partial reflection rad~ir technique employed for two 

clecacles failed to give accurate wind measurements 

~ilx)ve 80 km I~ecacise of distortions of inferred velocities 

produced by atmospheric gravity waves. 

GEM, which concxmti-ates on the outer p1:isiixi 

region of the atmosphere (magnetosl7liere) linked gloIxilly hy electric and magnetic fields mcl shaped hy 

interactions with solar wind, has acltlressecl quantitative 

geoyxice models that will lead to tlie tlevelopment of ;I 

“climatology of geospace” extending from tlie interface 

with CEIIAK interests to the interplanetary medium. 

Iiecently scientists pi-oclucecl iclealized, hit realistic, threedimensional n~iiiieric:il sitnu-lations of glolxil, drum-like, 

oscillations resulting from sol:ir wind perturlxitions of the 

magnetosphere. These developing iiiockls hwt. ;iIre;idy 

found wide application. 
Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to national space 

programs through basic research conducted at the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in 

Cambridge, MA, and at the Center for Earth and Planetary 

Studies (CEPS) and the Laboratory for Astrophysics (LfA) 

at the National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in 

Washington, D.C. NASM’s exhibits, lectures, and education 

programs contribute to public understanding of space 

research and exploration. SA0 also conducts programs 

designed to improve pre-college science instruction, and 

serves as the North American gateway for SIMBAD, an 

international astronomical computer database. 

Space Science 

High-Energy Astrophysics 

In 1991, NASA selected SA0 to plan, develop, and 

operate the international science center that will receive, 

analyze, and archive data from the Advanced X-ray 

Astrophysics Facility, now scheduled for launch in 1999 

(see above). 

A high-resolution imaging instrument built by SA0 

and carried aboard the KOSAT satellite (see above) made 

detailed observations of x-ray objects selected from the 

spacecraft’s initial 6-month, all-sky survey. Striking 

images of the Andromeda Galaxy suggest that x-ray 

sources may be highly variable, since many seen a decade 

earlier by the Einstein (HEAO-2) Observatory had disappeared and other new sources now glowed brightly. SA0 

also operated the U.S. KOSAT Data Center in cooperation 

with the Goddard Space Flight Center. 

Each year, scientists from around the world have 

come to SA0 to use archived data from the Einstein 

Observatory. In addition, SA0 has converted the Einstein 

data to CD-ROM format and made it available free to all 

qualified scholars. Among the many results coming from 

this valuable data resource, SA0 astronomers discovered 

an unusual x-ray arc associated with a gravitationally 

lensed quasar. 

Solar Physics 

A rocket-borne x-ray telescope developed by SA0 

and IBM gathered solar data on the day of the total solar 

X-ray image of the solar corona from a telescope built by 

the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the ISM 

Watson Research Center, which flew aboard a NASA 

sounding rocket over New Mexico during the total solar 

eclipse of July 11, 1991. At the time of the photo, the 

partial phases of the eclipse had not yet begun over New 

Mexico, and the dark silhouette of the approaching Moon 

appears faintly on the right-hand side of the photo. 

eclipse that could help produce a detailed three-dimensional model of the Sun’s corona, linking density and 

temperature variations with structure seen in its extended 

atmosphere. The x-ray observations will be compared 

with those in other wavelengths made at the same time, 

including infrared observations by a second SA0 team 

operating at NASA’s Infrared Telescope Facility site on 

Mauna Kea, HI. The combined observations will help 

create an improved model of extended corona, the hot, 

tenuous region of the solar atmosphere that is still little 

understood. 

In anticipation of flight aboard the Solar Heliospheric 

Observatory in 1995, SA0 scientists have been designing 

an Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer (WCS). The 

experiment is intended to address the question of what 

type of physical mechanism heats the Sun’s outer atmosphere and then accelerates it into the solar wind that 

streams out through interplanetary space. 

136 
Stellar and Galactic Studies 

The Hubble Space Telescope’s observations of the 

ring structure around Supernova 1987A in the Large 

Magellanic Cloud permitted the most precise calculation 

of the distance to another galaxy yet made. LfA scientists, 

using infrared detector arrays and Fabry-I’erot spectrometers, obtained spectral images of regions of star formation in molecular clouds and of shocked and ionized gas 

in colliding and active galaxies. Images in the emission 

lines of iron and hydrogen revealed regions of supernova 

shocks and stellar winds. Theoretical research centered 

on constructing models of intergalactic collisions and line 

shapes from ionized winds in young stellar outflows. 

Researchers used the database created by the Infrared 

Astronomy Satellite (IUS) extensively in this program. 

Space Technology 

In an unusual exchange of east-west timekeeping 

technology, engineers compared Soviet-built atomichydrogen maser clocks for stability with similar devices 

built at SA0 for applications in space tracking, radio 

astronomy, and global navigation. 

The Marshall Space Flight Center successfully tested 

the two largest mirrors of the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, thus marking a major milestone in the 

development of this orbiting observatory. At nearly 48 

inches in diameter, the mirrors were the largest ever made 

to collect x-rays in space, and they should be capable of 

achieving angular resolution some 10 times better than 

any previous x-ray telescope. The unusual mirrors were 

based on the design of an SA0 astronomer, who also 

served as the AXAF Telescope Scientist. 

Terrestrial Studies 

During 1991, CEPS staff continued the use of 

remote-sensing data on arid and semi-arid regions to 

address issues of global change. For example, investigations of sediment transport in selected desert regions 

compared Landsat images with field analyses, while other 

multi-temporal Landsat data provided reflectance characteristics and surface details for stabilized dune environments. 

Remote sensing of the Earth’s atmosphere with a 

balloon-borne spectrometer has allowed SA0 scientists to 

measure the concentration, altitude distribution, and daily 

variations of ozone. The SA0 program is unique in its 

ability to make simultaneous measurements of complete 

“families” of atmospheric molecules related to ozone 

chemistry. In support of both NASA’s UAKS experiment 

and related European efforts, SA0 scientists have developed a series of space-borne experiments to operate in 

the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavebands. These 

instruments will study ozone in the stratosphere, as well 

as determine the sources, sinks, and distribution of 

greenhouse gases and atmospheric pollutants. 

Planetary Sciences 

Planetary geology at CEPS included the analysis and 

compari-son of crustal deformation on the Earth, Mars, 

and Venus. As a possible aid to selecting potential landing 

sites, detailed 1:500,000 mapping of parts of Mars continued. The understanding of that planet’s geologic history 

was advanced by studies of the migration of dust deposits 

as well as of the timing and mechanisms for erosional and 

depositional modification of surface areas in Mars’s 

eastern hemisphere. 

In support of various planetary flyby missions, the 

LfA used infrared heterodyne spectroscopy to measure 

absolute wind velocities in the atmosphere of Venus, 

Mars, and Jupiter, and to model the troposphere/mesospheres of these planets. It also initiated a new millimeterwavelength study of the martian atmosphere. The 

database created by IRAS proved invaluable in these 

investigations. 

Planetary research at SA0 includes the petrology of 

recovered extraterrestrial materials, in particular meteorites and lunar samples. In 1991, an ion-microprobe 

analysis of Apollo 15 rock sections was aimed at understanding the formation and evolution of the lunar highlands crust. Finally, as a principal investigator of data 

from the Magellan mission (see above), one SA0 scientist 

was studying anomalously bright and reflective landforms 

seen at high altitudes on Venus. 

137 
Department of State 

Tile 1)epartnient of State is responsible for evaluating and 

:idvancing IJ.S. foreign policy interests in space activities. 

It evaluates tlie foreign policy aspects of space programs, 

policies, and agreements; advises tlie I’resident on matters 

involving international space; and participates in National 

Spce Council delilxrations. State also represents the LJ.S. 

Government in space-related international negotkitions 

with other governments. During the past year the State 

Ikpartment advised and assisted NASA and other agencies 

on niimeroiis space progrmis involving cooperation with 

other nations. 

The State Department worked closely with NASA to 

support the Space Shuttle I’rogram. The Department’s 

support activities includecl activation of a Space Shuttle 

Task Force for each Shuttle launch to provide a direct link 

to 1J.S. embassies in countries where emergency landing 

fiicilities were located. State negotiated new agreements 

with the governments of The Ganihia, Morocco, and 

Spain for emergency l:incling facilities and support. 

State also lead an interagency review of export 

controls for space commodities. When completed, the 

review will bring U.S. controls closer to those of our allies 

and improve the competitive position of this important 

U.S. industrial sector. And the Department took part in 

policy delilxxations within the National Space Council in 

such areas ;IS the I’resident’s Space Exploration Initiative, 

tlie Commercial Space Launch Strategy, the Commercial 

Space Policy, and the National Space Launch Strategy. 

The Department of State again represented the U.S. 

Government in international organizations involved in 

space issues. These included the United Nations and 

related organizations such as the International Telecommiinications Union, the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), and the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT). 

U.N. Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space 

The iS-tnemher L7.N. Cointilittee on the Peaceful 

IJses of Outer Space (COPUOS), its Scientific and Technical Suhcomniittee, and its Lcypl Subcommittee all met 

during 1991. For several decades after its inception in 

1958, the Committee worked successfully in the exchange 

of scientific information, and it negotiated four conventions that form the hasis of international spxe law. 

However, during the 1970s and early 1980s, the scientific 

and legal work of the Committee Ixxinie increasingly 

political. In the last five years, the 1Jnited States has 

worked closely with other delegations to reinvigorate the 

scientific content of tlie Committee’s work. LJ.S. proposals dealing with astronomy. planetary exploration. and 

the geos~~here/l~iospliere Ixcame part of the agent1:i of 

the Scientific and Technical Sulicommittee, and an item 

concerning spin-offs from space progrmis likewise Ixcame part of the COI’UOS agenda. 

At the Felxuity 1991 Scientific and Technical Sub 

committee meeting, menil~er states focused on tlie use of 

space technology for prospecting mineral mcl grountlwater reso~irces and for monitoring and managing Iiiological resources. The Legal Sul~committee met in March 

1991 and considered questions relating to the use of 

nuclear-power so~irccs in space, use of geostationary 

orbit, and tlie delimitation of outer sp;ice. The Sulxommittee continued its Lipplication ofthe principle that space 

exploration should be carried out for the benefit of dl 

countries, taking particular ;iccoiint of the needs of 

developing nations. 

In 1991, the United States, with the support of other 

Western countries, continued efforts to make the work of 

COI’IJOS and the Suhcomniittee more relevant to the 

present state of space exploration. To this end, niemlxx 

states continued to work on zictivities related to the 

commemoration of a LJ.S.-proposed International Space 

Year (ISY). The LJ.S. first proposed ISY at the 1988 session 

of COPIJOS. On the basis of joint resolutions of Congress, 

which Presidents Reagan and I3ush endorsed, international scientific organizations and national space agencies 

will celehrate 1992 as the International Space Year. 

COITJOS recommended, and the General Assenildy has 

since agreed, that is could play a meaningful role in ISY 

without any impact on the regular Imdget of the 1Jnited 

Nations through tlie training and educational capabilities 

r~f the L7.N. I-’rogramme on Space Applications. 

INTELSAT 

INTELSAT successfiilly launched the remiining two 

of its five VI-series satellites in 1991, one on August 14 and 

the other on October 29 (see related coverage above). 
Both launched on Ariane vehicles and one was on station 

and carrying public switched voice and data traffic at 

INTELSAT’s Primary Path location in the Atlantic Ocean 

Region at the end of the year. The other was undergoing 

in orbit testing. These satellites joined two previously 

launched INTELSAT VI-series satellites already in orbit, 

which will be redeployed at the Primary and Major Path 

Locations in the Indian Ocean Region. INTELSAT operated 17 satellites in geostationary orbit as of the end of 

October. 

A fifth INTELSAT VI-series satellite, in low-Earth 

orbit as the year ended, will be retrieved during the 

maiden flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour, scheduled 

for launch on April 9, 1992. This satellite was stranded in 

low orbit shortly after launch in March 1990 when the 

launch vehicle’s perigree stage failed to separate from the 

second stage booster assembly. As part of a joint 

INTELSAT-NASA reboost mission, Space Shuttle astronauts will refit the satellite with a new perigree kick 

motor, which will allow INTELSAT to raise it to geostationary orbit. INTELSAT also plans to launch the INTELSAT 

K satellite in the second half of 1992 using an Atlas IIA 

vehicle. Carrying a payload of 16 Ku-band transponders, 

the INTELSAT K will be the first of its kind in the 

INTELSAT system and is intended to provide high-power 

coverage for international television and other services 

both between North America and Europe and among 

countries in the Western Hemisphere. At its 90th 

meeting in September 1991, the INTELSAT board of 

Governors recommended the use of two NASA Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellites by Columbia Communications 

Corporation to offer international private-line and video 

services separate from the INTELSAT system. Columbia’s 

is the third U.S. international separate satellite system 

(after PANAMSAT’S and Orion Satellite Corporation’s) to 

be successfully coordinated with the INTELSAT system. It 

was expected to begin operation in both the Atlantic and 

Pacific Ocean Regions in 1992. The INTELSAT Board of 

Governors made its recommendation under new streamlined intersystem coordination procedures adopted by 

the 16th INTELSAT Assembly of Parties in 1990. Use of 

these streamlined procedures, which the U.S. supported, 

has also enabled the INTELSAT Board of Governors to 

make favorable recommendations for the use of 

PANAMSAT and other satellite systems, including 

INTERSPUTNIK, for public switched traffic between the 

U.S. and points overseas. 

INMARSAT 

Seamless Global Coverage 

In 1990 INMARSAT decided to provide seamless 

global coverage. In October 1990 it repositioned one of 

its satellites to provide increased capacity in its heaviest 

traffic routes over the Atlantic Ocean and seamless global 

coverage except in the extreme sections of the South and 

North Poles. 

INMARSAT-C Service 

INMAKSAT began offering this reliable, two-way 

message service on a worldwide basis starting in January 

1991. Optional features included position reporting 

when connected to a navigation system such as GPS and 

a programmable distress alerting feature that goes into 

motion with the touch of a couple of buttons on the 

INMARSAT-C terminal Small, inexpensive, portable data 

terminals allow users access to these services. 

Start of Commercial Aeronautics Service 

In 1991 participating parties ratified the aeronautical 

services amendments to the INMARSAT convention, and 

they entered into force. Air carriers were already testmarketing aeronautical services for international passenger flights, and corporate jets used the system successfully. The emergence of three consortia providing 

international aeronautical communications services promised a swiftly evolving market and technology base. 

Project 21 

Project 21 aimed to identify market and customer 

needs for mobile satellite services in the 21st Century. 

Requirements for improved connectivity may be met with 

smaller terminals, which could include handheld portable 

telephones. Project 21 will look at various satellite technologies and identify specific orbit and spacecraft alternatives that can satisfy the evolving demand for mobile 

satellite services. 

139 
Global Satellite Paging System Transborder Use of Land Mobile Earth Stations 

Beginning as early as the mid-l990s, INMARSAT will 

have the capability to provide global paging services via 

satellite. INMARSAT signatories will be able to offer 

paging services through stand-alone receivers or through 

integrated portable, briefcase-sized INMARSAT-C and 

INMARSAT-M terminals. 

Article 8 Notiffcations 

The eighth Assembly of INMARSAT Parties met in 

September 1991. The parties decided to establish an 

Intersessional Working Group to review the Article 8 

process in view of the changing telecommunications 

environment. In addition, the parties made a nonbinding 

recommendation to the U.S. that the proposed 2-year use 

by Qualcomm, Inc and Alpha Lyracom Corporation of 

separate space segment facilities would not cause significant economic harm to INMARSAT. Finally, the parties 

also reconfirmed the authorizations made to the Council 

during the Seventh Session concerning expedited Article 

8 notification procedures. 

INMARSAT hosted a Meeting of Experts on 

Transborder Use of Land Mobile Earth Stations in October 

1991. Among the major conclusions of the meeting was 

that it would be highly desirable to establish a generic 

global regulatory framework of uniform measures to 

assist governments in facilitating the transborder use of 

such terminals, while allowing flexibility to provide for 

specific national interests. 

INMARSAT-Ill Procurement 

In February 1991 the Director General of INMARSAT 

awarded a contract to the General Electric Astro Space 

Division as prime contractor for four INMARSAT-3 satellites. Included among the significant design features were 

five spot beams in addition to a global beam in each 

satellite, as well as a navigation package. The satellites 

were scheduled for launch in 1994-1995. In the fall of 

1991, INMARSAT received bids from five organizations 

for the launch of the third-generation satellites. Bidders 

included Arianespace, China Great Wall Industry Corporation, General Dynamics Commercial Launch Services, 

Rocket Systems Corporation, and WO Licensintorg. The 

decision on launch services was scheduled for April 1992. 

140 
Arms Control and 

Disarmament 

The United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

(ACDA) was established in 1961 to provide the President, 

the Secretary of State, other officials of the executive 

branch, and the Congress recommendations concerning 

U.S. arms control policy; in addition, the Agency is 

obligated to assess the effect of these recommen-dations 

upon our foreign policies, our national security policies, 

and our economy. Issues related to outer space are 

discussed in the Nuclear and Space Talks and during 

sessions of the Conference on Disarmament and the First 

Committee of the United Nations General Assembly. 

Bilateral Negotiations 

The primary forum for bilateral negotiations on 

nuclear and space issues has been the Nuclear and Space 

Talks (NST) with the Soviet Union in Geneva. The 

bilateral NST framework was estab-lished in 1985 to 

conduct negotiations on intermediate-range missiles, strategic offensive arms, and defense and space issues. The 

C‘nited States and the Soviet Union concluded the Intermediate-Kange Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF) in December 

1987 and the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START) in 

July 1991. The two countries were continuing their 

negotiations on defense and space. 

Responding to a Changing Environment 

Events in the Persian Gulf as well as the dramatic 

changes within Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union have 

served to underscore the fact that the strategic environment the United States will confront in the 1990s will 

differ significantly from the one we faced in the early 

1980s when the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) program 

began. Because of these changes, which include the 

proliferation of ballistic missiles on a global scale and 

increased concern about accidental or unauthorized use 

of ballistic missiles, there is the opportunity (relative to the 

Soviet Union) and the incentive (because of ballistic 

missile proliferation) to move toward effective defenses 

sooner and at lower cost than was earlier believed 

possible. 

In light of this changing environment, President 

Bush, in his State of the Union Address in January 1991, 

ordered a redirection of the SDI program to provide 

options for protection from limited ballistic missile strikes, 

whatever their source; this new defense strategy has been 

named Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS). 

The objective of such a defense deployment is the 

protection of U.S. forces deployed overseas, U.S. power 

projection forces, U.S. friends and allies, and the United 

States itself from accidental, unauthorized, and/or limited 

ballistic missile strikes. 

At half the size of the original SDI “Phase I” 

architecture, the GPALS concept shifted the focus of 

strategic ballistic missile defense away from deterrence of 

a massive strategic ballistic missile attack to protection 

against the emerging and limited ballistic missile threat. 

Because it is limited in scope and scale, GPALS would not 

threaten the Soviet strategic retaliatory capability, an oftstated Soviet concern about SDI. Therefore, given 

improving US.-Soviet relations and growing concern for 

ballistic missile proliferation and accidental, unauthorized launch (including concern over nuclear command 

and control in the Soviet Union) GPALS represents an 

appropriate approach to defenses based on the evolving 

international environment. 

A GPALS deployment would consist of surface- and 

space-based elements to ensure continuous global detection and tracking of missiles of all ranges plus the 

capability to intercept ballistic missiles and their associated warheads, including theater missile threats. The 

defensive elements that make up GPALS could be deployed sequentially and need not wait for the deployment 

of an entire system. 

If at some point in the future the United States 

decides that it needs to achieve more ambitious mission 

objectives, or if changes in the international environment 

result in a requirement to expand U.S. strategic defense 

efforts, the SDI program will have developed the systems 

and technologies required to do so. Such a decision 

would ultimately require consideration of the status of 

Soviet military power, particularly Soviet strategic capabilities. It would also require the consideration of political 

developments in the Soviet Union, progress in concluding 

and implementing US.-Soviet arms reduction agreemen&, and changes in any ballistic missile threats from 

third world countries. 

New Opportunities for the Negotiations 

on Defense and Space 

Positive changes in US.-Soviet relations, the need to 

address a truly mutual concern posed by the proliferation 

141 
of ballistic missile technology and concern over accidental or unauthorized launch, and a U.S. ballistic missile 

defense program that averts stated Soviet concerns may 

provide a renewed opportunity for success in the defense 

and space negotiations with the Soviet Union. Therefore, 

the United States and the Soviet Union should have a 

common concern to defend against an accidental, unauthorized, or third-country attack. 

In the June 1990 Washington Summit Joint Statement on Future Negotiations on Nuclear and Space Arms, 

the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to continue 

negotiations on ABM and space within the existing NST 

framework. They further agreed that, in the future talks, 

they will discuss strategic stability issues, including the 

relationship between strategic offensive and defensive 

arms, taking into account stabilizing reductions in strategic offensive arms and development of new technologies. 

They agreed to seek agreements that implement an 

appropriate relation-ship between strategic offenses and 

defenses. Finally, the United States and the Soviet Union 

underlined the important goal of reaching an early 

outcome in the ABM and space negotiations. 

The GPALS approach is consistent with U.S. objectives in the Defense and Space Talks (DST). While the SDI 

program is being conducted in compliance with the 1972 

Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) ’I reaty, the deployment of any 

meaningful defense against strategic ballistic missiles will 

require relaxation of ABM Treaty con-straints. For example, even the U.S. ground-based defense segment 

envisioned under GPALS would be prohibited under the 

ABM Treaty, which permits only one ABM system deployment area; approximately six such areas would be needed 

to provide coverage of the United States, including Alaska 

and Hawaii. Space-based sensors and interceptors are 

also key to accomplishing the GPALS mission. Therefore, 

our goal in the defense and space talks is to negotiate a 

cooperative transition to allow increased reliance on 

strategic ballistic missile defenses. 

’The United States also seeks greater transparency 

and predictability for each side’s ballistic missile defense 

activities. To encourage openness in this area, the United 

States has proposed a number of confidence-building 

measures designed to create a better understanding of 

each side’s strategic ballistic-missile defense activities as 

early as the research stage-years before the appearance 

of advanced defenses in the field. The U.S. measures 

include annual exchanges of data, meetings of experts, 

briefings, visits to laboratories, observations of tests, and 

ABM test satel-lite notifications. Reciprocal openness in 

this area would be inherently stabilizing and consistent 

with the developing trends in U.S.-Soviet relations. The 

United States will continue to build upon the improving 

relations with the Soviet Union to achieve suc-cess in the 

defense and space talks and deal cooperatively with the 

evolving international environment. 

Multilateral Discussions on Space Arms Control 

ACDA continues to deal with multilateral space 

arms control issues in accordance with US. National 

Space Policy as stated by President Reagan in July 1982 

and reaffirmed in his March 1984 Report to Congress on 

U.S. Policy and Anti-Satellite Arms Control. The latter 

included the statement, “The United States will consider 

verifiable and equitable arms control measures that 

would ban or otherwise limit testing and deployment of 

specific weapon systems, should those measures be 

compatible with U.S. national security.” 

In FY 1991, ACDA participated in multilateral discussions on outer space mainly in two forums: the United 

Nations and the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva. 

Though these discussions were informative in that they 

provided a venue for nonspace powers to participate, the 

fact remains that neither the United States nor any other 

party has been able to identify any outer-space armscontrol issues appropriate for multilateral negotiations. 

Conference on Disarmament 

In 1990 and 1991, ACDA participated in discussions 

on outer space arms control issues in the Conference on 

Disarmament in Geneva. During both the 1990 and 1991 

sessions, the United States again supported the formation 

of an appropriate non-negotiating ad hoc committee to 

consider issues relevant to space arms control. The 

committee adopted the following program of work for 

both its 1990 and 1991 sessions: 

Examination and identification of issues relevant to 

the prevention of an arms race in outer space; 

142 
Continuation of existing agreements relevant to the 

prevention of an arms race in outer space; 

Maintenance of existing proposals and pursuance 

of future initiatives on the prevention of an arms 

race in outer space. 

The United States and its allies continued to participate actively in the work of the ad hoc committee, 

especially in reviewing the arms control aspects and 

implications of the current outer-space legal regime and 

confidence-building measures in outer space. Several 

experts, including the U.S. Defense and Space Negotiator, 

made presentations at meetings of the Committee. While 

discussions enhanced understanding, issues appropriate 

for multilateral ne-gotiations again were not, in the U.S. 

view, identified. 

United Nations 

The First Committee of the United Nations General 

Assembly, the other major forum where the United States 

pursues its multilateral arms control objectives for outer 

space, met from October through December 1990. During that session, the First Committee considered two draft 

resolutions (Non-Aligned and Argentina) on outer space. 

The United States again voted against the neutral and nonaligned resolution for the following reasons: 

It took no notice of the more positive international 

climate that has developed from improved relations 

between the United States and the Soviet Union. 

It called for negotiations at the Conference on 

Disarmament on measures to “prevent an arms race 

in outer space.” 

It consisted of hostile rhetoric, with elements that 

were deliberately aimed at, and critical of, fundamental elements of U.S. policy. 

The Argentine resolution requested the SecretaryGeneral to carry out a study on confidence-building 

measures in outer space and report its results at the 47th 

session in 1992. While the United States abstained on the 

resolution because of the financial implications, it is 

participating in the study. The United States urged 

members of the First Committee to call for studies only 

when they are likely to be productive and constructive. 

143 
United States Information Agency 

Voice of America 

The Voice of America (VOA), in English and 44 

other languages, traced the course of the successes of the 

U.S. space program throughout the year. It provided live 

coverage of the launch of the Ulysses robot spacecraft in 

October on its 4-year voyage to Jupiter and the polar 

regions of the Sun. The following spring the Space Life 

Sciences mission was the subject of a backgrounder. On 

at least six occasions, VOA provided live coverage of the 

Space Shuttle. It also provided continuous coverage of 

the Astro-1 Shuttle astronomy mission with a half-dozen 

correspondent feeds daily. In April, the Gamma Ray 

Observatory mission was the subject of live coverage for 

lift-off and several scientific reports. VOA returned to the 

air with live space coverage for the launch of STS-43, 

which deployed the Tracking and Data Relay System 

Satellite (TDRSS). (See above for detailed coverage of 

each of these missions and others discussed below.) 

In addition to live coverage, the VOA covered space 

and scientific achievements in eleven 20-minute “New 

Horizons” reports broadcast worldwide. “Science Notebook,” a shorter version of “New Horizons,” frequently 

translated into other languages, also broadcast worldwide. Among the themes covered by these two programs 

were “The Year in Space,” a year-end review of 1990 

space activities; “Ulysses: Probing the Sun;” “Soviet Space: 

Dealing with Uncertainty;” “The Cosmos Through a 

Bleary Eye,” about environmental effects on the study of 

space; and “Is Smaller Really Beautiful,” on the Space 

Station Freedom. “New Horizons” also covered “People, 

Rats, and Jellyfish: the Spacelab Life Sciences Mission,” 

the Upper Atmosphere Probe, and NASA’s discovery that 

the Sahara Desert is capable of shrinking or expanding in 

size. In its coverage of space programs, VOA reporters 

talked with scientists, policy makers, analysts, and opinion makers, such as Library of Congress space analyst 

Marcia Smith, author James Oberg, NASA official Margaret 

Finarelli, former astronaut William Lenoir, chairman of the 

National Research Council Louis Lanzerotti, and space 

policy researcher John Logsdon at George Washington 

University. Other newsmakers, appearing on such weekend public affairs programs as “Press Conference USA,” 

included Tom Logsdon on the commercial possibilities of 

space; SDI director, Ambassador Henry Cooper; president of the United States Space Foundation Richard 

MacLeod; and former astronaut Michael Collins talking 

about his book, Mission to Mars. 

Press and Publications 

The USIA Press Division provided news and feature 

stories on eight Space Shuttle missions, including deployment of the nuclear-powered European satellite Ulysses 

on a 5-year voyage over the poles of the sun, permitting 

scientists for the first time to view the Sun from all 

latitudes. Another Shuttle crew deployed the Gamma Ray 

Observatory, designed to detect gamma rays for clues to 

exploding stars, quasars, and black holes. Astronauts 

performed the first U.S. space walks in more than five 

years to free a jammed antenna aboard the Observatory 

before it could be successfully deployed from the Space 

Shuttle. All of these exciting events received wide 

coverage. 

The USIA Wireless File provided continuing coverage of each new discovery made by the Magellan 

spacecraft orbiting Venus, including radar images indicating that powerful quakes occur on Venus and that the 

surface of the mysterious planet is shaped by the same 

kinds of forces that molded the surface of Earth. The 

Wireless File also carried several in-depth features, including a story about a new generation of telescopes that 

astronomers hope will permit them for the first time to 

view planets orbiting nearby stars. Another feature 

reported on new radio telescope images that provide 

convincing evidence for a massive black hole lurking 

deep within the heart of Earth’s Milky Way galaxy. 

The Publications Division distributed five articles 

about the space program to 70 USIA posts overseas and 

produced a special packet containing six photographs 

that included views of Venus from the Magellan spacecraft and of the solar system as viewed by Voyager I. 

America Illustrated, USIAs Russian-language monthly 

magazine that circulates widely in the Soviet Union, 

published four articles on the space program. Topic, a 

quarterly magazine circulated in English and French to 

Africa, carried two articles on U.S. space efforts, including 

“A Pale Blue Dot” by Carl Sagan. And al-Majal, the 

Arabic-language monthly, published four space articles. 

Television 

In close cooperation with NASA, the Television and 

Film Service used its WORLDNET satellite system to 

deliver extensive information on the space program in a 

variety of formats. Every mission was covered extensively, and NASA officials were generous with their time 

144 
in explaining U.S. space policy to audiences around the 

globe via WOKLDNET’s live interactive video-press conferences. During the past year, WOKLDNET produced 

nine interactive programs on space- and science-related 

topics for journalists and science writers in Europe, Asia, 

Latin America, Africa, and the Pacific Ocean nations. The 

chief of NASA’s Land Processes Branch talked about the 

use of remote sensors in relation to the environment with 

African journalists. A top NASA scientist joined with a 

senior EPA official to discuss the implications of global 

climatic change with fellow scientists and writers in 

China, New Zealand, and Australia, while the head of the 

Climate and Radiation Branch at Goddard discussed a 

similar topic with government ministers in Zambia. The 

director of the solar system exploration division participated in two programs on the Magellan mission, one to 

Latin America and the other to nations in Asia. A U.S. 

Embassy officer from one of these countries reported this 

program “was a tremendous success, not only in demonstrating America’s continuing technical achievements in 

space, but in showing the engaging ‘human face’ of our 

space program.” 

The Newsfile, which offers short 2- to 3-minute clips 

for placement on overseas television networks 5 times a 

week, produced over 70 individual segments (in English, 

Spanish, French, and Arabic, as well as a music and effects 

version) that were seen by viewers from Tallin (Estonia) 

to Timbaktu. The “Science World” series, popular and 

well-known around the world, drew heavily on NASA 

stories. Over a dozen features were devoted to the 

National Aero-Space Plane, Space Station Freedom, recycling in space, and NASA’s innovative space classroom, 

among other subjects. In addition to the four languages 

above, “Science World” appeared in Portuguese and 

Chinese. 

Teleconferences 

NASA’s scientific efforts in both the environmental 

and the astronomic areas were the key subjects of interest 

to foreign media, scientists, scholars, and university 

students Experts in Brazil, Mexico, Honduras, and Thailand participated in six separate teleconferences with five 

NASA officials and scientists on NASA’s role in the subspace airplane project, Project Sea Rise, the structure of 

the universe, and the July 11 solar eclipse. 

145 
Glossa I y 

AAS 

AASE 

ABM 

ACARS 

ACDA 

ACRIM 

ACKV 

ACTS 

Ada 

ADEOS 

ADP 

AEM 

AESOP 

AEKA 

AFB 

AFSC 

AFSCN 

AFT1 

AGFS 

AGKHYMET 

AIDA 

AKM 

albedo 

ALOHA 

AMLS 

AMOS 

AMSC 

anechoic 

angle of attack 

AOA 

APCG 

APM 

Arinc 

ARS 

AKTCC 

ASAT 

ASD 

ASF 

AS1 

ASKM 

ASTP 

Astro 

APE-B 

Advanced Automation System 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 

Anti-Ballistic Missile 

Arinc Communications Addressing and Keporting System 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

Active Cavity Kadiometer Irradiance Monitor 

Advanced Crew Keturn Vehicle 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

A programming language used by the DOD 

(Japanese) Advanced Earth Observing Satellite 

Advanced Ducted Propeller 

Animal Enclosure Modules 

AKGOS Environmental Shipboard Observer Platform 

Automated En Route Air Traffic Control System 

Air Force Base 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center 

Air Force Satellite Control Network 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration 

Aviation Gridded Forecast System 

AGRiculture, Hydrology, and METeorology 

Arecibo Initiative on Dynamics of the Atmosphere 

Apogee Kick Motor 

The ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to the 

amount incident upon it 

Airborne Lidar and Observations of Hawaiian Airglow 

Advanced Manned Launch System 

Air Force Maui Optical System 

American Mobile Satellite Corporation 

Neither having nor producing an echo 

The acute angle between the chord of an airfoil and its direction of motion relative 

to the air, often referred to as alpha; when an airfoil’s angle of attack exceeds that 

of the one that provides maximum lift, it goes into a stall, losing airspeed and 

potentially, the capability of the pilot to control the airplane 

Angle of Attack 

Advanced Protein Crystal Growth 

Auroral Photography Experiment-B 

Ascent (or Atmospheric) Particle Monitor 

Aeronautical Kadio, Inc 

Agricultural Research Service 

Air Koute Traffic Control Center 

Anti-Satellite 

Aircraft Situation Display 

Area Sampling Frames 

Acronym for the Italian Space Agency 

Advanced Solid Kocket Motor 

Advanced Space Technology Program 

Astronomy Observatory 

146 
GLOSSARY- Continued 

ATLAS 

ATMS 

AVHRK 

AWOS 

AXAF 

baseband processor 

BATSE 

BBXRT 

BIMDA 

canard 

carbon-carbon 

CASS 

CAT 

Cassini 

CCAFS 

C-CAP 

CD-ROM 

CCDS 

CCSDS 

CEKCLA 

CFD 

CGMS 

CEDAR 

CELLS 

CEOS 

CEPS 

CGF 

CGMS 

CINC 

CIP 

CIRKIS 

CITE 

CLAES 

CNES 

COBE 

COMPTEL 

COPUOS 

COSMIC 

COSPAS 

COSTK 

CKAF 

CRDA 

CREAM 

CRO 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science 

Advanced Traffic Management System 

Advanced Very High Kesolution Kadiometer 

Automated Weather Observing Systems 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

A computer processor similar in function to a telephone switching office 

Burst and Transient Source Experiment 

Broad Band X-Kay Telescope 

Bioserve ITA Materials Dispersion Apparatus 

An aircraft or aircraft configuration having its horizontal stabilizing and control 

surfaces in front of the wing or wings 

In one application, an improved form of disk brakes featuring carbon rotors and 

carbon stators in place of the beryllium formerly used 

Computer Aided Stratification and Sampling 

Clear Air Turlxdence 

A Saturn Orbiter/Titan Probe 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

Coastwatch-Change Analysis Program 

Compact Disk-Kead Only Memory 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space 

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

Comprehensive En\ ironmental Kesponse, Compensation, and Liability Act 

Computational Fluid Dynamics 

Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites 

Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System 

Committee on Earth Observations Satellites 

Center for Earth and Planetary Studies 

Crystal Growth Facility 

Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (formerly, the Coordination of 

Geostationary Meteorological Satellites group) 

Commander-in-Chief 

Capital Investment Plan 

Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle 

Cargo Interface Test Equipment 

Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer 

Acronym for the French Space Agency 

Cosmic Background Explorer 

Compton Telescope 

(U.N.) Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

Computer Software Management Information Center 

A Soviet satellite used for search and rescue 

Collaborative Solar-Terrestrial Science 

Comet Kendezvous Asteroid Flyby 

Converging Runway Display Aid 

Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor 

Chemical Kclease Observation 

147 
CLossmY-Continued 

CRKES 

CTAS 

CTV 

DARPA 

DBS 

DCS 

DE 

Dem/Val 

Dexterous End Effector 

DMSP 

DOC 

DOD 

DOE 

DO1 

DOLILU 

DSCS 

DSN 

DSP 

DST 

ECS 

EDFE 

EDOMP 

EFM 

EGRET 

EHF 

ELV 

EMAP 

envelope 

EOS 

EOSDIS 

EOSAT 

EPIRB 

EPRI 

ERBE 

EROS 

ERTS 

ERS 

ESA 

EUMESAT 

EUVE 

EVA 

FAA 

FAS 

FASA 

EO-ICWG 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

Center-TRACON Automation System 

Cargo Transfer Vehicle 

Defense Advanced Research Project Agency 

Direct Broadcast Satellite 

Data Collection System 

Directed Energy 

Demonstrdtion/Validation 

A device being developed for the Orbiters that will employ a sensor on the 

Shuttle RMS to provide more precise control over payloads; scheduled for a flight date 

of May 1994 on STS-65 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

Department of Commerce 

Department of Defense 

Department of Energy 

Department of Interior 

Day-of-Launch I-Load-Update 

Defense Satellite Communication System 

Deep Space Network 

Defense Support Program 

Defense and Space Talks 

EOSDIS Core System 

EVA Development Flight Experiments 

Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability 

Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope 

Extremely High Frequency 

Expendable Launch Vehicle 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program 

The operational parameters within which an aircraft can fly 

Earth Observations-International Coordination Working Group 

Earth Observing System 

EOS Data and Information System 

Earth Observation Satellite Company 

Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacons 

Electric Power Research Institute 

Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

Earth Resources Observation System 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite 

European Space Agency Remote Sensing Satellite 

European Space Agency 

European Meteorological Satellite Program 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

Extravehicular Activity 

Federal Aviation Administration 

Foreign Agricultural Service 

Final Approach Spacing Aid 

148 
GLossmY- Continued 

FAST 

FDF 

Floquet theory 

FRED 

FSAR 

FTS 

G or g 

GAS 

GBI 

GDR 

GEM 

geoid 

Geostar 

geostationary 

geosynchronous 

GETSCO 

GGS 

GGSF 

CIS 

GLONASS 

glove 

GMDSS 

GMT 

GOES 

GPALS 

GPHS 

GPS 

GRO 

ground effect 

GSA 

GSFC 

GTS 

GVI 

HALOE 

HAPS 

HARV 

HAX 

HESP 

HIDEC 

Fast Auroral Snapshot 

Flight Dynamics Facility 

A method of solving a second-order differential equation 

FAA Kesearch Electromagnetic Database 

Final Safety Analysis Report 

Flight Telerobotic Servicer 

A symbol used to denote gravity or its effects, in particular the acceleration due to 

gravity; used as a unit of stress measurement for bodies undergoing acceleration 

Get Away Special 

Ground Based Interceptor 

Geophysical Data Kecords 

Geospace Environment Modeling 

The figure of the Earth as defined by the geo-potential surface that most nearly 

coincides with mean sea level over the entire surface of the planet’s contiguous 

bodies of water 

A private firm providing a satellite tracking service 

Travelling about Earth’s equator at an altitude of at least 35,000 km and at a speed 

matching that of Earth’s rotation, thereby maintaining a constant relation to points on 

Earth 

geostationary 

General Electric Technical Services Co Inc 

Global Geospace Science 

Gas-Grain Simulation Facility 

Geographic Information System 

(Soviet) Global Navigation Satellite System 

In relation to laminar flow control, a suction device employing tiny, laser-drilled holes 

to draw off turbulent air and produce a smooth (laminar) flow of air over an aircraft’s 

wing 

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System 

Greenwich Mean Time 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

Global Protection Against Limited Strikes 

General Purpose Heat Source 

Global Positioning System 

Gamma Kay Observatory 

The temporary gain in lift during flight at very low altitudes due to the compression 

of the air between the wings of an airplane and the ground 

General Services Administration 

Goddard Space Flight Center 

Global Telecommunications System 

Global Vegetation Index 

Halogen Occultation Experiment 

Hydrazine Auxiliary Propulsion System 

High Angle-of-Attack Research Vehicle 

Haystack Auxiliary Radar 

High-Energy Solar Physics 

Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control 
GLOSSARY- co ntinued 

high-alpha 

high-bypass engine 

HIRIS 

HLFC 

HPCC 

HRDI 

HRS 

HSCT 

HST 

HUT 

hypersonic 

IBSS 

ICAO 

ICBM 

ICE 

I FM 

IFR 

IMI 

IML 

IMO 

IMP 

INF 

INMAKSAT 

INTELSAT 

interferometry 

IPMP 

IPOMS 

IR 

IRAS 

IRT 

ISAC 

ISAMS 

IS0 

ISTP 

ISY 

ITA 

ITP 

IUS 

IV&V 

IWG 

JEM 

JGOFS 

Josephson effect 

High angle of attack 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of more than four to one, the by-pass ratio 

being the proportion of air that flows through the engine outside the inner case to 

that which flows inside that case 

High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer 

Hybrid Laminar Flow Control 

High Performance Computing and Communications 

High Kesolution Doppler Imager 

High Resolution Spectrograph 

High Speed Civil Transport 

Hubble Space Telescope 

Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope 

Faster than 4,000 miles per hour 

Infrared Background Signature Survey 

International Civil Aviation Organization 

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile 

International Cometary Explorer 

Internal Fluid Mechanics 

Instrument Flight Kules 

Inner Magnetosphere Imager 

International Microgravity Laboratory 

International Maritime Organization 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (Treaty) 

International Maritime Satellite (Organization) 

International Telecommunications Satellite (Organization) 

The production and measurement of interference from two or more coherent wave 

trains emitted from the same source 

Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing 

International Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite Group 

Infrared 

Infrared Astronomy Satellite 

Icing Research Tunnel 

Intelsat Solar Array Coupon 

Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder 

International Organization for Standardization 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics 

International Space Year (1992) 

Instrumentation Technology Associates 

Integrated Technology Plan 

Inertial Upper Stage 

Independent Validation and Verification 

Investigator Working Group 

Japanese Experiment Module 

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study 

The radiative effect associated with the passage of electron pairs across an insulating 

barrier separating two superconductors 

150 
GLossmu- Continued 

Josephson junction 

JPL 

JSC 

Ka-band components 

KE 

KSC 

Ku-band 

laminar 

LANDSAT 

LDEF 

LEAP 

LEO 

LFC 

LfA 

Lidar 

liftjdrag ratio 

lightsats 

LiH 

LLWAS 

low by-pass engine 

LWIK 

magnetosphere 

man-rated 

maser 

MBK 

MCC 

MCS 

MESUK 

MlDEX 

MILSATCOM 

MLS 

MMD 

MO 

MODE 

Mode C transponder 

MOD-KTG 

MOU 

The weak connections between superconductors 

through which the Josephson effects occur 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

Johnson Space Center 

Components to receive and transmit a new, high radio frequency 

Kinetic Energy 

Kennedy Space Center 

Radio frequencies in the 11-12 gigaherz range 

Of fluid flow, smooth, as contrasted with turbulent; not characterized by crossflow 

of fluid particles 

Also known as EKTS, a series of satellites designed to collect information about the 

Earth's natural resources 

Long Duration Exposure Facility 

Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile 

Low Earth Orbit 

Laminar Flow Control 

Laboratory for Astrophysics 

Light radar 

The ratio of the lift to the drag of any body, especially an airfoil; it is the measure of 

the aerodynamic effectiveness of the wing or airfoil 

Light-weight satellites 

Lithium hydride 

Low Level Windshear Alert System 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of of less than four to one-see high bypass engine 

LongWavelength Infrared 

The region of the earth's atmosphere where ionized gas plays an important role in 

the dynamics of the atmosphere and where consequently, the geomagnetic field also 

exerts an important influence 

Certified to transport people into space 

Microwave Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation-a device introduced 

in 1953 with multiple applications in physics, chemistry, radio and television 

communication 

Mars Balloon Relay 

Mission Control Center 

Maritime Communications Subsystem 

Mars Environmental Survey Mission 

Middle-class Explorer 

Military Satellite Communications 

Microwave Limb Sounder 

Mean Mission Duration 

Mars Observer 

Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment 

A radar beacon receiver/transponder capable of reporting the attitude of the aircraft 

aboard which it is installed 

Modular Kadioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Memorandum of Understanding 

151 
G L~SSARY- Con tin ued 

MSS 

MTD 

NASA 

NASCAP 

NASCOM 

NASDA 

NASM 

NASP 

NASS 

NCC 

NCDC 

NDW 

NESDIS 

NGDC 

NHC 

NIST 

NLS 

NMC 

NMFS 

NOAA 

NODC 

NOS 

NOx 

NSCAT 

NSCORT 

NSF 

NSSFC 

NST 

NTB 

NTF 

NTIA 

NTTC 

NUDET 

NWS 

OCP 

OCTW 

OLR 

osc 

OSL 

OSSE 

out-of-ground effect 

ov 

PAMRI 

PAM 

PARE 

PCG 

PEACESAT 

Multispectral Scanner Sensors; Mobile Satellite Service 

Maneuver Technology Demonstrator 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASA Charging Analysis Program 

NASA Communications System 

(Japanese) National Space Development Agency 

National Air and Space Museum 

National Aerospace Plane 

National Agricultural Statistics Service 

Network Control Center 

National Climatic Data Center 

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 

(NOAA) National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

National Geophysical Data Center 

National Hurricane Center 

(DOC) National Institute of Standards and Technology 

New Launch System 

National Meteorological Center 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

National Oceanographic Data Center 

National Ocean Service 

Any of several compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, including nitrogen oxide 

NASA Scatterometer 

NASA Specialized Center of Research and Training 

National Science Foundation 

National Severe Storms Forecast Center 

Nuclear and Space Talks 

National Test Bed 

National Test Facility 

(DOC) National Telecommunications and Information Administration 

National Technology Transfer Center 

Nuclear Detonation 

National Weather Service 

(NASA) Office of Commercial Programs 

Optical Communications Through the Shuttle Window 

Outgoing Longwave Radiation 

(NASA) Office of Space Commerce 

Orbiting Solar Laboratory 

Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment 

See “ground effect” 

Orbiter Vehicle 

Peripheral Adapter Module Replacement Item 

Payload Assist Module 

Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment 

Protein Crystal Growth 

Pan-Pacific Education and Communication Experiments by Satellite 

152 
GLO~~AR- Continued 

PEM 

petrology 

piezoelectricity 

pitch-pointing 

pixels 

plasma sheet 

PLS 

PMS 

PRA 

PKC 

PKOSPER 

PSC 

PSCN 

PSE 

Pu-238 

PVO 

RAH 

ramjet 

K&D 

R&T 

KAWS 

RCRA 

Resin Transfer Molding 

REX 

Reynolds number 

RFI 

RFP 

KME 

RMP 

RMS 

ROSAT 

Particle Environment Monitor 

The science that deals with the origin, history, occurrence, structure, and chemical 

classification of rocks 

The property exhibited by some asymmetrical crystalline materials that, when 

subjected to strain in suitable directions, develop polarization proportional to the 

strain 

The pointing of an aircraft with respect to its pitch (its angular displacement about 

an axis parallel to the aircraft’s lateral axis, that is, movement of the nose up or 

down) 

Short for “picture elements,” which provide image resolution in vidicon-type 

detectors 

An extensive area of low energy, ionized gases in the tail region of the magnetosphere 

that undergoes considerable change during magnetospheric storms 

Personnel Launch System 

Physiological Monitoring System 

Probabilistic Kisk Assessment 

People’s Kepublic of China 

PROgramme SPot Et Kadar (the SPOT and radar program) 

Performance Seeking Control 

Program Support Communications Network 

Physiological Systems Experiment 

Plutonium 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

Reconnaissance Attack Helicopter 

A jet engine with no mechanical compressor, consisting of specially-shaped tubes or 

ducts open at both ends, the air necessary for combustion being shoved into the duct 

and compressed by the forward motion of the engine 

Kesearch and Development 

Research and Technology 

Remote Automatic Weather Station 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

A process for the fabrication of composite parts for aerospace vehicles in which a dry 

preform of reinforcements is placed in a mold, resin is infused by vacuum or pressure, 

and the part is cured in the mold 

Radiation Experiment 

A nondimensional parameter representing the ratio of the momentum forces in fluid 

flow, named for English scientist Osborne Keynolds (1842-1912); among other 

applications, the ratio is vital to the use of wind tunnels for scale-model testing, as 

it provides a basis for extrapolating the test data to full-sized test vehicles 

Request for Information 

Request for Proposal 

Radiation Monitoring Equipment 

Rotorcraft Master Plan 

Remote Manipulator System-a remotely controlled arm, developed by Canada and 

controlled from the orbiter crew cabin, used for deployment and/or retrieval of 

payloads from the orbiter payload bay 

Roentgen Satellite 

153 
GLOSSARY- Continued 

RTG 

SAIN 

SAM 

SAMPEX 

SAVS 

SA0 

SAREX 

SARSAT 

SBlK 

SBUV 

scs 

SDI 

SDIO 

SEALAK 

Seasat 

nmc 

SeaWIFS 

SEDS 

SEI 

SEM 

SET1 

SHARE 

SMEX 

SIRTF 

SLAR 

SLC 

SLS 

SNOTEL 

SOFIA 

SOH0 

solar flare 

solar maximum 

SOLSTICE 

SPAS 

SPEAR 

SPOT 

SPPD 

SRAM 

SRM&QA 

SSAAC 

SSBW 

SSCE 

SSF 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Regional Technology Transfer Center 

Satellite Applications Information Notes 

Shuttle Activation Monitor 

Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer 

Space Acceleration Mapping System 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment 

Satellite Aided Search and Rescue Program 

Small Business Innovation Research 

Solar Background Ultra-Violet 

Soil Conservation Service 

Strategic Defense Initiative 

Strategic Defense Initiative Organization 

Sea Launch and Recovery 

Experimental oceanic surveillarxe satellite launched June 27, 1978; it demonstrated 

that much useful information about the ocean could be obtained through satellite 

surveillance 

Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor 

Small Expendable Deployer System 

Space Exploration Initiative 

Space Environment Monitor 

Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 

Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element 

Small Explorer 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar 

Space Launch Complex 

Space Life Sciences Laboratory 

SNOWpack TELemetry 

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy 

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

A sudden, intense brightening of a portion of the Sun’s surface, often near a sunspot 

group; these flares pose a potential radiation hazard to humans in space 

The period in the roughly 1 1-year cycle of solar activity when the maximum number 

of sunspots is present 

Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment 

Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

Space Power Experiment Aboard Rocket 

Satellite Pour I’Observation de la Terre (satellite for the observation of the Earth) 

Signal Processing Packaging Design 

Static Random kcess Memory 

Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance 

Space Science and Applications Advisory Committee 

Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet 

Solid Surface Combustion Experiment 

Space Station Freedom 

154 
G~ossA~y- Continued 

SSME 

SSMI 

SSMT 

SST 

START 

STDN 

STGT 

STME 

STOL 

STOVL 

STS 

STV 

sunspot 

SUPER 

SUSIM 

SWAS 

TASS 

TDKS 

TDWR 

TFE 

thermionics 

TIMED 

TIROS 

TM 

TNA 

TOMS 

TOPEX 

TOPS 

TOS 

TOVS 

TPCE 

TK 

TRACON 

TKMM 

TSS 

Tv 

Tvcs 

UAKS 

UHF 

UIT 

UMS 

UNEP 

USAF 

USCINCSPACE 

Space Shuttle Main Engine 

Special Sensor Microwave/Imager 

Special Sensor Microwave/Temperature 

Sea Surface Temperature 

Strategic Arms Keduction Treaty 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

Second TDRSS Ground Terminal 

Space Transport Main Engine 

Short Takeoff and Landing 

Short Take-off and Vertical Landing (Aircraft) 

Space Transportation System 

Space Transfer Vehicle 

A vortex of gas on the surface of the Sun associated with stray local magnetic activity 

Name for a survivable solar-power subsystem demonstrator 

Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor 

Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite 

Terminal Area Surveillance System 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar 

Thermionic Fuel Element 

A field of electronics that uses electrical current passing through a gaseous medium 

(vacuum tube) instead of a solid state (semi-conductor), permitting use in hightemperature and radiation environments in which other electronic devices fail 

Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics 

Television and Infrared Operational Satellite 

Thematic Mapper 

Thermal Neutron Analysis 

Totdl Ozone Mapping Spectrometer 

Ocean Topography Experiment 

Toward Other Planetary Systems 

Transfer Orbital Stage 

Television-and-Infrared-Operational-Satellite 

(TIROS) Operational Veltical Sounder 

Tank Pressure Control Experiment 

Thrust-reversing 

Terminal Radar Approach Control 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 

Tethered Satellite System 

Thrust-vectoring 

Thrust Vector Control System 

Upper Atmosphere Kesearch Satellite 

Ultra High Frequency 

Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope 

Urine Monitoring System 

United Nations Environment Program 

U.S. Air Force 

Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Space Command 

155 
GL0ss-Y- Continued 

USDA 

USGCRP 

USML 

USMP 

uv 

uvcs 

VAS 

vcs 

VLBI 

VLSI 

VoA 

WARC 

WEFAX 

WGD 

WIND11 

WMO 

WSGT 

WSMC 

WUPPE 

XTE 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

U.S. Global Change Research Program 

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory 

US. Microgravity Payload 

Ultraviolet 

[Jltraviolet Coronal Spectrometer 

Visible-and-Infrared-S pin-Scan-Radiometer 

Atmospheric Sounder 

Voice Command System 

Very Long Baseline Interferometry 

Very Large Scale Integration 

Voice of America 

World Administrative Radio Conference 

Weather Facsimile 

(CEOS) Working Group on Data 

Wind Imaging Interferometer 

World Meteorological Organization 

White Sands Ground Terminal 

Western Space and Missile Center 

Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photopolarimeter Experiment 

X-ray Timing Explorer 

156 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Earth Orbit" Earth Escape" Calendar Earth Orbit' Earth Escape' 

Ycar Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure 

Calendar 

Year 

1962 ............................ 55 

1965 ........................... 93 

1968 ........................... 61 

1970 ........................... 36 

1971 ........................... 45 

1 

8 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

8 

7 

12 

4 

15 

1 

1 

2 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

0 

4 

4 

7 

10 

3 

8 

3 

8 

0 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

lb 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

1974 ........................... 27 

1975 ........................... 30 

1976 ........................... 33 

1977 . . . . , , , . , , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 

1980 ............................ 16 

1981 ........................... 20 

1982 ........................... 21 

1985 ........................... 37 

1986 ........................... 11 

1987 ............................. 9 

1989 ............................ 24 

1990 ........................... 40 

1991 ........................... 25' 

(through Sep. 30) 

2 

2 

2 

4 

0 

2 

2 

0 

4 

1 

0 

0 

3 

1 

4 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

8 

3 

1 

4 

1 

2 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

TOTAL ._.............._.. 1,257 144 82 15 

"Thc criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission succcss. "Escape" flights 

include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth. 

This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals. 

This excludes four commercial satellites launched on four commercial expendable launch vehicles. 

157 
A1>1)EhI)1X A-2 

World Record of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(humer;ites launches rather thm spcecr~ft; sonic launches ......... multiple sp.tcecraft . ) 

2 ........................................................................................................................................................... 

1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 

3 ......................................................................................................................................... 

l9i7 .............................. 

1958 .......................... i 

1959 ........................ 10 

I960 ...................... 16 3 ..................................... 

I961 .......................... 29 () ...................................................................................................................................................... 

I902 20 ........................................................................................................................................................ ....................... i2 

I903 ......................... 38 17 ................................................................................. 

1964 ........................ 57 30 .............................................................................................................................................................. 

1905 ...................... 63 48 .......... I ............................................................................................................................................ 

I960 .......................... 73 . I4 .......... 1 ............................................................................................................................................. 

1007 ...................... 57 66 .......... 2 ................... 1 ................................................ 1 .............................................................. 

I968 .......................... 4i 74 ........................................................................................................................................................ 

I069 ........................... 40 70 ......................................................................................................................................................... 

1970 ........................ 28 81 .......... 2 ................ I. ' ................. I ......... 1 

1971 ......................... 30 83 .......... 1 ................. 2 .I ................ 2 ........... 1 .................................... I ................................................ 

1972 7i ............................ 1 ................. 1 ..................................................................................................... ....................... 30 

197.3 ........................ 23 80 ............................................................................... 

197 1 .......................... 22 81 .............................. 2' ................ 1 ....................................................................................................... 

1975 ......................... 27 80 .......... .3 ................... 1 ................. 2 ................ 3 .................................................................................... 

197(i ...................... 26 99 ............................................... 1 ............... 2 ................................. 

1977 .................... 2't 98 ................................................ 2 .......................................................................................... 

1978 .......................... 32 88 ................................................. .3 ................. I ............................................................................... 

I979 ........................ 16 87 ................................................. 2 ................................................................ 1 .............................. 

19x0 ......................... 13 89 ................................................ 2 ................................................................................. : ......... 1 ........... 

1981 ........................ 18 98 ................................................... 3 ................. I ..................................................... 2 ............... 1 ....... 

1082 .................... 18 101 ................................................. I ................. 1 .......................................................................... 

19x3 ......................... 22 98 ................................................. 3 ................. I..................................................... 2 ................ 1 .......... 

I'M't .......................... 22 97 ............................................... 3 ................. 3 ..................................................... i ............................. 

I985 ...................... 17 98 ................................................... 2 ................. 1 .................................................. 3 ............................ 

1986 .......................... 0 91 .................................................. 2 ............... 2 .................................................... 2 ........................... 

1987 ......................... 8 9i ............................................... 3 ......... 2 .................................................... 2 ............................. 

1988 ......................... 12 90 ............................................. 2 ................. i ................................................ 7 .............................. 

1089 17 71 ................................................... 2 ....................................................................... 7 ......................... 1 

1000 ....................... 27 7i ............................................... 3 ................. i .............................................. 5 ........................... 1 

................................................................................... 

........................ 

TOTAL .............. 922 2.2iO IO 8 41 28 1 1 .3i .3 1 

190 I 

.ti 2 0 ............... 1 (through ~ep . 30) ..... IO" ................................................... ........................................................................ 

.l.oTAl. .............. 932 2.301 IO 8 i3 28 1 1 -I 1 t > 

'Inclucles loreign I;iiinclies of I1.S. sp.iceri.xft . 

l'Tliis esclucle four coiiiiiicrcial expenclal>lc 1:iiinclles 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful US. Launches 

October 1,1990-September 30,1991 

Launch Datc (GM'D, 

'Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Oct. 1 objective: To place satellite into 

USA-64 

88A objectives can be met. 

Delta I1 Spacecraft: Not announced. 

succcssful orbit from which Navy 

Oct. 6 Objective: To successfully launch 

Space Shuttle Llysses spacecraft toward 

Discovery rendezvous with the Sun. 

(STS-41) Spacecraft Shuttle orbiter carrying 

90A spacecraft with Inertial Upper Stage 

(IUS) booster and Payload Assist 

Module (PAM-S) with additional 

cxperimcnts. Chromosome and Plant Cell 

Division (CHROMEX-21, Solid Surface 

Combustion Experiment (SSCE), Shuttle 

Solar Backscatter Ultraviolct (SSBW) 

instrument, Intelsat Solar Array Coupon 

(ISAC) experiment, Physiological Systems 

Expcriment (PSE), Investigations into 

Polymer Mcmbranc Processing (IPMP), 

Voice Command System (VCS), and Radiation 

Monitoring Equipmcnt-111. Weight of 

experiments: 1,671 Ibs. 

Oct. 6 

Ul ysscs 

90B 

Nov. 13 

95A 

Titan IV 

USA-65 

Objective: To investigate properties 

of the solar wind, the structure 

Sun/wind interface, the heliosphcric 

magnetic field, solar radio bursts and 

plasma waves, solar X-rays, solar and 

galactic cosmic rays, and interstellar 

intcrplanetary neutral gas and dust. 

Spacecraft: Spin-stabilized: main bus, 

10.5 by 10.8 by 6.9 fcct. 5.4 foot diameter, 

parabohc high-gain antenna attached to 

main bus. After rclcase from shuttle 

payload bay spacccraft will deploy 18 . 2 

foot radial boom, a 238 foot dipole wire boom, 

and a 26. 2 foot agial boom. Booms serve 

as antennas for radio wave-plasma experiment. 

Power source is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) attached to main 

bus. Weight, including IUSPAM-S: 44,024 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of 

spaceflight techniques and 

technology 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

20,378.0 

19,984.0 

717.9 

55.0 

303.0 

280.0 

90.2 

28.4 

Ninth in a series of Block 

I1 operational Navstar 

Global Positioning 

Satellites (GPS) 

launchcd by U.S. Air 

Force expendable launch 

vehicle. Operational 

system to be composed 

of 24 satellites in six 

orbital planes. In orbit. 

Thirty-sixth flight of Space 

Transportation System. Piloted 

by Richard N. Richards and 

Robert D. Cabana. Mission 

spccialists Bruce E. Melnick, 

William M. Shepherd, and Thomas 

D. Akers. Discovery launched 

from KSC, Pad 39B, 7:47 a.m., 

EDT. Landed at Edwards AFB, CA, 

9:57 a.m., EDT. Mission duration 

4 days, 2 hours, 10 minutes, 

and 54 seconds, Oct. 10, 1990. 

Heliocentric Successfully deploycd by spacc 

orbit. shuttle Discovery. Ulysses 

will encountcr Jupiter 

February 1992, where it 

will receive a gravity assist 

velocity increase enabling 

the spacecraft to divc downward and away from the ecliptic 

plane. Spacecraft will reach 

70' south solar latitude in 

June 1994. Ulysses in a joint 

mission conducted by the 

European Space Agency and 

NASA. In orbit. 

Not 

announced. In orbit. 

159 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1990-September 30,1991 

Launch Date (GMT?, 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectivcs, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (krn), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

EquatodO) 

Nov. 15 Objective: To launch classified 

Space Shuttle DoD payload. 

Atlantis spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter 

(STS-38) carrying classified Dod payload/ 

97A cargo. Weight Not announccd. 

Nov. 15 

USA-67 

97B 

Nov. 26 

103A 

Delta I1 

USA-66 

Dec. 1 

USA-68 

105A 

Atlas E 

Dec. 2 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

l06A 

(STS-35) 

Mar. 8 

17A 

Titan IV 

USA-69 

Objective: Developmcnt of 

spaceflight techniques and 

technology. 

Spacecraft Not announced. 

Objective: To successfully place Navy 

satellite in orbit from which 

objectives of mission can be met. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of 

spaceflight techniques and 

technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To carry ASTRO-I 

astrophysical observatory into orbit 

and return to Earth. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter Columbia 

carrying ASTRO-I to cargo bay. 

ASTRO-1 to provide around-the-clock 

observations and measurements of 

ultraviolet radiation from celestial 

objects. Instruments include the 

ultraviolet astronomy observatory 

(ASTRO) and the Broad Band X-Ray 

Telescope (BBXRT). Three 

additional instruments are Hopkins 

Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT), 

the Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photopolarimeter Experiment (WUPPE) and 

the Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UI’D. 

Weight 27,454 Ibs . 

objective: Development of spaceflight 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

techniques and technology. 

221.0 Thirty-scvcnth flight of 

215.0 Space Transportation System. 

88.6 

28.4 

Piloted by Richard 0. Covey 

and Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. 

Mission specialists Charles 

“Sam” Gemar, Robert C. 

Springer and Carl J. Meade. 

Launched from KSC, 6:48 p.m., 

EST. Landed Nov. 10, 4:43 

pm., EST, on Runway 33, 

KSC. First KSC shuttle 

landing since 1985. 

Mission duration: 4 days, 

21 hrs., and 55 min. 

Not Successfully launched from 

announced. shuttle Atlantis. In orbit. 

20,279.0 

19,935.0 operational Navstar Global 

714.8 Positioning Satellites (GPS). 

Tenth spacecraft in a series of 

54.8 In orbit. 

845.0 

729.0 Defense Meteorological 

100.6 Satellites. In orbit. 

One in a series of 

98.9 

363.0 

350.0 Transportation System. 

91.7 

28.5 S. Gardncr. Mission specialists 

Thirty-eighth flight of the Space 

Piloted by Vance D. Brand, Guy 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman, John M. 

“Mike” Lounge, and Robert A. R. 

Parker. Payload specialists 

Samucl T. Durrance and Ronald A. 

Parise. Launched from KSC at 

1:49 a.m. EST. Landcd at 

Edwards AFB, CA, Dec. 11 at 

12:54 a.m., EST. Mission 

duration: 8 days, 23 hrs., 

5 min. 

Not 

announced. 

First launch of Titan IV 

from the WSMC. In orbit. 

160 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1990-September 30,1991 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

Apr. 5 Objective: To successfully launch the 

Space Shuttle Gamma Ray Observatory. 

Atlantis Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

(STS-37) satellite. Additional experiments 

27A include EVA Development Flight 

Experiments (EDFE), Ascent Particle 

Monitor (APM), Bioserve ITA Materials 

Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA), Protein 

Crystal Growth-I11 (PCG-III), Shuttle 

Radiation Monitoring Equipment-I11 

(WE-1111, Air Force Maui Optical 

System (AMOS), and Space Station Heat 

Pipe Advanced Radiator Element-I1 

(SHARE-11). 

Apr. 7 Objective: To successFully launch 

Gamma Ray 

Observatory (GRO) 

27B entire celestial sphere. 

satellite for two year measurement 

of gamma rays covering most of the 

Spacecraft: Rectangular shaped body 

with dual solar panels extending from 

the satellite. One high-gain and two 

low-gain antennas. Four scientific 

instruments include Burst and Transient 

Source Experiment (BATSE), Oriented 

Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment 

(OSSE), Imaging Compton Telescope (COMPTEL), 

and Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope 

(EGRET). Weight 35,000 Ibs. 

Apr. 28 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-39) 

31A 

Objective: To conduct Air Force and 

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDIO) 

experiments in orbit. 

satellites and additional scientific 

experiments. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

Apr. 28 objective: Development of spaceflight 

USA-70 techniques and technology. 

31C Spacecraft: Not announced. 

May 1 objective: To obtain scientific data 

Infrared Background 

Signature Survey (IBSS) 

31B the Strategic Defense Initiative 

for use in development of ballistic 

missile defense sensor systems for 

Organization (SDIO). 

I1 (SPAS 11). Rectangular bus on 

which various experiments can be 

mounted. Weight: 4,197 Ibs. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

465.0 

449.0 Transportation System. Piloted by 

93.8 

28.5 Cameron. Mission specialists 

Thirty-ninth flight of the Space 

Steven R. Nagcl and Kenneth D. 

Linda Godwin, Jerry L. Ross, and 

Jay Apt. Launched from KSC, Pad 

39B at 9:22:45 am., EST. 

Landed at Edwards AFB, CA., 

Apr. 11 at 9:55 am., EST. 

Mission duration: 6 days, 

32 min. 

444.0 Successfully launched from 

432.0 shuttle Atlantis after 

93.3 

28.5 solar panel. A NASA cooperative 

astronaut EVA to unfurl stuck 

program with the Federal 

Republic of Germany, with 

co-investigator support from 

The Netherlands, the European 

Space Agency, the United 

Kingdom, and the United 

States. satellite placed in 

space by Remote Manipulator 

System (RMS) arm. Returning 

data. In orbit. 

263.0 

249.0 Transportation System. 

89.4 

56.9 Blaine Hammond, Jr. Mission 

Fortieth flight of the Space 

Piloted by Michael L . Coats and 

specialists Gregory L. Harbaugh, 

Donald R. McMonagle, Guion S. 

Bluford, C. Lacy Veach, and 

Richard J. Hieb. Launched from 

KSC Shuttle Landing Facility, 

Runway 15, 2:55 pm., EDT, 

May 6. Mission duration: 8 

days, 7 hrs., 22 min. 

Not Successfully deployed from shuttle 

announced. Discovery. In orbit. 

263.0 Successfully deployed from shuttle 

248.0 

89.4 

56.9 Discovery's manipulator arm 

cargo bay by Remote Manipulator 

System (RMS) arm, 4:17 am., EDT. 

grappled the payload at 

6:25 pm., EDT, May 2. Payload 

returned data on release of 

unsymmetric dimethyl hydrazine 

from Chemical Release Observation 

subsatellites. Rehirned to 

Earth in cargo bay of Discovery. 

161 
AwEsnix A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1990-September 30,1991 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

May 2 Objective: To provide short-lived clouds 

of vapor and frozen particles in orbit 

for observation by IBSS orbiting payload. 

Chemical Release 

Observation (CRO) 

subsatellite Spacecraft: Cylindrical. 

31D 

May 2 Objective: To provide short-lived clouds 

Chemical Release 

Observation (CRO) 

subsatellite Spacecraft: Cylindrical. 

31E 

May 3 

of vapor and frozen particles in orbit 

for observation by IBSS orbiting payload 

Objective: To provide short-lived clouds 

of vapor and frozen particles in orbit 

for observation by IBSS orbiting payload 

Chemical Release 

Observation (CRO) 

subsatellite Spacecraft: Cylindrical. 

31F 

May 14 

NOAA- 1 2 

32A 

Atlas E 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into 

a sun-synchronous orbit of sufficient 

accuracy to enable spacecraft to 

accomplish its operational mission. 

To acquire daily global weather 

information for the short- and longterm forecasting needs of the 

National Weather Service. 

Spacecraft: In launch configuration 

is 371 cm high, 188 cm in diameter; 

three-axis-stabilized. Instruments 

include Advanced Very High Resolution 

Radiometer (AVHRR), TIROS Operational 

Vertical Sounder System (TOVS), Space 

Environment Monitor (SEM) and Argos 

Data Collection System (DCS) provided 

by France. Weight at launch: 1418 kg. 

Weight in orbit, with Apogee Kick Motor (AKM) 

expendables consumed: 735 kg. 

Jun. 5 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-40) 

40A 

Objective: To carry Spacelab Life 

Sciences (SLS-1) dedicated life 

sciences research module in cargo bay 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter Columbia 

carrying SLS-I and Get Away 

Special (GAS) Bridge experiments 

in the cargo bay. Middeck payloads: 

Physiological Monitoring System (PMS), 

Urine Monitoring System (UMS), and 

Animal Enclosure Modules (AEM). 

SLS-1 includes 18 primary scientific 

scientific experiments. 

Jun. 29 Objective: To launch U.S. Air Force 

Radiation radiation experiment satellite. 

Experiment (REX) Spacecraft: Not announced. 

45A Weight: 188 Ibs. 

scout 

Not Successfully deployed from 

announced. Discovery. Reentered May 14 

Not Successfully deployed from shuttle 

announced. Discovery. Reentered May 12. 

Not Successfully deployed from shuttle 

announced. Discovery. Reentered May 13. 

841.0 

821.0 

101.3 

98.7 

Successfully launched by NASA from 

Vandenberg AFB, CA, Space Launch 

Complex 3 West (SLC-gW) at 

11:52 am., EDT. Joins NOM-10 

and NOM-II in collecting 

meteorological and environmental 

data and will eventually replace 

NOAAlO, launched in Sept. 1986. 

302.0 

276.0 

90.1 

39.0 

871.0 

770.0 

101.3 

89.6 

Forty-first flight of the Space 

Transportation System. Piloted 

by Bryan D. O'Conner, and Sidney 

M. Gutierrez. Mission specialists 

James P. Bagian, Tamara E. 

Jemigan, and M. Rhea Seddon, 

Payload specialists Francis A. 

(Drew) Gaffney and Millie 

Hughes-Fulford. Launched 

from KSC, Pad 39B, 924 am., 

EDT. Landed at Edwards AFB, CA, 

11:39 a.m., EDT, Jun. 14. 

Mission duration: 9 days, 2 hrs., 15 min 

Successfully launched by NASA for 

Air Force from Vandenberg AFB, 

CA, Space Launch Complex (SLC) 

5. 1O:OO am., EDT. Test of 

sophisticated communications 

in a high-radiation environment. 

In orbit. 

162 
APPENDIX A-3-Contitiued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1990-September 30,1991 ~ 

Launch Datc (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

EquatorP) 

Jul. 4 Objective: To place satellite into 

USA-71 

47A objectives can be met. 

Delta I1 Spacecraft: Not announced. 

successful orbit from which Navy 

LOSAT-X 

470 

Jul. 17 

Microsat-I 

51A 

Pegasus 

Microsat-2 

51B 

Microsat-3 

51c 

Microsat-4 

51D 

Microsat-5 

51E 

Microsat-6 

51F 

Microsat-7 

51G 

Objective: Development of spaceflight 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

techniques and technology 

Objective: To launch small satellite for 

Spacecraft: Seven and 1/2 inches high, 

communications experiment 

19 inches wide. Weight. 49 Ibs. 

Objective: To launch small satellite 

for communications experiment. 

Spacecraft: Seven and li2 inches high, 

19 inches wide. Weight: 49 Ibs. 

Objective: To launch small satellite 

for communications experimcnt. 

Spacecraft: Seven and 1/2 inches high, 

19 inches wide. Weight: 49 Ibs. 

Objective: To launch small satellite 

for communications experiment. 

Spacecraft: Seven and 1/2 inches high, 

19 inches wide. Weight: 49 Ibs. 

objective: To launch small satellite 

for communications experiment. 

Spacecraft: Seven and 1/2 inches high, 

I9 inches wide. Weight: 49 Ibs. 

Objective: To launch small satellite 

for communications experiment. 

Spacecraft: Seven and 1/2 inches high, 

19 inches wide. Weight: 49 lbs. 

Objective: To launch small satellite 

for communications experiment. 

Spacecraft: Seven and 1/2 inches high, 

19 inches wide. Weight: 49 Ibs. 

20,250.0 

19,451.0 

704.6 

55.3 

416.0 

402.0 

92.8 

40.0 

454.0 

356.0 

92.7 

82.0 

457.0 

359.0 

92.7 

82.0 

442.0 

355.0 

92.5 

82.0 

457.0 

359.0 

92.7 

82.0 

457.0 

360.0 

92.7 

82.0 

458.0 

359.0 

92.7 

82.0 

458.0 

359.0 

92.7 

82.0 

Eleventh in a series of 

operational Navstar Global 

Positioning Satellites 

(GPS) launched by Air Force 

expendable booster. 

composed of 24 satellites in 

6 orbital planes. In orbit. 

OpCI'dtiOndl System tO be 

Secondary payload launched by 

Delta 11. Reentered Nov. 15, 

1991. 

Successfully launched by Pegasus 

vehicle carried to altitude by 

NASA B-52 off CA coast. Satellite 

sponsored by the Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA). 

In orbit. 

Second of seven satellites 

launched for DARPA. In orbit. 

Third of seven satcllitcs 

launched for DARPA. In orbit. 

Fourth of Seven satellites 

launched for DARPA. In orbit. 

Fifth of Seven satellites 

launched for DARPA. In orbit. 

Sixth of seven satellites 

launched for DARPA. In orbit. 

Seventh of seven satellites 

launched for DARPA. In orbit. 

163 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1990-September 30,1991 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

EquatoKO) 

Remarks 

Aug. 2 Objective: To successfully place in 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-5). 

54A Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter 

carrying satellite with Inertial 

Upper Stage (IUS). Cargo bay 

payloads: Station Heat Pipe Advanced 

Radiator Element-I1 (SHARE-111, 

Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet 

Experiment (SSBUV), and Optical 

Communications Through the 

Shuttle Window (OCTW). Middeck 

payloads: Air Force Maui Optical 

System (AMOS), Auroral Photography 

Experiment-B (APE-B), BioserveInstrumentation Technology 

Associates Materials Dispersion 

Apparatus (BIMDA), Investigations 

into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP), 

Protein Crystal Growth-I11 (PCG-III), 

Space Acceleration Measurement 

System (SAMs), Solid Surface 

Combustion Experiment (SSCE), and 

Tank Pressure Control Experiment (TPCE). 

Weight of experiments: 2,699 Ibs. 

orbit NASA's fourth Tracking and 

Aug. 2 Objective: To launch satellite to 

Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite 5 (TDRS-5) 

54B 

TDRS-3, into successful 

geosynchronous orbit with sufficient 

station keeping fuel on board 

to complete the on-orbit 

constellation and meet NASA 

requirements to provide fullcapability user support services. 

Spacecraft: Three-axis stabilized, 

momentum-biased configuration with two 

sun-oriented solar panels attached. 

TDRS measures 57.17 ft tip to tip 

of deployed solar panels. Composed 

of 3 modules: (1) equipment module 

houses attitude control, electric 

power, propulsion, telemetry, tracking, 

and command subsystems; (2) payload 

module consists of processing and 

frequency-generation equipment; 

(3) antenna module supports dual 

deployable and fiied antennas, multipleaccess array, and remainder of telecommunications hardware. Weight at launch, 

including IUS: 37,640 Ibs. In orbit 

TDRS-5 will weigh 4,637 Ibs, and measure 

57.2 ft. from tip to tip of solar panels 

by 46.6 ft from outer edge to edge of 

its Single Access antennas. 

329.0 

309.0 

90.6 

28.4 

39,011.0 

38,855.0 

1599.8 

0.1 

Forty-second flight of the Space 

Transportation System. Piloted 

by John E. Blaha and Michael A. 

Baker. Mission specialists 

Shannon W. Lucid, G. David Low, 

and James C. Adamson. Launched 

KSC, Pad 39A, 11:02 am., EDT. 

Landed at KSC's Shuttle Landing 

Facility, Aug. 11, 8:23 am., 

EDT. Mission duration 8 days, 

21 hrs, 21 min. 

Successfully launched from 

Atlantis and successfully 

transferred to geosynchronous 

orbit by IUS. Placed at 175OW 

longitude. Oct. 7 officially 

replaced TDRS-3 as primary 

provider of customer suppoer in 

the western location. In orbit. 

164 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1990-September 30,1991 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator(") 

sep . 12 

Space Shunle 

Discovery 

63A 

(STS-48) 

Sep. 15 

Upper Atmosphere 

Remote 

Research Satellite 

(CARS) 

63B 

Objective. To successfully launch Upper 

Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) 

and conduct other experiments. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying 

satellite with additional experiments. 

Cargo Bay: Atmospheric Particle 

Monitor-3 (APM-3) Middeck payloads: 

Radiation Monitoring Equipment-I11 

(RME-III-06), Protein Crystal Growth-7 

(PGC-71, Middeck 0-G Gravity Dynamics 

Experiment-I (MODE-011, Investigations 

into Polymer Membrane Processing-4 

(IPMP-04), Physiological and Anatomical 

Rodent Experimcnt-l (PAREI), Shuttle 

Activation Monitor-I (SAM-031, Cosmic 

Radiation Effecu and Activation 

Monitor-I (CREAM-OI), Air Force Maui 

Optical System-12 (AMOS), and Electronic 

Still Photography Camera. Weight: 475 Ibs 

553.0 

538.0 Transportation System. Piloted 

95.4 

56.9 Reightler, Jr. Mission 

Forty-third flight of the Space 

by John Creighton and Kenneth 

specialists Charles D. Gemar, 

James F. Buchli, and Mark N. 

Brown. Launched from Pad 39A, 

KSC, 7:11 p.m., EDT. Landed 

at Edwards AFB, CA, 3:38 am., 

EDT., Sept. 18. Weather 

conditions forced change of 

landing site from KSC. Mission 

duation: 5 days, 8 hrs., 

28 min. 

Objective: To launch satellite to study 

mankind's effect on planet's atmosphere 

and it's shielding ozone kdyCr. 

Spacecraft. Containing nine complimentary 

experiments: Cryogenic Limb Array 

Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES), Improved 

Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder 

(ISAMS), Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) 

Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE) 

to measure the chemistry of the 

atmosphere; High Resolution Doppler 

Imager (HRDI) and Wind Imaging 

Interferometer (WINDII) to measure 

the dynamics of the atmosphere; Solar 

Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance 

Monitor (SUSIM), Solar/Stellar 

Irradiance Comparison Experiment 

(SOLSTICE), and Particle Environment 

Monitor (PEM) to determine energy 

inputs from the Sun and Earth's 

magnetosphere. A tenth instrument, 

Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance 

Monitor I1 (ACRIM 11) will extend 

long-term measurements of the solar 

constant. 3-axis stabilized 

spacecraft body. Weight: 14,419 Ibs. 

580.0 Satellite successfully launched 

574.0 from Discovery cargo bay by 

96.2 Remote Manipultor System 

57 8 (RMS) arm at 1223 am., EDT. 

Will make measurements over 

the full range of local times 

at most geographic locations 

every 36 days. First major 

flight element of KASA's 

Mission to Planet Earth. Design 

life of 36 months. Returning 

data. In orbit. 

165 
APPEKDIX B-1 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1985-1991 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Mar. 22, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 13, 1985 

June 17, 1985 

June 18, 1985 

June 19, 1985 

June 30, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Aug. 29, 1985 

Scp. 29, 1985 

Sov. 27, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Nov. 28, 1985 

Jan. 12, 1986 

Dec. 5, 1986 

Mar. 20, 1987 

Sep. 25, 1989 

Jan. 1, 1990 

Jan. 1, 1990 

Jan. 9, 1990 

Mar. 14, 1990 

Apr. 13, 1990 

Jun. 23, 1990 

Aug. 18, 1990 

lntelsat VA F-10 

Telesat-I 

Syncom IV-3 

Arabsat-1B 

Telstar-3D 

Intelsat VA F- 11 

ASC-I 

Syncom IV-4 

Intelsat VA F-12 

MORELOS-A 

AUSSAT-1 

MORELOS-B 

AUSSAT-2 

RCA Satcom K-2 

RCA Satcom K-1 

Fltsatcom 7 

Palapa B-2P 

FltSatCom F-8 

Skynet 44 

JCSAT 2 

Syncom IV-5 

Intelsat 6 F-3 

Palapa-B2R 

Intelsat 6 F-4 

BSB-2R 

Adas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Delta 182 

Atlas/Centaur 

Titan I11 

Titan I11 

Space Shuttle 

Titan I11 

Delta 

Titan I11 

Delta 

COMMUNICATIONS 

First in series of six improved satellites. 

Launched for Tclsat Canada. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Launched for Arab Satellite Communication Organization (ASCO). 

Launched for the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT8m. 

Second in series of improved satellites launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for AUStrdhd'S National Satellite Company. 

Launched for American Satellite Company. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Second satellite launched lor Australia's National Satellite Company. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Launched for DoD. 

Indonesia domestic communications. 

Sixth, and last in series of geosynchronous satellites, for US. Navy. 

Launched for British Ministry of Defence. 

Second of dual Titan 111 launch, for Japancsc Communications Satellite Co. 

Leasat 5, fourth in series of satellites, for U.S. Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for British Satellite Broadcasting. 

166 
U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1985-1991 

I):lre ~~Illle I.:lunch Vel11cle Ketnat-ks 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Atl:is E 

GEODESY 

hleasure oce;in siirt:ic.e height 

NAVIGATION” 

167 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1985-1991 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 20, 1985 

July 29, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 14, 1986 

Mar. 25, 1988 

Nov. 18, 1989 

Feb. 14, 1990 

Feb. 14, 1990 

Apr. 5, I990 

Apr. 25, 1990 

June 1, 1990 

Jul. 25, 1990 

Apr. 7, 1991 

Sep. 15, 1991 

NUSAT-I 

Spartan-1 

Plasma 

Diagnostic 

Package 

(PDP) 

GLOMR 

Polar Bear 

San Marco D/L 

COBE 

LACE 

RME 

PEGSAT 

Hubble Space 

Telescope 

ROSAT 

CRRES 

Compton Gamma 

Ray Observatory 

Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle Reusable free-flying platform. 

Space Shuttle Reusable experimental platform. 

Northern Utah Satellite (air traffic control radar system calibrator) 

Space Shuttle 

scout 

scout 

Delta 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Pegasus 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Adadcentaur 

Space Shuttle 

Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite. 

Experiments to study radio interference caused by Aurora Borealis, for DoD. 

International satellite to study earth's lower atmosphere. 

Measurement of cosmic background. 

Low-powered atmospheric compensation experiment, for DOD. 

Second payload, relay mirror experiment satellite, for DOD. 

Chemical release experiment satellite for NASA and DOD. 

Long-term astronomical 

observations. 

Measurement of x-ray and extreme ultraviolet sources. 

Chemical release experiment. 

Measurement of celestial gamma-rays. 

Space Shuttle Measurement of Earth's atmosphere and ozone layer. 

168 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1991 

Date Name Launch Vchick Remarks 

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 

Sept. 9, 1975 Viking 2 

Jan. 15, 1976 Helios 2 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6, 1976, 

while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, 

and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20, 1976, 

while orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, 

and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Flcw in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of Sun, measuring 

solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload had same West 

German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Aug. 20, 1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, arrived 

Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989. 

Sep. 5, 1977 Voyager 1 Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed for 

outer solar system. 

May 20, 1978 

Aug. 8, 1978 

Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur 

Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended through 

Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

May 4, 1989 Magellan Space Shuttle Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Aug. 10, 1990, returning radar image 

of surface. 

Oct. 18, 1989 Galileo Space Shuttle Planetary exploration spacecraft, composed of probe to enter Jupiter’s 

atmosphere and orbiter to return scientific data. 

Oct. 6, 1990 Ulysses Space Shuttle Solar exploration spacecraft, to explore interstellar space and the Sun. 

169 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(davs:hrs:min) Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gcmini 10 

Gcmini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

Soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

Mdy 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15, 1769 

Mar. 3, 1969 

May 18, I969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr 

Virgil I. Grissom 

GCMIdn S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolaycv 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Ceman 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Alcksey A. Yeliscycv 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Ceman 

0: 1:48 

0: 0.15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:18 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10: 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4:53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1:51 

0: 10: 41 

3: 0:21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2 : 23 : 17 

3 : 22 : 35 

1: 2:37 

10 : 20: 9 

3:22:51 

6: 3: 1 

2 : 23 : 23 

3: 0:56 

10: 1: 1 

8: 0: 3 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; 

First flight cxcecding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of 

First 3-man crew. 

astronaut safe. 

Vostok 5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual 

21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date 

Longest-duration manned flight to date 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

min). 

maneuvers in orbit. 

(Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket). 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date 

(Aldrin, 5 hrs 37 min). 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First US. 3-man mission. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s1 of moon; first manned 

departure from Earth's sphere of influence; 

highest speed attained in manned flight to 

date. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 

cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit 

operation of lunar module to landing and 

takeoff from lunar surface and rejoining 

with command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 14,300 

m from the lunar surface. 

170 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(davs: hrs: min) Highlights 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr 

8: 3: 9 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

4 : 22 : 50 

10: 4 :36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17: 16: 59 

7: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23: 18 : 22 

12: 7: 12 

11: 1 : 51 

12: 13: 52 

28: 0 : 50 

59: 11 : 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1: 16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15: 17 : 30 

2: 0:12 

5 : 22 : 24 

First manncd landing on lunar surface and 

safe rcturn to Earth. First return of rock and 

soil samplcs to Earth, and manncd 

dcploymcnt of experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial obscrvation. 

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969 

Soyuz 6 

Soyuz 7 

Oct. 11, 1967 

Oct. 12, 1767 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valcriy K. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Alekscy S. Ycliscycv 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Dcan 

Soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14, 1769 Second manncd lunar landing. Explored 

surface of moon and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module 

Ship circled moon, with crcw using LM as 

"lifeboat" until just before reentry. 

Longest manncd spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission 

demonstrated pinpoint landing capability 

and continued manncd exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crcw did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew 

recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew 

occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

pcrished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capuslc recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo 

"J" series mission, which carricd Lunar 

Roving Vchicle. Worden's intlight EVA of 38 

min 12 scc was performed during return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. 

Apollo 13 Apr. 11, 1970 James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Frcd W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy 1. Sevastymov 

Alan B. Shcpard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Alckscy S. Yelisrycv 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

Jamcs B. Irwin 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

Junc 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971 

soyuz 11 Junc 6, 1971 

Apollo 15 July 26, 1971 

Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972 John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Ccrnan 

Harrison H Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Wcitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarcv 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. CaIT 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Pctr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lcbcdev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gcnnadiy V. Sarafmov 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchcnko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Sixth and final Apollo manncd lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned 

May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged 

station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days 

Apollo 17 Dec. 7, 1972 

Skylab 2 May 25, 1973 

Skylab 3 July 28, 1973 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration 

mission; last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration 

experiments. 

occupied space station. 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

171 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 ~ 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) Highlights 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Pctr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vancc D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valcriy I. Rozhdestwnskiy 

Viktor V. Gorhatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalcnok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Alekscy A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalcnok 

Aleksandr S Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jachn 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1:28 

48: 1:32 

7 : 21 : 54 

2: 0: 6 

17 : 17 : 23 

2: 0:46 

37: IO: 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

7 : 22 : 17 

79:15:23 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

108: 4: 24 

i:23: 1 

73 : 18 : 17 

55: 1: 29 

65 : 20 : 54 

3 : 22 : 21 

79: 15: 17 

7 : 20 : 43 

12: 19: 8 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments 

station. 

recovered after abort. 

station. 

experiments of ASTP mission. 

of ASTP mission. 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

July 6, 1976 

Sept. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Feb. 7, 1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dec. 10, 1977 

Jan. 10, 1978 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied 

Earth resources study with multispectral 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

station. 

camera system. 

station. 

station. 

Soyuz 27; crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 

min. 

Czech cosmonaut to orbit. 

Soyuz 31; crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 

48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was 

first Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 29; crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 

rnin. Jaehn was first German Democratic 

Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 34; crew duration 175 days 36 

min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 

station. Ivanov was first Bulgarian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

for Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 

returned unmanned. 

Soyuz 37. Crew duration 184 days 20 hrs 

12 min. 

Soyuz 35. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 46 

rnin. Farkas was first Hungarian to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

of new-generation ferry. 

Soyuz 36. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 42 

min. Pham was first Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first 

Docked wtih Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in 

Cuban to orbit. 

Soviet program since 1971. 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Mar. 2, 1978 

June 15, 1978 

June 27, 1978 

Aug. 26, 1978 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

Soyuz 32 Feb. 25, 1979 

soyuz 33 Apr. 10, 1979 

soyuz 34 June 6, 1979 (unmanned at launch) 

soyuz 35 Apr. 9, 1980 Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Soyuz 36 May 26, 1980 

Soyuz T-2 

soyuz 37 

June 5, 1980 

July 23, 1980 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Akscnov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Soyuz 38 

SOFZ T-3 

Sept. 18, 1980 

Nov. 27, 1980 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Amaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

172 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days: hrs:min) Highlights 

Mar. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22, 1981 

Vladimir V. Kovalcnok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibckov 

Jugderdemidiyn 

74 : 18 : 38 

7 : 20 : 43 

Gurragcha 

Apr. 12, 1981 John W. Young 2: 6:21 

Robert L. Crippcn 

Docked with Salyut 6 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first 

Mongolian cosmonaut to orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested 

spacecraft in orbit. First landing of 

airplanelike craft from orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first 

Romanian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first 

scientific payload (OSTA 1). Tested 

remote manipulator arm. Returned for 

reuse. 

scientific payload (OSS 1). Second test of 

remote manipulator arm. Flight extended 

1 day because of flooding at primary 

landing site; alternate landing site used. 

Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 

211 days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-7. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first French 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

So.;uz 40 May 14, 1981 

Nov. 12, 1981 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Englc 

Richard H. Truly 

7:20 :41 

Space Shuttle 2: 6:13 

COlUmbkd 

(STS 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

Mar. 22, 1982 Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 8: 4:49 

Soyuz T-5 

Soyuz T-6 

May 13, 1982 

June 24, 1982 

Anatoliy Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibckov 

Aleksandr lvanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

211: 9: 5 

7 : 21 : 51 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

SO~UZ T-7 

June 27, 1982 7: 1: 9 Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD 

payload, additional scientific payloads. 

Returned July 4. Completed orbital flight 

testing program. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second 

Soviet woman to orbit. Crew returned in 

SO~UZ T-5. 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

operational flight; launched 2 commercial 

satellites (SBS 3 and Anik C-3); first flight 

with 4 crew members. EVA test cancelled 

when spacesuits malfunctioned. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

TDRS 1. 

Aug. 19, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Scrcbrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

7:21 :52 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 5) 

5: 2:14 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 6) 

Apr. 4, 1983 Paul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gcnnady Strekalov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

5: 0:24 

Apr. 20, 1983 

June 18, 1983 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 

station. 

Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 

commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and 

Palapa B-l), also launched and retrieved 

SPAS 01; first flight with 5 crew 

members, including first woman U.S. 

astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle, launched 

one commercial satellite (Insat I-B), first 

flight of U.S. black astronaut. 

Soyuz T-8 2: 0:18 

Space Shuttle 6: 2 :24 

Challenger 

(STS 7) 

Soyuz T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

June 28, 1983 

Aug. 30, 1983 

149: 9: 46 

6: 1: 9 

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

Spacelab 1, first flight of 6 crew 

members, one of whom was West 

German, first non-U.S. astronaut to fly in 

U.S. space program. 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Nov. 28, 1983 10 : 7 : 47 

173 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:minj Highlights 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS41B) 

SOPZ T-10 

SOPZ T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-41'2) 

SO~UZ T-12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-41D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-4 1 GI 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1A) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-5 1C) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS-5 1B) 

SOFZ T-13 

Feb. 3, 1984 

Feb. 8, 1984 

Apr. 3, 1984 

Apr. 6, 1984 

July 17, 1984 

Aug. 30, 1984 

Sept. 5, 1984 

Nov. 8, 1984 

Jan. 24, 1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 5, 1985 

Vance D. Brand 7 : 23 : 16 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Robert L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

OIeg Atkov 

Yuriy Malyshev 

Gennadiy Strckalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frances R. Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. van Hoften 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Henry W. Hartsficld 6: 0:56 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Resnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 8: 5 :24 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Lecstma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Gameau 

Frederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. BucNi 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M.RheaSeddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. Gam 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thomton 

Lodewijk Vandcnberg 

Taylor Wang 

Viktor Savinykh 

62 : 22 : 43 

181 : 21 : 48 

6 : 23 : 41 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 11: 19: 14 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 112: 3: 12 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two 

communication satellites failed to achieve 

orbit. First use of Manned Maneuvering 

Unit (MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space 

duration record of 237 days. Crew returned 

in Soyuz T-11. 

Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz T10. 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment 

of LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar 

Maximum Satellite retrieved, repaired, and 

redeployed. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woman 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

U.S. non-astronaut. 

Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight 

of 7 crewmembers, including first flight of 

two U.S. women and one Canadian. 

7 : 23 : 45 Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first 

retrieval and retum of two disabled 

communications satellites (Westar 6, 

Palapa B2) to Earth. 

3: 1 :33 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

6 : 23 : 55 Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications 

satellites. First U.S. Senator in space. 

7: 0: 9 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo 

bay of shuttle. 

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to 

Earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 

spacecraft, Sept. 26, 1985. 

174 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crcw Flight Timc 

(ddvs:hrs:min) Highlights 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51G) 

Space Shuttle 

Challcngcr 

(STS-5 1 F) 

Spacc Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-511) 

Soyuz T-14 

Spacc Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-51J) 

Spacc Shuttle 

Challcngcr 

(STS-6 1A) 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-61B) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-61C) 

Soyuz T-15 

SOWZ TM-2 

June 17, 1985 

July 29, 1985 

Aug. 27, 1985 

Scpt. 17, 1985 

Oct. 3, 1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Jan. 12, 1986 

Mar. 13, 1986 

Feb. 5, 1987 

Danicl C. Brandcnstcin 

John 0. Crcighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

7: 1 : 39 Eighteenth STS flight. Thrcc communications 

satellites. One rcusablc payload, Spartan-1. 

First U.S. flight with French and Saudi 

John M. Fabian Arabian crewmen. 

Steven R. Nagcl 

Patrick Baudry 

Sultan bin Salman bin 

Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud 

Charlcs G. Fullcrton 

Roy D. Bridges bay. 

Karl C. Hcnizc 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgravc 

Lorcn W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartoc 

JOC H. Englc 

Richard 0. Covey 

Jamcs D. van Hoftcn 

William F. Fishcr 

John M. Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Gcorgiy Grcchko 

Alcksandr Volkov 

7 : 22 1 45 Ninetccnth STS flight. Spacclab-2 in cargo 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabc 

Robcrt A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmcrs 

William A Pailcs 

Henry W. Hartsficld 

Stcvcn R. Nagcl 

Bonnic J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford 

Ernst Mcsserschmid 

Reinhard Furrer 

Wubbo J. Ockels 

Brcwstcr H. Shaw 

Bryan D. O'Connor 

Mary L. Clcve 

Shcrwood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolf0 Neri Vcla 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steven A. Hawlcy 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenkcr 

Bill Nelson 

Lconid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovyov 

Yuriy Romanenko 

Aleksandr Laveykin 

7: 2 :18 Twcnticth STS flight. Launched three 

communications satcllitcs. Rcpaircd 

Syncom W-3. 

64 : 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut-7 station. Viktor 

Savinykh, Alcksandr Volkov and Vladimir 

Vasyutin rcturned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985, 

whcn Vasyutin bccamc ill. 

mission. 

4: 1 :45 Twcnty-first STS flight. Dedictcd DoD 

7: 0 :45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated 

German Spacelab D-l in shuttle cargo bay. 

6 : 22 : 54 Twentythird STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. First flight of 

Mexican astronaut. 

6: 2: 4 Twentyfourth STS flight. Launched one 

communications satellite. First membcr of 

U.S. House of Representatives in space. 

125: 1 : 1 Docked with MIR space station on May 516 

transferrcd to Salyut 7 complex. On June 

25/26 transferred from Salyut 7 back to 

MIR. 

established long distance stay in space 

record of 326 days. 

174: 3 : 26 Docked with MIR space station. Romanenko 

175 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft 

~~ ~ 

Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(davs:hrs:min) Highlights 

Soyuz TM-3 July 22, 1987 Aleksandr Viktorcnko 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Mohammed Faris 

SO~UZ TM-4 

SO~UZ TM-5 

Soyuz TM-6 

STS-26 

Soyuz TM-7 

STS-27 

STS-29 

STS-30 

STS-28 

Soyuz 

TM-8 

Dec. 21, 1987 Vladimir Titov 

Musa Manarov 

Anatoliy Levchenko 

Jun. 7, 1988 Viktor Savinykh 

Anatoly Solovyev 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Aug. 29, 1988 Vladimir Lyakhov 

Valeriy Polyakov 

Abdul Mohmand 

Frederick H. Hauck 

Richard 0. Covey 

John M. Lounge 

David C. Hilmers 

George D. Nelson 

Nov. 26, 1988 Aleksandr Volkov 

Sergey Krikalev 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Sep. 29? 1988 

Dec. 2, 1988 Robert "Hoot" Gibson 

Guy S. Gardncr 

Richard M. Mullane 

Jerry L. Ross 

William M. Shepherd 

Michael L. Coats 

John E. Blaha 

James P. Bagian 

James F. Buchli 

Robert C. Springer 

David M. Walker 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Norman E. Thagard 

Mary L. Cleave 

Mark C. Lee 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Richard N. Richards 

James C. Adamson 

David C. Leestma 

Mark N. Brown 

Mar. 13, 1989 

May 4, 1989 

Aug. 8, 1989 

Sep. 5, 1989 Aleksandr Viktorenko 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

160: 7: 16 Docked with MIR space station. Aleksandr 

Aleksandrov remained in MIR 160 days, 

returned with Yuriy Romanenko. 

Viktorenko and Fans returned in Soyuz 

TM-2, July 30 with Aleksandr Laveykin 

who experienced medical problems. 

Mohammed Faris first Syrian in space. 

Yuriy Romanenko, Aleksandr 

Aleksandrov, and Anatoliy Levchenko 

returned Dcc. 29 in Soyuz TM-3. 

Aleksandrov first Bulgarian in space. 

Crew returned Jun. 17 in Soyuz TM4. 

8: 19: 27 Docked with MIR space station, Mohmand 

first Afghanistan in space. Crew returned 

Sep. 7 in Soyuz TM-5 

4: 1 Twentysixth STS flight. Launched TDRS 3. 

180: 5 Docked with MIR space station. Crew of 

9 : 20 : 13 Docked with MIR space station, 

151 : 11 Docked with MIR space station. Soyuz TM6 returned with Chretien, Vladimir Titov, 

and Musa Manarov. Titov and Manarov 

completed 366-day mission Dec. 21. 

Crew of Krikalev, Volkov, and Valeriy 

Polyakov returned Apr. 27, 1989 in Soyuz 

TM-7. 

Twentyseventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD 

mission. 

4 : 9: 6 

4 : 23 : 39 Twenty- eighth 

STS flight. 

Launched 

TDRS-4. 

5: 1 

4: 0 :57 Twenty-ninth 

STS flight. 

Venus orbiter 

Magellan 

launched. 

Thirtieth STS 

flight. 

Dedicated DOD 

mission. 

166: 6 Docked with MIR space 

station. Crew of Viktorenko 

and Serebrov returned in 

SOFZ TM-8, Feb. 9, 1990. 

176 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crcw Flight Time 

(davs: hrs:min) Highlights 

STS-34 

STS-33 

STS-32 

soyuz 

TM-9 

STS-36 

STS-31 

soyuz 

TM-10 

STS-4 1 

STS-38 

STS-35 

sop2 

TM-I1 

Oct. 18, 1989 Donald E. Williams 

Michael J. McCulley 

Shannon W. Lucid 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Ellen S. Bakcr 

4 : 23 : 39 

Nov. 23, 1989 Frederick D. Gregory 5: 0 :7 

John E. Blaha 

Kathryn C. Thornton 

F. Story Musgrave 

Manlcy L. “Sonny” Cartcr 

James D. Wethcrbce 

Bonnic J. Dunbar 

Marsha S. Ivins 

G. David Low 

Jan. 9, 1990 Daniel C. Brandcnstcin 10 : 21 

Feb. 11, 1990 Anatoliy Solovyov 

Alcksandr Balandin 

Feb. 28, 1990 John 0. Creighton 

John H. Caspcr 

David C. Hilmcrs 

Richard H. Mullane 

Pierre J. Thout 

Loren J. Shriver 

Charles F. Boldcn, Jr. 

Steven A. Hawley 

Bruce McCandless I1 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Apr. 24, 1990 

Aug. 1, 1990 Gennadiy Manakov 

Gcnnadiy Strekalov 

oct. 6, 1990 Richard N. Richards 

Robert D. Cabana 

Brucc E. Melnick 

William M. Shepherd 

Thomas D. Akers 

Richard 0. Covey 

Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. 

Charles “Sam” Gemar 

Robert C. Springer 

Carl J. Meade 

Vance D. Brand 

Guy S. Gardner 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

John M. “Mike” Lounge 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Musa Manarov 

Nov. 15, 1990 

Dec. 2, 1990 

Dec. 2, 1990 Viktor Afanasyev 

178 : 22 : 19 

4 : 10 : 19 

5: 1 :16 

130: 20 :36 

4: 2 :10 

4: 21 :55 

8: 23 :5 

7: 21 :55 

Thirty-first 

STS flight. 

Launched 

Jupiter probe 

and orbiter 

Galileo. 

Thirty-second 

STS flight. 

Dedicated DOD 

mission. 

Thirty- third 

STS flight. 

Launched Syncom 

IV-5 and 

retrieved Long 

Duration 

Exposure 

Facility 

(LDEF). 

Docked with MIR 

space station. 

Crew returned 

Aug. 9, 1990, 

in Soyuz TM-9. 

Thirty- fourth 

STS flight. 

Dedicated DOD 

mission. 

Thirty- fifth 

STS flight. 

Launched Hubble 

Space 

Telescope 

(HST) . 

Docked with MIR 

space station. Crcw 

returned Dcc. 10, 1990, 

with Toyohiro Akiyama, 

Japanese astronaut. 

Thirty-sixth STS flight. 

Ulysses spacecraft to 

investigate interstellar 

space and the Sun. 

Thirty-seventh STS flight. 

Dedicated DOD mission. 

Thirty-eighth STS flight. 

ASTRO-1 in cargo bay. 

Docked with MIR space 

station. Toyohiro 

Akiyama returned 

Dec. 10, 1390, with 

previous MIR crew of 

Gcnnadiy Manakov and 

Gennadiy Strekalov. 

177 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961-1991 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) Highlights 

~ 

STS-37 

STS-39 

soyuz 

TM-12 

STS-40 

STS-43 

STS-48 

Apr. 5, 1991 Steven R. Nagcl 

Kenneth D. Cameron 

Linda Godwin 

Jerry L. Ross 

Michael L. Coats 

Blaine Hammond, jr. 

Gregory L. Harbaugh 

Donald R. McMonagle 

Guion S. Bluford 

Lacy Veach 

Richard J. Hieb 

Sergei Krikalev 

Helen Shaman 

Jay Apt 

Apr. 28, 1991 

May 18, 1991 Anatoly Artscbarskiy 

Jun. 5, 1991 Bryan D. O'Conncr 

Sidney M. Gutierrcz 

James P. Bagian 

Tamara E. Jernigan 

M.RheaScddon 

Francis A. "Drew" Gaffney 

Millie Hughes-Fulford 

John E. Blaha 

Michael A. Baker 

Shannon W. Lucid 

G. David Low 

James C. Adamson 

Kenneth Reightler, Jr. 

Charles D. Gemar 

James F. Buchli 

Mark N. Brown 

Aug. 2, 1991 

Sep. 12, 1991 John Creighton 

6: 0 :32 Thirty-ninth STS flight. 

Launched Gamma Ray 

Observatory to measure 

celestial gamma-rays. 

8: 7 :22 Fortieth STS flight. 

Dedicated DOD mission 

7: 21 :14 

9: 2 :15 

8: 21 :21 

5: 8 :28 

Docked with MIR space 

station. Helen Shaman 

first from United Kingdom 

to fly in space. Crew of 

Viktor Afanasyev, Musa 

Manarov, and Helen Sharman 

returned May 20, 1991. 

Artsebarskiy and Krikalev 

remained on board MIR. 

Mission still in progress. 

Carried Spacelab Life 

Sciences (SLS-1) in cargo 

bay. 

Forty-first STS flight. 

Forty-second STS flight. 

Launched fourth Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite 

~TDRS-5). 

Forty-third STS flight. 

Launched Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite (UARS). 

178 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Payload (kdb 

Thrust Max. Dia. 185-Km Geoswch,- Circular First 

(kilonewtons) X Height Orbit Transfer Sun- Launch' Vehicle Stages/(cngines) Propellanr 

Orbit 'ynch. 

Orbit (m) 

scout 

Delta 3900 Series 

(Thor-Delta)' 

Delta I1 

Atlas E 

Atlas-Centaur 

Titan IV 

Titan I1 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

1. Algol IIIA ............. 2. Castor IIA ............. 

3. Antares IIIA ......... 

4. Altair IIIA ............. 

Solid ........................ 

Solid ........................ 

Solid ........................ 

Solid ........................ 

I. Thor plus ............. 

9 TX 526-2 ........... 

2. Delta .................... 

1. Thor plus ............. 

9 TX 526-2 .......... 

2. Delta ................... 

Atlas booster (MA-3) & 

sustaincr .............. 

1. Atlas booster (MA-5) 

& sustainer .......... 

2. Centaur ................ 

1. Two 7-segment, 

3.05 m dia ............ 

2. (LR-87) ................. 

3. (LR-91) ................. 

4. IUS 1st stage ........ 

5. IUS 2nd stage ...... 

LOX/R€-l ............... 

Solid (each) ............ 

N20,/Aerozine-50.. .. 

LOWW-I ............... 

Solid (each) ............ 

N,O,/Acrozine-50 .... 

LOWW-1 ............... 

LOWW-1 .............. 

LOWLH, ............... 

Solid ........................ 

N,O,/Aerozinc ......... 

N,O,/Aerozine ......... 

Solid ........................ 

Solid ........................ 

431.1 

285.2 

83.1 

25.6 

912.0 

375.0 

44.2 

432.0 

43.0 

1,722.0 

1,913.0 

146.0 

12,402.0 

2,452.0 

472.0 

185.0 

76.0 

920.8 

1.14x22.9 

2.44x35.4 

2.90x39.62 

3.05x28.1 

3.05x45.0 

5.08x62.2 

255 

205d 

3,045 

2,188 

._ 

2,090d 

6,100 

17,630 

__ 

1,275 

1,819 

__ 

2,360 

2,404 

isd 1979(60) 

2,135d 1982(60) 

-- 1989 

1,500d 1972(59) 

-- 1984(72) 

I989 

24-Hour Sun-synch. 185-Km Polar Transfer 

Orbit Orbit Orbit 

Titan III(34)D/IUS 

-- 1982 

Titan III(34)D/ 

Transtage 

Space Shuttle 

(reusable) 

-- 1988 (62) / 1. (LR-87[21) N,0,5/Aerozine-50 .... 2,108.4 3.05~28.5 2,200 -- 

2. (LR-91) NZO,/Aerozine-5O.. .. 444.8 1,905d 

1. (LR-87) ................. N,O,/Aerozine ......... 2,341.0 3.05x48.4 3,600d 3,068 I966 

............ N,O,/Aerozine 455.1 

3. Agena ................... IRFNMUDMH ........ 71.2 

2. LR-87 .................... N,O,/Aerozinc ......... 2,366.3 

3. LR-91 .................... N,O,/Acrozine ......... 449.3 

4. IUS 1st stage ........ Solid .......... 275.8 

5. IUS 2nd stage ...... Solid ........................ 115.7 

4. Transtage ............. N,O,/Acrozine ......... 69.8 3.05x46.9 14,920 1,855d -- 1984h 

......... 

1. Two 5'/z-segmcnt, 

3.05 m dia ............ Solid ...... 11,564.8 3.05x48.0 14,920 1,858 

Same as Titan III(34)D 

plus: 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) fire 

in parallel with 

2. Two solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRBs) fire in 

parallel with SSMEs AL/NH,CLO,/ 

Mounted on 

external tank (ET) 

SRl3s ..................... LOWLH, ................ 

PBAN ............ 

24,900 1981 

in full 

performance 

1,670 each 23.7937.24 configuration 

wing long 

span 

11,790 each 3.71~45.45 

8.40x46.88 

a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen 

and a modified kerosene = LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer = Solid; 

inhibited red-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dirnethylhydrazine = IRFNMUDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH/NP, = 

N,O,/acrozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen = LOWLH,; 

aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene acrolonitrile 

terpolymer - ALI"H,CLO,/PBAN. 

Due east launch except as indicated. 

The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a 

Polar launch. 

date in parentheses for the initial version. 

e Maximum performance based on 3920, 3920/PAM configurations 

PAM = payload assist module. 

8 With 96" flight azimuth. 

scheduled as needed. 

With dual TE 364-4. 

Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to be 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the 

director of Space Transportation System Support Programs. 

179 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the US . Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

NASA Total 

Fiscal Year Defense Other Energy ‘Om- Interior md- NSF DOT EPA Space Total Space‘ merce ture 

1959 ................... 

1963 ............................ 1964 ............................ 1965 .. ... 

1966 .. ... 

1967 ............................ 1968 ............................ 1969 ............ 

1970 ............................ 

1972 ............................ 1973 ............................ 1974 ............................ 

1975 ............................ 

1976 ........... 

Transitional 

19n ............................ 1978 ............................ 

1979 ............................ 1980 ............................ 

1982 ............................ 

1984 ............................ 

1986 ............................ 

1987 ............... 

1989 ............................ 

1990 ............................ 

1991 ............................ 

1988 ............................ 

331 

524 

964 

1. 825 

3. 673 

5. 100 

5. 250 

5. 175 

4. 966 

4. 587 

3. 991 

3. 746 

3. 311 

3. 307 

3. 406 

3. 037 

3. 229 

3. 550 

932 

3. 818 

4. 060 

4. 596 

5. 240 

5. 518 

6. 044b 

6. 875’ 

7. 248 

7. 573 

7. 766 

10. 507 

9. 026 

10. 969 

13. 073 

14. 004 

26 1 

462 

926 

1. 797 

3. 626 

5. 016 

5. 138 

5. 065 

4. 830 

4. 430 

3. 822 

3. 547 

3. 101 

3. 071 

3. 093 

2. 759 

2. 915 

3. 225 

849 

3. 440 

3. 623 

4. 030 

4. 680 

4. 992 

5. 528 

6. 328 

6. 648 

6. 925 

7. 165 

9. BOY 

8. 302 

10. 098 

12. 142 

13. 036 

490 

561 

814 

1. 298 

1. 550 

1. 599 

1. 574 

1. 689 

1. 664 

1. 922 

2. 013 

1. 678 

1. 512 

1. 407 

1. 623 

1. 766 

1. 892 

1. 983 

460 

2. 412 

2. 738 

3. 036 

3. 848 

4. 828 

6. 679 

9. 019 

10. 195 

12. 768 

14. 126 

16. 287 

17. 679 

17. 906 

15. 616 

14. 181 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

127 

97 

109 

116 

107 

111 

31 

131 

157 

178 

160 

158 

234 

242 

293 

474 

368 

352 

626 

440 

330 

375 

34 

43 

68 

148 

214 

210 

229 

187 

184 

145 

118 

103 

95 

55 

54 

42 

30 

23 

5 

22 

34 

59 

40 

41 

61 

39 

34 

34 

35 

48 

241 

97 

79 

108 

.. 

.. 

.. 

51 

43 

3 

12 

27 

29 

28 

20 

8 

27 

31 

40 

60 

64 

72 

22 

91 

103 

98 

93 

87 

145 

178 

236 

423 

309 

278 

352 

301 

202 

211 

. 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

0.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

10 

10 

10 

12 

12 

12 

5 

3 

2 

2 

8 

14 

17 

19 

24 

~ . 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

0.7 

0.8 

0.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

0.9 

6 

8 

8 

14 

16 

15 

20 

19 

15 

23 

19 

18 

21 

26 

27 

’Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402) . 

bIncludes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed . ’Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds 

dNSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA . 

‘Includes $2.1 billion for replacement of shuttle orbiter Challenger 

... 

0.1 

0.6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

0.6 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 d ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

3 

4 

4 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

1 

785 

1. 066 

1. 808 

3. 295 

5. 435 

6. 831 

6. 956 

6. 970 

6. 710 

6. 529 

5. 976 

5. 341 

4. 741 

4. 575 

4. 825 

4. 641 

4. 914 

5. 320 

1. 341 

5. 983 

6. 518 

7. 244 

8. 689 

9. 978 

12. 441 

15. 589 

17. 136 

20. 167 

21. 659 

26. 448 

26. 607 

28. 443 

28. 089 

27. 592 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget . 

324,. w 

180 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Federal Agencies 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991 

NASA' .............................................................. 

Defense ............................................................ 

Commcrce ........................ .................. 

Interior ............................................................. 

Agriculture ....................................................... 

Transportation .................................................. 

EPA __._ .................... 

Energy .............................. .................. 

10,098 

17,906 

97 

301 

17 

21 

3 

1 

12,142 

15,616 

79 

202 

19 

26 

4 

1 

13,036 

14,181 

108 

21 1 

24 

27 

4 

1 

10,195 

14,504 

97 

306 

17 

21 

2 

1 

12,292 

12,962 

79 

232 

19 

26 

3 

1 

13,351 

14,432 

108 

223 

24 

27 

4 

1 

TOTAL .............................................................. 28,443 28,089 27,592 25,143 25,614 28,170 

'Excludes amounts for air transportation. SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Federal Agencies 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1989 1990 1991 1989 1990 1991 

NASA' .............................................................. 872 932 968 855 889 1,017 

Department of Defenseb ................................ 8,240 7,867 6,148 6,420 7,649 6,792 

Department of Transportation' ...................... 1,544 1,891 2,300 1,216 1,471 1,870 

TOTAL .............................................................. 10,656 10,690 9,416 8,491 10,009 9,679 

'Research and Development, Construction of 

Facilities, Research and Program Management 

bResearch, Development, Testing, and 

Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. 

'Federal Aviation Administration: Research, 

Engineering, and Development; Facilities, 

Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget 

181 
APPENDIX F 

THE VICE PRESIDENT’S OFFICE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immediate Release JULY 24, 1991 

Vice President Announces National Space Launch Strategy 

Today the Vice President announced a new National Space Launch Strategy which provides a long range plan to meet America’s space launch 

needs. The strategy, which has been approved by the President, calls for maintaining current launch systems and facilities and extending their 

useful lifetimes well into the first decade of the new century. The new policy states that while the current fleet of Space Shuttles will continue to 

meet manned spaceflight needs, the purchase of additional Shuttle orbiters is not planned. 

In the future, the nation’s core launch needs will be met by a new family of vehicles - a new national launch system - to be developed jointly 

by the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. These new launchers will make space more accessible by 

reducing operating costs and improving reliability, responsiveness, and mission performance. 

The strategy calls for a vigorous space launch technology program which can provide the basis for revolutionary improvements in launch 

capability in the future. The strategy also provides guidance which will ensure that actions taken to meet US. government launch needs also 

serve to strengthen the U.S. commercial space industry and enhance America’s international competitiveness. 

The National Space Launch Strategy was developed by the National Space Council, chaired by the Vice President 

I. Introduction 

a. National space policy provides a framework within which agencies plan and conduct U.S. government space activities. The 

National Space Launch Strategy provides guidance for implementation of that policy with respect to access to and from space. 

b. Assured access to space is a key element of U.S. national space policy and a foundation upon which U.S. civil, national security, 

and commercial space activities depend. 

c. United States space launch infrastructure, including launch vehicles and supporting facilities, should: (1) provide safe and reliable 

access to, transportation in, and return from space; (2) reduce the costs of space transportation and related services, thus encouraging expanded 

space activities; (3) exploit the unique attributes of manned and unmanned launch and recovery systems; and, (4) encourage, to the maximum 

extent feasible, the development and growth of U.S. private sector spacc transportation capabilities which can compete internationally. 

II. Space Launch Strategy 

a. The National Space Launch Strategy is composed of four elements. 

(I) Ensuring that existing space launch Capabilities, including support facilities, are sufficient to meet U.S. Government 

manned and unmanned space launch needs. 

(2) Developing a new unmanned, but man-rateable, space launch system to greatly improve national launch capability with 

reductions in operating costs and improvements in launch system reliability, responsiveness, and mission performance. 

(3) Sustaining a vigorous space launch technology program to provide cost effective improvcments to current launch 

systems, and to support development of advanced launch capabilities, complementary to the new launch system. 

(4) Actively considering commercial space launch needs and factoring them into decisions on improvements in launch 

activities and launch vehicles. 

b. These strategy elements will be implemented within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President. 

182 
m. Strategy Guidelines 

a. Existing Space Launch Capability 

(1) A mixed fleet comprised of the Space Shuttle and existing expendable launch vehicles will be the primary U.S. 

government means to transport people and cargo to and from space through the current decade and will be important components of the 

nation’s launch capability well into the first decade of the 21st century. 

(2) To meet U.S. government needs, agencies will conduct programs to systematically maintain and improve the Space 

Shuttle, current US. expendable launch vehicle fleets, and supporting launch site facilities and range capabilities. Such programs shall be cost 

effective relative to current and programmed mission needs and to investments in new launch capabilities. 

(3) As the nation is moving toward development of a new space launch system, the production of additional Space Shuttle 

orbiters is not planned. The production of spare parts should continue in the near term to support the existing Shuttle fleet, and to preserve an 

option to acquire a replacement orbiter in the event of an orbiter loss or other demonstrable need. By continuing to operate the Shuctle 

conservatively, by taking steps to increase the reliability and lifetime of existing orbiters, and by developing a new launch system, the 

operational life of the existing orbiter fleet will be extended. The Space Shuttle will be used only for those important missions that require 

manned presence or other unique Shuttle capabilities, or for which use of the Shuttle is determined to be important for national security, foreign 

policy, or other compelling purposes. 

(4) Consistent with U.S. national security and national space policy, the U. S , government may seek to recover residual 

value from ballistic missiles which are, or subsequently become, surplus to the needs of the Department of Defense. Prior to any release of such 

missiles, including components, beyond those already approved for use as space launch vehicles, the Department of Defense will conduct, and 

the National Space Council and the National Security Council will review, an assessment of alternative disposition options for such missiles. 

Disposition options will be evaluated in terms of their consistency with U.S. national security and foreign policy interests, available agency 

resources, defense industrial base considerations, and with due regard to economic impact on the commercial space sector, promoting 

competition, and the long-term public interest. 

b. New Space Launch System 

(1) The Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will undertake the joint 

development of a new space launch system to meet civil and national security needs. The goal of this launch program is to greatly improve 

national launch capability with reductions in operating costs and improvements in launch system reliability, responsiveness and mission 

performance. 

(2) The new launch system, including manufacturing processes and production and launch fac es, will be designed to 

support a range of medium to heavy-lift performance requirements and to facilitate evolutionary change as requirements evolve. The design may 

take advantage of existing components from both the Space Shuttle and existing expendable rockets in order to expedite initial capability and 

reduce development costs. While initially unmanned, the new launch system will be designed to be “man-rateable” in the future. 

(3) The new launch system will be managed, funded, and developed jointly by the Department of Defense and the the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The development program will be structured in the near term toward the goal of a first flight in 

1999. However, the program should allow for several schedulc options for the first flight and should identify key intermediate milestones. Since 

the new launch system will provide the opportunity for significant long-term benefits to the commercial space launch industry, the agencies 

should actively explore the potential for US. private sector participation. Final decisions on the program schedule, including the date of the first 

flight, will be made during fiscal year 1993, based on updated requircments and technical and budgetary considerations at that time. A joint 

program plan will be prepared by the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration and reviewed by the 

National Space Council. 

(4) The Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will plan for the transition of 

selected space programs from current launch systems to the new launch system at appropriate program milestones to insure mission continuity 

and to minimize satellite and other transition costs. 

c. Space Launch Technology 

(1) In addition to conducting the focused development program for a new launch system, appropriate U. S. government 

agencies will continue to conduct broadly based research and focused technology programs to support long-term improvements in national 

space launch Capabilities. This technology effort shall address launch system components (e.g., engines, materials, structures, avionics); upper 

stages; improved launch processing concepts; advanced launch system concepts (e.g., single-stage-to-orbit concepts including the National 

Aerospace Plane); and experimental flight vehicle program. 

(2) The Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will 

coordinate space launch technology efforts and, by December 1, 1991, jointly prepare a 10-year space launch technology plan. 

d. Commercial Space Launch Considerations 

(1) In addition to addressing government needs, improvement of space launch capabilities can facilitate the ability of the 

U.S. commercial space launch industry to compete. Consistent with U.S. space policy, U.S. government agencies will actively consider 

commercial space launch needs and factor them into decisions on existing space launch capabilities, development of a new space launch system, 

and implementation of space launch technology programs in the following ways: 

183 
(a) US. government funded investments will he consistent with approved budgets and US government 

requirements. 

(b) LJS. government agencies, in acquiring space launch related Capabilities, should: 

(1) Allow contractors, to the fullest extent feasible, the flexibility to accommodate commercial needs 

when developing launch vehicles and infrastructure to meet government needs. 

(2) Emphasize procurement strategies which are based on: “best value” rather than lowest cost, 

performance-based functional requirements, commercial production and quality assurance standards and 

techniques, and the use of commercially-offered space products and services. 

(3) Encourage commercial, state, and local government investment and participation in the 

development ant improvement of US. launch systems and facilities. 

(4) Provide for private sector retention of technical data rights, except those rights necessary to meet 

government needs or to coinply with statutory responsibilities. 

(c) U.S. government agencies should seek to remove, where appropriate, legal or administrative impediments to 

private sectoi- arrangements such as industry teams, consortia, cost-sharing, and joint production agreements which may benefit 1J.S. government 

needs and economic competitiveness. Agencies should also seek legislative authority for stable long-term commitments to purchase space 

transportalion services. 

(d) Within applicable law U. S . government agencies are encouraged to use industry advisory groups to facilitate 

the identification of commercial space launch needs and the elimination of barriers that unnecessarily impede commercial space launch activities. 

1J.S agencies are also encouraged to consult with State and local governments. 

(2) US. government agencies should develop explicit provisions to implement these guidelines for actively considering 

commercial space launch needs. As appropriate, agencies should solicit public views on these provisions. 

N. Reporting Requirements 

U. S. Government agencies affected by these strategy guidelines are directed to report by Ilrcemher 1, 1991, to the National Space 

Council on their activities related to the implementation of these policies. 

184 
Index 

Advanced Communications Technology 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor, 30-31 

Advanced Space Systems, 33-34 

Advanced Tactical Fighter, see F-22 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, 6, 8 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility, 10, 12, 13, 14 ill. 

aeronautics research and development, 

Africa, 114-115 

aircraft materials research, 55-56, 123-124 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 11, 24 

Ambler, 64 

Ames Research Center, 47, 52, 57 

Arms Control and Disarmamcnt Agency, 11, 141-143 

asteroids, 18, 134 

Astro-1, 1, 2, 15, 32, 61 

astrophysics, 136, see also Advanced 

Atlas IIs, 70 

Atlas IIAS, 31 

Atlas-E, 1, 5, 70 

Satellite, 6, 40 

5-6, 47-60, 78-81, 123-124 ill. 

X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

B-lB, 6, 78 

Biospheric Research Program, 27 

Bush, President George, 3, 138, 141, 

B-2, 6, 78 

see also Space Exploration Initiative 

C-17, 6, 78-79 

Canada, 2, 35-36, 105 

Cape Canaveral, 70, 130 

Cargo Transfer Vehicle, 33 

Centers for the Commercial Development 

of Space, 3, 38 

China, 34, 97, 131 

climate research, 22, 90-98, 112-114 

Coastwatch, 6, 85-86, 94 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects 

Satellite Program, 19 

combustion experiment, 27 

comets, 18 

Comanche light helicopter, 6, 79 

Commercial Experiment Transporter, 39 

commercial space launches, 71, 89-90, 130 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 2, 12, 13 

(including ill.) 

contractors, 39ff, 59, 70, 82-83, 89, 100, 103ff, 140 

Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems, 26 

Cosmic Background Explorer, 14 

Cosmos, 25-26 

CKAF/Cassini Program, 18 

crop monitoring, 114, 117-1 18 

Deep Space Network, 4, 44, 88 

Delta IIs, 5, 14, 31 

Defense Advanced Research Project 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program, 5, 73, 84 

Defense Satellite Communications 

Defense Support Program, 5, 73-74 

deicing, 56, 122 

Department of Agriculture, 8, 117-120 

Department of Commerce, 6-7, 82-98 

commercial space support, 89-90 

Department of Defense, 2, 5-6, 19, 59, 

Department of Energy, 7, 64, 68, 99-102 

Department of Interior, 7-8, 88, 106-116 

Department of State, 10-11, 138-140 

Department of Transportation, 9, 121-131 

Dryden Flight Research Facility, 47, 57-58 

Agency, 5, 6, 70-81 passim 

System, 70, 71-72 

64, 68, 70-81, 83, 88, 99ff, 123ff, 130 

Earth, 17 ill., passim 

Earth Observing System, 6, 21, 113 

Earth Observing System Data and 

Earth Probes, 23 

earthquake research, 95 

Einstein Observatory, 136 

emissions research, 50-51 

Endeavour, 1, 29 

Environmental Protection Agency, 9, 132-133 

Europe, 2, 97 

European Space Agency, 17, 18, 19, 

Expendable Launch Vehicles, 1, 31, 32 

Explorer Program, 15, 20 

Extended Duration Orbiter, 29 

Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program, 25 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, 15 

Information System, 21-22 

22, 35-36, 84, 95, 112-113 

F/A-18, 57, 79-80 

185 
F-15, 6, 57 ill., 81 

F-16, 52 ill., 53, 58, 80 

F-18 High Angle-of-Attack Research 

F-22, 6, 79 

Falcon Air Force Base, 71 

Federal Aviation Administration, 9, 58, 121-130 

safety and security, 124-129 

Federal Communications Commission, 8, 103-105 

fire protection, 85, 124-125 ill. 

France, 18, 23, 83, 107 

Vehicle, 49, 56 ill., 57, 58 

F-106, 57 

Galileo, 2, 17 ill., 110-111 

Gamliia, 138 

Geostationary Operational Environment 

Geotail, 19 

Germany, 14 

Global Protection Against Limited Strike, 5 

Goddard Space Flight Center, 136 

Grand Tour Cluster, 21 

greenhouse effect, 1, 91, 137 

Satellite, 6, 24, 82-83 

Haystack Auxiliary Radar, 34 

Haystack Kadar, 34 

High Energy Solar Physics mission, 21 

Hubble Space Telescope, 2, 10, 12, 13, 88, 137 

Hybrid Laminar Flow Control, 53 

“ignorosphere”, 10, 135 

India, 97 

Infrared Background Signature Survey, 70 

INMARSAT, 6, 8, 11, 103ff, 104 ill., 138ff 

Inner Magnetosphere Imager, 21 

INTELSAT, 8, 11, I03ff, 138ff 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program, 19 

Italian Space Agency, 2, 20, 25 

Japanese Space Agency, 2, 19, 20, 35-36, 84, 97 

Jet hq”sion Laboratory, 88 

Johnson Space Center, 65, 68 

Jupiter, 2, 12 ill., 13, 17, 18, 137 

KC-135, 95 

Kennedy Space Center, 20, 32 

Kinetic Energy Anti-Satellite System, 75-76 

Kitt Peak National Observatory, 10, 134 

Kuwait, oil well fires, 22, 91 

Landsat, 8, 75, 83, 106ff, 113ff, 119ff, 132ff, 137 

Langley Research Center, 48, 52, 128 

lasers, 61-62, 75, 76, 95, 118 (including ill.), 132 

Latin America, 115 

Lewis Research Center, 47-48, 54, 56 

Long Duration Exposure Facility, 3, 63 

Low (George M.) Trophy, 37 

Magellan, 2, 3, 16-17, 61, 111 ill. 

Mars, 2, 13, 17-18, 137 

Mars Observer, 17-18 

Marshall Space Flight Center, 27, 137 

microgravity experiments, 27, 28, 32, 95 

Midtile East, 115 

Milstar, 72 

mission control, 65 

Mission to Planet Earth, 2, 3, 61 

Morocco, 137 

Mount Pinatubo, eruption, 22, 85, 87 

(including ill.), 91, 92 

NASA, 1-4, 10, 12-69, 70-71, 81, 83, 88, 91, 94-95, 

97ff, 123ff, 129ff, 136ff 

Commercial Programs and technology 

transfer, 38-43, 66, 69 

educational efforts, 68-69 

Exobiology Program, 26-27 

ground based research, 27 

Safety and Mission Quality, 36-38 

NASA Scatterometer, 23-24 

National Aero-Space Plane, 1, 5, 51-52, 59 ill., 59-60, 80 

National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center, 10 

National Institute of Standards and 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Technology, 88ff 

Administration, 1, 6, 24, 70, 82ff, 109 

satellites, 82-89 

National Science Foundation, 10, 21, 68, 134-135 

Naval Research Laboratory, see US. Navy 

Navstar Global Positioning System, 5, 70, 73, 112 

Neptune, 16, 18 

New Launch System, 2, 5, 32-33, 70-71 

noise reduction, 48, 51, 56 

nuclear power, 64, 99ff, 101-102 ill. 

186 
Onizuka Air Force Base, 71 

Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, 1, 5, 72ff 

Operational Medicine Program, 15 

orbital debris, 34, 130 

Orbiter, see Space Shuttle 

Orbiting Solar Laboratory, 19 

ozone depletion, 1, 22, 23, 50, 55, 86-87, 91, 124, 137 

Patriot missiles, 75 

Patrick Air Force Base, 71 

PEACESAT, 6,83 

Pegasus, 5, 70 

Pilot’s Associate Program, 79-80 

Pioneer Missions, 15-16 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter, 16 

Pluto, 2, 13, 18 

Protein Crystal Growth Facility, 27 

quasar, 13 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator, 7, 99ff 

robotics, 65 

Roentgen Satellite, 14-15 

rotorcraft, 48-49, 79, 129-130 

SARSAT, 6, 83 

satellite communications, 40 

Saturn, 2, 13, 16, 18 

Scout, 1 

Sea Launch and Recovery, 71 

Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor, 24 

Short Take-off and Vertical Landing Aircraft, 50, 54 

Small Business Innovation Research, 3 

Smithsonian Astrophysics Observatory, 

Smithsonian Institution, 10, 136-137 

Solar-A, 3, 20 

Solar System Exploration, 15, 18 

sounding rockets, 20-21 

Soviet Union, 11, 18, 25, 83, 141ff 

SP-100, see nuclear power 

Space Biology, 26 

Space Communications, 4, 40-41, 43-47 

Space Exploration Initiative, 3-4, 67-69, 101-102 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network, 44-45 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility, 12, 14 

Spacelab, 1 

10, 14, 91, 136ff 

Space Life Sciences-1, 1, 2, 24-25, 26 

space medicine, 25 

Space Network, 4, 43 

Space Physiology and Countermeasures, 25 

space reactor, 7 

space science and technology, 2, 60-67, 

Space Shuttle, 1, 2, 5, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28-31, 35, 61, 

Space Shuttle Main Engine, 3, 30, 62 

Space Shuttle Systems Integration, 31 

Space Station Freedom, 2, 7, 25, 27-28, 

Space Transportation System, see Space Shuttle 

Spain, 112, 138 

star trackers, 61 

stellar astronomy, 134, 137, see also astrophysics 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty, 11 

Strategic Defense Initiative, 76-78, 141-142 

Stratospheric Observatory for 

Sun, 2, 10, 17, 18-20, 21, 136-13? ill. 

74-75, 94-95, 137 

65, 66, 70, 95, 102, 139 

34-36, 63, 66, 89 

SR-71, 57-58 

Infrared Astronomy, 14 

Taurus, 70 

Tethered Satellite System, 1, 20, 32 

technology transfer, 41-42 

Telemedicine Spacebridge, 26 

Thermosphere-Ionosp here-Mesosphere 

Energetics and Dynamics Mission, 21 

Titan 111, 18 

Titan IVs, 5, 70, 73 

TOPEWPOSEIDON, 23 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, 23 

Toward Other Planetary Systems, 18 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, 4, 144 

Tracking and Data Relay System, 44 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission, 24 

UH-60, 49 

Ulysses, 2, 7, 17 

United Kingdom, 14 

United States Air Force, 1, 5, 34, 

United States Army, 72ff 

United States Information Agency, 11, 144-145 

United States Navy, 6, 71ff, 95, 125 

56, 70-81 passim, 88, 129 

187 
University of Rochester, 25 

university space research, 65-66 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite, 

2, 22-23 (incl. ill.), 

Upper Stages, 32, 33 

U.S. Global Change Research Program, 21 

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory, 28 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, 70, 71, 130 

Venus, 2, 3, 16, 17, 61, 137 

Venezuela, 11 2 

Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer, 6 

Voyager, 7, 16, 99 

weather forecasting, 121-123 (ill, 

122), see also climate research 

wind tunnels, 5, 47-60, (ill., 53) 

X-29, 6, 49, 80-81 

X-30, see National Aero-Space Plane 

X-31, 6, 49-50 (ill., 50), 81 

X-ray Timing Explorer, 15 

XV-15, 48 

Yohkoh, 20 

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U S GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1992-327-493