U. S. AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ACTIVITIES, 

JANUARY 1 TO DECEMBER 31, 1960 

REPORT TO CONGRESS 

FROM 

THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
THE WHITE HOUSE 

TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES: 

In accordance with Section 206(b) of the National Aeronautics 

and Space Act of 1958, I am transmitting herewith the third annual 

report on the Nation's activities in the fields of aeronautics and space. 

As this report testifies, 1960 witnessed avast expansion of 

man's knowledge of the earth's atmosphere and of the limitless regions 

of space beyond. The Vanguard, Explorer, and Pioneer s pa c e c r aft 

have added substantially to our knowledge of the earth's environment 

and of the sun-earth relationship. Experiments with Projects Echo and 

COURIER, TIROS I and 11, and TRANSIT I and XI have shown the promise 

of spacecraft application in the fields of communications, meteorology, 

and navigation. Among th e outstanding accomplishments in technology 

were a series of successful recoveries from orbit of capsules from the 

DISCOVERER s at e 11 i t e s and the increasing d e g r e e of reliability in 

stabilizing these satellites in the required orbit. 

Significant advances were made in the manned space flight program and in the preparation of a small fleet of powerfullaunch vehicles 

to carry out a wide variety of space missions. 

Underlying the Nation's aeronautics and space programs was a 

strong basic and applied r e s e a r c h effort which resulted in constantly 

broadening scientific and technological horizons. F in a 11 y, the entire 

effort has been drawn together in a long-range program of space exploration which off e r s every promise that in the years to come benefits 

for all mankind will be extensive. 

Summarized within this report are c on t r i b u t i on s of Federal 

agencies participating in the space effort. 

DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

January 18, 1961 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

SUMMARY - U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities 

Third Annual Report -- 1960 . . . . .' 

CHAPTER I - National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration . . . . . . . , . . CHAPTER I1 - Department of Defense . . . . . . . CHAPTER I11 - U.S. Atomic Energy Commission . . . . CHAPTER IV - Department of State . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER V - The National Science Foundation . CHAPTER VI - Department of Commerce . . . . . . . National Bureau of Standards . . . Weather Bureau . . . . . . . . . Coast and Geodetic Survey . . . . CHAPTER VI1 - Space Science Board . . . . . . . . . CHAPTgR VI11 - Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

CHAPTER IX - Federal Communications Commission . CHAPTER X - United States Information Agency 

APPENDIX A - Report to NASA on the Law of Outer . Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX B - National Science Foundation in Basic 

Science Related to Space . . . . . APPENDIX C - Space Science Board . . . . . . . . 

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U. S. AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ACTIVITIES 

SUMMARY 

THIRD ANNUAL REPORT 

- - 1960 - - 

In 1960, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, which directs the Nation's nonmilitary space 

effort, moved out of its formative stage, accelerating its 

space research and development and its fundamental aeronautical research programs. Adding breadth and depth to 

the near-term objectives, a long-range U.S. plan of space 

exploration -- which envisions manned expeditions to the 

moon after 1970 -- was developed and set in motion. 

suborbital flight in NASA's Project Mercury were nearing 

the final stages. The agency plans to launch astronauts 

on both suborbital and orbital flights during 1961. 

Another very high priqrity NASA project, Saturn, was 

progressing satisfactorily as static testing of the clustered 1.5-million-pound-thrust engine went forward. 

At the year's end, preparations for the first manned 

Among other significant activities, NASA and Department of Defense earth-satellite, space-probe, and soundingrocket programs moved ahead, along with construction of 

tracking and data-collection networks. 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board with cochairmen from the two agencies. 

NASA rpade headway with other elements of its launch 

vehicle program as the first of a small fleet of standardized units, tailored specifically for space mission, 

approached the flight-test phase. They will replace interim launch vehicles, evolved or modified from models 

designed originally either for Department of Defense programs o r f o r Project Vanguard. 

fo'rmances of the rocket-powered X-15 experimental airplane 

which achieved world speed (2,196 mph) and altitude 

(136,500 feet) records. The agency continued advanced 

research and development work on VTOL (Vertical Take-Off 

and &anding) and on STOL (short - Take-Of7 - and - Lading)- 

aircraft. 

NASA and the Department of Defense established an 

NASA's aeronautical program was highlighted by per- 

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In U.S. field centers and stations, basic research 

continued in many areas, including: advanced instrumentation and propulsion, combustion, plasmas, cryogenics, 

special materials, and structures for future airplanes and 

spacecraft . Early in the year, NASA established the Office for the 

United Nations Conference to direct this country's participation in the first International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. Several space projects were carried out jointly with other nations; agreements were made 

with foreign governments; and discussions were held with 

various foreign scientists and groups concerning further 

cooperative space research activities. 

To date (December 31, 1960), the United States had 

successfully launched 31 earth satellites and four deep 

space probes; of these 16 satellites are still circling 

the earth and two probes are in orbit around the sun. Data 

accruing from NASA and Department of Defense (DOD) programs during 1960 added substantially to the growing body of 

scientific knowledge of space and to the technology of space 

applications. 

U.S. SPACE PROGRAM HIGHLIGHTS 

NASA Activities 

During the year, NASA launched four satellites into 

orbit and one space probe. 

The NASA space flight program was highlighted by the 

successes of the Echo I passive communications satellite 

and of the TIROS I AND TIROS I1 experimental weather satellites (which pointed the way to operational systems having 

practical applications) as well as by achievements of 

Pioneer V, the sun-orbiting spacecraft, and Explorer VIII, 

an ionosphere-probing earth satellite. 

The one-ton, bell-shaped Project Mercury capsule and 

its escape tower underwent numerous flight tests, culminating 

in an unmanned, suborbital flight launched by a Redstone on 

December 19. 

The seven Mercury astronauts continued their training 

schedule, to prepare for the first manned (Redstone) suborbital flight and the first manned (Atlas) orbital flight, 

both planned for 1961. At the same time, construction of 

the worldwide Mercury Tracking and Ground Instrumentation 

- iv - 
Network approached completion. 

NASA tracking stations abroad had either been signed or 

were near conclusion as 1960 ended. 

Formal agreements for all 

The NASA Pioneer V space probe achieved the orbit 

around the sun which NASA scientists had calculated. It 

transmitted invaluable scientific data on the phenomena of 

deep space, while establishing the greatest range -- 

22,462,740 miles from the earth -- over which radio contact 

has been maintained with a spacecraft. 

NASA's TIROS I, an. experimental meteoroJogica1 satellite, transmitted 22,592 photographs of cloud cover and 

other weather phenomena after attaining a nearly circular 

orbit with an altitude averaging approximately 4.50 miles. 

Echo I, the world's first passive communications (or 

?'radio mirror") satellite, also achieved a nearly circular 

orbit, averaging about 1,000 miles in altitude. 

inflatable sphere was used for numerous communications 

experiments, including two-way telephone conversations, 

t r a n s - A t l a n t i c signal relays, and transmi ssion of f ac similes, 

photographs, and music. 

The 

Explorer VI11 was launched by NASA into an orbit 

enabling it to carry out the first intensive direct measurement study of the earth's ionosphere. The data are being 

analyzed and related to earlier information. 

TIROS 11, an advanced version of TIROS I, are still being analyzed. 

The X-15 rocket-powered airplane (No. 1) -- a joint 

NASA-Air Force-Navy project -- set a new world's speed 

record of 2,196 mph, with NASA test pilot Joseph A. Walker 

at the controls. With Air Force Maj. Robert M. White in 

the cockpit, the aircraft flew to a record altitude of 

136,500 feet . In March, all administrative and technical responsibilities for the Saturn, the powerful 1.5-million-poundthrust, clustered-engine launch vehicle, were transferred 

from the Department of Defense to NASA. 

static tests when the prototype first stage was f i r e d f o r 

'two minutes and two seconds at Marshall Space Flight Center. 

Cloud pattern photographs and radiation data from 

Saturn satisfactorily completed a first series of 

In addition, NASA carried out many upper atmosphere 

experiments with sounding rockets. 

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Department of Defense Activities 

During the year, the Department of Defense continued 

intensive effort on its DISCOVERER program. For the first 

time in history, a man-made object was recovered from s ace 

after it had orbited the earth, when a DISCOVERER capsu T1 e 

was retrieved from the Pacific Ocean on August 11. Later 

in the year, three more capsules were recovered in mid-air 

-- a far more difficult operation -- by aircraft equipped with special slings. 

Other important "firsts" included feasibility demonstrations by navigation (TRANSIT) and cummunications relay 

(COURIER) satellites. 

Twenty-one launch attempts were made, with 12 successfully attaining orbit. 

Included among key Defense Department projects were: 

1) GREB (Galactic Radiation Experiment Background), a 

solar radiation experiment satellite launched pick-a-back 

on TRANSIT in a multiple payload experiment; 

the COURIER launching (above) was a part. 

2) NOTUS, a communications system program of which 

3) 

4) 

SHEPHERD, a program to obtain a space surveillance 

LONGSIGHT, a project to find and remedy serious 

tracking system. 

short- and long-term gaps in study and research relating to 

foreseen military needs in space technology. 

5) SAMOS - a program to determine the capabilities for making observations of the earth from satellites. 

6) VELA, a project whose objective is a system for 

detecting nuclear explosions. 

7) SAINT (Satellite Inspector System) program, intended 

to develop and demonstrate a rendezvous and inspection satellite . 

8) LORRAINE, devoted to advanced energy conversion. 

9) BLUE SCOUT, a project to develop and standardize 

and economical, versatile, and reliable test vehicle. 

10) 

- System. 

MIDAS, a satellite-borne _Missile Defense - Alarm 

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11) DYNA-SOAR, a project to construct and test a 

To this 

manned, maneuverable aerospace vehicle that will explore 

hypersonic flight approaching orbital speeds. 

project NASA is contributing research services. 

Summary of Other Government Space-Related Programs 

The following space-related work went forward In 

other Government agencies: 

The Atomic Energy Commission continued cooperation 

with NASA on Project Rover, directed toward attaining 

nuclear rocket propulsion; and Project SNAP, a series of 

nuclear-generated auxiliary electric power systems for 

spacecraft. 

to the emerging political and legal problems of space. 

all activities, which have ranged from participation in 

United Nations General Assembly meetings to non-governmental 

scientific meetings, the United States has pursued its 

national policy of fostering international cooperation in 

space research and exploration, and in seeking effective 

international control of outer space activities. 

The National Science Foundation forged ahead with its 

policy of supporting basic research of a pioneering nature. 

The foundation made a number of grants to nonprofit institutions for the support of research projects proposed by staff scientists of the institutions involved. 

The Department of State was active in matters related 

In 

The Department of Commerce, through the National 

Bureau of Standards, the Weather Bureau, and the Coast and 

Geodetic Survey, participated in many aspects of the space 

program 

The Space Science Board pursued its endeavors in both 

domestic and foreign space programs. General study groups 

were convened to consider specific problems, and a report, 

entitled "Science in Space" issued in nine separate pamphlets was distributed in the U.S. and abroad. The Board's 

international activities were carried out mostly through 

COSPAR (Committee on Space Research) . The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, under a 

NASA grant, continued its technical direction and related 

responsibilities of the Baker-Nunn Optical Tracking Network. 

The Federal Communications Commission increased its 

activities, both domestic and international, in the fields 

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of space communication, radio astronomy, and aeronautics. 

Progress was made toward implementing the 1959 Geneva 

Radio Regulations which provide specific frequencies for 

space communications research and radio astronomy. 

The United States Information Agency issued news 

releases, photographs, pamphlets, magazine reprints, and 

employed a variety of communications media -- including 

radio, television, motion pictures, and exhibits -- to 

disseminate information abroad on space activities of the 

United States. 

International Cooperation in Space 

lates that NASA should cooperate "with other nations and 

groups of nations" in aeronautics and space activities "and 

in the peaceful applications of the results thereof .w 

The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 stipuIn keeping with this policy, NASA requested negotiation 

of formal agreements with other nations for establishment . 

of U.S. tracking stations abroad; made available to foreign 

scientists, through COSPAR, data from several U.S. experi- ments such as Echo I and TIROS 11; entered upon joint space 

projects with scientific organizations of several countries 

and initiated discussions leading toward more such projects; 

and established the Office for the United Nations Conference, 

to serve as a focal point -- with guidance from the Department of State -- for U.S. participation in the First International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 

Summary Evaluation of U.S. Space Goals and Problem Areas 

During 1960, the practical benefits of space research 

-- especially in the fields of meteorology and communications -- came into sharper focus. At the same time, experiments in other areas continued to add to the immense 

store of significant scientific data. (For example , when 

Explorer VIIIts transmission ended on December 27, it had 

produced 700 miles of magnetic tape, now being analyzed.) 

implementing its Long Range Plan with the full resources 

at its command. Beyond the strict research and development aspect, the agency's Committee on Long Range Studies 

arranged for four studies centering on wide-ranging socioeconomic and political implications of space activities. 

After consolidating its organization, NASA began 

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The basic problem areas of 1959 -- lack of high-thrust 

launch vehicles designed specifically for space missions, 

lack of reliability in space experiments, etc. -- were still 

in evidence as 1960 ended. But new, standardized launch 

vehicles had been developed and soon would be operational. 

Progress was also being made in development of midcourse 

and terminal guidance equipment and techniques. Research 

into the performance of materials and fuels in the temperature extremes and stresses of space flight, and development of technology for deep space flight technology were 

productive . In sum, despite setbacks to be expected in any new, 

highly active and complex, research field, the civilian 

and military space programs of the United States had to 

their credit many noteworthy scientific achievements as 

well as a respectable list of sound technical accomplishments. Together with their implications, the year’s 

developments forecast that the U.S. will exercise dynamic 

and fruitful leadership as men range deeper and deeper into 

new dimensions of space exploration. 

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CHAPTER I 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

INTRODUCTION 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) 

was created by Congress in 1958 to conduct nonmilitary aeronautics and space research and development. (In practice, 

NASA confines its aeronautics activities to research. ) The 

Space Act states that these activities must be pursued not 

only for the benefit of the U.S. but for all mankind. The 

legislation also stipulates that NASA support space-related 

military research programs as required. 

NASAvs mission encompasses exploration of the earth's 

atmosphere, and of the moon, planets, and interplanetary 

space. 

programs during 1960 are summarized below. 

Accomplishments and developments in principal NASA 

EXPERIMENTAL MISSIONS 

During the period January 1, 1960, to December 31, 1960, 

NASA attempted to launch 10 earth satellites and space 

probes. Five achieved most of their goals and several exceeded their expected performance. These experiments, like 

those of 1958 and 1959, added to knowledge of the ocean of 

air in which we live and of the reaches of space beyond. 

They produced invaluable data on the Great Radiation Region, 

the earthvs magnetic field, micrometeoroid density in space, and on many other phenomena. 

All of these launchings were from Cape Canaveral, Fla. 

Major Satellite and Space Probe Experiments 

... March 11 Pioneer V, a 94.8-pound probe, designed to 

'gather scientific data from deep space and to test communications over interplanetary distances, was launched 

by, a Thor-Able. The probe contained two radio transmitterreceivers, one of five watts, the other of 150 watts, as 

well as instrumentation to measure: 1) radiation streaming 

-1- 
from the sun; 2) the spatial distribution of energetic particles and medium-energy electrons and protons; 3) the number 

and density of meteoric dust particles striking the probe; 

and 4) the strength of magnetic fields. 

Four paddle-shaped 14- by 18-inch vanes jut from the, 

globe-shaped payload, each vane studded with 1,200 solar 

cells which provide power to recharge Pioneer V's nickelcadmium batteries. 

To achieve the desired orbit -- perihelion approaching 

the sun and near the orbit of Venus -- Pioneer V was launched 

in a direction opposite to that of the earth's revolution 

around the sun. With a speed less than the earth's -- and 

hence with a reduced centrifugal force to offset the sun's 

7 Previous probes had been launched so that their speed was 

added to that of the earth, and they thus moved outward, 

away from the sun.) 

Pioneer V established the greatest range -- 22,462,740 

miles from earth -- over which man has tracked, received 

telemetry from, and maintained control over an instrumented 

vehicle. The previous record was set by Pioneer IV, which 

was tracked to 4.07,OOO miles. 

The probe's magnetometer confirmed the existence of an 

electrical "ring current" circling the earth at an altitude 

of 4O,OOO miles, a giant girdle of low-energy charged parti- cles. The newly discovered current, the existence of which 

has been argued by geophysicists for more than 50 years, is 

not to be confused with the Great Radiation Region discovered 

by earlier U. S. satellites. 

ravitational pull -- the probe fell inward toward the sun. 

The probe also: 1) reported an intense zone of disturbed magnetic fields at distances of 4.0,OOO to 60,000 

miles; 2) revealed that the boundary of the earth's magnetic field is twice as far from earth as had been previously supposed; 3) made a detailed examination of the interplanetary 

magnetic field; and 4) reported the first direct observation 

of pure cosmic rays at altitudes completely free of the 

earth's atmosphere. The observation was made three million 

miles in space. 

... March 23 an Explorer satellite, equipped ta analyze electron and proton radiation energies in the Great Radiation 

Region over an extended period of time, failed to achieve 

orbit. Communication with the Juno I1 launch vehicle was 

lost after second stage burnout. Probable cause of failure: 

a malfunction in one of the rockets in the second stage 

cluster causing angle deviation and a decrease in velocity. 

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... A ril 1 TIROS I (Television and Infra-Red* Observation 

Sate +IT 1 e , a 270-poGnd, drum-shapea, expzrimeztal rneteorological satellite, was launched by a Thor-Able. The satellite went into a near-circular orbit with a perigee of 

428.7 miles and an apogee of 465.9 miles. 

TIROS I made meteorological history, giving scientists 

an unprecedented opportunity to study the earth's cloud 

patterns and relate them to the weather. 

phenomena shown for the first time were large-scale cyclones, 

with spiral bands sometimes covering an area one thousand 

miles across. 

Among the striking 

Photographs transmitted by its two television cameras 

also indicated the presence of jet streams, regions of moist 

and dry air, thunderstorms, fronts, and other data. Experimental studies of TIROS data have already resulted in improved understanding and increased accuracy in weather 

forecasting, particularly over large ocean areas. 

The satellite's cameras swept the earth's cloud cover 

between 50 degrees north and south latitudes -- a band exArgentina, in the Western Hemisphere, and from Le Havre, 

France to Southern Africa and from Northern Manchuria to 

New Zealand in the Eastern Hemisphere. One camera was 

capable of photographing hundreds of thousands of square 

miles in one picture -- the area varying with the angle of 

the lens to the earth. The other instrument, a highresolution camera, could photograph an area 80 miles on a 

side within the area covered by the first camera. The 

high-resolution camera, which provided 10 times the detail 

of the wide-angle camera, reproduced the structure and 

texture of clouds within the over-all cloud mass. 

_- tending roughly from Montreal, Canada, to Santa Cruz, 

About midnight on June 29, after TIROS I had completed 

1,302 orbits around the world, attempts to interrogate the 

satellite ceased. Its effective lifetime, during which it 

transmitted 22,592 pictures, was at an end. 

... Ma 

sate + te into orbit failed because of an apparent malfunction in the second stage of the new Delta launch vehicle and 

failure of the third stage to receive the ignition signal. 

1 an attempt to launch an Echo passive communications 

* The infrared sensor equipment had not been completed by 

launch time, hence was not included in the payload. 

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... Au ust 12 Echo I, the world's first successful passive 

Delta (it was Deltats first successful flight). 

diameter, inflatable sphere of aluminized Mylar plastic, 

weighed 136 pounds and contained an additional 30 pounds of 

subliming chemicals to inflate it. 

The sphere went into a nearly circular orbit which was. 

confirmed when word of a sighting was received from a tracking station at Woomera, Australia. Echo's initial apogee 

was 1,049 miles, perigee 945 miles. During its first orbit, 

scientists transmitted President Eisenhowerts tape-recorded 

voice from California to New Jersey, via the sphere. Since 

then, numerous communications experiments have been conducted. 

Transmissions have included teletype signals, facsimile photographs, two-way telephone conversations using commercial 

equipment, trans-continental and trans-Atlantic signal relays, and experiments to learn more about the effects of the ionosphere upon radio signals. 

commun -+T- ca ons or "radio mirror" satellite, was launched by 

The 100-foot 

Echo Its launching is part of NASA's program to investigate the feasibility of satellites for global communications 

including worldwide telephone, radio, and television. Such 

satellites may eventually lead to worldwide r'livelf TV broadcasts. 

... Se tember 25 an attempt to fire a Pioneer space probe into 

of the Atlas-Able rocket vehicle failed to provide necessary 

velocity. 

... November 3 Explorer VIII, a 90-pound satellite equipped 

to carry out the first intensive direct measurement study 

of the earth's ionosphere, was launched by a Juno 11. The 

spin-stabilized satellite, shaped like a toy top, went into 

an initial orbit with an apogee of 1,423 miles, a perigee of 258 miles. 

lunar + or it en ed when abnormal burning in the second stage 

The ionosphere consists of a series of regions of 

charged particles beginning about 50 miles above the earth's 

surface and extending for hundreds of miles into space. 

Here, ultraviolet radiation from the sun acts upon the atoms 

of the atmosphere, causing them to become ionized; that is, 

to lose their electrons. The result is plasma, a gaseous 

sub stance. 

Because radio signals normally bounce back and forth 

between the earth and the ionosphere, international radio 

communications are made possible, despite the curvature of 

the earth. However, the composition of the ionosphere is 

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constantly changing because of solar storms, auroral displays and other natural phenomena such as sunlight and 

shadow. These shifts sometimes disrupt cpmmunications, cause 

the radio signals to be absorbed in the ionosphere -- or 

cause them to streak right through the ionosphere into space. 

The satellite has two secondary objectives: 1) to 

measure the charge accumulation, that is, the static electricity, on the satellite's aluminum surfaces which can be 

related to the problem of electrical drag; and 2) to measure 

the number of micrometeoroid impacts. 

(Explorer VI11 transmissions ceased on December 27. 

The data sent by this satellite, recorded on 700 miles of 

magnetic tape, is being analyzed. ) 

... November 23 TIROS 11, a 280-pound advanced version of 

TIRDS I , was launched from AMR by a Delta, flying into an 

orbit with a 387-mile perigee, a 453-mile apogee. The satellite is equipped with a narrow-angle and wide-angle television camera, each the size of a water glass, plus infrared 

sensors to measure solar and terrestrial radiation. The 

radiation experiment will assist research meteorologists in 

studying general circulation of the atmosphere and in determining many features of atmospheric composition and temperature. 

In early December, data from the satellite were still 

being analyzed. At that time, the narrow-angle camera and 

infrared sensors were working well, but the wide-angle 

camera was not providing pictures of as high quality as 

those produced by TIROS I. 

... December 4, the first orbital experiment with the Scout 

launch vehicle did not achieve objective because the second 

stage did not ignite. The vehicle was intended to place in 

orbit a 12-foot-diameter, inflatable satellite to measure 

density of the atmosphere. 

... December 15 an attempt to launch a Pioneer space probe 

ended with an explosion which destroyed the Atlas-Able 

rocket vehicle 70 seconds after liftoff at an altitude of 

about l+O,OOO feet. Purpose of the experiment was to probe 

the environment between earth and moon and to develop technology for controlling and maneuvering spacecraft from the 

earth. Cause of the explosion is under study. 

-5- 
NATIONAL LAUNCH VEHICLE PROGRAM 

Standardized Vehicles Come on Line 

NASA's launch vehicle program, a key element of the 

Long-Range Plan, made significant progress in 1960. Through 

mid-year, most NASA launch vehicles traced their lineage to 

components developed in either the Department of Defense 

missile program or in Project Vanguard, the U.S. earthsatellite program for the International Geophysical Year. 

NASA is now replacing these vehicles with the first of a 

fleet of standardized units especially designed for space 

missions. Through continued use of the new vehicles, the 

agency expects to achieve a high degree of reliability. 

Vanguard and the Army-developed Jupiter C have been 

phased out, the Jupiter-based Juno I1 and the Thor-Able 

programs will be completed in 1961. 

successfully for the first time this year -- will not be 

used after 1961. Moving on line to replace them are the 

four-stage, solid-fueled Scout, capable of launching 150- 

pound earth satellites, and Thor-Agena B, which has a 

1,600-pound earth orbital capacity. 

Delta -- launched 

Scout has lO5,OOO pounds thrust. It was designed for 

reliability, ease of handling, versatility, and relatively 

low production cost, i.e., about $750,.000 each. On October 4, 

the first complete Scout vehicle was launched. 

Thor-Agena B is basically the same vehicle as that used 

in the DISCOVERER satellite program. Agena B is a l5,OOOpound-thrust liquid-fuel rocket; Thor has a thrust of 165,000 

pounds. In a more powerful class is Atlas-Agena B. With 

Atlas (360,000-pound thrust at lift-off, 80,000-pound thrust 

in its sustainer stage), the Agena B will be able to launch 

750 pounds to the moon -- including hard-landing pay loads -- 

and 5,000-pound earth satellites. 

More powerful is Atlas-Centaur, the first U.S. launch 

vehicle to employ a high-energy upper stage, using liquid 

hydrogen-liquid oxygen (LOX) propellant instead of hydrazine 

(kerosene) and LOX. The Centaur second stage consists of 

two rocket engines, each generating 15,000 pounds of thrust. 

The vehicle's capability: 8,500-pound earth satellites, 

1,450-pound lunar orbiters and planetary probes. 

Saturn whose first stage, eight clustered liquid-fuel 

engines, will deliver 1.5 million pounds of thrust. Mounted 

on the cluster in the first (or C-1 version) will be two 

The largest U.S. launch vehicle under construction is 

-6- 
Centaur upper stages. The C-1's capacity: 19,000 pounds 

in earth orbit, 5,000 pounds on a lunar trajectory. Secondgeneration versions of Saturn are also under consideration. 

One of these, the three- or four-stage C-2, will carry a 

second stage with four 200,000-pound thrust, liquid hydrogenliquid oxygen engines. During the report period, Saturn 

completed its first series of static tests satisfactorily 

with a two-minute, two-second firing of the prototype first 

stage . 

Much study was devoted to defining the launch vehicle 

to follow Saturn. One of a number of possibilities is the 

Nova concept, which would employ the single-chamber, 1.5- 

million-pound thrust F-1 engine, now being developed. Under 

this approach, several F-1 engines would be used in the 

first stage and hydrogen-oxygen stages would be mounted 

thereon. 

The principal objective of the F-1 is to land a manned 

spacecraft on the moon and return it to earth. 

MANNED SPACE FLIGHT PROGRAM 

Project Mercury 

Ob'ectives -- Project Mercury, which entails the first 

U.S. --+I--) manne su orbital and orbital space flights, is the 

first step in NASA's long-range manned space flight program. 

It has two basic objectives: 1) to demonstrate how usefully 

a man can function in space flight; and 2) to discover the 

design and operational problems that must be solved to make 

advanced manned space flight feasible and as safe as possible. (Detailed background, objectives, and evolution of 

the project were provided in the President's Second Annual 

Report to Congress on the Nation's Activities in the Fields 

of Aeronautics and Space. ) 

Astronaut Training -- The seven Mercury astronauts 

experienced a wide range of training in 1960 -- from survival 

tests in the Nevada desert to flight mission simulations in 

centrifuges. 

As the year opened, the seven Mercury astronauts had 

completed basic and theoretical studies in their training 

program and had started practical engineering studies. This 

involved, for example, a transition from theory of propulsion 

to study of actual propulsion systems. 

-7- 
Astronaut training included astronautics, electronics, 

trajectories, guidance, rockets, and preparation for scientific observations during orbital flight. 

numerous industrial and Government facilities engaged in 

rocket vehicle research and development. 

The men acquired intensive training in devices that 

simulate space flight and capsule environment; practiced 

escape from a capsule at sea; took courses in star identification and celestial navigation; participated in zero-gravity 

familiarization flights; and observed unmanned test flights 

of the capsule. 

They visited 

Mercury Capsule -- The production model of the Mercury flight capsule entered the ttshakedownlt or qualification stage 

with the following flights: 

... May 9. The capsule, with its rocket-equipped 16-foot 

escape tower, was mounted on a launch pad at Wallops Station 

as it would be on the nose of an Atlas. 

was fired, carrying the capsule to an altitude of 2,540 feet 

where a drogue parachute was deployed. It stabilized the 

capsule and dragged out the main parachute which lowered the 

capsule into the Atlantic. 

The escape rocket 

The capsule-escape tower showed good aerodynamic stability and no tumbling occurred. 

... Jul 29. A launch of a Mercury production capsule 

by an At ry--a as en ed in failure when a malfunction occurred one 

minute after lift-off, resulting in destruction of the launch 

vehicle. 

... November 8. An attempt to launch a Mercury capsule 

on a suborbital fI ight from Wallops Station, Va., ended when 

the capsule failed to separate from its Little Joe launch 

vehicle. The Little Joe, with capsule and escape tower still 

attached, fell into the Atlantic. 

... November 21. An attempt to launch a capsule from 

Cape Canaveral ended when a signal triggered by the Redstone 

rocket vehicle's ground connection shut down the engine immediately after ignition. The escape tower rockets ignited 

almost simultaneously with the Redstone engine shutdown. 

The escape tower broke loose, shot several thousand feet in 

the air, and fell back to earth. 

. . .December 19. All capsule systems worked satisfactorily in a suborbital launch of a Mercury capsule from Cape 

-8- 
Canaveral with a Redstone rocket vehicle. The capsule 

reached an altitude of 135 miles and was recovered from the 

Atlantic Ocean at a distance of 235 miles. 

Capsule Modifications Continue -- Wind tunnel and flight 

tests of th e capsule have demonstrated that aerodynamic heating and air stresses of "loads," during powered flight may be 

more severe than originally anticipated. As a result, the 

capsule and escape tower structures have been strengthened 

and electrical conduits modified to provide more protection 

against heat. 

examined to prevent excessive stresses resulting from an 

abort maneuver. 

Methods of increasing cabin pressure are being 

In addition, beryllium has been substituted for a cobalt 

alloy in the afterbody section housing the capsule's main 

parachute, and the entire afterbody skin has been thickened. 

These measures were taken as a result of the Big Joe flight 

of September 9, 1959, which indicated a peak temperature of 

2,300 degrees Fahrenheit on the afterbody. 

wide mercury Tracking and Ground Instrumentation Network will 

become operational in early 1961 in readiness for the first 

unmanned orbital abort tests, scheduled for the second 

quarter, and the manned suborbital and orbital flights planned for later in the year. 

suborbital flights were readied. 

remainder of the network, including the stations aboard 

ships which will be deployed in the Indian and Atlantic 

Oceans. 

Mercury Tracking and Communications Network -- The worldDuring 1960, the stations which will cover the manned 

Progress was made on the 

Other Project Mercury Developments -- Progress in other 

elements of th e project included: 

... A team of 160 military and civilian medical special- ists has been organized to serve with Project Mercury's 

recovery and tracking forces. 

... Department of Defense recovery support for Project 

Mercury, which is under the direction of the Commander of 

Destroyer Flotilla 4 at Norfolk, Va., moved ahead with plans 

to deploy naval vessels, aircraft, helicopters, and amphibious 

rescue craft to pick up the manned capsule. 

... A group of young chimpanzees underwent training at 

Holloman AFB, N.M., for flights in the Mercury capsule preceding manned flights. 

-9- 
...The U.S. Weather Bureau made plans to furnish 

meteorological support to the project. 

SPECIAL RESEARCH PROJECTS 

The X-15 Experimental Airplane 

The rocket-powered X-15, a sleek black, stub-winged 

experimental aircraft, set world speed and altitude records 

in 1960. 

the latest in a long series of research airplanes the first 

of which -- the X-1 -- brought about the long-awaited breakthrough to supersonic flight. 

The X-15 is expected to be this countryvs first piloted 

vehicle to penetrate the fringes of space. After the X-15 

will come Dyna-Soar, a manned orbital glider that will be 

carried into space by a launch vehicle. Dyna-Soar is a joint 

Air Force-NASA project with NASA furnishing technical assistance. 

A joint NASA-Air Force-Navy project, the X-15 is 

On August 4, at the Flight Research Center, Edwards 

AFB, Calif., X-15 No. 1 set a new worldvs speed record of 

2,196 mph -- more than three times the speed of sound (Mach 

3.31). NASA test pilot Joseph A. Walker was at the controls. 

The flight began at Ef:58 a.m. PDT, after the airplane 

had been released from its mother ship at an altitude of 

45,000 feet. Walker opened the two rocket engines to full 

thrust. In four minutes of powered flight before the fuel 

burned out at 66,000 feet, the X-15 attained the record 

speed, as Walker said, "for just the snap of a finger." The 

previous world record was 2,094 mph. 

On August 12, X-15 No. 1, piloted by Air Force Maj. 

Robert M. White, broke another record by flying to an altitude 

of 136,500 feet, surpassing the previous world record of 

126,200 feet. 

The X-15 climbed at Mach 1.9, at an angle of 50 degrees. 

Fuel in the two engines was exhausted at an altitude of about 

120,000 feet but momentum carried the airplane to the record 

hei ht of 136,500 feet. Then the X-15 nosed down and glided 

its stability was tested and found to be good. 

flight time of 11 minutes, the aircraft glided to a landing 

on Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards. 

to % 0,000 feet at about 1,000 feet per second, during which 

After a total 

- 10 - 
Dyna-Soar Support 

In support of Dyna-Soar, which is still in the design 

stage, NASA is carrying out a wide range of research activities in its laboratories and wind tunnel to determine configurations that can best withstand the stresses of space 

flight 

SPACE SCIENCES PROGRAMS 

NASA space science research in 1960 emphasized two 

major areas: 1) satellite and sounding rocket programs, and 

2) lunar, planetary and interplanetary programs. The chief 

aim is to increase knowledge of the earth and its environment (geophysics), and of the sun, stars, and universe 

(astronomy) . 

Principal Accomplishments 

Notable NASA space sciences milestones during the year 

included: 1) the Pioneer V deep space probe (now in orbit 

around the sun) transmitted its final message to earth from 

about 22.5 million miles; 2) the agency made available to 

scientists throughout the world a description of the techniques needed to interpret the telemetering codes of Explorer 

VII, the 91.5-pound radiation probing satellite launched on 

October 13, 1959; 3) NASA released results from analyses of 

data transmitted by Vanguard I11 (launched September 18, 1959) 

and Explorer VI (launched August 7, 1959); 4.) staff scientists 

of NASA participated in the First International Space Sympo- sium of the International Committee on Space Research (COSPAR), Nice, France, January 8-16, 1960; 5) the first NERV (Nuclear, 

Emulsion Recovery Vehicle) experiment, designed to stzdy enerzetic parxicles in-the lower belt of the Great Radiation 

Region, was successfully launched (September 19, 1960) ; 6) 

numerous sounding rockets were launched to determine the composition and pressure of the atmosphere, to investigate winds 

and wind shears in the upper atmosphere, to determine atmospheric temperatures, and to measure neutrons and other radiations in the upper atmosphere; 7) Aerobee sounding rockets 

were launched for astronomical studies of ultraviolet radiation from the stars and nebulae; and 8) several small Aerobee 

rockets were launched, carrying cameras to photograph cloud 

cover and other weather phenomena. 

These experiments have laid the groundwork for coming 

series of progressively larger and more effective unmanned 

spacecraft, carrying increasingly elaborate instrumentation 

- 11 - 
for investigations of the moon, interplanetary space, and 

later, Venus and Mars. 

Coming hxperiments 

A principal goal of NASA's lunar program is to explore 

and investigate the moon for information on the history of 

the earth-moon system and on the origin of planetary bodies 

in the solar system. First step will be Ranger, a lunar 

spacecraft that will carry an instrument package designed 

to survive a crash landing on the moon, where it will record 

and radio to earth data about the make-up of the lunar surface. In 1961, NASA will begin test-flying Ranger with the 

Atlas-Agena B launch vehicle. 

Beyond Ranger, NASA has let contracts for advanced 

engineering studies of a soft-landing lunar spacecraft 

(called Surveyor), which will be the first U. S. spacecraft 

capable of making a controlled landing on the moon. Later 

steps to extend unmanned exploration of space to the nearer 

planets are in the planning stages. 

SATELLITE APPLICATIONS 

The practical aspects of space exploration -- goal of 

NASA's satellite applications program -- were clearly demonstrated by two extremely significant experiments during 1960. 

One, the first of a series of experimental meteorological 

satellites, demonstrated to the world that weather observation on a global scale is technically sound and economically 

feasible. 

sively advanced experiments, showed that passive communications satellites can be successfully employed as world-wide 

teleradio links. 

The second, also the first of a series of progresThe meteorological satellite, TIROS I, launched on 

April 1, and its successor, TIROS 11, launched on November 23, 

have given Weather Bureau and other interested scientists, 

here and abroad, unprecedented opportunities to relate the 

earth's cloud cover to weather observations from the ground. 

TIROS I, for example, orbiting at altitudes averaging 459 

miles, transmitted nearly 23,000 television pictures of the 

earth's cloud patterns, of which an estimated 60 percent 

were useful for analysis. Experimental use of these photographs has already resulted in increased accuracy in analyzing 

the world's weather patterns, particularly in areas such as 

those over the oceans where it is difficult to obtain data 

by orthodox means. 

- 12 - 
The Echo I passive communications satellite, launched 

on August 12, achieved equally important results. 

foot-diameter, inflatable aluminized plastic sphere, orbiting 

at an altitude of between 945 and 1,049 miles, has maintained 

sufficient inflation to permit relay experiments to continue. 

At dusk when the balloon-shaped satellite is in sunlight and 

passes overhead it is clearly visible as a star-like body, 

about as bright as Vega. of thousands of observers in both hemispheres. 

The 100- 

Hence it has been viewed by hundreds 

Among Echo Its notable "firsts" have been: relay of 

President Eisenhower's tape-recorded voice from California to 

New Jersey; relay of the first transoceanic radar signal 

(from Trinidad, B.W.I.F., to Floyd, N.Y.); first relay of a 

trans-Atlantic wireless-code radio transmission; first relay 

of wire-photo transmissions; and first relay of a transAtlantic voice message. Other transmissions have included 

relaying of teletype signals, facsimile photographs, two-way 

telephone conversations using standard commercial equipment, 

and experiments to learn more about the effects of the ionosphere on radio signals. 

While these projects were being carried forward, NASA 

rounded out planning for other satellites evolved from, or 

related to, Echo and TIROS. Included are the Nimbus series 

of weather satellites, and further development of inflatable 

passive communications satellites, rigidized to give longer 

lifetimes. 

NASA is also continuing to study the potentialities of 

"active" communications satellites containing radio receivers, 

transmitters, and antennas, plus batteries, devices for converting sunlight into electricity, or other auxiliary power 

sources. The active satellite will receive messages from 

ground stations and either transmit them immediately to 

distant parts of the earth or store them on magnetic tape 

for later transmissions upon command signals from a ground 

station, perhaps on the opposite side of the globe from the 

originating point . 

SOUNDING ROCKETS 

NASA employs sounding rockets to supplement earth 

satellite and space probe investigations. At present, NASA 

plans to limit its sounding rocket models to 11 and to 

increase their reliability by frequent firings. These vehicles range from the Aerobee 100, designed to carry 70 pounds 

to an altitude of about 80 miles, to the Argo D-8, capable of carrying 130 pounds to a distance of 1,300 miles. 

- 13 - 
During 1960, NASA launched scores of sounding rockets 

in a broad range of experiments, gathering data about the 

atmosphere, ionosphere, energetic particles and magnetic and 

electric fields. In the astronomy area, sounding rocket 

payloads included experiments for solar spectroscopy and for 

detection of areas of ultraviolet emission in space. 

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS 

Preparations for International Space Conference 

NASA is continuing its preparations for participating 

in the International Conference for the Peaceful Uses of 

Outer Space. The Conference, tentatively scheduled for 

1961, will be held under the auspices of the United Nations. 

First International Space Science Symposium 

Sciences delegation to the First International Space Science 

Symposium of the International Committee on Space Research 

(COSPAR), in Nice, France, January 8-16. NASA's offer to 

fly foreign experiments in U.S. satellites and spacecraft 

was reaffirmed. 

NASA representatives supported the National Academy of 

International Organizations 

With the Department of State, NASA also gave informal 

assurances of cooperation to scientists of 10 European 

nations which are considering space efforts modeled on the 

Centre Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire (CERN). In 

addition, NASA scientists took part in the Advisory Group 

on Aeronautical Research and Development of the North 

Atlantic Treaty Organization. 

International Participation in NASA Experiments 

NASA made it possible for foreign scientists to take 

part in several experiments including Echo I, Explorer VII, 

and TIROS I and 11. 

trans-Atlantic transmission from the U.S. using Echo I as 

a "radio mirror" was reported by the French National- Telecommunications Establishment. 

For example, the first receipt of a 

The agency continued its policy of making data from its 

experiments available to the international scientific community. 

- 14 - 
Agreements were made with the United Kingdom and Canada 

for United States launchings of satellites prepared by those 

countries. In addition, NASA and the space organizations of 

several other nations discussed cooperative sounding rocket 

experiment s. 

under a program funded by NASA and administered by the 

National Academy of Sciences, and arranged for foreign scientists, sponsored by their governments, to study space technology at NASA laboratories. 

NASA also awarded study grants to foreign scientists 

Formal agreements for all NASA tracking and data 

acquisition stations abroad had either been signed or were 

in final stages of negotiation as the year ended. 

TRACKING AND DATA ACQUISITION 

NASA's ground tracking and data acquisition networks 

must be capable of supporting four basic types of operational 

missions: 1) vertically fired sounding or resear.& rockets; 

2) earth satellites; 3) manned earth satellites; and 4) deep 

space probes requiring communication over vast reaches of 

space. 

In 1960, NASA began extending its 10-station Minitrack 

earth satellite net.work by initiating construction at the 

following four high-latitude stations: East Grand Forks, 

Winkfield, England. 

modifications and improvements to increase its scope and 

effectiveness. 

L, Minn. ; Fairbanks, Alaska; St. Johns, Newfoundland; and 

The network also underwent a number of 

The following progress was made with the three-station 

1) New transmitting equipment at the Deep Space 

Deep Space Network: 

Instrumentation Facilities at Goldstone, Calif., was installed in time for the station to take part in the Echo I experiment. 

2) Construction of the receiving station at Woornera, 

Australia, moved to completion. 

3) Site surveys and other ground work for the station 

at Krugersdorp, Union of South Africa, were completed. 

NASA began studies of larger antennas for its deep space 

stations. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., 

- 15 - 
..- 

which directs the deep space tracking network, has published 

requirements for a large antenna in the 25O-foot class that 

would increase the Goldstone stations range 10 to 20 times. 

Another si nificant development was the extension to 

December 31, 19 % 1 of NASA's contract with the University of 

Manchester, Manchester, England for use of the Jodrell Bank 

radio telescope in NASAts space program. 

ADVANCED RESEARCH PRIMARILY IN SUPPORT OF SPACE ACTIVITIES 

Propulsion 

NASA plans for coming space missions require the design 

and development of a family of larger, more powerful launch 

vehicles, requiring advanced methods of propulsion. The 

agency is employing several approaches, extending from the 

development of liquid propellants that hold promise of yielding higher energies and the improvement of solid propellants, 

to propulsion systems based on several different types and 

combinations of nuclear and electrical power. 

Liquid Propellants -- At present, nearly all major U.S. 

vehicles (except Scout, a large solid rocket are fueled with 

kerosene and liquid oxygen, a relatively low-energy propellant-oxidizer combination. However, NASA is developing 

liquid-hydrogen and liquid-oxygen engines whose 25 percent 

greater specific impulse will substantially increase payload 

and mission capabilities. 

which will be employed in a cluster of two as the second 

stage of the Atlas-Centaur vehicle and will produce 15,000 

pounds of thrust. A scaled-up version, the XLR-119 -- 

producing 17,500 pounds of thrust -- will be used in a 

cluster of four for the second stage (designated S-IV) of 

the Saturn C-1. Two XLR-119 engines will be clustered for 

the second stage of later Centaur vehicles and in the third 

stage. 

Such an engine is the XLR-115, 

NASAts iant Saturn vehicle will use the H-1 rocket 

engine, a 188,000-pound-thrust unit based on the Thor design 

-- modified to improve simplicity and reliability. Eight 

of these kerosene-liquid oxygen engines will be clustered 

in Saturn's first stage to produce 1.5-million pounds of 

thrust, quadruple that of the Atlas, the most powerful U.S. 

rocket today. 

A series of Saturn cluster-firing (using an interim 

165,000-pound thrust engine in the cluster) tests have been 

made, starting with two engines, and progressing to the full 

- 16 - 
eight which have produced approximately 1.3-million pounds of thrust for short periods. Several engine components are 

being redesigned to withstand higher operating temperatures. 

Development of the 5-2, a single-chamber, 200,000-pound 

thrust, liquid hydrogen-liquid oxygen engine, was begun in 

September. Clustered, these engines will be installed in 

the second stage of the advanced C-2 version of the Saturn. 

million-pound-thrust single-chamber engine being considered 

for Nova, the next generation vehicle beyond Saturn. Work 

was completed at NASA's Flight Research Center, 

Calif., on a new test stand (2A) to check out the F-1 at 

full rated capacity. Unfortunately, tests were delayed nine 

to 14 weeks when a trial run on August 21 damaged the stand. 

The long-range development plans c a l l f o r a preliminary 

flight-rating test of the F-1 engine in February, 1963. 

is not yet known whether time lost because of the August accident can be made up and schedules met. 

NASA extended development work on a liquid-fluorine 

liquid-hydrogen rocket engine, theoretically capable of very 

high performance. The combination is extremely reactive and 

toxic, however, and imposes severe handling problems. The 

engine is now in the llbreadboard,ll or laboratory (workable 

but nonflyable) stage, and test results have been encouraging. 

has been operated with high performance and no damage to 

equipment. 

During 1960, development continued on the F-1, the 1.5- 

Edwards, 

It 

A chamber capable of producing 7,000 pounds of thrust 

NASA has continued investigating the 'Iplug nozzlet1 concept for rocket engines. In this, the rocket exhaust gases, 

instead of flaring out from a bell-shaped vent, push into 

the atmosphere or space from combustors arranged in segments 

around a central, inverted cone, or plug. The plug deflects 

the hot gases and permits them to expand in cone fashion, 

thus providing greater thrust area. Use of small, segmented 

chambers, instead of the much larger chambers of conventional 

rockets, has this advantage -- combustor units can be arranged 

to produce engines of various sizes or thrusts. 

Work has also gone forward on other problems directly related to chemical propulsion. Included are studies of 

propellant-tank insulation materials for cryogenic (extremely cold) propellants, studies of the mechanics of combustion, 

and investigations of the effects of solar radiation and 

other space-environment conditions on fuels and oxidizers 

such as liquid-hydrogen, liquid-oxygen, hydrocarbons, and 

hydrazine. 

- 17 - 
Solid-Propellant Rockets -- A number of advantages are 

inherent in rockets utilizing solid propellants. NASA is 

expanding work on the technology of ihi'S approach to space 

propulsion. The solid rocket concept is relatively simple. 

In theory, large powerful models should require less time to 

develop and should be less expensive to manufacture than ' 

their liquid counterparts. They require no pumps, valves, 

turbines, and other elaborate components or launching crews 

with long training in multiple specialties. Despite these 

and other advantages, solid rockets have been little used 

except for sounding rockets and for comparatively small 

(3,000 to 5,000-pound-thrust) final stages for such launch 

vehicles as Thor-Able, Atlas-Able, and Delta.* The limiting factor is that solid propellants have not thus far been 

developed to ultra-high energy levels. 

Several NASA-sponsored studies have indicated the possibility of developing a solid-propellant first stage 30 percent smaller and lighter than a liquid counterpart. During 

1960, NASA let three contracts for definitive studies of 

very large solid-propellant engines to serve as first stages of launch vehicles. Such vehicles could carry added weight 

in their upper stages and thus greatly increase payload 

sizes. 

Three NASA contractors are working concurrently on sixmonth studies for two specific vehicles. The first vehicle 

will be in the one-million-pound gross weight class, about 

the same as the liquid-fueled Saturn; the second will weigh 

about seven million pounds. Basic factors to be considered 

are economy and reliability. Designs will employ existing 

propellants and materials. Methods of steering these large 

solid-propellant rockets will also be studied. 

During the year, NASA let a number of new contracts to 

develop high-performance, solid-propellant rocket engines. 

Work continued on similar, existing projects, including an 

experimental rocket engine with ltlayeredlr construction, an 

unconventional "nozzleless" rocket, and a sounding rocket 

combining several advanced design features to increase performance over present units by an estimated 40 percent. 

* The one notable exception is Scout, NASA's 36,000-pound, 

four-stage launch vehicle, which can place a 150-pound 

payload in a 300-mile orbit. 

- 18 - 
Nuclear Energy Applications for Space -- The most 

advanced liquid- and solid-propellant rock'et engines are 

rapidly approaching the performance limit set by the available energy of chemical combustion. Nuclear reactors, on 

the other hand, are capable of essentially unlimited energy 

release, so that even first-generation nuclear rocket engines 

promise twice the performance of the best chemical rockets. 

an operational nuclear rocket (Project Rover) as early as 

possible. 

by developing complementary non-nuclear equipment which can 

be used in engines and vehicles. NASA is responsible for 

integrating the reactor into engines and flight vehicles, 

and for supplying the liquid hydrogen propellant for all 

phases of the program. 

Effort is also continuing on nuclear electric power generating systems, particularly SNAP-8, a joint AEC-NASA 

project that appears doubly promising because it may be 

suitable for basic propulsion as well as for auxiliary 

generating systems. 

Now in the research stage are higher power systems to 

follow SNAP-8. New technologies will be required, based on 

the use of liquid metal working fluids (coolants) that can 

operate at higher temperatures than the mercury employed in 

SNAP-8. Methods must be devised for containing metal vapor, 

for lubricating rotating parts, and for discharging excessive 

heat through space radiators. A program of applied research is in progress. 

tracts for a one-year competitive project to develop a 

laboratory model of a 30-kw arc-jet engine. This system, 

for primary propulsion on space missions where long operating 

lifetimes and high efficiency will be required, employs an 

electric arc through which a propellant such as liquid 

hydrogen is passed and heated to several thousand degrees F. 

The heated propellant then expands as a gas and is ejected 

through a rocket nozzle. The thrust from this engine, which 

will be about the size of a standard thermos bottle, is only 

about a half-pound -- very low, but of extremely high jet 

velocity and hence, of great efficiency in space where gravitational forces are weak. 

electric generating plant such as the SNAP-8 nuclear system. 

In September, NASA issued a contract for a one-year 

program to develop a 1-kw arc-jet engine, producing a thrust 

of about 1/100th of a pound. 

In cooperation with the AEC, NASA is working to develop 

NASA supports the AEC's rocket reactor field tests 

Electric Propulsion -- In April, NASA awarded two conIt will require an auxiliary 

Operating on principles similar 

- 19 - 
to those of the larger unit mentioned above, this device 

would be used for spacecraft attitude-control and stabilization systems. 

ion engine, about 8 inches in diameter and 12 inches long, 

which it is hoped, will produce 1/100th of a pound of thrust. 

Also under contract study is an experimental 

ADVANCED RESEARCH 

PRIMARILY IN SUPPORT OF AERONAUTICS ACTIVITIES 

Typical Advanced Aeronautics Research 

Aircraft Aerodynamics -- During 1960, NASA's Langley 

and Ames Research Centers continued their research across 

the entire speed range of aircraft, extending from VTOL 

(Vertical Take-Off and Landing) aircraft that can take off, 

lznd, and Kover-at zero-forward speed, to the rocketlaunched Dyna-Soar manned orbital glider with which the 

U.S. Air Force plans to explore veiocities between 4,000 

and 18,000 mph. 

At Ames Research Center, a study was made of flying 

and performance requirements of VTOL and STOL (Short TakeOff and Landing) aircraft. A valuable tool in This research 

xas been-an X-14 deflected aircraft modified to simulate 

characteristics of various VTOL/STOL aircraft. 

special equipment to vary stability, damping, and control, 

this X-14 is being used to check out the performance of many types of aircraft during any portion of their flight, from 

hovering through all transition phases to forward flight at 

full speed. 

ments and data from ground-based simulators. 

Fitted with 

Studies are augmented by wind tunnel experiAt Langley Research Center, flight studies and wind 

tunnel tests with tilt-wing VTOL have been continued, to 

learn more about their flying qualities, 

been improved appreciably. 

of a jet-powered turbofan engine that combines vertical or 

short take-off with high subso6ic cruise speeds. 

fer experiments are being carried out in a flow tube and in 

a shock tube, to investigate processes that occur at the 

molecular level. Other studies involve interactions of 

ionized gases at very high temperatures or in the presence 

of strong electric and magnetic fields. Knowledge from 

this basic research can be applied to problems such as the 

cooling of hypersonic engines and vehicles, and the drags 

and pressures on vehicle bodies. 

Performance has 

Langley has also made studies 

Fluid Mechanics -- At Lewis Research Center, heat trans- 

- 20 - 
Aeronautical Propulsion Systems -- Research on airbreathing engines at Lewis and Langley continued to be 

primarily devoted to problems of air inlets. 

conclusions have been drawn from wind tunnel studies. For 

example, a pipe-like, or duct-like, three-dimensional inlet, 

in which air is compressed internally as it passes through, 

appears to hold special promise for hypersonic applications. 

Another design, called the "spiken inlet because of its 

shape, is also undergoing tests, 

Several basic 

Several other studies were carried out to improve performance of jet-engines at speeds and altitudes other than 

those for which they were designed. 

streamlined terminal fairings around the nozzle exit of a 

jet engine may improve performance at near-sonic speeds 

with little effect on characteristics at the supersonic 

speeds for which the engines were designed. 

Flight Safety -- As in former years, NASA devoted 

much attention to problems of flight safety, operations, 

and environment. Studies were carried out to increase the 

accuracy of aircraft altimeters over long periods of service, 

since regulations call for an altimeter to be calibrated 

for accuracy only once. This is particularly important 

because a pilot must know his altitude accurately if he is 

to maintain the necessary vertical separation between his 

flight path and those of other craft flying on the same airway. To a considerable degree, assigned separation determines how much traffic an airway can accommodate. Other 

continuing investigations concerned noise sources on supersonic transports, ndownwash" effects on VTOL aircraft, 

"wake" effects of large transport aircraft, measurements 

of winds and wind shears, and assessments of physiological 

conditions of pilots under various environmental stresses. 

It was found that 

NASA ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES 

NASAts personnel increased from 9,755 to more than 

15,600 during the year -- reflecting for the most part, the 

transfer to the agency of the Development Operations 

Division of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, Redstone 

Arsenal, Huntsville, Ala. On July 1, NASA officially took 

over the Divisionts personnel, facilities and 1,200 acres 

at the Arsenal. President Eisenhower named it in honor of 

the soldier-statesman General George Catlett Marshall. 

and facilities, the agency created the Launch Operations Directorate (LOD) within the Office of Launch Vehicle 

Programs. LOD will launch most NASA vehicles, support the 

' To facilitate standardization of launch operations 

- 21 - 
launch operations of the remainder, and provide launch support for several Army vehicles. 

NASA also established the following Offices: 

... the Office for the United Nations Conference, to 

direct this country's participation in the First International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. 

...the Office of Life Sciences, to operate a researh 

program dealing with 1) survival and performance of man in 

space; 2) the effect of the space environment on biological 

organisms, systems and processes; and 3) the search for 

extraterrestrial life forms. 

. ..the Office of Reliability and Systems Analysis, to 

supervise a program to evaluate and improve operational 

reliability of NASA launch vehicles and payloads. 

... the joint Atomic Energy Commission-NASA Nuclear 

Propulsion Office to facilitate the cooperative effort in 

the development of nuclear rocketry. 

sibility for development of all reactors and their components, 

including those for flight missions specified by NASA. NASA 

will have primary responsibility for research and development of engines and rocket vehicle systems. 

AEC will have responLONG RANGE STUDIES 

NASA has established a Committee on Lon Range Studies 

pursuant to Subsection (4), of section 102(c f of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958. The committee 

has awarded contracts to private research organizations to 

study the wide-ranging socio-economic and political implications of space technology activities. 

In October, the American Bar Foundation completed a 

study entitled "Report to the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration on the Law of Outer Space" (see Appendix A). 

NASA AND DOD ORGANIZE COORDINATING BOARD 

On September 13, 1960, NASA and the Department of 

Defense announced formation of an Aeronautics and 

Astronautics Coordinating Board. 

one from NASA and one from DOD. 

nautics and space activities in the two agencies make up 

membership of the board. 

The Board has co-chairmen, 

Officials managing aero- 

- 22 - 
1- 

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 

CHAPTER II 

INTRODUCTION 

The Department of Defense (DOD] continues to be primarily interested in applying the new capability for space 

flight to achieve a more efficient military force for the 

United States and its allies. Space efforts of the Department are integral to the over-all military program, complementing or supplementing other military activities. 

increased. Several noteworthy successes were achieved, 

among them: 

launching of multiple payloqds from one vehicle; and 3) 

feasibility demonstratims of s a t e l l i t e s f o r accurate allweather navigation and communications relay. 

During 1960, the tempo of military space activities 

1) recovery of capsules from orbit; 2) 

The military departments cooperate in developing space 

applications under the close supervision of the Director of 

Defense Research and Engineering. Military space projects 

are assigned to appropriate departments after due consideration of their particular interests, responsibilities, or 

special competence. For example, development of reconnaissance and early warning satellites was assigned to the 

Air Force, navigational satellites to the Navy, and communication satellites to the Army. Other projects are, or 

will be, handled in a similar manner. Space activities are I 

closely coordinated between departments concerned. The Air 

Force is responsible for launching all military satellites. 

To insure close working relationships, and to integrate 

DOD and NASA space activities into a single national effort, 

a NASA-DOD Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

was established. The Board is co-chaired by the Deputy 

Administrator of NASA and the Director of Defense Research 

and Engineering of DOD. Through the Board membership and 

six functional area panels, projects and project support 

are planned, reviewed, defined, and adjusted to eliminate 

duplications and to augment effort in areas requiring it. 

Twenty-one launch attempts were made with 12 successfully attaining orbit. 

A brief summary of the major programs follows: 

- 23 / 
MAJOR PROGRAMS 

DISCOVERER 

Particularly emphasized was the DISCOWF3R satellite 

program, testing components, propulsion, and guidance systems 

and techniques to be utilized in various U.S. space projects. 

Capsule recovery is foremost among techniques being studied. 

On August 11, the U.S. recovered from the Pacific Ocean a 

DISCOVERER capsule that had been in orbit about a day. This 

event marked the first time that any nation had successfully 

recovered a man-made object after it had orbited the earth. 

The capsule was donated to the Smithsonian Institution. An 

American flag taken from the payload was donated to the 

Eisenhower Memorial Museum, Abilene, Kan. 

In later experiments, additional U.S. capsules* were 

recavered in mid-air by aircraft equipped with slings. 

Included in the DISCOVERER Program is the AGENA upper 

stage vehicle, which is also used as a satellite vehicle 

for MIDAS, SAMOS, and other programs. AGENA has proven to 

be a highly reliable vehicle. The propulsion system has 

never failed. The stabilization system, which makes recovery 

possible, is the first to maintain an earth-oriented attitude. 

AGENA has also exhibited accuracy and effectiveness. The 

latest version, AGENA B, with double the tank capacity and 

twice the burning time of AGENA A, was successfully tested on 

DISCOVERER XVII in November. Everything worked according to 

plan, including ejection of the capsule from AGENA, and midair recovery after 50 hours of orbital flight. 

TRANSIT 

The TRANSIT satellite navigation system, initiated early 

in 1958, is in the second phase of the program: 1) developing 

shipboard navigation gear, 2) increasing system reliability, 

3) improving accuracy--including research and experiments in 

the refraction and geodetic areas, 4) simplifyins system and 

shipboard operation, and 5) studying aircraft navigational 

systems and making preliminary design. 

TRANSIT satellites placed in orbit were completely successful. All subsystems operated properly and all four radios 

transmitted normally. Excellent refraction data and limited 

data on the shape of the earth were obtained. Position 

* Total of three mid-air recoveries to date. 

- 24 - 
determination experiments from these satellites have proven 

TRANSIT fixes to be accurate to within one-quarter of a mile. 

Plans are under way for an operational, completely 

passive system to insure reliable, all-weather navigation. 

Ships anywhere on the globe will be able to receive not only 

navigational information but also the exact times and the 

predicted orbits of the satellites. Voyages for ships of 

all nations can thus become safer and more efficient. 

- GREB 

The Solar Radiation Satellite GRET3 (Galactic Eadiation 

- Experiment Background) launched pick-a-back on TRANSIT, transmits continuous measurements of solar activity in the X-ray 

and ultra-violet radiation bands. These solar "weather 

reports," correlated with a host of ground level observations, 

help to unravel the mysteries of ionospheric behavior and the 

mechanisms of solar storms. 

This satellite system has contributed significantly to 

scientific knowledge. For example, in August there occurred 

a solar flare lasting 18 minutes. Just as the flare began, 

a satellite came within range of a ground receiving station, 

and six minutes of clear signals depicted the history of the 

way that ultraviolet and X-ray emission developed. 

sequence of events in the early life of a solar storm is 

extremely rapid. No previous observations provided a continuous record of the first minutes of a solar storm's birth. 

The 

MIDAS 

The goal of the MIDAS project is development of a reliable, operational satellite-borne missile defense alarm system. 

MIDAS will place in orbit payloads having infrared detection 

scanners that can detect the launching of ballistic missiles. 

In 1960, the first two research and development MIDAS 

satellites were launched from the Atlantic Missile Range (AMR). 

The second launch, which placed an infrared scanning satellite into orbit for the first time, obtained valuable infrared background data relating to the earth's surface. 

ARGUS 

The ARGUS experiments, in which nuclear explosions were 

set off in the exosphere, were successfully completed in 1959. 

However, data are still being analyzed and used in other space 

- 25 - 
research and air defense programs, for example, VELA (see pp. 

127-28). 

nature of the Van Allen belts (Great Radiation Restion) and on 

the earth's magnetic field. 

The results continue to shed light on the fundamental 

NOTUS 

This project, for developing a communications system 

utilizing satellites to provide long-range radio communications links, was reoriented to emphasize two programs: 

COURIER and ADVENT. 

COURIER demonstrated the feasibility of a delayed repeater satellite to relieve crowded point-to-point communications when the COURIER IB satellite was successfully 

launched in October. Vast quantities of information were 

relayed between the ground stations at Puerto Rico and New 

Jersey. The COURIER portion of the NOTUS project is now c completed. 

ADVENT is intended to demonstrate the feasibility of 

an instantaneous repeater located at a fixed position above 

the earth, revolving at the same speed as the earth. The 

project should provide broadband, point-to-point comunication and ground-to-aircraft communication. Organization 

for management was completed and the principal program contractors were selected. 

SHEPHERD 

The objective of this program is to obtain, at the 

earliest practicable date, a space surveillance tracking 

system that can satisfy military and other requirements. 

Present systems are SPASUR (@ace surveillance System) and 

SPACETRACK (National Space Surveillance Control Center); 

both were placed under control of the Commander-in-Chief, 

Continental Air Defense Command, in November. 

SPASTJR, a network of radars, can detect and determine 

the orbit of any objects in space passing over the United 

States at altitudes up tc 1,000 miles, regardless of whether 

they are sending out signals. As an exemple of the capability of this system, early in 1960 SPASUR detected an 

unknown object in orbit around the earth. The orbit was 

determined and, from this, the object was identified as a 

part of a previously launched DISCOVERER satellite vehicle 

that had been nlostw for some time. 

- 26 - 
d The primary ' are to calculate 

functions of SPACETRACK at Bedford, Mass., 

orbital elements of all satellites and to 

maintain a catalog of these elements and distribute the 

information to the military services, intelligence agencies 

and the scientific community. The center was constructed 

in 1959 and began operation in January 1960. Data are 

received from many sources, including SPASUR. Information 

is given out on a cooperative basis. A study was completed 

of anticipated future requirements in space detection, tracking and catalogins to aid in determining future requirements 

for an operational military system. 

LONGSIGHT 

The purpose of Project LONGSIGIIT was to find and remedy 

serious short- and long-term Saps in study and research relatins to foreseen military needs in space technology. Durine: 

the report period, the study was concluded. A sub-project, 

ORION, continues. It is a study of the feasibility of propelling very large payloads through space by means of a 

series of' nuclear explosions. Early in 1960, after initial 

engineering feasibility studies, the project was reoriented 

toward answerins basic questions to determine performance. 

Engineerins studies were continued at a level that should 

give approximate estimates of design parameters. In addition, 

the Atomic Xncrgy Commission laboratories were requested to 

aid in design studies of nuclear devices for propulsion 

vehicles of the ORION type. 

s A I3 os 

Project SAMOS is a research and development program 

t:, determine the capabilities for making observations of 

the earth from satellites. The first SAMOS flight test 

was in October, when SAMOS I was launched from the Pacific 

Missile Range (PMR). However, due to equipment malfunction 

during launch, orbit was not attained. Research and development on essent ial components is continuing . 

- VELA 

The Department of Defense, in collaboration with AEC, 

NASA, and the Departments of Commerce and Interior, has 

developed Project VELA, whose objective is a system for 

- 27 - 
detecting nuclear explosions, both underground and at high 

altitudes. 

development programs: 

VELA is subdivided into three research and 

VELA Uniform: detection of underground nuclear 

explosions; 

VELA Sierra: ground-based detect ion of nuclear 

tests in space; and 

VELA Hotel: satellite-based detection of nuclear 

tests in space. 

The Satellite Inspector System (SAINT) program, intended 

to develop and demonstrate a rendezvous and inspection satellite, will place inspection payloads in orbit in close proximity to specified targets. 

LORRATNE 

Research in advanced energy conversion is being highlighted by the establishment of this new project. 

tinuing basis, LORRAINE will support advanced program needs 

within the Department of Defense. Progress continued on 

energy conversion techniques and energy storage and collection. 

On a conBLUE SCOUT 

The BLUE SCOUT program is directed toward developing and 

standardizing an economical, versatile, and reliable test 

vehicle to improve components, subsystems, and specialized 

techniques related to military space activities and ballistic 

missile development. 

Available facilities at Cape Canaveral were used to 

launch two BLUE SCOUT vehicles. On September 21, one achieved 

a probe altitude estimated at more than 14,000 miles during a 

seven-hour flight. The second, launched on November 8, blew 

up after 68 seconds. 

PROJECT TRANSFER TO NASA 

In March, all administrative and technical responsibilities for Project Saturn were transferred to NASA.* 

* See Chapter 1 

- 28 - 
DYNA-SOAR AEROSPACE SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT* 

The Dyna-Soar system development is a joint DOD-NASA 

program, financed and administered by DOD, to construct and 

test a manned, maneuverable aerospace vehicle that will 

explore hypersonic flight up to orbital speeds. The project 

will establish and confirm the basic technology to develop 

weapons systems or other vehicles capable of orbit, atmospheric entry, and maneuver to a conventional landing at a 

pre-selected air base 

features, the program was approved in April. 

the launch vehicle, and launch vehicle engines were contracted for. 

After an intensive three-month review of technical 

The glider, 

Studies covering more than 20 areas were completed. 

A comprehensive wind tunnel test program to develop per- formance, stability, and control data for a range of Mach 

0.3 to Mach 18 was conducted. Structures and materials 

are being refined and tested at an accelerated rate. 

SPACE FLIGHT SUPPORTING RESOURCES 

During 1960, 10 NASA and 21 DOD space vehicles were 

launched from AMR, and from the Vandenberg AFB and Pt. 

Arguello launch areas of PMR, utilizing the support of the 

National Missile Ranges. To a substantial extent, these 

launches were supported by existing facilities and equipment initially provided for missile requirements. In a 

number of cases, however, facilities have been augmented 

with equipment to support the newer upper-stage rocket 

engines. 

provide a launch capability for the Atlas-Centaur combinatim and the Saturn vehicle. 

Construction was begun and is proceeding at AMR to 

ro! See Chapter 1 

- 29 - 
CHAPTER 111 

U. S. ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION 

INTRODUCTION 

During 1960, the Atomic Energy Commission (AE=C) expanded its efforts in connection with the National Space Program. 

Work has continued on Pro ect Rover (an effort to attain 

nuclear rocket propulsion 3 and Project SNAP (a series of 

nuclear-generated auxiliary electric power systems for spacecraft). The Commission's Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory 

(LASL) is also conductins research on a plasma thermocouple for direct conversion of fission heat. 

PROJECT ROVER 

Roclcet reactor development under the joint AEC-NASA 

Project Rover is centered at LASL. A vigorous program is 

under way to develop a first generation reactor suitable for 

early flight tests. A concurrent effort is directed toward 

developing lighter, higher-powered reactors. 

During 1960, Kiwi-A Prime and Kiwi-A3, the second and 

third experimental reactors in the Kiwi* series, were successfully tested at the Nevada Test Site, Both reactors 

used high-pressure hydrogen gas as propellant, but contained 

modifications and design improvements over the earlier design 

for increased performance. Fabrication and assembly of KiwiB, the first experimental reactor of a flyable design, were 

Initiated during the year. Facility modifications and construction began at the Nevada Test Site in preparation for 

the first of a series of Kiwi-B tests scheduled for 1961. 

The new reactor series will involve the use of liquid, rather 

than gaseous, hydrogen as the coolant-propellant. This 1s a 

requirement in a flyable system. 

PROJECT SNAP 

The SNAP (systems for _Nuclear Auxiliary Power) prosram 

has been developing compact, lightweight, long-lived, nuclear 

* Kiwl-A was tested in 1959. See Chapter 3, Second Annual 

Report to Congress from the President of the United States. 

- 31 - 
electric power packages for use in satellites and space 

vehicles. Two developmental approaches have been followed: 

1) radioisotope-powered systems, and 2) small reactor-powered 

units . 

The radioisotope units are beins developed by the Nuclear 

Division of The Martin Company, Baltimore, Md. The reactor 

units are being developed by Atomics International, a division 

of North American Aviation, Inc., Canoga Park, Calif. 

The SNAP program also includes the development of techniques, materials, and equipment for advanced heat-to-electricity 

conversion systems capable of operating in the space environment. 

The SNAP program has demonstrated compact turboelectric conversion units, using mercury vapor as a working fluid. Furthermore, to convert heat directly to electricity without moving 

parts, banks of solid state thermoelectric elements have been 

successfully designed and configured as static generators surrounding the SNAP heat source. Development efforts are being 

conducted to demonstrate the advantages of high-temperature 

thermionic conversion systems for space applications, and to 

provide the long-term reliability essential to operation in 

space. 

Companies participating in the energy conversion portion 

of the SNAP program, in addition to Martin and Atomics International, are Thompson-Ramo-Wooldridge, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio: 

Aerojet-General Corp., Azusa, Calif., Minnesota Mining and 

Manufacturing Co., St. Paul, Minn.; Thermo-Electron Engineering Corp . , Cambridge, Mass. ; and West inghouse Corp . , Pittsburgh, 

Pa. 

Radioisotope Space Power Systems 

The SNAP-3 generator was developed to demonstrate the 

The first SNAP-3 unit was delivered to the AEC by 

feasibility of using radioisotopes as a heat source for a 

completely static (no moving parts) thermoelectric generator 

system. 

The Martin Company in January 1959. Four SNAP-3 units have 

been fueled and demonstrated in Washington, D.C.; Cleveland 

and Cincinnati, Ohio; Topsfield, Mass,; San Francisco, Calif.; 

Baltimore, Md. ; Tokyo, Japan; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. 

SNAP-3 produces four watts from 2,000 curies of Polonium-210 

and weighs four pounds. This unit has been subjected to shock, 

vibration, and acceleration operational tests; fire, explosion, 

high velocity impact, corrosion, and plasma jet safety tests; 

and a 10-month life test. Performance has indicated it to 

be suitable as a low-power generator for space use. 

- 32 - 
The SNAP-1A thermoelectric generator is being developed 

to demonstrate the use of higher powered space generators of 

the SNAP-3 type, f’ueled with fission waste products. SNAP-lA, 

designed to produce 125 watts of electrical energy for one 

year, is fueled with 880,000 curies of Cerium-144. It weighs 

approximately 200 pounds. Environmental tests of an electrically heated unit have been completed. Safety studies and 

tests, very similar to those run on SNAP-3, have been canducted, and ground equipment, to assure safe handling in 

ground operations, has been fabricated. 

fueled SNAP-1A will be initiated in 1961 when the unit is 

fueled with the proper quantity of Ce-144 and design tested 

through its operat in% performance . The SNAP isotopic power program also includes studies of 

a curium fuel technology and nuclear safety, both directly 

applicable to space power units. The safety effort includes 

atmospheric entry burn-up tests, launch trajectory studies 

from Cape Canaveral, and lunar impact studies. Much of this 

current work is directed to supporting requirements for 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators for the U.S. Navy 

navigation satellite (TRANSIT) and the NASA lunar soft landing mission (SURVEYOR). 

A thermionic generator is being developed that will produce 7-10 watts and weigh about nine ounces. Electrically 

heated prototypes have been fabricated and tested for as long 

as 2,100 hours. These devices use close-spaced, high-vacuum, 

thermionic diodes developed under the SNAP program by the 

Thermo-Electron Engineering Corp. A demonstration device 

fueled with curium-242 will be delivered in 1961. 

Hot cell tests of a 

Reactor Space Power Systems 

is based on a small zirconium-hydride-moderated reactor, 

homogeneously fueled with three kilograms of U-235. The 

reactor portion of the system weighs approximately 220 

pounds and produces three kilowatts of electrical energy at 

1,2000F outlet temperature. The turboelectric conversion 

equipment (consisting of the turbine and a brushless 

inductor electrical generator) is mounted on a single shaft 

which also powers the necessary auxiliary pumps for the 

system. The entire unit is hermetically sealed. The overall weight of SNAP-2 is approximately 600 pounds, exclusive 

of shielding. The SNAP Experimental Reactor, after completing a one-half year test -- operating at design power and 

temperature for 50 percent of the time -- was shut down on 

November 18 for post-operational examination. The SNAP-2 

Development System is being installed in a test facility 

SNAP-2 -- The SNAP-2 space power system for satellites 

- 33 - 
completed in October at the AECts site in Los Angeles 

County. 

tests will begin early in 1961. 

Integrated reactor and power conversion system 

SNAP-R -- SNAP-8 is a joint AEC-NASA project to develop 

The SNAP-8 reactor 

The reactor weighs 

Reactor tests will prove out 

Two of these units 

a reactor and power conversion system to produce either 30 or 

60 electrical kilowatts of usable power. 

is being developed by the AEC as an extension of the SNAP-2 

reactor and will use similar components. approximately 300 pounds, is fueled with 5.2 kilograms of 

U-235, aud will produce 700 thermal kilowatts reactor power 

at 1,350 F outlet temperature. 

the reactor design and configuration. The turboelectric conversion system developed by NASA is designed as a module concept to produce 30 electrical kilowatts. 

can be powered from the SNAP-8 reactor to produce a useful 

output of 60 electrical kilowatts. 

systems will be combined and tested as a full system in facilities to be constructed at the AEC site in Los Angeles County. 

This space power plant is expected to weigh approximately 

900 pounds, exclusive of shielding. 

SNAP-1OA -- SNAP-1OA is an AEC project originated through 

Air Force interest for a low-power, lightweisht, static, 

electric power source for space applications. 

actor core will be utilized with sodium potassium liquid metal 

coolant. An electromagnetic pump forces the coolant from the 

reactor core to the thermoelectric elements where the heat is 

converted directly into electricity. 

designed to weigh less than 750 pounds including shielding. 

SNAP-1OA will produce 500 watts of electricity continuously 

for at least one year in a space environment. 

The reactor and conversion 

A SNAP-2 reThe SNAP-1OA system is 

PLASMA - THERMOCOUPJX 

The work at LASL on direct conversion of fission heat by 

thermionic (electron) emission from a nuclear fuel (zirconium 

carbide-uranium carbide) in a cesium plasma diode continues 

to show promise. 

conducted by several industrial contractors both as "in-house" 

and government -supported projects . single cell experiment in the LASL Omega West Research Reactor 

gave a maximum power of about 85 watts, and a maximum current 

of about 130 amps. The estimated efficiency was about 13 percent, a reasonable efficiency for this early stage of development. Theoretical efficiencies as high as 50-60 percent have 

been predicted for the future, but only after a prolonged 

period of development. In another experiment, three-unit 

cells were combined in electrical series in a triple-cell 

Additional work of this nature is being 

Recent results from a 

- 34 - 
assembly and operated in the Omega West Reactor. As expected, the output voltage of approximately nine volts was 

roughly three times the voltage of each unit cell. Sufficient power was developed to operate a six-volt car fan. 

- 35 - 
CHAPTER IV 

DEPARTMENT OF STATE 

INTRODUCTION 

Throughout 1960, the United States continued to play 

a leading role in encouraging international consultation 

on the opportunities and problems arising from the exploration and use of outer space. Forums of discussion have 

ranged from the United Nations to non-governmental scientific meetings and from multi-lateral consultation to bilateral negotiation. 

States has vigorously pursued its national policy of 

fostering international cooperation in space research and 

exploration and in seeking effective international control 

of outer space activities. 

In all these activities the United 

ACTIVITIES WITHIN THE UNITED NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY 

The position of the United States on the urgent problem of appropriately controlling the use of outer space 

was clearly set forth in the President's Address of 

September 22, 1960, to the General Assembly of the United 

Nations. The President pointed to the importance of reaching speedy international agreement on measures to "enable 

future generations to find peaceful and scientific progress, 

not another fearful dimension in the arms race, as they 

explore the universe." To this end the President proposed 

to the members of the General Assembly that: 

"1. We agree that celestial bodies are not subject to 

"2. We agree that the nations of the world shall not 

"3. We agree, subject to appropriate verification, 

national appropriation by any claims of sovereignty. 

engage in warlike activities on these bodies. 

that no nation will put into orbit or station in outer 

space weapons of mass destruction. 

craft should be verified in advance by the United Nations. 

We press forward with a program of international 

cooperation for constructive peaceful uses of outer space 

under the United Nations. Better weather forecasting, 

improved worldwide communications, and more effective 

All launchings of space 

t 

1'4. 

- 3? - 

. 
exploration not only of outer space but of our earth -- 

these are but a few of the benefits of such cooperation." 

In addition, the United States has been engaged since 

the beginning of the year in negotiating the organization 

of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of 

Outer Space. This Committee, composed of twenty-four members of the United Nations, was established by the Fourteenth 

General Assembly and assigned a number of tasks proceeding 

largely from problems identified by the July 14, 1959 

Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space. The Committee's tasks include studying scientific 

and technical programs in the peaceful uses of outer space 

that could appropriately be undertaken under United Nations 

auspices and studying the nature of the legal problems that 

might arise from the exploration of outer space. The 

General Assembly also decided to convene before the end of 

1961 under the auspices of the United Nations an international conference for the exchange of experience in the 

peaceful uses of outer space. The Outer Space Committee was 

requested to work out proposals with regard to the convening 

of such a conference. 

OTHER INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES 

During 1960 the Department of State has continued its 

activities related to the emerging political and legal prob- lems of outer space. The Department has also maintained its 

efforts in support of the technical requirements of the 

United States outer space effort and in implementing cooper- ative arrangements with other countries. 

the 

Pro 

fac 

Agreements have been substantially completed respecting 

worldwide tracking and communications network supporting 

ject MERCURY, the installation of deep space tracking 

ilities, and the extension of the Minitrack network.* 

Arrangements were also made for other facilities needed in 

connection with governmental programs of outer space research 

and development. 

The Department has worked closely with NASA to facilitate scientific cooperative arrangements and, on an interagency basis, the Department has initiated preparations for 

the Extraordinary Administrative Radio Conference to be held 

in 1963 to consider further the allocation of frequencies 

for space communications. 

* See Chapter 1. 

- 38 - 
CHAPTER V 

THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION 

INTRODUCTION 

One of the principal objectives of the National Science 

Foundation is to support basic research of a pioneering 

nature. 

institutions for the support of research projects proposed 

by staff scientists of the institutions involved. A substantial part of these efforts is in support of scientific 

investigations that seek an understanding of the fundamental 

laws of the physical universe. A limited number of grants 

have been made and contracts awarded to develop special 

instrumentation or facilities deemed especially important 

for improving research in particular fields. 

This is done primarily through grants to nonprofit 

PROGRAMS IN BASIC SCIENCE RELATED TO SPACE 

The more basic a research result, the wider its area 

of potential application. It is therefore difficult to 

establish exact criteria for determining the relationship 

of a particular project to science in space. In the case 

of physics research projects -- for example, nuclear physics, 

plasma physics, low temperature research, and solid state 

research -- it is difficult to think of an area of investigation that does not have some application to science or 

technology in space. In the biological and medical sciences, , 

the Foundation supports a very substantial program of 

research, much of which will find important application in 

the space sciences. In constructing the tabulation given in Appendix B, the rule has been to include among the 

projects active during calendar year 1960: 

1. All projects in the Astronomy Program. 

2. Only those projects in the Atmospheric Sciences 

Program which deal with the effects of objects outside the 

earth's atmosphere (such as the sun) upon the earth's 

atmosphere, or which employ extra-terrestrial vehicles in 

the research procedure. 

3. 

deal specifically with the chemistry of free radicals and 

with the behavior of substances at extremely high or 

extremely low temperatures. 

Only those projects in the Chemistry Program which 

- 39 - 
4. Only those projects in the Earth Sciences Program which deal with meteorites, with geophysical properties affecting the earth as a whole or with properties 

that are detectable at great distances above the surface, 

such as the magnetic field. 

5. Selected projects from the Engineering Sciences 

Program dealing directly with materials at high temperature, combustion, gas and plasma dynamics and with hightemperature heat transfer. 

6. 

although the Foundation's support of computers for research will find application in many phases of space 

science -- orbit computation, aerodynamics, and the like. 

No projects in the Mathematical Sciences Programs, 

7. Only those projects in the Physics Program con8. 

cerned with primary cosmic ray phenomena. 

Program, although as noted, much of the supported research 

will find application in space science. 

No projects in the Biological and Medical Sciences 

In some instances, a project will be listed under one 

Program even though the name of the project would imply 

that the research is in the area of another Program. In 

these cases, it should be assumed that the background, interests, and special techniques of the investigators stem 

from an area of the Program under which the listing is 

made 

Several projects in the regular programs in support of 

basic research warrant special mention. 

The National Radio Astronomy Observatory 

The location of the Observatory -- Green Bank, W. Va. 

-- was especially selected because radio noise interference 

there was at a very low level. The instrumentation includes 

one 85-foot equatorially mounted radio telescope (now in 

full operation) and one 140-foot telescope similarly mounted 

(planned to go into operation in 1962). Both telescopes are 

or will be useable over the entire range of wavelengths employed in radio astronomy down to 3 centimeters. The Observatory is being constructed and operated under contract 

by the Associated Universities, Inc. All qualified U. S. 

astronomers have access to these facilities, with priorities determined by the scientific merit of their respective 

projects. 

- 40 - 
The Kitt Peak National Observatory 

40 miles southwest of Tucson, Ariz., after extensive surveys indicated that location offered the most promising 

site in the southwestern part of the United States for research with very large astronomical telescopes. The instruments now planned include a 36-inch reflector and an 

80-inch telescope and a 60-inch solar telescope (scheduled 

for completion in 1962). The solar telescope will be several times larger than any instrument of its kind now in 

existence. The Observatory is being constructed under contract by the Association of Universities for Research in 

Astronomy. All qualified U.S. astronomers will have access 

to these facilities, with priorities determined by the scientific merit of their respective projects. 

The Observatory is also undertaking long-range design 

studies on a moderately large (aperture of about 50 inches) 

space telescope. The intention is to design an instrument 

useful for a wide variety of research problems -- involving 

spectroscopy, direct photography, and photometry in the ultraviolet region -- and with an optical resolution as close 

as possible to the theoretical limit determined by the aperture, It is hoped that the telescope might be placed in a 

twenty-four hour orbit and remain operable for at least a 

year, perhaps for 10 years. If successful, the telescope 

would be made available to all qualified U. S. astronomers. 

No time schedule for completion or launching has been set. 

It is intended that the work proceed free from the pressure 

of launching schedules as long as is possible. Close liaison is being maintained with NASA; when it is agreed that a 

workable instrument can be produced, perhaps five or 10 

years hence, vehicles capable of placing it in orbit will 

probably have been developed. 

This new installation was established on Kitt Peak, 

At present, photographic plates constitute the best 

method for recording information which a telescope collects 

from an extended area of the sky (such as that occupied by 

a galaxy or a star cluster). However, even the fastest 

photographic emulsions available have a very low efficiency. 

It is generally found that only one photon in every thousand which strike the plate forms a distinct blackened 

image. Accordingly, it takes approximately 1,000 times as 

long to photograph a faint galaxy as theoretically should 

be necessary. 

A number of photoelectric devices giving promise of 

greatly increased efficiency in the photographic procedure 

have been developed since 1945. They all depend on the 

fact that photons, when striking an appropriate photoemissive 

- 41 - 
surface, will cause one electron to be emitted for approximately every ten photons. Each electron can then be given 

a high energy by means of accelerating electrodes, so that 

it subsequently produces a distinct blackened image on a 

photographic plate. 

The purpose of the image tube projects is to develop 

simple, inexpensive, efficient light amplifiers for astronomical purposes. For certain applications these devices 

in effect multiply the aperture of an existing telescope by 5 to 10 times. 

High Altitude Astronomy 

The angular resolution obtainable in astronomical 

photographs taken from ground-based observatories is limited 

by the fluctuations in the refraction of the earthfs atmosphere which are responsible for the twinkling of the stars 

and produce the condition known as poor astronomical "seeing." When photographs are taken at night with present telescopes, the angular diameter of a point image (such as a 

star) is never less than 0.3 seconds of arc. 

The most promising means of obtaining better resolution 

in astronomical photographs is to mount a telescope on a 

platform at an altitude well above most of the earthfs 

atmosphere. The Princeton investigators have already successfully taken photographs of the sun with a 12-inch reflector suspended from a balloon at an altitude of 80,000 

feet 

This program is now being extended; a 36-inch balloonborne telescope is being designed and constructed for observing objects in the night sky. The technique opens up 

the prospect of greatly increasing our detailed knowledge 

of the surface features of the moon, Mars, and similar objects. First flights are currently planned for 1961. 

This project is being supported by the Foundation cooperatively with the Office of Naval Research and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

Physics Program 

Cosmic rays originate in outer space. Some also come 

from the sun or are influenced by it. The energy spectrum 

and particle spectrum of these rays are directly related 

to physical processes occurring in outer space. Directional 

- 4.2 - 
studies of cosmic rays at high energies are used to help 

determine the galactic origin of cosmic ray particles. 

Information on the particle spectrum bears directly on the 

origin of the universe and its composition. 

Neutron flux studies today are of special interest to 

physicists because of the information these measurements 

give on the sun and the magnetic fields between the earth 

and sun. 

Balloon flights, rockets, and satellites are used to 

get information on the cosmic ray particles in their virgin 

state before they break up in the earth's atmosphere. 

These high altitude studies are also tied in with the 

earth's magnetic field and solar activity. 

may use emulsions, counters, or ionization chambers. Terrestrial telescopes which are sensitive to air showers are 

also employed to obtain information on the cosmic source of 

very high energy particles. 

These flights 

Atmospheric Sciences Program 

study for decades. The problems today are not new, but 

unique facilities, such as satellites, offer a method of 

obtaining observations and hence of improving research into 

atmospheric phenomena of interest to both aeronautics and 

space research. The investigations include such studies 

as the physics of atm-ospheric motions; t,he earth's planetary albedo; the effect of solar activity on atmospheric 

circulation and distribution of meteorological phenomena in 

the stratosphere; the variability in the composition of the 

stratosphere; and tidal oscillations in the stratosphere. 

The atmosphere around us has been receiving increased 

Engineering Sciences Program 

The supersonic flight of a high-speed vehicle, or missile, in the upper atmosphere poses a number of engineering 

problems. 

surface to temperatures so extreme that not only is the 

structure of the vehicle endangered but also the flight 

behavior is changed. The gas layers adjacent to the heated 

surfaces also become red-hot and the gaseous molecules become stripped of their electrons, ionized, and electrically 

conducting. Under these extreme conditions the flow behavior becomes drastically altered and extremely complex. 

To understand these flow patterns, physical measurements 

and theoretical studies are not only made at high speed of 

the drag of various shapes, but also the rate of heat loss 

The frictional drag quickly heats up the solid 

- 43 - 
by various mechanisms, and the influence of the extent of 

ionization and the nature of the gaseous medium on the maximum temperatures attained. 

temperature, ionized gas are so unusual that it is given a 

special name -- a plasma -- and is the subject of a large 

amount of theoretical and experimental study, particularly 

when the pressure is also low. Other studies seek to explore 

the thermal conductivities and other properties of substances 

at the extreme temperatures involved. 

In fact the properties of a high- 

- 44 - 
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

CHAPTER VI 

THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS 

While the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) is not 

specifically charged with a primary responsibility for national aeronautics and space activities, its work contributes to, and must be considered an essential part of, the 

total national program. Space technology programs are not 

independent of previous experience in research and engineering, but must draw upon existing knowledge as well as 

obtain new understanding of the physical phenomena with 

which they are concerned. 

Because NBS is responsible for developing and improving physical standards and for advancing techniques of 

measurement, its programs have an important bearing on all 

research programs. The relationship is basic to space exploration, which depends heavily on precision measurement. 

NBS provides the standards to meet space measurement problems and requirements and to furnish basic data on properties of matter so that scientists and engineers can develop 

devices that will operate at the great speeds, high temperatures, and other severe conditions encountered in space 

and in entry of vehicles into the earth's atmosphere. 

The report on aeronautics and space activities for 

calendar year 1959 described NBS programs that were directly related to space technology. During calendar year 

1960, these activities continued. 

Standards and Measurement Methods 

the production of many components of space devices has 

placed a premium upon improved measurements of length. 

Progress can be reported in three aspects of the search 

for ultraprecision: 1) During the year, techniques were 

developed to permit a fivefold improvement in accuracyof-length measurements. For the first time in history, the 

Bureau calibrated commercial gage blocks to better than 

one part in five million. 2) Significant progress was 

achieved in developing gage block materials that are far 

more stable than the best in current use. 3) These 

Length -- Demand for closer dimensional tolerances in 

- 45 - 
, 

advances take on added significance in the light of action 

in October by the 11th General Conference on Weights and 

Measures which established a new international standard of 

length. Redefinition of the meter in terms of the wavelength of a specified light emission from the element krypton should foster further increase in accuracy in length 

measurement . Frequency and Time Interval -- For several years, NBS 

has been carrying out intensive research to establish atomic 

standards for frequency and time measurement. Based on an 

unchanging property of the atom, such standards would have 

decided advantages over the present one -- the period of the 

earthts rotation about the sun. During 1960, two cesiumbeam atomic standards for frequency and time-interval measurement were placed in operation, providing NBS and the 

nation with the world's most precise frequency standard. 

This makes it possible to refer the national standard of 

frequency to an atomic resonance with an accuracy better 

than two parts in 100 billion. Radio broadcasts of standard 

frequency signals by the Bureau are now monitored by reference to this precise frequency standard. 

Work also progressed on an atomic frequency standard 

for use in a NASA satellite that will check the gravitydependent frequency shift predicted by Einsteints general 

theory of relativity. A prototype rubidium vapor standard 

was constructed and found to be stable to one part in 100 

billion over a period of a month. Exposure to radiation, 

corresponding to that of the Van Allen Radiation Belts 

(Great Radiation Region), produced no observable change in 

measurement accuracy. The standard is being miniaturized 

for the satellite. 

Scientists and engineers engaged in rocket testing and 

in satellite and missile tracking urgently need improvement 

in the accuracies with which radio signals of standard frequency and time interval can be transmitted to remote locations. 

erratic variations caused by changes in the height and density of the ionosphere from which the signals are reflected. 

To reduce errors (insi nificant before the stringent requirements of the Space Age 7 , the Bureau has undertaken an experimental program of broadcasts at a low frequency (60 kc) and 

at a very low frequency (20 kc). 

Accuracy of NBS radio signals is limited by small, 

Temperature -- Todayts requirements for high-temperature 

materials resistant to high speeds, friction, and increasing 

propulsion efficiencies place a premium on the upward extension of the temperature scale and on techniques for measuring 
it. During 1960, NBS continued projects to increase temperature measurement precision and to extend it into extreme high-temperature regions. Recent advances include a 

photoelectric optical pyrometer that improves calibrations 

up to 4OOOOC, and a special type of high-temperature resistance thermometer that greatly improves calibration precision 

in the 630°-10630C range. 

sources resulted in a high-current arc that appears promising as a stable and reproducible standard for the region 

from 10,0000 to 20,OOOOC. 

Force -- Measuring large forces precisely has become 

especially critical in determining the thrusts of powerful, 

advanced rocket engines that the U. S. is developing. During rocket engine development, relatively small increases 

in the accuracy of large force measurements will save millions of dollars by reducing the number of test firings. 

Moving toward this goal, NBS has completed basic designs 

for dead-weight, force-measuring machines of 3OO,OOO-pound 

and 1,000,000-pound capacity and for a laboratory to house 

them. By providing improved accuracies, these machines 

should make it possible to develop better, portable secondary standards that can be utilized in other laboratories. 

Research on high-temperature 

Pressure -- The extremely low pressures obtained in 

high-vacuum facilities roughly correspond to pressures encountered many miles above the earth's surface. The need 

is growing for precise measurement in this pressure range, 

to assist in space vehicle development as well as in fundamental space research. NBS has established a vacuum standards laboratory to concentrate on evolving standards for 

extremely low pressures. Initial effort is aimed at generating reproducible pressures to serve as fixed points on 

a pressure scale. At the same time, progress is being made 

in establishing high-pressure standards and a well-defined 

scale for them. 

Radio Standards -- Space exploration, communications, 

guidance and command systems, and miniaturization are subjecting electronic equipment to novel and complex uses and 

to extreme environments. Consequently, the need for accuracy on the production line becomes increasingly important. To produce uniform and extremely accurate components 

requires a chain of calibrations leading from the assembly 

line back to the precise electrical standards maintained by 

NBS. The Bureau has expanded its program on radio standards research and calibration, seeking improvements in the 

entire radio and microwave frequency. During 1960, NBS 

calibration services increased about 45 percent over the 

- 47 - 
previous year, and new or better standards were established 

for a number of quantities. 

Plasma Physics and Astrophysics -- Many newer fields 

of technology -- for example, astronautics, ultrasonic 

aerodynamics, thermonuclear power, and ionospheric communications -- concern a medium whose characteristics are 

poorly understood: an ionized gas, often at very high temperature, whose particles are continuously interacting. At 

present, a number of laboratories working in this medium 

are forced to rely on expensive and inefficient empirical 

methods because they lack precise measurement techniques 

and basic data on fundamental properties. To help solve 

this problem, NBS has unified and strengthened its work in 

providing standards and measurement methods for plasma and 

astrophysics data. 

measurement standards, basic data, theoretical guidance, 

and interpretative techniques for determining the relevant 

properties of ionized gases. Investigations involve basic 

research in atomic cross sections, transition probabilities, 

reaction rates, statistical mechanics, and theoretical astrophysics. The NBS goal is to provide understanding fundamental to physical interpretation of experiments and observations of the terrestrial, planetary, solar and stellar 

atmospheres. 

The Bureau is attempting to develop 

Properties of Materials 

properties of materials under extreme environmental conditions and for completely new applications have underscored 

the role of NBS in this area of research. 

primary emphasis was given to reorganizing and reorienting materials research to make it more responsive to the latest 

needs for basic data. 

Requirements of the space program for basic data on 

During 1960, 

The program has been directed toward the preparation 

and analysis of the extremely pure and precisely described 

materials required for studies of fundamental properties. 

Emphasis has been given to techniques of precise determination of composition, structure, and presence of impurities 

or imperfections, as well as the development of methods of 

preparation of pure materials and of introducing minute 

impurities and imperfections into pure materials. Fundamental NBS Programs in chemical kinetics, chemical thermodynamics, and reaction mechanisms also received greater 

support . 

Cryogenic Engineering -- NBS work on properties of 

materials at extremely low temperatures has been particularly 

- 48 - 
relevant to space technology because cryogenic fluids are 

extensively employed for rocket propulsion. 

year, this work was extended (through direct cooperation 

with NASA and NASA contractors) to: 1) provide fundamental 

data on liquid hydrogen; 2) undertake studies of cryogenic 

instrumentation; 3) compile data on low temperature properties of a number of materials; and 4) study cryogenic problems in particular developmental programs so that design 

principles and materials utilization criteria could be 

e st a bl i shed . 

During the 

Radio Propagation 

tion systems should revolutionize radio telecommunications 

within the next few years. The work of the Central Radio 

Propagation Laboratory (CRPL) of NBS is laying the groundwork to exploit this major technological advance. Much of 

the basic research of CRPL on upper atmosphere physics and 

radio propagation through the atmosphere -- as well as research in communication theory, antennas, and components 

-- will strengthen the entire field of space telecommunications. Development of advanced instrumentation for communication, navigation, and guidance of spacecraft requires 

more and more knowledge about composition of the atmosphere 

and interplanetary space, and the refraction, absorption, 

and scattering of radio waves in these media. CRPL activities supporting space communications are high-lighted below: 

The use of passive and active satellite telecommunicaSatellite Ionospheric Studies -- Following its detailed 

observations of ionospheric effects on radio signals from 

satellites, CRPL has been participating in planning for similar ionospheric experiments to come, including: 1) refraction observations at two or more frequencies, 2) radio 

beacons, and 3) satellite soundings of the ionosphere from 

above. 

Atmospheric Turbulence -- Extensive CRPL studies of 

phase stability of radio waves propagated over point-topoint paths have provided information required in the 

design of guidance systems, as well as basic data on the 

nature and effect of turbulence in the atmosphere between 

transmitting and receiving antennas. 

Direction Finding -- Using radio stars as a source of 

radio waves, CRPL h as studied the perturbations of radio 

waves passing through the ionosphere. The fundamental information on the distortion of directional signals by scintillation and refraction effects is aiding in determining 

- 49 - 
and improvin accuracy of radio signals to and from vehicles in and [eyond the atmosphere. 

Upper Atmosphere Physics -- Broad CRPL studies of the 

dynamics, composition, and physical characteristics of the 

ionosphere and upper atmosphere have provided important 

information for use in designing space communication systems. 

Work has progressed on the design and installation of 

a high-power scatter radar facility to exploit a new technique that provides, for the first time, a practical means 

of using ground-based equipment to measure electron density 

variations of the ionosphere out to great distances. Such 

data could previously be obtained only through expensive 

satellite and rocket measurements. 

variation, or profile, is of great importance to scientists 

concerned with the dynamic and static structure of the 

outer atmosphere. 

an absolute necessity in all missile and satellite activities requiring radio tracking of the vehicle trajectory or 

orbit. 

This electron density 

Accurate measurement of the profile is 

The highly sensitive scatter radar facility is expected also to provide previously unavailable information 

on kinetic temperature of heavy ions, identity of ionized 

constituents, hydromagnetic aspects of coherent irregularities, and the physical processes of absorption of 

radio energy in the lower ionosphere. This information 

should aid in overcoming several serious limitations to 

practical applications of radio propagation through the 

ionosphere. 

WEATHER BUREAU 

Several aspects of the United States space program 

are of great importance in Weather Bureau plans. The 

Bureau's activities in relation to meteorological satellites center largely in its Meteorological Satellite Laboratory (MSL) which is supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The Bureau is 

participating with other agencies in a meteorological sounding rocket program. Meteorological observation and forecast 

support is provided by the Bureau to the Pacific Missile 

Range and NASA's Wallops Station and Project Mercury. International aspect s of meteorological satellites are receiving much attention in the Bureau's activities and planning, in coordination with NASA. 

- 50 - 
TIROS I and Cloud Cover Analysis* 

The TIROS I satellite, launched by NASA on April 1, 

1960, provided 22,592 pictures of the earth's cloud cover 

by means of wide-angle and narrow-angle television cameras. 

The cloud patterns seen by TIROS ranged in size from large 

cyclones to small cumulus clouds. These pictures are being studied in detail by research meteorologists in the 

MSL to explore the meteorological significance of the cloud 

forms . 

Among the most striking cloud patterns photographed by 

TIROS are the large-scale cyclonic vortices (or storms) 

whose spiral bands are sometimes more than 1,000 miles in 

diameter. For example, when pictures of several of these 

vortices were studied in conjunction with conventional 

meteohological data, Weather Bureau scientists learned the 

structure of moisture fields, the cloud structure of frontal 

zones, the relation of spiral cloud bands to the wind flow, 

and the cloud patterns associated with jet streams. TIROS 

pictures taken over the oceans have already indicated points in the standard meteorological analyses that could be improved, both in connection with cyclonic vortices and frontal and non-frontal cloud bands of considerable horizontal 

extent in the tropics and middle latitudes. 

Perhaps most important are the contributions that 

TIROS data are making toward a better understanding of the 

physical processes associated with cyclonic vortices and 

widespread oluwd areas. A cellular arrangement of cumulus 

clouds has been found that may be significant in transfer 

of energy and moisture from ocean surfaces to the atmosphere. Cloud lvstreets,vv or long narrow lines of clouds, 

often observed in TIROS pictures, have been theoretically 

associated with the wind field. The pictures of cells and 

streets are being compared with conditions prescribed by 

theory or prevailing in laboratory experiments . The satellite pictures are also contributing to detection and study of severe local storms. Very bright cloud 

images have been observed frequently in TIROS pictures. 

several cases, research has verified that pronounced cumulus 

clouds produced the images. In one instance, an isolated, 

bright cloud area has been definitely associated with a zone 

of severe thunderstorms that produced tornadoes a few hours 

later . 

In 

* For other information on TIROS I, TIROS 11, and other 

meteorological activities, see Chapter 1. 

- 51 - 
Other phenomena revealed in TIROS pictures are cloud 

and snow cover in mountain regions in various parts of the 

world, ice on sizeable bodies of water, and sunlight on 

the oceans. 

Judging from studies of TIROS I photographs, it is 

obvious that satellite pictures add an entirely new dimension to meteorological observations. 

both gross and detailed features of cloud patterns makes 

it possible to detect and obtain valuable information on 

the structure of storms and other circulation systems over 

almost any portion of the globe. Experiments carried on 

during the life of TIROS I indicate that the information 

can be used to improve analyses of surface and upper air 

weather charts in regions where, heretofore, data has been 

sparse, and to provide detailed cloud information -- now 

difficult to obtain -- for certain aircraft operations, 

rocket testing, and other specialized activities. 

The ability to view 

TIROS I1 

The second TIROS satellite was launched by NASA on 

November 23, 1960. In addition to television cloud cameras 

similar to those carried by TIROS I, the second TIROS payload included instruments for measuring solar and terrestrial radiation. These will assist research meteorologists 

in studying general circulation of the atmosphere and in 

determining many features of atmospheric composition and 

temperature. 

television camera system have worked satisfactorily, but 

to date the wide-angle camera system has not provided pictures of as high quality as those obtained from TIROS I. 

Based on TIROS I result9, an increased program for the 

experimental operational use of the satellite cloud picture 

data was carried out for the second meteorological satellite. Teams under Weather Bureau leadership were located 

at readout stations to analyze these cloud pictures promptly 

and transmit the findings to the Bureau's National Meteorological Center, near Washington, D. C. The data will be 

used at the NMC and also relayed by facsimile and teletype circuits to military and civilian meteorological centers 

elsewhere . MSL is employing the Bureau's electronic computer facilities for much of the processing of radiation 

data obtained from the second TIROS. 

The radiation experiment and narrow-angle 

In prep,l ing the second TIROS satellite, MSL worked 

closely with NASA, particularly in calibrating the television cameras and radiation sensors, in developing 
systems for data processing, and in training personnel for 

operational phases of the second TIROS program. 

Explorer VI1 Satellite-Heat Budget Experiment 

Explorer VII, launched by NASA on October 13, 1959, 

contains a heat budget experiment designed by Professor 

Suomi of the University of Wisconsin. In this experiment, 

measurements are being made of the energy received by the 

earth (both atmosphere and ground) from the sun, the solar 

energy reflected by the earth to space, and the infrared 

energy emitted by the earth. Measurements of the net heat 

(heat budget) received from the sun by the earth from day 

to day will aid in understanding the general circulation of 

the atmosphere . To increase data coverage from Explorer VII, MSL arranged early in 1960, to install five additional data receiving stations which operated most of the year. 

are located at Weather Bureau offices; one is operated by 

the Air Weather Service of the USAF. MSL edited the data 

received from these stations before sending it to Professor 

Suomi for processing. The Laboratory also provided assistance to the University of Wisconsin in coding the machine 

program for processing the data. Some of the data were also 

processed by the MSL. 

Preliminary examination of the heat budget data indicates a logical physical relationship to the weather patterns seen on standard weather maps. When this report was 

prepared, the Explorer VI1 heat budget experiment was still 

operating during daylight . Following the launching of 

TIROS 11, data were to be collected from the Explorer VI1 

satellite for comparison with those obtained by TIROS 11. 

Additional comparisons, made by launching radiation instruments attached to balloons released from U.S. Weather 

Bureau stations for Explorer VI1 will be continued for 

Four 

TIROS 11. 

Studies have been conducted to determine various 

energy parameters and atmospheric heat transport which are 

related to general circulation of the atmosphere. As 

large amounts of Explorer VI1 and TIROS I1 heat budget 

data become available, measurements will be related to computed atmospheric heat transport and energy parameters and, 

thus, to the general circulation of the atmosphere. 

- 53 - 
Advanced Meteorological Sat ell it e Experiment s 

MSL has been working closely with NASA on developing 

the Nimbus satellite, the first of which is scheduled for 

launching in 1962. Theoretical studies have been completed and laboratory work is in progress to develop a 

prototype infrared spectrometer for satellite use. The 

instrument will assess worldwide temperature distribution 

in the stratosphere and upper troposphere by measuring 

radiation emitted in the 15-micron carbon dioxide band. 

The instrument would a150 obtain measurements in the 11.1 

micron water vapor which can be used to determine the temperature at the earth's surface or cloud tops. 

A preliminary engineering feasibility study has been 

completed on the use of satellite-borne radar to detect 

precipitation. Further engineering studies are being conducted by MSL in conjunction with the U.S. Army's Diamond 

Ordnance Fuze Laboratories. Theoretical studies have been 

completed on a technique for measuring atmosphere ozone 

from meteorological satellites. The possibility of measuring the height of cloud tops from satellites utilizing 

pulsed light techniques has also been investigated. 

Planning for Operational Meteorological Satellite System 

potentialities of meteorological satellites for providing 

worldwide weather observations. This will not only meet 

U.S. requirements, but will enhance this country's efforts 

to employ space for the benefit of a11 mankind. The 

Weather Bureau has prepared a preliminary plan for establishing and operating a joint system of meteorological observation satellites for all U.S. Government agencies concerned in weather activities. 

The dramatic success of TIROS I has emphasized the 

Meteorological Rocketsondes 

The Weather Bureau is continuing to participate with 

other Government agencies in the development and utilization of meteorological sounding rockets to extend observations above the maximum altitudes that can be obtained with 

conventional balloon sounding techniques. A preliminary 

meteorological rocket network, operated by the Department 

of Defense and NASA during 1960, is providing meteorological data for research and to determine atmospheric conditions encountered by high altitude vehicles. The Bureau 

participates in coordinating data analysis and research, 

- 54 - 
and is making the data available through the Bureau's 

National Weather Records Center. 

Meteorological Support for Space Activities 

A team of Weather Bureau meteorologists takes meteorological observations at NASA's Wallops Station. They 

also prepare forecasts and provide meteorological advice 

to support operations at the station. 

The Weather Bureau provides extensive meteorological 

support for the Pacific Missile Range through operating 

weather observing stations in California and the Pacific, 

some of which were established specifically for range support. 

At the request of NASA, the Weather Bureau is providing meteorological forecasting support for Project Mercury. 

Three meteorological groups are operating at the National 

Meteorological Center, near Washington, D. C. and at Cape 

Canaveral and Miami, Florida. Arrangements have been made 

to acquire meteorological data along the path of the 

Mercury capsule to be used in forecasting for the project. 

By providing climatological data and studies, the 

Weather Bureau also serves as meteorological consultant to 

other groups engaged in space activities. 

International Activities 

aspects of meteorological satellites. Representing the 

United States, the Bureau has kept the World Meteorological 

Organization (WMO) informed about U.S. meteorological satellites. As a result, panels and working groups have been 

established in the WMO to stimulate progress and to plan 

and coordinate the international use of meteorological data. 

In addition, Bureau personnel serve on other international 

bodies such as the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and 

the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) . 

The Weather Bureau is participating in international 

Following the success of' TIHOS I, Bureau personnel 

presented several scientific papers at meetings of international committees and scientific bodies. The Bureau has 

also distributed a limited number of TIROS I pictures and 

supporting data to weather services and research groups in 

other countries. 

to interested international groups early in 1961. 

All TIROS pictures will be made available 

- 55 - 
The Weather Bureau is working with NASA on a program 

of international participation in support of the TIROS I1 

satellite experiment. 

take special meteorological observations when TIROS I1 is 

passing over their country. These observations and satellite data will be exchanged. Later, all TIROS I1 data will 

be made available to any group desiring them. 

Several countries have agreed to 

COAST AND GEODETIC SUEZVEY 

Calibration and testing of instruments designed by 

NASA and its contractors have been carried on at the 

Fredericksburg (Md.) Magnetic Observatory and Laboratory. The unique facility at the observatory for this work is a 

set of coils about 18 feet in diameter which provide a 

working space in which the geomagnetic field at any point 

on the earth's surface or in interplanetary space can be 

duplicated. Moreover, special controls permit holding the 

magnetic field constant -- free from the disturbances of 

normal, almost continuous, variations of the field, which 

are occasionally severe enough to be called a "magnetic 

storm . w 

Instruments for artificial satellites, and for high 

altitude rockets (including moon shots) have been tested 

and calibrated in the Fredericksburg coils to determine 

not only the performance capability of the magnetic equipment, but also to measure quantitatively the induction 

effects at very low field intensities of other equipment 

and of the vehicle itself. 
SPACE SCIENCE BOARD 

CHAPTER VI1 

INTRODUCTION 

The Space Science Board was established in June 1958 by 

the President of the National Academy of Sciences to serve 

as the focus of the Academy's interests in space science. 

The Board is intended to be advisory and consultative. 

Domestically, the Board serves in an advisory capacity 

to agencies of the Federal Government having executive responsibilities in the field of space science. These agencies 

are the National Aeronautics and Space Administration TNASA) 

the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Department of 

Defense (DOD). Because NASA and NSF have primary responsibility for civilian space science, the relations of the Board 

to these agencies have been particularly close, and the Board 

is supported by these two institutions. The Board has provided advice and recommendations on a variety of subjects 

relating to basic research; it has served to represent the 

interests of scientists; and it has sousht to provide a broad 

scientific base for current and future U.S. space science 

efforts by stimulating the scientific community to take an 

interest in space research. 

vides for cooperation with scientists of other countries. 

The vehicle for such cooperation is the Committee on Space 

Research (COSPAR) of the International Council of Scientific 1 

Unions (ICSU). Adherence to this committee is provided by 

the Academy through the Board's Committee on International 

Relations, whose chairman serves as the delegate to COSPAR. 

The Board, its committees, and Academy staff have devoted 

considerable effort to problems of international cooperation during 1960. 

Internationally, the Board, as the Academy's agent, proThe members of the Board serve as chairmen of fifteen 

specialized committees covering the various scientific disciplines and fields of activity associated with the country's 

space science prosram. The Board and its committees are 

composed of approximately 150 leading scientific specialists. 

(Membership of the Board and its committees is given in 

Appendix A. ) 

- 57 - 
DOMESTIC ACTIVITIES 

The Board has devoted a major portion of its time and 

attention during this year to the longer range objectives 

of space science. The Board convened its specialized committees in each discipline to consider development of comprehensive program goals for planetary exploration in the 

1970's, followed by a similar study of the research programs 

for the 1960 decade to ascertain what would be required to 

insure the success of the later planetary program. Comprehensive briefings by NASA personnel supplemented and expanded 

on previously prepared program documents and recommendations 

at each committee meeting. 

The various committees of the Board have held 20 formal 

meetings during the year and a large number of informal discussion sessions. The Board itself met in Washington (March) 

and in Arcadia, Calif. (June). As a result of these deliberations, reviews and plans have been transmitted in formal 

'recommendations for consideration by the appropriate agencies 

of the Government. 

Study Groups 

In addition to its regular ad hoc committees, the Board 

has convened several special study groups to consider specific 

problems. Six such groups held a total of ten meetings during 

the period. The following brief descriptions are indicative 

of topics which the Board has considered to be of importance 

in the conduct of the space research program. 

Project West Ford -- This communications system has been 

critically reviewed throughout the year by a special study 

group in order to assess its impact on a number of fields of 

science, such as atmospheric and ionospheric physics, radio 

and conventional astronomy, etc. As a result of its study, 

the Board has made recommendations to the Government concerning the conduct of the experiments and has arranged for 

presentation and discussion of the technical details internationally. It continues to provide advice and information 

to project personnel through a small specialized group of 

scientists. 

Planetary Atmospheres -- With the focusing of attention 

on planetary exploration, the Board recognized the need to 

bring together the special competences of a number of scientific disciplines. In order to examine the state of current kmwledge about the atmospheres of the planets, the 

Board convened a conference in conjunction with its June 

meeting. Meteorologists, both theoretical and observational, and planetary astronomers met with upper atmosphere and ionospheric physicists to discuss and assess ways 

- 58 - 
and meens of improving and! expanding this information. Proceedinm of this conference are scheduled for Dublication in 

the Transactions of the American Geophysical &ion in early 

1961. As a result of this conference a small working group 

of specialists besan work in December to compile a definitive 

study of the planetary atmospheres; this study will serve as 

a research guide in the immediate years ahead and will stimulate interest in planetary research, so that the necessary 

information about planetary environments will be available on 

a timely basis. 

Balloon, Rocket and Ground-based Observations -- The 

Board has continued to recommend to the Government and to 

the scientific community that those investigations which can 

be performed with high altitude balloons, rockets or from the 

ground should be supported to the maximum extent, considering 

their value in relation to the more expensive satellite and 

space probe experiments. Conventional ground-based astronomical studies of the planets carried out by experienced observers supplemented by work with balloon-borne telescopes, can 

provide much information about planetary atmospheres. 

larly, the use of rockets as geophysical and astronomical 

tools should not be overlooked. To this end, the Board has 

established a committee on rocket research under the chairmanship of Dr. William W. Kellogg, which coordinates the 

several disciplines in the exploitation of this research tool. 

SimiChemical Analysis of Meteorites -- Late in 1959, as a 

result of continued Board concern for the lack of a coordinated program to collect and analyze meteorites, the Board 

convened a small group of chemical analysts and curators of 

meteorite collections under the chairmanship of Professor 

Harrison Brown. Implementation of the Board recommendations 

endorsing the findings of this conference has established 

the California Institute of Technology as a clearinghouse 

for cataloguing, analyzing and otherwise coordinatins and 

facilitating the chemical analysis of meteorites, as a step 

toward understandins of the space environment. 

Laboratory Astrophysics -- The Board has recosnized the 

ever increasing demand from observational geophysicists and 

astrophysicists for values of those physical parameters that 

they need for the interpretation of results, such as collision cross sections for various physical processes, wavelengths, intensities, and transition probabilities in energy 

ranges like the far ultraviolet that have only now become 

accessible through observations from outside our atmosphere, 

and in this connection has noted the excellent work of the 

National Bureau of Standards. Recommendation for continuance and expansion of such laboratory work to provide the 

- 59 - 
answers to these needs was forwarded to the Secretary of 

Commerce and other interested Government agencies. 

Professors Donald F . Hornig and Harold C. Urey, has kept the 

Board informed of the nuclear propulsion programs for space 

vehicles. As a result of this information, the Board has 

urged that no reasonable research project aimed at providing 

some radical and different means of propulsion should be overlooked, because some way must be found to break through the 

limitation on specific impulse imposed by chemical fuels. 

Continuing emphasis on current nuclear propulsion investigations has been recommended. 

Nuclear Propulsion -- A small panel, under Board members 

Geodetic Satellite -- On advice from NASA that the scientific satellite planned for the improvement of geodetic 

data had been canceled, the Board convened a small group of 

geodesists to conduct a preliminary inquiry into the matter, 

and formally requested the President's Science Advisory Committee to determine whether or not the program now proposed 

meets the requirements recommended by informed geodesists. 

Biological Contamination -- The Board has continued to 

emphasize the need for avoidance of biological contamination 

of the Moon and planets until suitable biological investigations can be conducted. It is also noted that the return 

of probes to the earth with lunar or planetary samples raises problems of back contamination. 

Other Biolog -- During 1960, in support of the newly 

established NASA Office of Life Sciences, the Board has increased its emphasis on the biological sciences with the 

addition of three committees: Exobiology, Dr. Joshua Lcderb 

Chairman; Environmental Biology, Dr. Colin S. Pittendrigh, 

Chairman; and Man-in-Space, Dr. Christian J. Lambertsen, 

Chairman . 

ers, 

Auroral Zone Rocket Launching Site -- The value of rocket 

launching sites in the auroral zone, and the scientific results obtained from rocket launching at Ft. Churchill during 

the IGY in particular, provided the basis for the Board recommendation that continued financial support by the U.S. is in 

the scientific interest. 

Space Mathematics -- A special study group of eminent 

mathematicians has been convened within the National Research 

Council to examine the problem of space research susceptible 

of solution by mathematical techniques, for example, data 

reduction, information theory, orbit computation and satellite prediction information. 

- 60 - 
Satellite Tracking Requirements -- A special study group 

has been organized to assess' current satellite tracking and 

orbit results and procedures in relation to scientific 

requirements. 

available early next year. 

Radio Freauencs Allocations -- In continuance of 1959 

activities, the Board has provided advice to NASA, Federal Communications Commission, and other governmental agen- cies on the requirements for allocation of radio frequency 

bands to meet special research requirements. It continues 

to work closely with the responsible government agencies as 

well as the National Academy of Sciences Committee on Radio 

Frequency Protection and the relevant committees of the 

International Radio Scientific Union (URSI). 

"Science in Space" -- During the early part of this 

period, the Board devoted considerable effort to a report on 

the research possibilities and objectives of space science, 

called Science in Space. The report was issued in nine separate pamphlets, distributed both domestically and internat ionally. 

World Data Center A, Rockets and Satellites -- During 

1960, the operation of the Data Center within the Academy 

continued to provide a means for international exchange of 

scientific data resulting from rocket and satellite programs. At the request of COSPAR, the Center will continue 

to serve the needs of international cooperation in furtherins the peaceful exploitation of space research. 

added some synoptic data from the Meteorological Network to 

its cataloaue and has systematically exchanged data with 

Centers B TSoviet Union) and C (United Kingdom). The following reports were issued during the period: 

The report of this group is expected to be 

The Center 

Satellite Report Series : Number 10, Determination of 

Ionospheric Electron Content and Distribution from 

Satellite Observations; Number 11, Observations of 

Corpuscular Radiation with Satellite and Space Probes; 

Number 12, Ionospheric Research with Satellites 

Rocket Report Series: Number 6, A Second Compilation 

of US/IGY Rocket Program Results. 

Several additional volumes in esch series are being prepared 

for issue early in 1961. 

- 61 - 
INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES 

COSPAR Charter Adopted 

COSPAR was established by ICSU in October 1958, and its 

initial organizing meetinss were held in November 1958 and in 

March 1959. At the third meeting, held in Nice, France, January 

8-16, 1960, delegates from 13 countries and from 6 ICSU Unions 

adopted the present COSPAR Charter. National members present 

at this meeting included Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Canada, 

France, Germany (West ), India, Japan, Poland, South Africa, 

United Kingdom, US and USSR. 

Results of COSPAR Meeting at Nice 

Among the more significant actions taken at the meeting 

were the following: An International Rocket Interval for 1960 

(September 16-22) was established, and rocket experimenters 

from all countries were ursed to perform rocket soundings 

during the quarterly world meteorological intervals for 1961. 

Biologists were requested to undertake experiments to develop 

basic data for quantitative specifications to be used in 

decontaminating and sterilizing spacecraft. Action was taken 

to insure collaboration with the International Telecommunications Union in allocating radio frequencies for space research 

purposes. 

information on satellite launchings, including pre-launch and 

post-launch data and orbital elements. The world-wide communication system, known during IGY as AGIWARN, was endorsed 

for this purpose under the new name SPACEWARN. Plans were 

developed for an interdisciplinary study of the remarkable 

geophysical events that occurred during July 1959; a symposium on this subject was held during the IUGG Assembly at 

Helsinki in August 1960. A preparatory group was organized 

to develop an international reference atmosphere for the 

properties of the upper atmosphere, above the present 32 km 

altitude limit. Resolutions were adopted initiathg the 

publication of a monthly COSPAR Bulletin, an annual compilation of rocket flight summaries and a consolidated list of 

published sources of information on results of space research. 

COSPAR formally adopted a resolution noting with satisfaction 

the resolutions passed by the General Assembly of the United 

Nations to establish a Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space and to convene an international scientific conference 

for the exchange of experience in the peaceful uses of outer 

space. This resolution also offered the services of COSPAR 

in any matters within its competence to the United Nations 

Committee. Subsequently, COSPAR has conferred with the UN 

Committee and has offered its services in particular for the 

purpose of organizing the scientific program of the UN conference. 

Recommendations were adopted on the exchange of 

- 62 - 
Other COSPAR Accomplishments 

COSPAR was held in Stockholm from Ausust 11-13, 1960. The 

Bureau reviewed the budgets for 1960 and 1961, considered 

reports on the three working groups of COSPAR and developed 

plans for the fourth COSPAR meeting scheduled for April 1961. 

ence Board and its staff helped coordinate the U.S. contribution to the COSPAR Rocket Interval for 1960. Approximately 

35 research rockets were launched by U.S. scientists during 

the period September 16-22, 1960. The greater number of 

these -- approximately 27 -- were for meteorological purposes. 

Results of rocket experiments during this period will be reported by the Space Science Board to COSPAR for distribution 

to the world scientific community and will also be deposited 

in the World Data Centers established during the IGY. Two 

major international rocket intervals have been scheduled by 

COSPAR for 1961. The first, from February 12-18, will be 

concerned primarily with solar-terrestrial effects related 

to the total solar eclipse of 15 February and the atmospheric structure during the Northern Hemisphere's winter. 

Launchings durinz the second interval, July 16-25 will 

emphasize atmospheric structure during the Northern Hemisphere's summer. Rocket firings devoted to upper atmosphere 

and solar observations also will be made during the quarterly 

meteorological world intervals in January, April, and October, 

1961. 

A meeting of the Bureau of the Executive Council of 

Pocket Inte rval -- On behalf of COSPAR, the Space SciThe 1959 July Event -- COSPAR has initiated an interdisciplinary study of the remarkable series of geophysical 

events that occurred during July, 1959. As part of th'h 

study, COSPAR was instrumental in organizing a symposium on 

this subject at the IUGG Assembly held in Helsinki in August, 

1960. The Board took an active part in organizing the participation of U.S. scientists. 

International Symposium -- In addition to the administrative sessions at the third COSPAR meeting, the dates of 

January 11-15, 1960, were set aside for the First International Space Science Symposium. 

was organized into separate sessions on the following subjects: Earth's Atmosphere, Ionosphere, Cosmic Radiation and 

Interplanetary Dust, Solar Radiation, 

Meteorites, and Tracking and Telemetering. About 300 scientists from 20 countries attended; and 101 scientific papers 

were read by scientists of 12 countries. 

were presented by scientists from the U.S. 

ceedings of the symposium have been published by the NorthThis scientific meeting 

The Moon and Planets, 

Forty-seven papers 

The full pro- 

- 63 - 
Holland Publishing Company. 

nated U.S. participation and contributions to this symposium, 

and assisted in planning and publication aspects. 

The Space Science Board coordi- 

- 64 - 
CHAPTER Vlll 

SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 

INTRODUCTION 

The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, under a NASA 

grant, has technical direction of the Baker-Nunn Optical 

Tracking Network -- a worldwide system of 12 stations 

equipped with special cameras of great precision and power. 

The Observatory is also responsible for operating the network and reducing and analyzing the data it obtains. 

TRACKING AND DATA SYSTEMS 

Baker-Nunn Optical Network 

Tracklng Network consists of‘ nonmobile precision cameras 

capable of photographing a very faint object (13th magni- tude) to an accuracy of 4 seconds of arc and 2 milliseconds 

of time. Associated are 110 international volunteer visual 

Moonwatch stations in 22 countries, which supply additional 

approximate observations and act as a surveillance system for lost satellites. 

Direction and Operation -- The Baker-Nunn Optical 

Capabilities and Locations -- The network makes it possible to determine precisely tfie initial trajectories of 

space probes and the orbits-of satellites. It is also useful for geodetic research leading to precise information on 

the shape of the earth and the relative positions of the 

continents. The 12 sites of the Baker-Nunn cameras are: 

Jupiter, Florida; Curacao, Netherlands West Indies; 

Arequipa, Peru; Villa Dolores, Argentina; Olifantsfontein, 

Union of South Africa; San Fernando, Spain; Shiraz, Iran; 

Naini Tal, India; Woomera, Australia; Tokyo, Japan; Maui, 

Hawaii; and Organ Pass, New Mexico. 

Accomplishments -- Approximately 17,200 satellite passages have been photographed by the network as of September 30, 1960, and 17,000 recorded visually by Moonwatch. The 

current output is approximately 1,200 useful photographs 

per month. A number of scientific results relating to the 

upper atmosphere and the gravitational potential of the 

earth have been derived. 

had bmanned as this report period ended. 

Future -- No new Baker-Nunn Optical Tracking Stations 

- 65 - 
CHAPTER IX 

FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION 

INTRODUCTION 

The Federal Communications Commission’s activities in 

the fields of space communication, radio astronomy, and aeronautics greatly increased during 1960, mostly because of the 

many new and unique problems arising from rapid technological 

and scientific developments in telecommunications. For example, applications for experimental licenses were filed by 

private enterprise to permit research on civil communication 

systems employing space satellites, the feasibility of which 

was demonstrated by the Echo project during 1960.* 

These and similar events during the year have served to 

emphasize the many difficult telecommunication problems that 

must be solved, especially those anticipating the operational 

use of such systems. Progress has also been made toward implementing the 1959 Geneva Radio Regulations which provide 

specific frequencies for space communications research and 

radio astronomy. Emphasis was also placed on the preparatoq work for the forthcoming special International Telecommunications Union (ITU) conference on space, scheduled for late 

1963. Two FCC allocation proceedings relating to space communication frequency requirements were instituted during the 

year; VHF aeronautical frequencies underwent major reallocation to provide snore space for Government air traffic control 

operations. Study was initiated on the technical aspects of 

sharing between space communication ground terminals and 

conventional microwave relay communications systems. 

SPACE COM”ICATI0NS 

Although the Commission is not responsible for any overall space programs or for launch vehicle technology, rapid 

developments in the space field have created many telecommunication problems. 

the Communications Act of 1934, as amended, to n...make 

available, so far as possible, to all of the people of the 

United States a rapid, efficient, nationwide, and worldwide wire and radio communication service.. .” involve the 

FCC to a major extent. The assignment of frequencies for 

space communication and experimentation directed toward the 

These, by virtue of the obligation under 

* See Chapter 1. 

- 67 - 
imminent development of a civil communication system employing space satellites are of direct concern to the FCC. During 

the past year, Project Echo effectively demonstrated the 

technical feasibility of such a system on an experimental 

basis. However, the anticipated development and operational 

use of communications satellites, either active or passive, 

present a multitude of additional telecommunication problems 

with which the FCC must cope. Not the least of these is the 

matter of providins enough suitable frequencies and insuring 

compatibility between space and surface systems so that the 

public interest will best be served. Many other regulatory 

problems will stem from the combined operational use of space 

satellites and radio. 

The solutions to such problems involve both national and 

international considerations. Accordingly, the Commission is 

following a policy of close coordination and cooperation with 

all of the interests involved. There has been increased collaboration between the FCC and NASA at all levels to ensure a 

common approach to space problems involving both agencies. 

For example, consultations were recently concluded between 

the legal staffs on certain questions of jurisdiction. Other 

Interagency activities of the FCC include participation in 

the following: 

The Telecommunication Coordinatins Committee (TCC) 

of the Department of State -- The TCC has organized 

an Ad Hoc tiorkine Group under the chairmanship of 

FCC Commissioner Craven to draft foreign policy 

recommendations on space communication systems. 

The Telecommunication Planning Committee (TPC), 

which advises the Office of Civil and Defense 

Mobilization (OCDM) -- The FCC participates in 

Panels I and I1 which are concerned with space 

matters. FCC representatives participated in a 

preliminary report accepted by the TPC. 

FCC/OCDM Coordination -- The FCC and the CCDM have 

joint responsibility for national frequency allocations. Staff work is through joint meetings of FCC 

representatives with the Interdepartment Radio 

Advisory Committee (IRAC) and its Subcommittee on 

Frequency Allocations (SFA) . 

The U.S. Committee for Study Groups IV and VI11 of 

the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) 

of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) -- 

The Commission participates in subgroups dealing 

with matters such as the npreferred characteristics" 

of operational satellite relay communications systems 

- 68 - 
.. 

and techniques of monitoring, measuring and identifying space vehicle radio transmissions. This is 

in preparation for the next CCIR Plenary Assembly 

(New Delhi, 1963). 

Space Science Board (SSB) -- The Commission's Chief 

Engineer serves as a member of the International 

Relations Committee of the SSB which is concerned 

with international basic space research activities, 

working international1 through the Committee on 

Space Research (COSPAR 3 . The International Radio Scientific Union (URSI) -- 

The FCC is represented on this group, which is a 

member of the International Council of Scientific 

Unions (ICSU) . National Bureau of Standards -- The FCC maintains 

scientific liaison with the Central Radio Propagation Laboratory of the National Bureau of Standards 

through membership on the Interdepartment Council 

on Radio Propagation and Standards. 

International Administrative Radio Conference 

The International Administrative Radio Conference held 

in Geneva in 1959 under the auspices of the ITU led to the 

adoption of an international table of frequency allocations 

which, for the first time, provided bands of frequencies for 

the space and earth-space services. These services were also 

included in the new international definitions. It should be 

noted, however, that the bands for space allocated internationally at Geneva are for research purposes only and are 

useful principally for tracking, control and telemetry functions. Although no bands were allocated internationally for 

use by operational space satellite relay communication system, a special ITU Administrative Radio Conference was 

scheduled tentatively for late 1963 to deal specifically with 

space problems on the basis of developments as of that time. 

In that connection, at the request of the Department of State, 

preparatory work directed toward formulating the U.S. position for that conference has been initiated jointly by the FCC and 

the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC). 

Domestically, steps have been taken by the FCC toward 

implementing the 1959 Geneva Radio Regulations nationally, 

pending the rat if icat ion of the Geneva treaty . (Rat if icat ion 

is expected in the first session of the 87th Congress.) 

is hoped that basic rule-making actions will be completed in 

time to meet the May 1, 1961, implementation date. This will 

It 
require many amenCments to the Commission's Table of Frequency 

Allocations and corresponding amendments to the Rules governinE the various specific radio services administered by the 

FCC. 

As a result of developments in space communications, 

during 1960 the FCC reopened its proceedins in the general 

matter of allocating frequencies above 890 mc (Docket 11866). 

The object was to determine, in the light of all evidence 

then available, whether the frequency requirements for comunications via space satellites would require a modification 

of the Commission's decision in that proceedins to permit 

some additional classes of users to establish communications 

systems utilizing frequencies between 1,000 and 10,000 mc. 

After a careful analysis of all the evidence, the Commission 

concluded that its earlier decision need not be modified at 

that time. 

In anticipation of the proposed special administrative 

conference of ITU tentatively scheduled for 1963, the Commission issued a Notice of Inquiry, Docket; 13522; the purpose 

of this proceeding is to accumulate all available data 

pertinent to the questions of frequency allocations for communications utilizing space satellites. A court appeal from 

the Docket 11866 decision has been taken by the American 

Eioclzet Society. 

public in Docket 13522 is ?larch 1, 1961. (Further comments 

may later be requested by dates stipulated by the FCC.) 

It now appears that future allocations to provide adequate frequencies nationally and internationally for spacesatellite relay-communication systems will be facilitated 

by conclusive knowledge of' the extent and techniques whereby 

such system 22n op=rate on a shared basis with other radio 

services in the sgectrum. 

tional informtion on this subject, the FCC has been active 

in stiinulating appropriate cDoserative studies and experi- nental prozrzr,s by both industry and Government organizations. 

The first date for comments from the zeneral 

Plfth 8 view toward obtaining addiNeed Pcr International Coordination 

with operational space satellite relay conmunication systelns 

for use internationally was emphasized by visits of foreign 

space experts dvrinz 1960. These groups consulted with Government and industry organizations having an interest in space 

activities, including the FCC. Space matters of mutcal interest 

were discussed. 

zllocatcd internationally for such systems, careful consideration must be given to the interference that might result from 

r-tl ~ns need for international coordination in connection 

In view of the fact that no frequencies are 

- 73 - 
the operations being conducted in this and other countries in 

accordance with the international table of frequency allocations. 

Monitoring of Channels for Space Communications 

Another FCC activity during 1960 has been the continued 

monitoring cf channels being used for space communication 

purposes to prevent their unauthorized use by other stations, 

and to identify and locate sources of interference. At a 

number of monitoring stations, special facilities have been 

installed, including sensitive receivers, high gain directional antennas, and automatic frequency scannine: devices. 

These facilities, which are being further developed, have 

been employed in handling specific requests to monitor frequencies that have been employed for space vehicle radio 

transmissions. They have also helped locate interferencefree frequencies for such transmissions. 

RADIO ASTEOXOMY 

As pointed out in the pwvious section on space communications, the International Administrative Radio Conference 

held in Geneva in 1959 resulted in the adoption of a revised 

international table of frequency allocations. This table, 

for the first time in history, included provisions for protecting specific frequencies for radio astronomy use. Among 

other things, this has the significance of applying to radio 

astronomy the provisions in the International Radio Regulations regarding the elimination of harmful interference. 

The groundwork leading to such amendments has already been 

completed by the FCC and coordinated with the IRBC during 

1960. However, until the new Geneva Radio Regulations can 

be ratified, it is not feasible to incorporate these provisions in the national table of frequency allocations 

through appropriate amendments to the FCC Rules. Accordingly, the radio astronomy interests in the U.S. are compelled to await ratification of the Geneva Radio Regulations before fully realizins the benefits to radio astronomy contained therein. 

The FCC is continuing to study the future needs of the 

radio astronomy interests in coordination with the OCDM, 

which is concerned with Government policy, and looks to the 

National Academy of Sciences for advice in this field. 

- 71 - 
AERONAUTICS 

The FCC prescribes the manner and conditions under which 

frequencies may be assigned to non-Government licensees for 

aircraft communications (including telemetry), for aeronautical radio-navigation, and for the control and telemetry in 

the development of missiles, rockets and satellites. 

The higher speeds that result from the commercial use of 

jet aircraft have created increased demands on communication 

and aeronautical radio-navigat ion facilities . Expansion of 

such facilities has also been necessary to meet the increased 

volume of air traffic resulting from normal growth in air 

travel. All of these demands have had to be accommodated 

within the limited frequency space available. 

Fliqht Safety Requirements 

A major reallocation of spectrum space was completed in 

the band 108-132 mc to provide additional frequencies for air 

traffic control facilities believed necessary for flisht 

safety. More than 800 aeronautical enroute stations were 

redeployed to permit the band 126.825-128.825 mc to be made 

available for exclusive use by air traffic control facilities after July 1, 1960. Frequencies in the band 132.05- 

134.95 mc also became available for air traffic control after 

that date. However, the announced requirements of the FAA 

indicate that the frequencies currently available for operating the air route structure will soon be saturated and a 

definite shortage will develop by 1963. 

Flight-Test Communication Requirements 

Because of the continued increase in flight-test communication requirements in connection with the testing of 

missiles, rockets and satellites, as well as aircraft, by 

manufacturers, further efforts were made toward assigning: 

adequate frequencies to meet these requirements. Meeting 

such requirements involves more effective administration in 

utilizing the limited frequencies available and in exploiting 

technical advances that will permit greater conservation of 

f requenc ies . 

- 72 - 
CHAPTER X 

UNITED STATES INFORMATION AGENCY 

The United States Information Agency (USIA) is responsible for disseminating information abroad on both civilian 

and military space activities of the United States. In 

carrying out this function, USIA issues news releases and 

photographs of individual events, and gives more general 

treatments of space achievements through distribution of 

pamphlets, photographs and magazine reprints. Other communications media used frequently include radio, television, 

motion pictures, and exhibits. Information is obtained 

from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the 

Department of Defense, the Atomic Energy Commission, and 

other government agencies participating in the research 

and development of space and aeronautics. 

facilities are presented herewith, subdivided by the 

various media employed. 

Instances of worldwide dissemination through USIA 

News Releases 

During 1960, USIA prepared and distributed more than 

250 news and feature stories, totalling more than 100,000 

words, on U.S. space activities during 1960. About 175 of 

these stories covered the activities of NASA; the remaining 75 covered military satellites. All these stories, 

and many others not tabulated, were transmitted over the 

regional wireless files (news services directed to USIA 

offices in the European, Near East and African, Latin 

American, and Far Eastern areas) and three special wireless 

files (Eastern Europe, Rio de Janeiro, and Ottawa). 

Highlights of NASA coverage were 18 stories on Pioneer 

V, 20 stories on TIROS I and TIROS 11, and 20 stories and 

orbit timetables on Echo; the latter, distributed in about 

150 foreign cities, were especially effective in drawing 

attention to the United States' increasingly successful 

space program. Vanguard I and Explorer VI1 were featured 

prominently to show their long-term values. The progress 

of the X-15 experimental rocket-powered airplane was 

closely covered . Seven "Space Summaries" were prepared 

and transmitted to the field; these emphasized the U.S. 

accomplishments in engineering features of its satellites 

and probes. Detailed summary sheets on individual space 

- 73 - 
vehicles were obtained from NASA and were distributed to 

all overseas posts. In addition, special stories were 

written on the Scout launch vehicle (which is being offered 

to launch cooperative experiments for foreign nations), 

Project Mercury, Saturn, and nuclear rocket progress (AEC). 

Major speeches by outstanding personalities in the space 

program were also featured. 

Publications and Photos 

Overseas posts were given quantity reprints of twelve 

selected articles on space from American magazines such as 

l*Science,tt "Saturday Evening Post,I1 "Sky and Telescope,lV 

'IThe New York Times,v1 Itscience World," "Saturday Review," 

ltScientific American,f1 and "Johns Hopkins Magazine." The 

posts also received six I1Astrologstr -- a compilation of 

material from "Missiles and Rockets" magazine. photographs (6,915 prints and 2,441 negatives) on 53 space- 

' related subjects, including captions and brief stories, 

were sent to 120 overseas posts for distribution to foreign 

press and publications. Plastic mat pictures totalling 50,731 plastic plates on 21 subjects were also sent to the 

posts for distribution, as were some 17,000 photo prints 

and 7,000 negatives on 14-6 subjects related to space 

activities . "America Illustrated,*1 a magazine distributed within 

Soviet Russia (in exchange for our agreement to distribution of "USSRt1 here), carried four space stories in its 

1960 editions. The subjects were "Weather Satellites," 

I'Dangers of Meteorites in Space Flight ,It "Education of 

Young Scientists,If and "New Frontiers" (the challenge of 

space) . 

Radio and Television 

Selected 

U.S. space activities continued to be a featured theme 

on Voice of America (VOA) broadcasts during 1960, in the 

form of newscasts, special events, and scripts, prepared 

for use abroad both in foreign languages and in English. 

Newscasts, which constitute about one-half of all VOA 

services, carried detailed accounts of launchings. Failures 

were reported briefly and factually; each successful mission was carried as long as the news values justified continued coverage. 

lead stories in a particular day's programming. After the 

launching of Echo I, over-pass timetables were supplied 

to the worldwide English and foreign language services 

for broadcast use. In addition, each announcement of a new 

Successful launchings were invariably the 

- 74 - 
launching included a brief recapitulation of previous successes, showing the steady increase in the number of U.S. 

satellites aloft, together with a brief mention of the 

number of Soviet satellites still up. Comparisons were 

left to the listener, rather than being included in the VOA 

announcements. Whenever possible, the peaceful purposes of 

U.S. space launchings were stressed. News roundups also 

reported all major space launchings and activities, making 

use of recorded interviews and news conferences, recorded 

scientific reports in foreign languages, and special trips 

to launching installations, NASA research and development 

facilities, universities and laboratories. Launchings 

covered included Pioneer V, TIROS I, Transit, Polaris, 

Courier, Discoverer XIII, Echo, and TIROS 11. After the 

launching of Echo I, VOA arranged to have the words of 

ambassadors and diplomats from 15 nations bounced off the 

satellite and recorded for later direct broadcasts and 

other uses in the country of origin of the person concerned. 

In preparing scripts on space activities for use in 

overseas radio stations, 34 special scripts were produced, 

as well as items to be included in each edition of a weekly 

science script and another weekly feature entitled 

"America This Week." A special half hour documentary 

program "Success In Space -- Twelve Hours to Zero" was a 

dramatized account of an actual space launching. 

For use by television stations overseas, the TV service 

of USIA gave worldwide distribution (53 posts, including 

foreign language sound-track users) to the following special 

space programs: 1) "Architects of Space" -- 15-minute 

program made at Convair Astronautics; 2) "Project Echo" -- 

four-minute background story on communications satellite; 

3 ) "Courier Communications Satellite" -- background information distributed to foreign posts in advance of launchings. 

time of actual launching. 

the 20 Latin American Hepublics included: "Panorama 

Panamericana" -- a weekly news program in Spanish which 

covered Echo, the X-15 research airplane, Discoverer, the 

Astronauts, Courier, Scout, and TIROS,; "Challenge of 

Space" -- four 15-minute programs on space activities in 

the U.S. Two special 25-minute programs were also prepared and telecast in collaboration with the British 

Broadcasting Company. They were titled "The American 

Space Effort" 1) '"on-Inhabited Satellites" 2) "Man in 

Space" 

These were telecast on foreign TV stations at the 

Special programs prepared for TV use by stations in 

- 75 - 
Motion Pictures 

effective method of telling the story of U.S. space activities to audiences abroad. During 1960, the following films 

on space subjects were sent in multiple copies to form part 

of regular .USIA public film showings overseas: 1) "Project 

Mercury," 2) "Exploring by Satellite tt 3) 0X-15," 4) 

ttPioneer in Interplanetary Space," 5j "Echo in Space," and 

6) "Survey of Astronautics." In addition, newsreel shorts 

on all major U.S. space events were made available to 

regular movie theaters abroad. 

Worldwide distribution of motion pictures was another 

Exhibits and Libraries 

Among the exhibits displayed by USIA overseas, the 

Pioneer V Space Probe exhibit and the TIROS I model exhibit 

were standouts. Eight sets of the TIROS I exhibit were 

sent to as many overseas p-osts, and are now being exhibited 

simultaneously. The TIMS'exhibit was also shown at the 

Technical University, Stockholm, Sweden, during the meeting 

of the 11th International Astronautical Congress. At the 

Space Development Exhibition of the International Trade 

Fair in Tokyo (June-July), sponsored by the four large 

regional newspapers of Japan, a U.S. exhibit made of components supplied by NASA and other U.S. agencies was 

immensely popular. An exhibit on "Space Unlimited" was 

reported a "clear-cut favorite" at the Kokura (Japan) 

Trade Fair where it was displayed between a Soviet exhibit 

and a Communist China exhibit. 

Lecture materia Is, color- slide transparencies, books 

and pamphlets on U.S. space subjects have been sent regularly to USIA overseas libraries and Information Centers. 

In addition, some 350 sets of the National Academy of 

Sciences' special series of booklets "Science in Space" 

and about 200 copies of the NASA publication ItNASA 

Industry Program Plans Conference" were supplied to the 

libraries. A special "Space Lecture" packet was also 

delivered tc libraries and Information Centers abroad where 

it will be used as lecture material to illustrate the 

application of experimental data obtained through U.S. space 

activities to improve meteorology, navigation, and communications for the benefit of the peoples of the world. 
APPENDIX A 

EVORT TO NASA ON THE LAW OF OUTER SPACE 

(October 1960) 

(This is an analysis of a 205-page report prepared by the 

American Bar Foundation under a NASA contract. The report 

is not a statement of NASA policy but represents a comprehensive compilation of thoughts both in the U. S. and abroad 

on space law.) 

Table of Contents 

Preface 

I. Analysis 

A. General Problems 

1 . Introduction 

a. Background of Legal. Writing 

b. Pertinent Factual Development 

2. Problems of Sovereignty 

a. Sovereignty over Air Space 

b. 

c. 

d. Conflict of Laws 

The Boundary between Air Space and Space 

Sovereignty over Bodies in Space 

3. Legal Status of Space 

a. General Observations 

b. Problem of "Peaceful Purposes.% Military Uses 

B. Selected Legal Problems Arising from Space Activities 

1. Radio Spectrum Management 

- 77 - 
2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

Conservation of Space 

Radio and TV Relay Satellites 

Weather Forecasting and Control 

Damage to Subjacent States, Aircraft, Vessels: 

Safety Standards 

Repossession of Space Craft and Repatriation of 

Space Personnel 

Observation Sat ellit e s 

Coordination of Space Programs 

C. International Organizations for Space Activities and 

Space Law 

- 78 - 
The American Bar Foundation deems it a privilege to publish as a 

Foundation volume this ItReport to the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration on the Law of Outer Space." The document prepared by 

Professors Leon Lipson of Yale Law School and Nicholas deB. 

of the University of Chicago Law School, under the guidance of the 

Advisory Committee, is, we believe, a valuable and scholarly contribution to the ever expanding volume of literature on the subject. 

Katzenbach 

Shortly after the launching of the first artificial satellite in 

1957, the American Bar Association, through its Section of International. and Comparative Law, formed a Special Committee on Law of Outer Space. 

David F. Maxwell, Esquire, a past President of the Association, was 

named its Chairman; its membership included leading authorities in the 

United States on international law, air law, and space law, as well as 

certain government officials with responsibilities for legal aspects 

of space programs. In 1958, the Committee, noting the existence of a 

growing body of information and scholarly writing on space law, suggested the need of a systematic survey of the literature as a first step 

toward developing recommendations with regard to a law of outer space. 

The Committee recommended that the American Bar Foundation undertake 

that survey. 

Early in 1959, the Foundation entered into a contract with the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration whereby the Foundation 

undertook to "conduct research on the law of outer space, including, 

but not limited to review and analysis of all available space literature and proposals which have been made for the control and administration of Outer space activities." The Board of Directors of the 

Foundation designated the American Bar Association Section Committee 

on Law of Outer Space as an Advisory Coxuittee to the project, and 

appointed Professors Lipson and Katsenbach as Project Reporters in 

charge of conducting the research. 

This Report sets forth the results of the research performed 

under the contract. 

assisted in the task by Roger H. Bernhardt, J. Lani Bader, Eliezer 

Ereli and Mrs. Sybille Fritzsche, all members of the Foundation staff. 

The abstracts of the literature and the final Index were largely the 

work of Messrs. Bader and Bernhardt. Mr. Bader took responsibility 

for preparing the Tables and Bibliography. 

Professors Lipson and Kataenbach have been 

The Board of Directors and staff of the Foundation wish to express 

their very sincere appreciation to those who have helped in bringing 

this task to completion, - to the authors for their dedicated service 

and their scholarly product, to the Advisory Committee for its guidance 

and helpful suggestions, to the research staff for its diligent service, 

- 79 - 
and to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration for its 

encouragement and support. 

Attention should be called to the fact that the law of outer 

space is not only far from being an exact science, but in many of its 

aspects it is still in a highly controversial state. In view of this 

fact, no attempt has been made to obtain Committee approval of the 

Report or its corrtents. The Committee members do not assume responsibility for any of the positions taken by the Reporters. These responsibilities are assumed by the Reporters themselves. 

however, upon the high scholarly quality of the Report, and the American Bar Foundation is proud to publish it as a worthy addition to the 

literature of a new, fascinating and fluid field of the law. 

All are agreed, 

Chicago, Illinois E. BLYT€B STASON 

Administrator 

- 80 - 
i 

I. ANALYSIS 

A. General Problems 

1, Introduction 

a, Backmound of Leal Writing 

Before the successful orbiting of Sputnik I in October 1957, 

legal scholars gave relatively little consideration to the problems 

that would accompany mants entry into outer space. Works on aviation 

law made occasional mention of the possibility of flight at very high 

altitudes and of artificial satellites, but only a handful of experts, 

with interest in aviation, astronautics or international organiz;ation, 

had the vision to see and forecast publicly some of the difficult and 

important questions that would soon have to be faced by lawyers and 

statesmen. 

Schachter, Bornecque, Mandl and Meyer. Since 1957, the streams of 

legal literature, fed by the general interest in space science atd the 

political and military significance of space activities, have been 

flowing more abundantly, and considerable interest has been shown by 

the organized Bar, governments, and universities in many countries. 

on the ideas put forward by the earlier scholars. While particular 

proposals, solutions and argumentation have differed, much of the 

literature revolves around the problems of "sovereignty" posed by 

Cooper and others in the early literature. 

have taken as a starting point universal agreement that national 

sovereignty extends to "air space". 

important questions the following: (1) Does "air space" (or does 

national sovereignty) extend indefinitely out from the earthfs surface? 

(2) (3) What is the legal. 

status of space beyond air space? 

ty over artificial or natural bodies in space and, if so, how? 

Among the most notable of these were Cooper, Haley, 

The great bulk of legal. writing has been patterned closely 

Almost all the writers 

They have posed as central and 

If it does not, at what point does it end? 

(4) May a state acquire sovereignA second area of legal problems explored in the literature 

virtually fromthe outset concerns the liability of states conducting 

space activities for damage to persons and property in other states or 

elsewhere. The factual hypothesis most commonly put forward is that of 

a misfired or runaway rocket, and the legal question most often treated 

is whether liability for unintentional damage depends on a showing of 

negligence. 

A third area of legal problems was identified somewhat 

later in the literature and even yet has not, perhaps, been thoroughly 

explored. This is the problem of deciding whether, and how, to limit 

- 81 - 
the use of space to 'peaceful pUrposes.lt It entails questions of 

interpretation of the United Nations Charter and the possibility of 

various forms of international regulation or control of space activities. In part this problem is related to the question of the meaning 

and range of sovereignty. 

With the advance of space science and technology, and increased public knowledge and discussion of various potential uses of 

space, legal problems related to particular uses have come to be more 

fully discussed than before. 

quencies to countries on a geographical formula has not been adaptable 

to communication with satellites which rapidly move through existing 

radio-frequency regions; the possibility of using satellites for meteorological purposes has suggested the need for legal rules governing the 

dissemination of weather information and, eventually, for the control of 

weather control; the possibility of observing activities on the ground 

(or elsewhere) from space has raised the question whether such observation could be considered unlawful - a question made sharper by the U-2 

incident of May 1, 1960 and Soviet charges of U. S. ltaggression" in the 

Security Council. 

problems of sovereignty, discussions of particular legal arrangements 

to deal with defined space activities are meager. 

For example, the allocation of radio freBut, as compared with the literature dealing with 

Finally, crossing all these problems, are the questions how 

Here the writers diverge as to the desirability of international 

to proceed to develop a law of outer space and how to make that law effective. 

agreement, the matters on which agreement should be sought, the likely or 

desirable forms of agreement, and the role of existing or new international 

organizations or agencies. 

additional impetus by the progress of space activities in quantity and 

quality, the increasingly apparent military and economic significance of 

various activities and the scientific knowledge derived from them, the 

extent to which lawyers and scientists interested in space problems have 

organized themselves on national and international lines, and the discussion of both scientific and legal problems in the United Nations. 

Discussion of these problems has been given 

b. Pertinent Factual Developments 

While this is not the place for a narrative of man's activities in space, we ought to take brief note of some of the more important 

events that have affected the legal literature. 

%pace powers'? are the Soviet Union and the United States. 

has been stimulated by, and used in, the Cold War. Whether or not outer 

space can be described today as a theater of potential military action 

(if we leave to one side the temporary presence of ballistic missiles at 

very high altitudes), the technical feasibility of some military use of 

outer space is taken more and more seriously in statements by officials, 

scientists, engineers, and journalists. In a broader sense of the term 

the Soviet Union has exploited its space prowess intensively 

At present, the two 

Their prowess 

- 82 - 
for Cold-War advantage. Expressions of hope that space could be somewhat 

divorced from international politics have been disappointed, as they were 

doomed to be. 

From the beginning of man's activity in outer space, and even 

before it began, the United States has cherished and expressed the hope 

that outer space could be devoted exclusively to peaceful uses. 

early as January, 1957, the United States urged in the United Nations 

that studies on space disarmament be undertaken without delay. In 

August, 1957, our Government was joined by Canada, France, and the 

United Kingdom in proposing a technical committee in the U. N. to study 

the creation of a system of inspection that could effectively insure 

that objects would be sent through space for peaceful purposes only. 

These initiatives, it may be noted, preceded the first successful 

launchings of artificial satellites. 

the United Nations General Assembly on November 14, when it adopted 

Resolution 1148 (XII). 

the launching of Explorer I, President Eisenhower began his correspondence with Bulganin aimed at the solution of the sensitive and 

difficult disarmament problem connected with space activities. 

As 

The approach was endorsed by 

Again, in January, 1958, immediately after 

Official spokesmen have been generally cautious in stating 

principles of a law of space. 

have dictated circumspection before the advocacy of rules that might 

inhibit activities regarded as essential to national security or might 

at some future time favor one of the space powers over another in ways 

yet unforeseen. The problem has been made even more complicated by 

the fact that space technology is in a state of rapid development and 

it is difficult to arrive today at conclusions one can be confident 

will long endure. 

formula to segregate military from non-military uses of space technology, except at the extremes like nuclear warheads. 

denced by the reluctance of the United Nations Ad Hoc Committee on 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space to reach detailed conclusions on the 

mea of "peaceful uses'' in advance of the discussion and resolution 

of related issues in disarmament negotiations. 

Awareness of military potential may 

Furthermore, it is difficult to devise a workable 

This was eviTo find a realistic, effective method of insuring that 

space is used exclusively for peace continues to be a prime and urgent 

goal of the United States. This might be called the prohibitory, or 

negative, side of space law. It means that a way has to be found to 

some form of international agreement or understanding, effectively 

promoting general stability of expectation that outer space will not 

be used in ways to threaten the peace. The United States Government 

has continued to work toward that goal within the framework of the 

- 83 - 
United Nations, through international agreements and through positive 

unilateral action aimed at insuring that outer space will be used only 

for non-aggressive purposes. Although on the international side there 

is a little progress as pt from which we can take encouragement, the 

goal remains important and should, by every reasonable means, be pursued . The positive part of space law is no less important. The 

United States has taken the view that the family of nations should 

encourage all activities in outer space with the exception of those 

whose prohibition shall have been or should be internationally agreed 

upon. 

are presently contemplated are, in the main, uses in which it is 

possible for several participants to engage without serious mutual 

interference. Space holds great promise not only for scientific 

information, but also for important benefits in connmtnications, transportation, meteorological information, and other inclusive or sharable 

uses. While particular activities may require regulation-for example, 

an agreed allocation of radio frequencies-there is no sound reason 

for the community of nations to tolerate general claims to exclusive 

uses of any part of this vast, sharable resource. 

This is sound. The uses of outer space that haw been made and 

A second positive side is the fostering of international 

collaboration on space activities. 

1348 (XIII), the United Nations General Assembly created an Ad Hoc 

Comittee to examine peaceful use8 of outer space and to report to the 

General Assembly at its next session. 

in Paragraph 1 of the Resolution were: 

On December 12, 1958, by Resolution 

The terms of reference laid down 

"a. The activities and resources of the United Nations, 

of its specialized agencies and of other international 

bodiea relata to the peaceful uses of outer space; 

"b. The area of international cooperation and programs 

in the peaceful uses of outer space which could 

appropriately be undertaken under United Nations 

auspices to the benefit of States irrespective of 

the state of their economia or scientific development, taking into account the following proposals, 

among others: 

(i) Continuation on a permanent basis of the 

outer space research now being carried on 

within the framework of the International 

Geophysical Year; 

(ii) Organization of mutual exchange and dissemination of information on outer space 

research; and 

- 84 - 
(iii)Coordination of national research programs 

for the study of outer space, and the 

rendering of all possible assistance and 

help towards their realization; 

nc. The future organizational arrangements to facilitate international cooperation in this field 

within the framework of the United Nations; 

"do The nature of legal problems which may arise in 

the camsing out of programs to explore outer 

space." 

The Resolution proceded from the premise that international 

encouragement of space activity can stimulate scientific progress and 

its application to economically and socially beneficial ends. It can 

foster the collaboration of scientific and technical workers of many 

lands-not only the citizens of States now capable of launching objects 

into outer space, but men of skill and talent throughout the world. It 

can stimulate international cooperation in the arts of peace. 

The Soviet Union, Czechoslovakia, and Poland refused to 

take part in the deliberations of the Ed Committee; the United Arab 

Republic and India took the view that that refusal precluded the Committee from accomplishing any useful function. The Soviet refusel was 

expressly based upon the %nequality" of representation on the Conunittee. 

game, Soviet spokesmen stated that the Committee should have equal 

representation from the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries. 

As if declaring outer space to be within bounds of a Cold-War 

The Committee met, nonetheless, in May, June, and July, 

1959, with thirteen countries represented. 

(Document A/UU, July 14, 1959), to which representatives of all participating countries unanimously adhered. With due allowance for the 

exigencies of international compromise, the U.N. report was a useful 

first step towards the basic goal of building a Sensible legal framework for activities in space. This report was presented to the U. N. 

General Assembly; in the meantime a new committee with larger national 

membership was named in December, 1959. 

action this new committee will take, including any action on the 

report of the Ad Hoc Committee. 

It completed a report 

It remains to be seen what 

A further fact to be taken into account by both governments and scholars is the strong support from the international 

scientific community for the broadest possible exchange of scientific 

data and information derived from space. It would be a fair statement that two most interested professional groups, the military and 

the scientific, are in agreement that activities in space should not be 

- 85 - 
hampered by the imposition of a legal system which, for example, would 

recpire prior consent of all subjacent states for sll activities. 

Scientists and the military may disagree on the type of information to 

be disseminated, on techniques of control, and on particular activities 

that should be fostered or prohibited; but they are united in opposition 

to a legal regime that would regard space as subject to national sovereignties. It is not, therefore, surprising to find that scholars in 

aJ.1 countries have been overwhelmingly in support of the proposition 

that at some point, defined in terms of location or of function, 

national sovereignty ceases and something else begins. The U. N. 

Committee took substantially the same position, with qualifications 

to be discussed later. 

Related to both the negative and positive aspects of space 

law are the facts that no nation has as yet requested permission from 

another to fly satellites and space vehicles at very high altitudes 

'bver'? the other's territory, and that no nation has as yet protested 

such overflight as a violation of its sovereignty. Earlier writers 

had to regard this fact as one for future speculation, noting, for 

example, Soviet protests at the overflight of United States highaltitude balloons as poteritially indicating a certain Soviet view of 

space activities. 

overflights. 

launchings that took place at almost the same time as the downing of 

the U-2: TIROS, a photographic satellite widely supposed to be among 

other things the forerunner of a reconnaissance satellite, and an 

early form of MIDAS, a device designed to l'sense') the flashes of heat 

from missile launchings below. Although the evidentiary value of the 

absence of protest is itself not free from dispute, the present 

political and factual context would seem to lend an exceptional importance to the absence of protest in this case. 

To these might be added the protests at the U-2 

Yet no protests were lodged against two satellite 

It has been observed that the views of lawyers have been, 

as they ought to be, influenced by increasing knowledge about space 

activities and their significance for communication, meteorology, 

navigation, observation and other uses. Two examples will suffice to 

make this introductory point. The first has to do with technical 

aspects of regulation. The range and 'bitel' of any system of international control of space activities must depend in substantial measure 

on the technical possibilities of verifying compliance and detecting 

evasion. 

agreement may, to an (uncertain and varying) extent, inhibit violation 

even if the violation be considered undetectable; it is only to point 

out that one must expect different things from a system of registration, reporting, or inspection depending on the technical means at hand 

To say this is not to deny that the very existence of an 

- 86 - 
For the second illustration we may advert again to the 

protested aerial reconnaissance by the U-2. 

able, that similar reconnaissance is or becomes technically feasible 

from satellites, would the differences in altitude and in vehicles 

make the activity politically and legally acceptable to states whose 

territory is observed? 

Can such problems be resolved in terms of the location of the observer, or must they be solved in terms of the nature of the activity? 

Unfortunately, as this study indicates, problems of this sort are ubiquitous. One cannot avoid the conclusion that, at some time and in 

some manner, a law of space will have to come to grips with some method 

of determining and defining what activities in space, if any, are to be 

discouraged or prohibited. 

desirability of such classification and classification itself is possible technically, then it may be that problems of the general. legal 

status of space are-even Klegally"-less important than problems cast 

in terms of the particular activity under consideration. 

Assuming, as seems reasonIf not, what consequences may or should follow? 

To the extent that facts bear out the 

2. Problems of Sovereimts 

a. Sovereignty over Air Space 

Most of the writing on space law regards as the central 

problem of the subject the determination of the legal status of space; 

that is, how far tbp# or 'butat does national sovereignty extend, and 

what is the status of space beyond these limits if such limits exist? 

The starting point of all these discussions is the existing law on sovereignty in nair spacetc. 

tional conventions and most national legislation, national states have 

complete and exclusive sovereignty in the "air spacett above their 

territories. No writer, whatever his views de lepe ferenda, has 

questioned that all states make this claim on their own behalf and 

acknowledge it when claimed by others. No government official. has 

suggested any general lack of agreement as to the existence of sovereignty over air space. 

Under the terms of internaWhether existing international agreements and customary 

law with regard to air space apply of their own force to activities 

in (outer) space has, therefore, been exhaustively discussed by publicists. 

How far out does "air space" extend? Does "air spacet1 include all 

space "above', national territory? Is there legally a distinction 

between *'air space" and "space": (or ,'outer space," ltcosmic space,t1 

and various other names for what, if anything, lies beyond)? 

great majority of writers who have concluded that "air spacet@ (and 

Whereforen sovereignty) does not extend indefinitely, two further 

problems are necessarily raised: Where does %ir spacen cease? What 

is the status of space which lies beyond? 

Essentially the same question can be put in a number of ways: 

For the 
From the terms and history of the relevant international 

agreements which provide that every state "has complete and exclusive 

sovereignty over the air space above its territow' arguments of 

interpretation have been put forward by most writers. Identical 

language is used in the Paris Convention of 1919 and the superseding 

Chicago Convention of 1944. 

of %ir,tt '*air spacett or foreign equivalents literally translated as 

Itatmosphere" and "atmospheric space.*) 

with, and refer to, %ircraft,I' *'air navigationtt and equivalents, and, 

in annexes to both the Paris and Chicago Conventions, %drcraft" are 

defined as machines which can derive support in the atmosphere from 

reactions of the air. There is general agreement among the writers 

that the draftsmen of the pertinent sections of the Paris and Chicago 

Conventions had no thought, at the time, of space vehicles and space 

travel. 

was in some use, required aerodynamic lift. 

In each case the phraseology is in terms 

Furthermore, the agreements deal 

All craft, with the exception of the V-2 rocket which in 1944 

While no writer has as yet examined definitively all national 

statutes regulating flight, those that have been cited employ jurisdictional language closely parallel to that of international conventions. 

Even if some did not, it would be difficult to infer from the language 

of such unilateral claims an international acquiescence in a greater 

vertical sovereignty than that provided for in the multilateral conventisfi6-whatever that may be. .C 

From the use of words such as rlair,lt '*atmosphere" and 

%ircraft,tt most writers have concluded that the conventions do not 

apply automatically to activities in space, although the "boundary'? 

(discussed below) between "air space't and %pace" is as yet undetermined; that is, although the area in which the agreements do operate 

is not clearly defined and distinguished from that in which they 

either do not or may not. 

The fact that the ambit of existing conventions acknowledging the sovereignty of subjacent states over air space is overwhelmingly regarded as a limited one leaves the status of space an 

open question. One cannot on this evidence alone infer an abnegation 

of sovereignty over space beyond air space. 

doubtful that states have already agreed to the extension of national 

sovereignty to higher altitudes. 

One can say that it is 

Commentators have persuasively supported this interpretation by pointing to other evidence to rebut claims to sovereignty 

at very high altitudes. Most significant in this connection is the 

fact, already mentioned, that states signatory to the conventions, 

as well as nonsignatory states whose legislation claims sovereignty 

over air space, have not as yet protested any launching of objects 

at high altitudes as violative of their sovereignty. The orbit of 

- 88 - 
one or another of these objects has at some the taken it to a point 

in space that is directly above the territory of almost every other 

state on the earth, in the sense that the object would have been Witm 

by the projection of a radial line drawn from the center of the earth 

through some point on the surface of that state's land mass (or territorid waters). 

an area subject to their sovereignty, one would have expected protest 

or objection or, at a minimum, public statement reserving their rights 

and stating the conditions of their acquiescense to present activities. 

Initially scholars predicted or anticipated such protests. When they 

failed to materialize after the first successful oiwbiting of satellites 

a number of writers pointed out that the acquiescence might have been 

implicitly limited by the circumstances of the International Geophysical Year, and that in view of this world-wide scientific effort 

the acquiescence need not be construed as a general consent or waiver. 

The pattern of acquiescence has now, however, continued well beyond 

the IGY and has included a wide variety of objects with varying purposes. This continuing silence seems consistent only with the absence 

of claims to sovereignty in overlying space at the altitudes at which 

satellites have orbited and space probes have flown. 

If states regarded those objects ais passing through 

This conclusion is bolstered by the attitudes of states 

participating within the United Nations. In the debates preceding the 

passage of General Assembly Resolution 13@ (XIII) creating the Ad Hoc 

Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, most states took the view 

that space was distinguishable from air space, and that national sovereignty did not extend indefinitely. The Ad Hoc Committee itself, in 

its Report and in its public debates, expressed the same opinion, in 

guarded language. While the Soviet Union did not participate in the 

Camittee, Soviet scholars seem to be in accord on this point, and, by 

implication from its space activities, the Soviet government 8eems to 

proceed from a similar position. In the debates that took place in 

the Security Council in May, 1960, on the Soviet charges of aggression 

in the U-2 overflights, several speakers (not from the Soviet bloc) 

did allude to outer-space activities; but they seemed not so much to 

be pushing airspace concepts upward as to be pang outer-space 

concepts downward. 

ments in support of the contention that national sovereignty does not 

extend indefinitely. It has been pointed out that, the moon and other 

bodies in space pass directly "over" the territory of various states, 

but no states have ever claimed that they have sovereignty over them. 

Nor, it is urged, could they do so in view of the fact that other states 

would have as good a claim. Since the notion of bodies in space being 

at one moment subject to one statevs sovereignty end at another moment 

subject to another statevs sovereignty seems incompatible with the 

idea of comprehensive sovereignty, it has been urged that sovereignty 

in space must in any case stop short of the moon. 

A number of writers have pointed also to practicd argu- 

- 89 - 
In addition, many scholars have observed that claims to 

sovereignty over air space historically bore a close relationship to 

national security and defense. 

subjacent state also was conceived to be important in terms of transportation, commerce and safety. 

never a precisely definable limit and which varies with particular 

factors), the fact that an object is located, or an activity is 

taking place, naboven a certain spot on the surface of the earth has 

no necessarily close or intimate objective connection with that spot. 

Some activities in space require line-of-sight connection with a 

given area on the earth but do not require that the particular line 

of sight remain within the projected vertical boundaries enclosing 

that area. Evem from the point of view of defense against missiles, 

if something is dropped or pushed from space to fall on a given area 

on the earth it is not a necessary incident that the descent be 

commenced at a point directly *@above*? that area, and in the majority 

of cases it would not be so. Similarly, countermeasures designed to 

protect a given area on the earth from attack that issues from, or 

passes through, space may for physical reasons have to make contact 

at some point in space that is not 'taboven the defended territory. 

Indeed, the energy cost of arranging for a path '?straight up*' or 

astraight down" between an object in outer space and a point on earth 

would probably be prohibitive under present technology for payloads 

of considerable weight. 

Subsequently regulation by the 

Yet, beyond some limit (which is 

This latter argument points to the lack of utility in 

extending sovereignty to very high altitudes from the point of view 

of subjacent states potentially %ffected*t by an activity. The 

traditional feature of claims to sovereignty, as distinguished from 

lesser jurisdictional. claims, is simply the legal capacity to forbid 

virtually any activity within the area claimed unless consent to such 

activity is eqressly given or can be implied from past conduct. It 

is for this reason that one would have expected protest had any states 

regarded existing satellites as having violated their air space. 

Since satellites and space probes pass through space which is "over" 

several states, a claim to sovereignty at very high altitudes would, 

in effect, be a claim to a veto power over any space activity whatsoever of which any subjacent state disapproved. There would be no 

need to assert an Wnterest" or any adverse effect; the disapproval 

could be entirely arbitrary. 

Such a regime would be undesirable and for political 

reasons unlikely. In view of the military potential of space, it is 

highly unlikely that major space powers would acquiesce in a rule 

which-given the character of orbital trajectories-permitted a veto 

by another state of activities that they regarded as essential to 

their national security and defense. 

- 90 - 
This is not to suggest that minor powers have no interest 

in curtailing claims to high altitude sovereignty. All people everywhere have an interest in the benefits that space activities can bring 

to all. The benefits that mankind can gain from space activities, 

both for scientific knowledge and for a variety of other socially 

useful and desirable purposes, would be endangered by a rule which 

permitted a few states, acting arbitrarily, to hold up space progress. 

Furthermore, states presently having space capabilities are endowed 

with sufficient territory and adjacent high seas to launch missiles 

without violating the traditionally understood territorial air space 

of other states. States with smaller territories hemmed in by other 

sovereignties will be less fortunate in their capacity to launch 

missiles or bring them back to earth without a technical violation of 

some other state's sovereignty, if a "boundary" is conceded to exist 

below which spacecraft are held to be trespassers on air space. The 

higher the llboundary," the more difficult the situation potentially 

will be for such states. 

probable that many states will have space capabilities in the future. 

The present high costs of rocketry l i e i n experiment and development. 

Once these costs have been absorbed, the rocket production and launching will not be so dear as to preclude many users. 

Nor is the situation hypothetical, for it is 

Not all writers have been persuaded by these arguments; 

at least one believes that national sovereignty extends outward without limit. But the overwhelming majority of commentators take the 

view that at some point national sovereignty ceases, and this view 

appears to have the support of governments. 

Three final points should be borne in mind: (1) to say that existing conventions do not of their own force apply in space is 

not to say that their provisions may not be relevant in many respects 

to space activities; (2) writers who agree that sovereignty does not 

extend indefinitely do not agree on where it ceases to exist; (3) general agreement that space beyond the tlboundary** is not subject to 

the sovereignty of the subjacent state does not of itself establish 

the legal status of space, the terms and conditions on which states 

can use such space, or the rights and duties of states with respect 

to one another with regard to activities in space. 

b. The Boundary Between Air Space and Space 

As we have seen, there is formal agreement that air space 

is subject to national sovereignty and substantial agreement that 

what lies in outer space is subject to a different legal regime or 

regimes. It has seemed to most observers to follow as a matter of 

inexorable logic that at some altitude sovereignty ceases. 

deal of the writing on space law has been concerned with discovering 

or proposing the location of this "boundary** and prescribing the 

upper limits of national sovereignty. 

A great 

- 91 - 
Before examining the various proposals that have been 

advanced, we may note that the logical existence of such a boundary 

would not, without further argument, establish the importance of 

explicit or implicit agreement as to where it is. 

tators regard this problem as the most bportant problem of space law 

presently facing lawyers and governments, others regard it as having 

a low priority and little practical importance. 

positions will be discussed after we have examined proposals on the 

location of the boundary. 

Though many commenThese conflicting 

It is not always easy to distinguish between boundary 

suggestions put forward as if reflecting an interpretation of existing 

conventional law and proposals recommended for future agreement. 

Since conflicting interpretations of existing law would require some 

form of agreement for their resolution, it may make relatively little 

difference whether a writer is talking de lene lata or ferenda. Many 

proposals have been based upon supposed geophysical or astronomical 

constants; some on beliefs as to the maximum height attainable by 

aircraft; some on more than one boundary, or zone, or belt. Many 

proposals have been withdrawn by writers initially proposing them. 

The most frequent approach has been to relate the proposals 

in some way to the existing conventions. 

tions refer to %irl@ or ltatmospherelt and deal with %ircraftlt as 

defined in annexes. National laws also use terms identical with or 

similar to those included in the Paris and Chicago Conventions. It 

can be and has been argued, therefore, that under these conventions 

and laws the use of the terms %ir,t* "air space,a "atmosphere,l' or 

"atmospheric space,tt or the expressed purpose of regulating r1aircraft 

affords a criterion for measuring sovereignty. 

As we noted, these convenOne proposal, relating %irm to Wircrafttt , suggests that 

claims to sovereignty acknowledged in existing conventions and custom 

go only to the height to which ttaircraft,?, as defined in the annex to 

the Chicago Convention, can ascend in the atmosphere while "deriving 

support from reactions of the air.,* From this perfectly legitimate 

interpretation would follow certain difficulties, acknowledged even 

by its proponents. 

"boundary" in very precise terms. Second, if offered as a proposal 

for the future it is thwarted by the likely activity of Qircraftt* 

such as the X-15, which use aerodynamic lift at lower altitudes but 

can with the aid of other devices be flown out of the lift area. 

First, it does not provide a fixed location of the 

A variation of this proposal is the Won Karman 

As put forward by Haley and others, it accepts the basic concept of 

aerodynamic lift but argues that such lift need not be the only 

%mpportlt and that present law could be interpreted as extending 

sovereignty up to the point where any aerodynamic lift is available. 

- 92 - 
For an object traveling at 25,OOO feet per second, that line is said 

to be about 275,000 feet from the earth's surface. 

is thought to have more stability than the proposal first put forward, 

it would also vary with atmospheric conditions and with design changes 

and other factors affecting the flight of objects. 

While this line 

A third approach, similar but distinguishable, lays stress 

upon the word "air" or atmosphere,^^ rather than %ircraft,n and seeks 

to use a scientific definition of the earthcs atmosphere to determine 

the reach of sovereignty. That interpretation, again a perfectly permissible one, runs into rather more difficulties than the first two 

suggestions. First, there is no agreed definition among scientists 

any more than lawyers of the word 'tatmosphere,lt whose meaning varies 

with conditions as well as the purpose of the inquiry. 

of the possible definitions would certainly put the limit far above 

many satellite orbits and missile flight paths, though it may be 

doubted whether the proponents intended to claim that the satellite 

flights had trespassed upon national air space. In short, it would 

be too high and too uncertain. 

Second, several 

A number of other proposals, suggesting more or less 

arbitrary lines based on variations of the reasoning described above, 

have been put forward. 

the conventions or fixing the boundary afresh at an altitude roughly 

related to lift, or drag, or atmosphere. 

These suggest agreement either interpreting 

A somewhat different approach, which takes advantage primarily of the inferred attitudes of states to satellites already 

orbited but still is capable of doctrinal harmony with existing law, 

is to set the boundary at that altitude at which unpowered flight is 

possible; or, with somewhat more precision, at which an unpowered 

satellite will orbit the earth at least once. This proposal would 

bestow express legality on previously launched satellites, and it can 

also be related to many of the definitions of aerodynamic lift and 

atmosphere. 

presently certain that a reasonably exact distance for all parts of 

the earthcs surface, all relevant velocities and altitudes, and all 

possible orbits can be calculated. 

It has the difficulty (among others) that we are not 

Variations of these formulas which take account of some of 

the uncertainties in eqressing an exact boundary are those that add 

to the area of sovereignty a further contiguous zone, supposedly 

analogous to that of the high seas, in which subjacent states may 

exercise jurisdiction but over which they do not have sovereignty. 

Similar suggestions had played a role briefly in the early debates on 

air space sovereignty, during the early years of the century. While 

Cooperts proposal to this effect for outer space was initially 

approved by others, he has not recently urged its acceptance, and the 

more recent literature generally ignores it. 

- 93 - 
A different theory of sovereignty over air space, not 

related to the words of existing conventions but capable of being 

related to their purposes, is that which Kelsen proposed in 1944 in 

connection with the Paris Convention. 

eignty, recognized by that Convention, as going as far out as the 

subjacent state could exercise effective control. 

under this theory there would be not one single boundary but several 

boundaries, since some states were more technically proficient than 

others, and that the boundary would keep going up as science added 

new techniques for controlling space activities. For these reasons 

the proposal seems unlikely to be acceptable to many states. 

ation suggested by Cooper in 1951 (and later withdrawn) called for the 

extension of state territory '*as far as then scientific progress of 

any state in the international community permits such state to control 

space above it.'* This would have eliminated the diversity of boundaries 

existing at any one time but not the difficulty of determining the 

uniform boundary or the instability of that boundary once determined. 

He viewed the claim to soverHe recognized that 

A variStill another proposal is that which argues that a state's 

sovereignty extends as far as its interest extends. 

ment of a basic purpose behind claims to sovereignty, this view is 

sound. But it is difficult to define a state's interest, and its 

interest in some activities would extend to a very high altitude and 

to others much less. Some activities in which a state was vitally 

interested would be outside its air space thus defined because the 

line-of-sight connection would not require a space object to be 

t*overhead'*; at the same $he a state could use its claim to sovereignty 

to exclude activities in which it had no legitimate interest whatsoever and which bore no special relationship to its territory. 

In its acknowledgeFinally, proposals have been made for several lines rather 

than one, We already noted the existence of proposals for a contiguous 

zone. Knauth, for example, goes much further. Instead of endeavoring 

simply to distinguish air space from outer space, he proposes several 

"belt s'*: 

failure area, '*belt in which the Moon orbits.'* He believes that each 

belt should be subject to its own legal regime, and that a;U belts in 

cis-lunar space should be presently given legal status appropriate to 

each . 

'*airspace, '* "air-nonair fringe, n "orbit-sat ellit e, n rocket 

A rough and incomplete tabulation of altitude-boundaries 

inferred, reported, suggested, or proposed by several of the writers 

on space law may serve to illustrate the controversy. 

"ascendingn order, they are as follows: 

In generally 

- 94 - 
30 miles 

275,000 feet 

52 miles 

53 Miles 

60 miles 

100 miles 

150-225 miles 

200-300 km. 

300 lan. 

250 miles 

200-300 miles 

300 miles 

300-500 miles 

310-620 miles 

500 miles 

650 miles 

7000 miles 

Infinity 

Abstract # or Source 

616 

636 

594 

643 

584 

606 

Source 272 

609 

599 

Neumann 

626 

555, 559 

Source 35 

605 

603 

Source 62 

Source 74 

700; Sourcell5 

Remarks or Reasons Given 

400 miles for neutrals 

in wartime. 

Objects traveling at 

35,000/sec. 

Limit of atmospheric lift. 

Von Kannan line. 

LQSS of earth's gravitational effect; air travel 

becomes impossible. 

Limit of air-filled space. 

Limit of area filled with 

air layers. 

Too little air. 

Analogy to 3-mil.e limit 

at sea. 

Limit of *kontiguous space." 

Assumptions as to atmosLimit of atmosphere. 

phere . . -. 

Limit of atmosphere. 

Citing Western meteorologists. 

From what has been said it is clear that the difficulties 

of fkhg a stationary boundary by reference to supposed geophysical or 

astronomical constants are at least formidable, perhaps insuperable. 

kny proposals have been withdrawn or varied in the light of new 

scientific information. Whether the physical characteristics of the 

air, the physical characteristics of flight craft, or other relevant 

factors can be reasonably expressed with reference to a fixed altitude is a subject of dispute. 

may be a source of scientific disagreement. 

difficulties, an arbitrary limit were to be chosen, it might be difficult to get agreement on a height that was not related either to 

the purpose of space activities or the language of e~sting conventions. 

The measurement of that fixed altitude 

If, to avoid these 

Yet disagreement stemming from such difficulties may be 

exaggerated. Let us examine the area of agreement. 

- 95 - 
First, it seems clear that the sovereignty over air space 

acknowledged by the various air conventions and customary law extends 

at least as far as is required by and for the purposes that those 

conventions envisage; that is, to the altitude presently used for 

normal aircraft flight, and so much more of the air space as might 

reasonably be envisaged as usable for similar purposes. Since the 

conventions speak of atair space" rather than the objectives of comercial aviation, one cannot delimit a boundary by referring to any &sting usage or altitudes achieved at any given time; "air space" may be 

the area used for %ircraftcLas several scholars have suggested-but 

that area does not seem more easily defined by this suggestion, nor is 

it the only permissible interpretation of the conventions or customary 

law. 

%he" boundary, if it existed, would be somewhere above the altitude 

now in common use for aviation purposes. The recent U-2 flights, at 

altitudes of some 12 miles or more, were not formally defended as being 

beyond traditional "air space" and weather balloons at altitudes of 

over 100,000 feet have been protested. 

In any event, we should have no difficulty in concluding that 

On the other hand, the failure of any state to protest as 

an invasion of its Sovereignty any space activities to date strongly 

supports contentions that Whe boundary of sovereignty, if one were 

to be fixed, should not be placed at higher than, roughly, the probable 

perigee of durable satellite orbits. This View would be consistent 

with several of the proposals made by scholars seeking to interpret the 

existing conventions; aerodynamic lift, von Karman line and some other 

definitions of atmosphere as related to flight could be brought into 

approximate harmony with it. Earlier proposals which took atmosphere 

(in the legal sense) much further into space seem inconsistent with 

practice since 1957. 

at some such point would be consistent with present contentions about 

effective control (though not with future possibilities). 

such altitude, also most activity is less and less related to any 

special interest of an 9mderlying" state. 

sovereignty over air space did not extend beyond such an altitude would 

not mean that states with space capabilities could lawfully do anything 

they wished nabovem this line, or that "underlying0 states did not 

possess some rights with regard to particular activities, analogous to 

those that coastal states possess beyond territorial waters, based not 

on sovereignty but on a legitimate interest with regard to the particular activity. 

Arguably, too, a ceiling on national sovereignty 

Beyond some 

Furthermore, the fact that 

We might provisionally conclude, therefore, with wide 

support from scholars and from governmental actions, that '%he" boundary lw somewhere between these two possibilities: 

ditional flight (say, twelve miles) and lower than the perigee of past 

satellites (say a hundred miles). The gap between a twelve-mile floor 

and a hundred-mile ceiling might seem to leave room enough for the 

placing of an arbitraryline or even a zone; yet there are grounds to 

higher than tra- 
believe that the gap is unstable and may become meaningless. 

thing, experiments such as the X-15 indicate that it is possible to 

have a craft that is both an "aircraft" and a "spacecraft." Therefore, the limit of conventional air space in terms of usage or purpose 

at least potentially may be moving up to, and even above, areas now 

regarded as beyond national sovereignty. There is somewhat similar 

evidence that typical "space" uses may move downward toward present 

conventional air space. For example, power-assisted satellites ms3p 

come to move continuously at an sltitude lower than that in which free 

flight is nowpossible, and such satellites may be even more advantageous for some uses than satellites restricted to higher altitudes. 

For one 

Thus, it seems probable that our provisionally assumed 

minimum altitude and maximum altitude may be in the process of converging and also possible that they may even cross each other; that 

is, some typical air activities may at some future time be conducted 

at altitudes higher than some typical space activities. 

It is not an answer to this observation to point out that 

the extremes may be clear despite fuzziness at the border-line. 

present inquiry is not whether the extremes should be treated differently, but whether a borderline should be drawn. With present knowledge 

of space activities and technologyin a relatively infant and rapidly 

develop- state, it is importantto examine arguments for and against 

drawing a %oundar~t in precise terms at this time. Is it important? 

Is it possible? 

The 

Is it likely to serve any useful purpose? 

At the outset it should be noted that while many writers 

have urged that agreement on the boundary be achieved at the earliest 

moment possible some of these same writers have recently urged caution 

and do not seem to attach the same urgency to its resolution. 

change of position is not necessarily a change of viewpoint, but may 

simply reflect new environmental and political factors. 

was feared that, without agreement, space activities would be hampered 

by contentions that sovereignty was being violated. 

these protests to develop, and the gradual growth of a customary law 

which appears to limit claims to sovereignty to relatively low altitudes, 

are important new developments, which may remove much of the force that 

once was thought to underlie the argument for a formal boundary agreement. 

, 

This 

Initially it 

The failure of 

The strongest arguments for determining with precision the 

boundary between air space and space seem to be these: 

formal agreement would help to preclude states from making unjustified 

claims in the future to sovereignty in large regions of space above^^ 

their territory on the contention that it is Qir space.(( Some 

legitimate verbal formulas (for example, definitions of %irn or 

natmospherett) would go to one thousand or more miles. 

(1) That 

Efforts of some 

- 97 - 
of the most distinguished scholars, wary of our past difficulties in 

coping with similar claims with regard to the high seas, unoccupied 

territory and the like, have undoubtedly been directed at this objective. 

(2) That given certain possible interpretations of existing conventions, there is always the possibility that some states will protest 

space activities as violative of their sovereignty. Acceptance of such 

contentions would greatly hamper space activities favored by scientists 

and military specialists alike, and would permit relatively smaU 

states to exercise what could amount to an arbitrary veto over particular activities. That disputes as to the extent of air space could 

lead to international tensions and serious controversy, (4) That the 

United States, supporting as it does the Rule of Law in international 

as in domestic matters, should amid being put in the position of making 

unilateral decisions on the interpretation of existing conventions and 

should urge resolution through international agreement and other cooperative means. (5) That the resolution of this fundamental legal 

question would help to induce cooperative attitudes toward building 

law in regard to space and that these attitudes could help to shape 

desirable technological trends. 

(3) 

Arguments against efforts to resolve the boundary problem 

by fking on an agreed altitude can be summed up as followsi 

the absence of explicit agreement has not yet led to international 

tensions and does not appear likely to do SO. 

explicit agreement on establishment of an altitude boundary would invite 

many states to make claims to sovereignty which, in analogous cases such 

as the high seas, have led to immoderate demands. 

be harder to close than to open. (3) 

to be set too high. 

mum being established by custom (the roughly one hundred mile figure 

suggested above) would seriously hamper some space activity. A figure 

of a hundred miles, while less serious in effect, might also hamper at 

least some future activities. 

through agreement would seem to be negligible, primarily because fear 

of the unknown would lead states to claim as much as they could. 

the other hand, future activities at lower altitudes may be acceptable 

if there is no explicit agreement on the extent of air space. 

an agreed altitude once achieved will be next to impossible to reduce. 

States will not gladly give up sovereignty over territory. 

agreement reached later is likely to fix on a lower altitude than an 

agreement reached sooner, and that the lower figure would be in the 

general interest. (6) That an arbitrary line, even if low enough to 

permit more space activity, might encourage rather than avert disputes 

because it might provoke technical complaints about violations which 

at high altitudes would be difficult to verify. 

(1) That 

That an attempt to reach 

Pandorats box might 

That any boundary set might have 

An altitude beyond that which seems to be the maxiThe possibility of getting anything less 

On 

(4) That 

(5) That an 

This last point perhaps requires elaboration. 

the premise that the boundary question is inextricably tied to the 

It rests on 

- 98 - 
question, what activities are permissible beyond it; that is, what 

rules govern space? The claim to sovereignty amounts to a statement 

that within the specified area only activities permitted by the sub 

jacent state may be carried on, and assumes some intimate connection 

between that area and the state. 

Beyond the boundary not every activity is legdly permissible; but at 

the moment it is very difficult to specify what activities are permitted 

and what are not. 

problem except perhaps to the limited extent of shifting the burden of 

proof. 

an activity, the less the space **above" national territory bears any 

special relationship to the underlying area, whether for reasons of 

defense, transportation, commerce or safety. 

The converse is not, of course, true. 

Drawing the boundary will not help to solve this 

It has already been pointed out that the higher the altitude of 

Two examples may illustrate. First, artificial satellites 

launched in geocentric orbits have come much closer to the earth at 

some points than at others, although in no case interfering with any 

obvious interests of any subjacent state. In some cases the perigee 

fell within one or more of the boundaries proposed by publicists, while 

the apogee fell beyond. It would make little sense to impose one legal 

regime or status on a satellite at perigee and another on the same 

satellite at apogee, at least under present technology. This is, of 

course, an argument only against establishing the line Woo high," not 

against an arbitrary line that would be YLow enought'; but, as indicated 

above, doubts have been raised whether under present conditions of the 

international political process a boundary could be set %ow enough." 

Second, in the U-2 incident the Soviet Union charged the 

United States with %ggressiont' and accused it of "espionage.tQ 

has been frequently stated in the West that the U-2 was Violating 

Soviet air space and that for this reason the Soviet Union could 

legitimately object to the unpermitted overflight. 

amount to "aggression.*' But was the Soviet objection based primarily 

on the location of the U-2 or on the character of its activity? 

the near future satellites may be able to perform equivalent functions 

from altitudes of (sv) two to three hundred miles. 

set at a hundred miles remove Soviet objections to such activity? 

True, it would forestall objections based on violation of air space. 

But it would not of itself establish the legality of the activity if 

there were other grounds to consider it illegal. 

It 

This would not 

In 

Would a boundary 

Finally, the U-2 incident has pointed up the need 

for international agrement on the question of how 

high sovereignty extends skyward. This question is 

certain to become more acute in the future as air 

craft fly at higher altitudes and as space flights, 

many of them equipped with cameras or other devices, 

become more common. It is a question full of difficulties and one which demands the full attention 

and consideration of the United Nations as well as 

- 99 - 
the individual nations themselves. 

hopes that efforts will be pushed to pursue U.N. 

studies with a view to bringing about agreement. 

The Committee 

The foregoing part of this analysis, however, would indicate rather 

that the U-2 incident underlined the extreme difficulty of an attempt 

to agree on the permissibility or impermissibility of space activities 

by reference to an altitude boundary, and lends support to the action 

of the United Nations Ad Hoc Committee, which at its meeting in 1959, 

classified the boundary problem among those not susceptible of priority 

treatment. 

of drawing a fixed boundary, in part because other members had doubts 

as to its feasibility at that time. The Committee also suggested the 

possibility of using functional rather than spatial criteria to regulate 

and control activities in space. Were it possible to build up, through 

understanding, custom and agreement, adequate functional criteria for 

space activities then the boundary problem would be obviated. 

activities might be prohibited; others might be permitted under certain 

restrictions as to time, place, mode and disclosure; all others would 

remain free. 

up of some specific formal agreements and some general understanding, 

tacit or at least informal, confirmed by practice and doctrine. 

It did this in part because other members doubted the wisdom 

Certain 

The system establishing these arrangements might be made 

C. Savereimty over Bodies in &ace 

The entry to outer space raises legal problems with regard to 

the use and occupation of bodies presently in space, such as the moon 

and planets, and of the use and occupation of artificial satellites 

placed in space by one or more states. 

Scholars have much discussed whether it is possible for a 

terrestrial nation-state to acquire sovereignty over all or part of a 

natural celestial body, and what would be required under existing international law to make such a claim legally valid. 

doctrine of terrestrial. international law with regard to discovery, 

contiguity, occupation and annexation of parts of the earth has been 

applied to this problem. 

This analogy has seemed particularly apt because it poses in contemporary 

context conflicting claims to sovereignty on one of the few yet unoccupied parts of the earth, and because these claims have not been based 

on occupation or settlement in any clear-cut sense. At present, and 

for some years past, conflicting claims to sovereignty over parts of 

Antarctica by a number of states have not been resolved, and claims to 

bodies in space, or parts of them, would be unlikely to be acknowledged 

by other states. 

Antarctica and space bodies though apt is scarcely a helpful one save, 

perhaps, as it indicates the unlikelihood that claims to sovereignty 

would be widely honored by other states. If the present military importance of Antarctica is greater, and that of celestial bodies less, 

than is commonly supposed, the analogical value of the Antarctic agreement seems all the higher. 

Quite understandably, 

A frequently employed analogy is Antarctica. 

Several writers have noted that the analogy between 

- 100 - 
There is agreement among several commentators that under 

existing international law "discovery" of space bodies scarcely provides 

a basis, factually or legally, sufficient to support claims to sovereignty, and that the same is true of various symbolic acts of occupation 

such as planting flags, photographing terrain, mapping, or exploration. 

In themselves it is doubtful if these acts would be sufficient to 

justify a state that has made claims to sovereignty in excluding others 

from the bodies involved and preventing other states from carrying out 

exploration or scientific experiments. 

is noted that acta of this sort are presently the basis for the suspended 

or frozen claims in Antarctica. 

doctrinal doubts . 

At the same time, however, it 

As a result the issue is not free from 

Extensions of principles of continuity and contiguity via 

nvectorsn which have marked the Antarctic claims of Argentina and other 

Latin American states have not seemed applicable to space as they have 

not been widely acknowledged by other states with regard to Antarctica 

itself. 

only those states llover(t which a body passes would have a basis for 

claiming sovereignty. 

States but not over Red China, a fact which might exclude the latter's 

claim in his view. 

One commentator, however, has expressed the conjecture that 

The moon, for example, passes over the United 

A number of writers have expressed the view that it is not 

possible to acquire sovereignty in space by any means, that space bodies 

are to be regarded as res communis or res extra commercium, like the 

high seas, and not res nullius capable of appropriation. Such writers 

see space, and everything in space, as a common resource of all states 

and mankind, open to all on a basis of equality, and incapable ,afdsubjection to the control and sovereignty of a singly earthly state. 

have justified this approach by saying that ours is a Werrestrial" 

system and that the moon, for example, is not %erritory't but a 

ncelestial body+' and part of a different %orld.n Others state the 

position more in terms of preference, deploring any status that would 

permit one state to exclude others from parts of space and preferring 

to regard the whole of space as a sharable resource. 

should not, it has been asserted with some wistfulness, be projected 

into space; sovereignty in space is undesirable. 

Some 

Earthly disputes 

This latter viewpoint has led to a number of proposals that 

space be "internationalized," thst bodies in space be subjected to 

United Nations ownership and control, and that exploitation be under 

United Nations, rather than national, auspices and law. 

this is a view that is dominant among the smaller states which presently 

do not have space capabilities. At the meetings of the United Nations 

-- Ad Hoc Committee a suggestion in the United States working paper as to 

the potential relevance of analogies from the Antarctic experience was 

deleted on a Latin American objection. 

be relevant because they dealt with bases for sovereignty and no one 

could legitimately claim sovereignty in space. 

Understandably 

It was said that they could not 

- 101 - 
There is a good deal of merit in, and support for, a regime 

with regard to celestial bodies which prohibits recognition of claims 

to exclusive sovereignty by any state. It would be useful for both 

public and private groups to work towards formulating standards and 

procedures that will guarantee access by all to these resources on 

equitable terms and prevent interference by one state with scientific 

programs of another. 

in space, like the vast reaches of space itself, represent sharable 

assets of the whole comnunity. Scientific exploration of the moon or 

Venus under national auspices of any one country does not require, and 

should not without cause involve, the prohibition of similar exploration by other countries. We may look to similar ventures elsewhere in 

space. 

to sovereignty over such bodies; nor should their acceptability depend 

on the recognition of such claims. 

To alarge extent the resources of natural bodies 

These should not be precluded by claims made on various grounds 

The present trend of both private and public views is clearly 

against the permissibility of claims to sovereignty over natural bodies. 

Soviet writers have taken this view, although at the same time suggesting that it was not the view of the United States and that the Soviet 

Government would, in such a situation, have to protect its own interestsThe American Government has expressed doubts as to whether space bodies 

are capable of appropriation. The American Bar Association in 1959 

passed a resolution %hat in the common interest of mankind. . . . celestial bodies should not be subject to exclusive appropriation." 

The U.N. Ad Hoc Committee took the position that present activities 

would not be a basis for claims to exclusive sovereignty and expressed 

the belief that problems involved in such claims would not arise until 

it became feasible to settle on such bodies and exploit their resources. 

Artificial bodies in space raise comparable problems. while 

generally such bodies seem more analogous to ships on the high seas, or 

Texas Towers, or lightships, than to natural celestial bodies, problems 

as to control and exclusion of others nonetheless may arise. 

stations, used to stage further space exploration, raise questions as 

to co-ordination of activities, control of access by the launching state 

or by international agencies, access to such satellites by other states 

or by private groups, and criteria and standards of peaceful possession. 

Once again it has been observed that it would be unfortunate if a legal 

regime premised on sovereignty or exclusive jurisdiction by the launching state were to result in needless interference between two national 

space programs, such as might occur if, for example, experiments by one 

nation were to create hazards to personnel using another nation's satellite for admittedly legitimate purposes. 

if standards for cooperative use of space station facilities could be 

worked out by participants, thus avoiding unnecessary duplication and 

waste. 

of itself, to provide many answers to important questions which it is 

not too early to discuss and explore in a preliminary way looking to 

effective international rules and sanctions. 

Space 

It would, also, be desirable 

Once again, the presence or absence of sovereignty does not seem 

- 102 - 
d. Conflict of Laws 

Problems of sovereignty are in some respects related to 

potential problems of conflict of laws. 

flicts doctrine is premised upon the concept that the national law 

governing events is that of the territory in which some pertinent act 

takes place. 

what national law would govern? 

A considerable amount of conIf space was not subject to the sovereignty of any nation, 

Writers have posed such problems in the traditional terms of 

territorial jurisdiction based on sovereignty, and have then proceeded 

to run through the almost endless list of conflicts questions to which 

a territorial connection is relevant. 

place of a particular act is not subject to the sovereignty of a 

particular state, or even that it is not ascertainable, does not make 

the problem insoluble or even particularly difficult. 

are available for choice of law. 

The fact, however, that the 

O+,her principles 

Problems of national law will, indeed, arise, as will the 

need to amend various statutory provisions with regard to jurisdiction 

and venue. E!y comparison with other problems of space law, these seem 

either relatively simple or relatively routine. It might, however, be 

unfortunate if the meaning of terms such as "air space,'* having special 

diplomatic and political ramifications, were left to judicial resolution 

in conflict-of-laws cases in connection with relevant national laws. A 

more delicate and comprehensive treatment of the conflicts question 

might require, and be secured by, international agreement. 

3. The Legal Status of Space 

a. General Observations 

If it is assumed that national sovereignty does not 

prevail in outer space, what is the status of space? 

if any, is it subject, and by whom are they prescribed? 

of the contention that subjacent states have sovereignty does not compel us to discern a legal vacuum. For example, as has been observed, 

there may in some instances be a special and intimate relationship 

between a particular space activity and a particular subjacent state. 

Similarly, general principles of law governing the relations of states, 

such as those contained in the United Nations Charter, would seem to be 

as relevant to space activities as to other state activities wherever 

conducted. 

to national sovereignty, there are valid analogies from customary law 

governing other areas which may well be applicable to activities in 

space. 

To what rules, 

A rejection 

Again, if space is to be regarded as a place not subject 

As we have reported above in connection with claims to 

celestial bodies, the majority of the writers discussing the problem 

of a law for space have urged that space be regarded as communis 

- 103 - 
or res extra commercium, like the high seas. 

this sbly amounts to a denial that it is, under current conventions, 

In terms of "status" 

subject io-the sovereignty of subjacent states or capable of appropriation. 

of encouraging all non-exclusive, or sharable, uses of space. If space 

is not subject to or capable of subjection to national sovereignty, 

then it is '*freel*to all users on terms of equality. The United Nations 

Committee, somewhat cautiously, agreed with commentators by stating that 

Where may have been initiated the recognition or establishment of a 

generally accepted rule to the effect that, in principle, outer space 

is, on conditions of equality, freely available for exploration and use 

by all in accordance with existing or future international law or 

agreements .I* 

Stated positively, it amounts to affirming a community policy 

The primary difficulty with saying simply that space is "free'* 

is that it says little more than that it is not subject to unilateral 

control and regulation by some, or many states claiming sovereignty over 

portions of it. In many respects the two possibilities-sovereigntg 

of subjacent states VS. freedom, or exclusive use VS. sharable useare almost polar opposites. In the one instance a state conducting 

activities in space can do nothing without the consent of subjacent 

states; in the other it can do anything not forbidden by international 

law. The second alternative is generally regarded as the more desirable; 

but, at the same time, it imposes obligations to work out standards and 

rules not necessarily in the form of explicit conventions, for implementing the policy of the international community in space. 

enough to say that space is **free'*. 

It is not 

That is a good starting point. 

In recommending a legal regime for space some authorities, 

hoping to make fast a line from the known to the unknown, have suggested 

the adaptation of the rules that, regardless of their source, are 

thought to prevail in the law of the air, in the law of the high seas, 

or in the law of the polar regions or in particular regions of Antarctica. Few, if any, have proposed the literal and indiscriminate 

adoption of an entire body of supposed rules from any one of these 

special areas. 

space is distinguished by many features, not all of which are now 

precisely known, that render many of its legal problems probably unique. 

Many have recognized, as has the U.N. Committee, that 

As compared with activity on the high seas, for instance, 

the present use of space exhibits fewer commercial. and economic aspects; 

its military potentiality represents a relatively higher fraction of its 

present apparent total importance; the users for some time to come will 

be relatively few and will probably be, for the most part, governmental 

entities or international organs. 

in the recently accelerated development of communications satellites; 

indeed, the rapidity of potential change in the uses of space serves 

by itself to distinguish the field from activities on the high seas. 

As compared with Antarctica, space represents, of course, a vastly greater 

area, of less well defined limits, susceptible of exploration-to say 

This picture may change rapidly, as 

- 104 - 
nothing of permanent settlement-only under very different conditions. 

As compared with conventional air space, the distances and speeds and 

times involved in the use of outer space are different; the methods of 

launching and, eventually, of landing are different; the effects of 

gravity and of radiation are different; the militarythreat is of a 

different character and, for the time being, of a different order of 

magnitude; the commercial and economic possibilities are less well 

known, though potentially even more extensive, than those of aerial 

transportation. 

The futility of mechanical adoption does not mean that the 

experience of decades or centuries in these other fields is irrelevant 

to the control of space. On the contrary. reflection on that experience 

mutatis mutandis wiil help to anticipate-problems of space and suggest 

ways of dealing with them. Particular solutions or devices may commend 

themselves for-adaptation; historic failures may enable US to guard 

against repetition. The law of the sea may afford some hints for the 

accommodation of inclusive uses like navigation (space flight), fishing 

(exploitation of mineral. or energy resources), and cable-laying (communications) to defensive or exclusive uses like naval maneuvers, protection of customs, and protection of neutrality, and vice versa. 

of space navigation may draw upon the experience of the law of the see 

and of the law of air space. 

vehicles, and on the consequences of registration, may be facilitated 

by a look at the successes and failures of similar efforts in air law 

and maritime law. Recent experiences in Antarctica may tend to show 

that in certain circumstances international cooperation and national 

enterprise are furthered by the conscious and agreed absention from 

pressing claims to sovereignty. 

Rules 

Decisions on the registration of space 

In general terms the objectives of rules regulating space 

activities are those which, in addition to their independent validity, 

are expressed in the Charter of the United Nations. 

objectives not expressly stated as binding legal norms, they would be 

the goals of decent men everywhere, to be pursued at every level of 

public or private activity, national or international. 

2 oblige those nations that have and will have space capabilities to 

conduct their programs in a manner consistent with the principles and 

purposes of the Charter. It is clear that space itself and the knowledge 

gained from space exploration should not be used for aggressive purposes; 

that disputes that may arise from space activities should be settled laby 

peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security 

and justice, are not endangered"; that, in short, the mere fact that an 

activity is conducted in outer space does not release any nation from 

its existing international obligations to promote, and to cooperate 

with others in promoting, peace, justice and human dignity for mankind. 

Even were these 

Articles 1 and 

The problem is to give more explicit content to these objectives and principles asserted in extremely general terms. How do states 

assure one another that activities in space are not aggressive; that the 

- 105 - 
activities of one state will not unreasonably interfere with legitimate 

activities of another; that activities will not be negligently or haphazardly conducted in such a way as to endanger others; that the benefits 

of space science will be widely shared to the benefit of all mankind; 

that such activities will not be incompatible with legitimate interests 

of states, whether or not subjacent, in which, or on which, the activity 

has some impact? No state may exclude another from access to space if 

space is free and open to all. 

lay down meaningful rules to state the terms and conditions qon which 

states should or should not conduct particular activities? 

the problems of a realistic law of space. 

But how does the community of nations 

Those are 

We have suggested that the international community is on its 

way to the rejection of a spatial regime in which each of the several 

states may veto activities in a particular location, and to the adoption 

of a regime that, in broad terms, permits space activities unless prohibited. 

standable concern to all states with a potential stake in this vast, 

sharable resource. 

the space activities of another will demand a voice in the conduct or 

control of those activities, or in the establishment of standards for 

such conduct or control. This is one of the reasons for the difficulty 

in drawing the nboundary,tt for, if all else fails, an affected state 

may attempt to insist that its sovereignty extends to very great heights, 

or indefinitely, as a device for claiming a voice in a particular activity. Agreement on a low altitude boundary, if achieved and if adhered to, 

could forestall this, but the preceding analysis has indicated that such 

agreement is unlikely and would not correspond to the needs of all or 

most affected states. Even if a general boundary agreement were contemporaneously or subsequently modified by the extension of contiguous 

source, the irrelevance of vertical distance to most of the pressing 

problems would keep alive the concern of affected states over many of 

the activities that would be taking place. 

That leaves many questions unresolved and is a matter of underA state that believes itself adversely affected by 

One obvious device would be.a system of international control. 

But this is difficult to accomplish, and even in its absence it is important to press on with space technology and science, which might be 

unduly hampered if non-launching states sought to impose unjustified 

restrictions. 

In any event cooperative discussion may help to moderate unilateral 

decisions by space powers and set up functional criteria in furtherance 

of the objectives common to all mankind. 

Perhaps modest international schemes can be soon adopted. 

b. The Problem of "Peaceful Purp oses": Military Uses 

In some respects the problems of space resemble the problems 

of the atom. 

energy may be compared to its interest in the peaceful uses of space. 

Like virtually every atomic activity, virtually every activity in space 

has a possible military connotation; military and non-military uses are 

The interest of mankind in the peaceful uses of atomic 

- 106 - 
extraordinarily interdependent. The scientific knowledge relevant to 

atomic power was, broadly speaking, equally relevant to atomic bombs; 

the possession of fissionable material for power plants created a possibility of possession for military purposes. A similar interdependence 

of uses and objectives exists with regard to space activities. 

knowledge about cosmic radiation may be useful for radiological warfare; 

television and radio relay stations may be used to hinder as well as 

promote communication; geodetic and meteorological observations have the 

same potential duality of function; and much of the technology relevant 

to the exploration of space is equally relevant to the launching of 

intercontinental ballistic missiles or the stationing of weapons in 

space. 

extensive, does not of course preclude all comparative characterization 

in terms of objectives, and such evaluation may become more accurate 

and reliable as experience and knowledge develop. 

Scientific 

This interdependence of military and non-military uses, while 

Nor are those problems peculiar in kind to space and the atom. 

A panoramic view of the high seas, seenthrough time and space, shows a 

history of efforts to exclude, falling before a sounder policy of encouraging sharable uses and opening this great resource to all, only to 

have in our time a new crop of unjustifiably extensive claims to exclusive rights. 

uses, ad of efforts by the community of nations to state norms of use 

in peace and war which limited unilateral action where unjustified by 

self-defense or, in earlier times, by legitimate uses of violence. 

It, too, is a history of interdependence of non-military 

In modern times, we have seen new aspects of old problems in 

the controversy that has surrounded matters such as atomic tests in the 

Pacific, controversies which are obviously close to those involved in 

comparable space activities. In 1946 the United States, despite the 

monopoly that it then possessed over atomic knowledge and successful 

atomic experience, took the position (in the Baruch proposal) that 

nothing less than definitive, enforceable international control of atomic 

energy could be counted on to achieve the objectives of the Charter, and 

that nothing less than foolproof international inspection and enforceable 

regulation of atomic activities was consistent with either the aspirations of all men for peace and security or the right of self-defense 

inherent in customary international law and recognized in Article 51. 

In common with many other nations, the United States has taken the same 

position with regard to space activities. 

fective controls, the United States must beware of unsafeguarded agreements that might not deter violators but at the same time could foreclose 

us from taking steps necessary to preserve our national existence. 

Without enforceable and efSpace power is military power, too, and in the future it may 

become the decisive element of all military power. Until an appropriate 

inspection and control system can be created by international agreement, 

nations can work toward the fullest international cooperation in peaceful uses of space and space technology, as in peaceful uses of atomic 

energy, only in the shadow of its potential for aggressive military use. 

- 107 - 
They must, therefore, act within the legal framework of the Charter 

and of customary international law, imposing positive duties upon 

states to pursue the paths of peace. 

In this connection an important point may be made. Nothing 

in the Charter prevents the maintenance of an efficient and modern 

military establishment or declares the mere ability to defend onets 

self inconsistent with positive obligations toward peaceful settlement 

of disputes. 

of self defense and does not preclude the lawfulness of such devices ' 

as contiguous zones for security. 

clusively upon Article 51to justify the capacity of the United States, 

and of its allies, to defend themselves against attack or even the 

threat of attack by maintaining a sufficient force in being. 

Article 51 is not an exhaustive statement of the rights 

There is, thus, no need to rely exOne difficulty is that the word "peacefull( is used in various 

In the sense of the Charter, and in international law generIt seems to 

contexts. 

ally, it is employed in contradistinction to aggressive.^^ 

have been used in this sense-which we believe to be a proper one-in 

various Congressional resolutions dealing with space activities. 

any use of space which did not itself constitute an attack upon, or 

threat against, the territorial integrity and independence of another 

state would be permissible; the high seas, for example, can be used for 

the maintenance of a naval force-in-being without any violation of 

international law, and may be employed 1)peacefully" for maneuvers and 

testing of weapons. The word "peaceful" has, however, been used in 

other contexts; for example, it is used in the agreement setting up the 

International Atomic Energy Agency in the sense of nnon4itary.n 

And it may have been used in this sense in the efforts, referred to 

above, to insure that space is used only for *@peaceful purposes.ll A 

disarmament agreement, which the United States Government has been seeking through the United Nations, implie3 a system of control that 

seriously inhibits military usage and limits it in specific ways. By the same token, a United Nations Committee on *$eaceful uses" of outer 

space cannot, without impinging on the terms of reference of its disarmament counterpart, attempt to classify definitely what uses are 

*peaceful" in the sense of being contrasted to those that raise problems 

of international control aimed at insuring security. 

Thus 

That the problem is in part a semantic one does not make it 

less real. For the time being it seems that the only uses of space that 

are prohibited are those that fall within the prohibition of the Charter, 

and that until a disarmament agreement dealing with space activities can 

be arrived at, the United States is Justified in using space for nonaggressive military uses consistent with the terms of the Charter. Such 

use is clearly in accordance with existing international law, and the 

United States would have no embarrassment in asserting that it is *peaceful." Whether it falls without the jurisdiction of U. N. Committees 

employing the word "peaceful" in another sense is irrelevant to its 

characterization in general. 

- 108 - 
To compare the course of thinking on space law with the early 

history of international air law may be hazardous for several reasons, 

one of which is that we cannot now know whether the period from 1956- 

1960 is best compared to (say) 1901-1910 or 1901-1914. One tentative 

contrast may be suggested. 

assumed progressively greater importance in the literature. 

and now, considerations of security seemed to call into question the 

desirability of a regime of uncontrolled overflight. The responses, 

however, may well prove from the vantage-point of tomorrowts historian 

to have differed significantly. 

the century was to establish the exclusive sovereignty of the underlying state; the main response today is to focus attention on international control or regulation. 

is accurate, must be found, we submit, only partly in the physical and 

psychological difficulty of projecting sovereignty far "out"; they lie 

also in the massive changes that have taken place in the past fifty 

years in the structure of the international community, the increasing 

consciousness of interdependence, and the substantial though uneven progress made in the techniques and efficacy of international organization. 

If conventional aircraft were to be invented only in 1961, and if we 

could imagine that all the rest of twentieth-century history had been 

as it was, it is arguable that the international community would not hit 

upon airspace sovereignty as we actually know it. 

Both then and now, the security-threat has 

Both then 

The main response in the first part of 

The reasons for this contrast, if it 

Until and unless all space activities can be brought under 

unified international control, we can safely assume that space programs 

will continue to be carried on by nation-states individually and perhaps 

(as with atomic energy) collectively as well.; that these programs will 

increase in scope, intensity and frequency; and that they will develop 

basic scientific knowledge of great though now unpredictable significance to mankind, and technology which may be employed to a variety of 

non-military as well as military ends. 

The factual interdependence of non-military and military uses 

of space and space technology complicates the tasks of creating a legal 

system in line with our basic goal. It cannot but affect the legal 

doctrine relevant to particular activities and the role and power of 

international institutions that can now be created; but it does not 

raise an insuperable obstacle to international cooperation in setting 

up legal principles and institutions governing many space activities. 

Ehperience with regard to similar problems raised by the atom indicates 

the broad and worthwhile areas in which cooperation can be achieved, as 

well as the limits imposed by considerations of national security. 

I 

The reluctance of some states to assert unequivocally that 

national sovereignty stops at a relatively low altitude and beyond that 

point space is "free" lies partly in the fear that the tw space powers 

might act immoderately with regard to each other, or might do things in 

space which non-space powers regarded as inimical to their interests. 

Hence, their emphasis on a legal regime which insists that uses of space 

- 109 - 
be Veaceful,"that space powers act +easonably,Wthat due regard be 

given to principles of "equality," and so forth. While they do not 

appear to desire a regime that would allow to each subjacent state an 

unqualified veto (the effect of urilimited sovereignty in space Ibverw 

territory) neither would they wholeheartedly approve a regime that 

authorized the space powers to decide unilaterally (or even, conceivably, 

bilaterally) what was permissible. 

calling that the law of the sea, which many urge as the most appropriate 

analogy, was worked out over the years by a variety of doctrines adjusting special claims of coastal states to the common interest in free access, navigation, and so forth. We can eqect, and perhaps anticipate, 

similar developments in space. 

In this connection it is worth reAt the same time, as many have pointed out, the facts of space 

are in many ways distinguishable from those of other areas; as yet we 

have relatively little knowledge of the difficulties that may arise and 

the measures that might best be taken to promote the objectives as to 

which there seam considerable consensus. 

cantly to the solution of legal problems arising from known and predictable contingencies; they cannot sensibly recommend in detail rules to deal 

with contingencies wholly or largely unknown and beyond human experience. 

With the gradual accumulation of experience and speculation we shall 

become better able at least tentatively to state the main legal problems 

in their relationship to facts, on the one hand, and the objectives of 

the United States and of the international community on the other. 

Lawyers can contribute signifiB. Selected Lend Problems Arish from Space Activities 

A number of writers have urged that we work towards a code of 

space law. Others, including governmental representatives, have preferred to take problems one at a time rather than attempt what they 

regard as a premature codification. 

Clearly there is consensus that uses of space should be subject 

to rules of law, whether or not they now are, and that the objectives of 

shared benefit for all mankind should be pursued through international 

cooperation and regulation of some space activities. 

From this, however, it does not follow that the time has become to draw up a code of rules for the use of space. The rule of law 

is neither dependent on, nor assured by, comprehensive codification, 

which may help or hinder depending on circumstances. 

know very little about the actual. and prospective uses of outer space 

in all their possible varieties of technical significance, political 

context, economic utility, and military advantage. In this situation 

an effort to agree on any comprehensive code might either come to naught, 

or yield a smaU set of pious maxims of extreme generality, or produce 

an unworkable regime that would be all the more dangerous for giving the 

At present we 

- 110 - 
temporary illusion of certainty. 

in the present loose structure of relations among states a multilateral convention once agreed upon would be no easy thing to amend 

when circumstances called for its amendment. 

It should be kept in mind, also, that 

A detailed and comprehensive code, or convention, to govern 

the use of outer space would seem to be premature and might even be 

harmful today. 

examination in the light of new facts; among other things, the labors 

of scholars and scientific and legal groups may in time contribute to a 

state of affairs in which the preparation of such a code could be 

realistically considered. 

problems already raised by activity in outer space or looming in the 

near future and to discuss the wisdom of various measures, including 

express international agreement, proposed for dealing with them. 

The idea can properly be reserved for periodic reMeanwhile, it is fitting to take particular 

The U. N. Ad Hoc Committee, in 1959, rejected as premature 

the notion that states should now attempt to codify, directly or indirectly the Law of Space. It pointed out that the law of the sea and 

air space might provide Itfruitful analogies" but that ,router space 

activities were distinguished by many specific factual conditions, not 

all of which were now known, that would render many of its legal problems 

unique.*@ 

ties. 

It affirmed the applicability of the Charter to space activiIn line with this approach, the U.N. Committee listed six 

general questions as "susceptible of priority treatment.', These were 

(1) Question of Freedom of Outer Space for Exploration and Use; (2) 

Liability for Injury or Damage Caused by Space Vehicles; (3) Allocation 

of Radio Frequencies; (4) Avoidance of Interference between Space 

Vehicles and Aircraft; (5) Identification and Registration of Space 

Vehicles and Coordination of Launchings; (6) Re-entry and Landing of 

Space Vehicles. Equally important, it classified as %her Problems" 

-that is, not susceptible of priority treatment-the following: (1) 

Question of Determining Where Outer Space Begins; (2) Protection of 

Public Health and Safety; Safeguards against Contamination of Outer 

Space or from Outer Space; (3) Questions relating to Exploration of 

Celestial Bodies; (4) Avoidance of Interference among Space Vehicles . In each case, the Committee limited itself to identification of the 

problem and did not, save by indirection, attempt to pronounce the 

relevant doctrinal standards. 

Only a few of these questions have been discussed in any detail in the existing literature. 

review some of the conclusions and recommendations which have been made 

even if, as with the U. No Committee, little more has been done than to 

identify and state the problem. 

However, it is perhaps useful to 

- 111 - 
1. Radio Spectrum Mananement 

Radio-equipped space satellites and projectiles raise new 

Previous international agreements and custom 

problems relating to the allocation and use of radio frequencies and 

power specifications. 

which allocated frequencies on a geographical basis have been partially 

outmoded as to outer space. Law relating to international radio spectrum management may have to be amended and adjusted to take account of 

new conflicts and new capacities made possible by radio broadcasting 

from objects in space. For example; 

(1) Tracing of radio-equipped space vehicles is of scientific 

importance to space exploration. 

cation on wave-lengths that will be known in advance. 

to the success of scientific experiment to know what wave-lengths may 

be used without interfering with other space programs or with other 

normal radio activities. 

formal agreement by cooperating IGY scientists, are obviously & & 

and of limited capacity. 

overburden existing facilities and result in disputes over the propriety of using a particular frequency. 

Typical methods involve identifiIt is important 

Present arrangements, in part related to inAny large increase in space activities will 

( 2) Radio-equipped satellites with self-generating equipment 

may continue to emit signals almost indefinitely, thus Wsing up" a 

frequency for years-perhaps centuries-unless standards, e.g., for 

automatic cutoff, are recommended, adopted and followed. 

of a limited frequency band to each nation engaged in space activity 

will encourage caution in such uses. 

The allotment 

(3) A failure to allocate frequencies for national space 

programs increases the difficulty of prescribing norms with regard to 

either intentional or unintentional jamming of communication facilities. 

Interference by one state with anotherts space program, or interference 

by space vehicles with normal commutation channels, could lead to retaliation and a serious dispute. 

What has been said could be extended but is sufficient to 

indicate the need for radio spectrum management under legal norms based 

on informed scientific appraisals and recommendations. The U.N. Committee took note of the problems of radio frequency allocation and 

termination of transmissions that have outlived their usefulness and 

called attention to the technical studies to be presented in August, 

1959, to the Administrative Radio Conference of the International Telecommunications Union. 

may be found in Dr. Wenkts study prepared for the Senate Committee on 

Aeronautical and Space Science. 

A detailed analysis of the work of the conference 

- 112 - 
2. Conservation of Space 

There is scientific opinion to the effect that a state with 

space capabilities could propel into orbit a large quantity of "junk" 

(for example, radioactive waste) the effect of which would be to pre- 

.dude much further scientific experimentation and increase the hazards 

of space travel and the possibility of surprise missile attack. Such 

a program would overload tracking facilities and could distort communications. Presumably an effort would be made to justify it as a measure 

of self-defense. 

It is important that all nations with space capabilities use 

them with discretion and reserve in the interest of future scientific 

and technological programs. As space capabilities increase, the possibility of an iron curtain holding back scientific progress for years 

to come increases as well. Steps to limit the number of satellites that 

can be put into orbit and to furnish some assurance that each serves a 

useful function would be constructive contributions to the law of space. 

It would be unconscionable to future generations for us unnecessarily to 

hamper their opportunities. 

3. Radio and Television Relay Satellites 

It has been predicted that space may be used to establish a 

world-wide network for point-to-point communication and for broadcasting, 

through the use of satellites carrying relay equipment. This possibility 

will raise problems of frequency allocation. In addition it may have 

repercussions on program content (censorship), use by commercial entities, 

application of laws regarding defamation, and the allocation of costs 

among governments and between governments and users. Again the prospect 

of jamming occurs, both in the form of interference with programs being 

relayed and in the form of the improper use of relay equipment to interfere with local communications. 

Much of the experience and law already familiar in other areas 

may be applicable to situations in space. But not all the experience 

has been productive of satisfactory legal norms, Snd space techniques 

will make what have usually been bilateral conflicts into multilateral 

ones. Generally, analogous difficulties have arisen between adjacent 

states; soon, in respect to this problem, states widely separated on 

the earth's surface will be brought into direct and immediate contact. 

It is common knowledge that the United States has deep-rooted 

convictions and policies about the importance of free communication 

among peoples everywhere. 

munications could be a gigantic step forward in bringing the people of 

the world into contact, which might in turn help promote understanding 

of one another's culture, ideas, and problems. 

dictable miracle in communication should be studied and analyzed further 

with a view to recommending the necessary rules and procedures that will 

allow it to proceed with a minimum of friction and dispute. 

The advent of a world-wide network of comTherefore, this pre- 

- 113 - 
4. Weather Forecastinst and Control 

A number of problems may arise in the use of space for weather 

forecasting and, possibly, weather control. 

All nations have an interest in accurate weather forecasting. 

For security reasons, some may be reluctant to acquiesce in foreign 

national satellites for weather forecasting if these remain exclusively 

under national control without effective assurances of free and accurate 

dissemination of all information. Possibilities for resolution of this 

difficulty include duplicate facilities, bilateral collaboration (Ats 

satellite transmitting to B~S read-out station), international controls, 

and agreements as to the nature and content of information to be disseminated by the operating state. 

The possibility of power over some weather conditions raises 

more difficult problems. 

example, the breaking up of conditions likely to produce local disasters 

such as hurricanes may be technically feasible without substantial harm 

done elsewhere. 

ways, virtually all aspects of life will be dramatically affected and 

all states will be rightly concerned. 

standards where weather-control would have far-reaching effects on crop 

production, for example. Analogous problems have arisen from efforts 

to create rainfall through cloud-seeding, and give some evidence of the 

difficulty of balancing the various interests involved. 

Some, however, may be readily resolved; for 

If science enables us to alter climate in important 

It may be difficult to agree on 

Other problems may arise out of the fact that satellites used 

for forecasting may have a capacity to perform other functions; for 

example, to observe parts of the earth's surface. 

5. Damage to Subjacent States. Aircraft and Vessels: Safetg 

Standards 

Space vehicles and space craft must travel for at least some 

periods within altitudes sometimes used for normal air travel. 

covery of space craft creates at least a possibility of surface damage 

if the place of recovery is miscalculated. 

of misfiring and failure of safety equipment to operate satisfactorily. 

ReThere is also the possibility 

The possibility of agreement on safety standards (notification 

of firings, policing areas of danger on the high seas, safety equipment 

on missiles to insure harmless destruction in the event of misfire) 

might usefully be explored with a view to minimizing dangers to nonparticipants and creating standards of care that wuuld have to be met 

to avoid entailing state liability. 

specify situations where states should be willing to assume absolute 

liability, regardless of negligence, for certain kinds and amounts of 

damage arising from space activities. 

gested in this connection that early consideration should be given to 

In addition, it may be possible to 

The U. N. Ad Hoc Committee sug- 
agreement on submission to the compulsory jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice in disputes between states as to liability 

of states for injury or damage caused by space vehicles. 

6. Repossession of Space Craft and Repatriation of Space 

Personnel 

Through miscalculation a spacecraft or "ship" may be brought 

back to earth in a country not intended as the place of landing. What 

standards shall be applied to determine the duty of the state of landing to return the equipment and repatriate any personnel, without invoking various local statutes? 

seems both possible and desirable in the interest of reducing areas of 

dispute and tension. 

definite recommendation, rules of international law already exist on 

rights and duties with respect to aircraft and airmen landing on foreign 

territory through accident, mistake, or distress; these rules may well 

deserve to be applied in the event of similar landings of space vehicles. 

Agreement in advance on these points 

As the U. N. Committee noted without making a 

7. Observation Satellites 

A number of writers have mentioned the possibility of satellites with relay television cameras capable of observing the earth in 

considerable detail. The United States project Samos has this objective. 

U-2 incident of May, 1960 and subsequent developments. 

It has recently taken on considerable importance because of the 

It will be recalled that the Soviet Government characterized 

the U-2 as ttaggressionlt and strongly objected to its activity-aerial 

photography-as well as to its intrusion into Soviet air space. Immediately after the Security Cowcil debates, the latest Soviet disarmament proposal included as a first stage of Wismamenta' the 

cessation of aerial reconnaissance, which may be some indication of the 

importance the Soviet attaches to the preservation of secrecy. 

Soviet Union viewed reconnaissance as aggressive on the theory that its 

purpose was to locate and identify targets. 

ized it as essentia3. to self-defense +nd helping to deter aggression by 

its capacity to identify in advance activities that might be of an 

aggressive nature. The polar characterization of the same events indicates some of the difficulties in present doctrine. 

might serve either purpose, or both purposes, and various kinds of 

reconnaissance devices might have different utility for the two purposes. 

The 

The United States characterReconnaissance 

Possibilities for resolving this difficulty of characterization may exist in setting up and equipping a United Nations Reconnaissance Unit. In Paris after the breakdown of the Summit Conference in 

May 1960, President Eisenhower stated that he planned 'Yn the near 

future to submit to the United Nations a proposal for the creation of 

a United Nations aerial surveillance to detect preparations for attack." 

No definite proposal, however, was conveyed in the President's address 

- 115 - 
to the General Assembly in September, where he only referred generally 

to the possibility of reducing the danger of war by miscalculation Yn 

times of crisis, by the intervention when requested by any nation seeking to prove its own peaceful intention, of an appropriate United Nations 

surveillance body.'? One or more observation satellites (Samos, Midas, 

or other) or systems of observation satellites could be operated as 

trustee satellites on behalf of the United Nations to which the operating 

country wuld turn over all infoxmation obtained. 

activity need not be prohibited and might be supported as a check. 

Parallel unilateral 

8. Coordination of Space Programs 

Connected with the problem of conservation, yet independent 

Objects propelled into space must be tracked by tracking 

of it, is the task of coordinating national space programs for various 

purposes. 

facilities all over the world if their scientific significance and technological performance are to be properly appraised. 

precipitated by human agency often require coordinated observation and 

interpretation from many points on the earth. As we have already pointed 

out, the more objects in space and the more activities in space, the more 

difficult this task will be. 

capability and dimension, the likelihood of near-simultaneous firings 

into related paths will increase. This contingency could lead to the 

mutual frustration of expensive and important experiments and argues for 

a common interest in cooperative efforts. It could result in more than 

the desirable amount of duplication of scientific experiment. One possible solution lies in proposals for advance filing of flight plans and 

coordination of launch times. It may be premature and unnecessary to 

spell out "rules of the road'? in detail, but it is not too early to take 

first steps in the direction of creating legal norms and institutions 

that could avoid the contingencies even now to be foreseen. 

Phenomena in space 

In addition, as space programs advance in 

C. International Ornanization for Space Actidties and Space Law 

Some space activities are already conducted internationally, 

in the sense that representatives or nationals of more than one state 

take part in them. Whether existing arrangements, many of them casual 

and provisional, should be altered, continued, confirmed, or imitated 

is a matter with which lawyers will have much to do although it is not 

usually regarded as a *?Legal" problem. 

The forms of international activity in outer space may be 

determined, and will be affected, by the purposes, overlapping and perhaps in part conflicting, with which the activity is undertaken. 

from the standpoint of the United States, but indirectly as well from 

the perspective of a larger community, some of those purposes may be 

briefly mentioned as follows: 

Stated 

Technical factors msy require some type of international cooperation, if only in the form of agreement on the approach to take to 

- 116 - 
specific problems. 

Paragraph l(b) of the General Assembly Resolution 13@(XZII), some 

illustrative topics for international agrementt 

quencies, registration of orbital elements, continuing radio transmission, 

ranoval of spent satellites, re-entry and recovery of space vehicles, 

return of equipment, identification of origin, and contamination. 

these activities, and others that might be named, intern&ional agreement 

seems necessary either because no one country has all the necessary technical. facilities or possibilities, or because the particular activity is 

one where the ob3ective depends upon the consistency of all unilateral 

action, as in the case of ndecontaminationn. 

The U.N. Ad Hoc Committee listed, in its Report on 

use of radio freFor 

Some forms of international space action can be used, from the 

point of view of alaunching power, to obtain the benefit of scientific, 

technical, or even financial contributions of other nations, to share 

with other nations the burdens as well as the benefits of space activities, to give evidence of the peaceful intent of the launching power, 

to provide training for technical personnel on both (or on all) sides, 

to channel economic and technological developmental assistance, and to 

furnish a model for other kinds of international cooperation, for example in connection with disarmament or arms control. 

Not all of these objectives are necessarily of equal importance 

or urgency; not all of them can be directly reflected in forms and methods 

of organization. 

objectives, not necessarily less important than the "space-connected" 

objectives. The number of participants in any international organization 

set up for space activity can be bilateral, regional (bloc), multilateral, 

or global. The participating members may be governments or organizations 

of scientists, engineers, lawyers, etc. The powers of the organisation 

may be weak or strong along a spectrum of relative *Mqxw-mtionality." 

The organization might be a specialized agency of the United Nations; 

it might be a committee of technical advisers to the General Assembly 

or to the Secretary General; it might in some respects resemble existing 

agencies such as the International Atomic Energy Agency. It need not 

duplicate the work now being done, or capable of being done, in such 

quasi-official bodies as OOSPAR, or in such other organs as the International Telecommunications Union, the International Civil Aviation 

Organization, or the World Meteorological Organization. 

Those may perhaps be determined by reference to other 

On the U.S. side, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration is engaged in four basic types of international activity, which 

one of its officials describes as operational, informational, joint, 

and personnel exchanges and training. 

The operational programs consist of space probe tracking 

activities, conducted or about to be conducted in 19 countries abroad. 

Some of the stations are operated by U.S. technicians, some jointly 

with technicians of the host countries, some by foreign technicians 

under contract or grant arrangements. Informational programs are an 
outgrowth of IGY operations. Launchings of sounding rcdreta, satellites, 

and space probes are reported by various means; periodic catalogs of information are made; results of experiments are published and distributed, 

for example, through world data centers; NASA scientists take part in 

scientific meetings. 

In March, 1959, the U.S. delegate to the meeting of COSPAR at 

The Hague offered on behalf of NASA a program to include experimental 

payloads, designed by foreign scientists, in vehicles launched by the 

United States; to launch satellites designed by foreign scientists, with 

agreed payloads up to a certain weight in a certain range of orbital 

altitude; and to invite space experimenters to work on their projects 

in the U.S. laboratories. 

of this initiative, and more elaborate joint projects are going forward 

with the Canadians and the British. 

to foreign scientists (as well as domestic scientists) through the 

National Academy of Sciences for post-doctoral and senior resident associateships. 

support and guidance for foreign scientists, sent and supported by their 

governments, to work in U.S. space laboratories. 

A number of projects and plans have grown out 

NASA makes a small number of grants 

In addition, NASA is endeavoring to provide laboratory 

The scientific section of the 1959 U.N. Committee's report 

proceeded on the premise What a principle of open and orderly conduct 

lies at the root of international cooperation directed towards the peaceful use of outer space.l@ It calls for a rallying point related to the 

United Nations, small in size but well informed, @@a center to which inquiries can be directed at any time, and by which information can be 

communicated effectively to the appropriate body in much the same way 

as ICSU meets a similar need for the existing international scientific 

unions . I@ 

The United Nations & Committee as a whole decided 'that 

it would not be appropriate at the present time to establish any autonomous inter-governmental organization for international cooperation in 

the field of outer space1@, or nto ask any existing autonomous intergovernmental organization to undertake over-all responsibility in the 

outer space field.@' Its other organizational recommendations were on 

the whole limited to the setting up of study groups; it dealt with the 

"focal point@@ recommendations of the scientists by suggesting that 

%onsideration might...be given to provision for a small advisory committee, advisory to the Secretary General, which could include representatives of the appropriate specialized agencies, scientists designated 

by international scientific organizations, and representatives of member 

states, as necessary.# It noted the possibility of establishing a committee of the U.N. &nerd Assembly, %omposed of representatives of 

member states and having such membership as the Assembly may decide," 

to study international cooperation, to study legal problems, and to 

review, Itas appropriate,l@ the subject matter covered in the terms of 

reference of the Ed Committee. 

- 118 - 
Whatever organization emerges from these recommendations, even 

if they are confirmed by the re-constituted U.N. Committee scheduled to 

meet in 1960, is unlikely to possess formal powers to exert general 

regu3ation over national programs or make binding legal norms for space 

activities. 

standards that may as a matter of optional acceptance be followed by 

states engaged in national programs remains yet to be seenWhether it will be able to make recommendations and suggest 

Legal scholars have, in several instances, gone much further 

Some of the recomthan the U.N. Committee in recommending international regulation, coordination, control, operation, or even ownership. 

mendations appear to proceed from a preoccupation with particular 

difficulties or conflicts, in particular the security threat. 

appear to have proceeded from political objectives, not necessarily 

tkpace-connected". 

abolish the complexities that make international cooperation difficult 

and a belief, not always expressed or examined that the maximal "internationalist" solution would be tidy and comprehensive. Here, one might 

say, the objective is not so much political as anti-political. 

Others 

Still others appear to be based on a desire to 

The present Report does not contain any recommendations on 

the form of organization of an international agency for space, or even 

on the future desirability of such an agency. 

that seem particularly relevant to the present stage of space activity 

and organization for space: 

We would make two points 

(a) It is at the level of fact, as it seems to us, that an 

international agency of some kind, able to draw upon the talents of 

highly-trained scientists, to appraise possibilities and alternatives, 

can play its most useful role in promoting legal standards for national 

or other space programs. 

talents of the international scientific community in making responsible 

recommendstions for the consideration of national states, either as a 

basis for subsequent formal international agreement or as a consideration that will be relevant to unilateral decisions. It would not thereby 

supersede national authority and control. 

Such a group could help to lnobilize the 

(b) If an international organization, &sting or to be 

established, is to conduct any space operations, as to which we likewise 

make no recommendation, it may usefully begin by appropriate provisional 

arrangements with states having space capabilities. Such arrangements 

might take the form of trust agreements, the operation of vehicles being 

carried out under terms and conditions roughly comparable to those 

presently applicable to trust territories; or they might take the form 

of "guest payloads," prepared by international bodies but launched on 

their behalf by particular national governments. They might be particularly suited to the operation of space vehicles and space craft for some 

of the purposes canvassed in subsection B above, and this operation might 

promote agreement on norms and procedures applicable to purely national 

space activities . arrangements, might turn out to have unexpected lasting qualities. 

The 'provisional" arrangements, like other 'provisional" 

- 119 - 
International agreement on the problems raised in this report 

is not a prerequisite to national activity in space, unless the term, 

%peementat is interpreted broadly. On the other hand, states should 

act reasonably and with moderation regardless of the presence or absence 

of formal legal norms. To the extent that workable formal agreement can 

be achieved, difficulties and friction may be obviated thereafter; even 

an unsuccessful attempt to reach such agreement on a well-defined set 

of practical, impending problems may be helpful in the making of national 

decisions if it influences states with space capabilities to conduct their 

space activity in such a way as to avoid major disagreements and reduce 

international tension. The area of disagreement at the negotiating table 

may prove to be narrow by comparison with the area of agreement; the number of states taking one position may be shown to be insignificant by 

comparison with the number taking a different position; the reasons urged 

in support of one position may be far more persuasive to the international 

community than those urged for another; that subject matter in which the 

difference of opinion relates to soluble technical questions may be separable from others. By clarifyin@; and proposing legal arrangements within 

the modest scope set out in this report, lawyers can contribute, in common with public officials, to fostering a climate in which durable institutional machinery and, eventually, comprehensive codes for space 

activity can be launched when that appears practical and necessary. 

the same spirit, the United States may well be urged to encourage parallel international and national activities whenever security considerations 

permit. 

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- 120 - 
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- 168 - 
- 169 - 
APPENDIX C 

November 1, 1960 

SPAm SCIENX BOARD 

Dr. Lloyd V. Berber, Chairman 

President, Associated -ties, Inc. 

10 Columbus Circle, New York 19, New York 

Colwnbus 5-2090 

Dr. Harrison S. Brown 

Mvision of Geological Sciences 

California Institute of Technology 

Pasadena, California 

Sycamore 5-6841 

Dr. Leo Goldberg 

Harvard College Observatory 

Cambridge 38, Massachusetts 

Dr. H. Keffer Hartline 

The Rockefeller Institute 

66th and York Avenue 

New York 21, New York 

IZhigh 5-9000 

Dr. Donald F. HOrnig, Head 

Department of Chemistry 

Princeton University 

Princeton, New Jersey 

Dr. William W. Kellogg, Head 

Planetary Sciences 

The Rand Corporation 

l7oO Main Street 

Santa Monica, California 

EXbrook 3-04l1 

Dr. Christian J. Lambertsen 

Department of Pharmacology 

University of Pennsylvania 

Philadelphia 4, Pennsylvania 

Evergreen 6-0100 

Dr. Joshua Lederberg 

Department of Genetics 

School of Medicine 

Stanford University 

Palo Alto, Wfornia 

Dr. Colin S. Pittendrigh 

Department of Biology 

Princeton University 

Princeton, New Jersey 

WUmt 1-6600 

Dr. Ftichard W. Porter 

General Electric Company 

570 Laclngton Avenue 

New York 22, New York 

&ea l-l3ll, Ext. 2213 

WhUt 1-6600, Ext. 577 

DAvenpOrt 1-1200, 5052 

Dr. Wvno Be Rossi 

Department of Physics 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Cambridge, Massachusetts 

UNiversity 4-6900, Ext. 4283 

Mr. Alan H. Shapley, Chief 

Office of CRPL Liaison and 

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory 

National Wlreau of Standards 

Boulder, Colorado 

Hlllcrest 2-2161, Ext. 228 

Dr. John A. Simpson 

The Enrico Fermi. Institute for 

Nuclear Studies 

University of Chicago 

Chicago 37, Illinois 

Dr. Harold C. Urey 

University of California 

La Jolla, California 

GLencourt 9-2388 

Dr. James A. Van Allen, Head 

Department of Physics 

State University of Iowa 

Iowa City, Iowa 

Iowa City 8-0511 

Dr. 0. G. Villard, Jr. 

Department of Engineering 

Stanford University 

Stanford, California 

DAvenport 1-3300 

Dr. Harry Wexler 

U. S. Weather Wlreau 

Old Annex Building, Room 65-C 

Washington 25, D. C. 

AD 2-3200, Ext. 288 or 291 

Dr. George P. Woollard 

Professor of Geology 

University of Wisconsin 

Madison, Wisconsin 

ALpine 5-3311, Ext. 4611 

Program Mvision 

MIdway3-0800, Ext. 3751 

- 171 - 
INVITED PARTICIPANTS 

National Aeronautics and Space Adnrinistration 

Dr. Hugh L. Dryden, Deputy 

Administrator 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Administration 

1520 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. T. Keith GLennan, Administrator 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Admini st rat ion 

1520 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

National Science Foundation 

Dr. Richard H. Bolt 

Associate Director (Research) 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Homer E. Newell, Jr. (Alternate) 

Deputy Director, Office of Space 

Flight Programs 

Nationdl Aeronautics & Space 

Administration 

801 - 19th Street, N.W. 

Washington, D. C. 

Dr. Randal Robertson 

Assistant Director for Mathematical, 

Physical & Engineering Sciences 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Presidentts Science Advisory Committee 

Dr. Alan T. hhteman, Director 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

VI. Douglas Lord 

The Presidentts Science Advisory Committee 

Executive Office wlilding 

Washington 25, D. C. 
SECmTARIAT 

Dr. Hugh Odishaw, Executive Director 

ll45 19th Street, N.W., Room 716 

Washington 6, D. C. 

Executive 3-8100, Ext. 450, 488 

Mr. R. C. Peavey, Secretary 

ll45 19th Street, N.W., Room 7l.6 

Washington 6, D. C. 

EXecutive 3-8100, Ext. 496 

Mr. J. P. T. Pearman 

1145 19th Street, N .We, Room 116 

Washington 6, D. 6. 

EXecutive 3-8100, Ext. 385 

Mr. George A. Derbyshire Mr. Joel Orlen 

1145 19th Street, N.W., Room 73-6 

Washington 6, D. C. 

EXecutive 3-8100, Ext. 457 

1145 19th Street, N.W., Room 7l.6 

Washington 6, D. C. 

EXecutive 3-8100, 478 or 479 

Dr. Edward R. Dyer 

ll45 19th Street, N.W. 

Washington 6, D. C. 

EXecutive 3-8100, Ext. 350 

- 173 - 
Codttee 1 

CHEMISTRY OF SPAm AND EXPLORATION OF MOON AND PLANETS / 

Dr. Harold C. Urey, Chairman 

University of California 

La Jolla, California 

Dr. Harrison S. Brown, Vice-chairman Professor Frank Press 

Division of Geological Sciences Director, Seismological Laboratory 

California Instittte of Technology 

Pasadena, California 

Professor Harry H. Hess 

Department of Geology 

Princeton University 

Princeton, New Jersey 

Dr. A. R. Hibbs 

Chief, Division ofthe Space 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

4800 Oak Grove Drive 

Pasadena, California 

Sciences 

Professor Mark Inghram 

Department of Physics 

University of Chicago 

Chicago 31, Illinois 

Dr. Gordon J. F. MacDonald 

Theoretical Division, NASA 

Goddard Space Flight Center 

8719 Colesville Road 

Silver Spring, Maryland 

Liaison Representatives 

National Aeronautics & Space Admin1520 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr* No W. Cunningham 

istration 

California Institute of Technology 

Pasadena, California 

Dr. William M. Sinton 

Lowell Observatory 

Flagstaff, Arizona 

Dr. G. de Vaucouleurs 

Department of Astronomy 

University of Texas 

Austin 12, Texas 

Dr. Fred L. Whipple, Director 

Smlthsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory 

60 Garden Street 

Cambridge 38, Massachusetts 

Dr. Walter R. Kirner 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - George A. Derbyshire 

- 174 - 
Codttee 2 

OPTICAL AND RADIO ASTRONOMY 

Dr. Leo Goldberg, Chairman 

Hammrd College Observatory 

Cambridge 38, Massachusetts 

Professor Lawrence H. Aller 

Department of Astronomy 

University of Michigan 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 

Dr. Horace W. Babcock 

Mount Wilson Observatory 

Carnegie Institution of Washington 

Pasadena 4, California 

Mr. Roger Gallet 

Central Ffadio Propagation LaboraNational Bureau of Standards 

Boulder, Colorado 

tory 

Dr. G. H. Herbig 

Uck Observatory 

Mt. Hamilton, California 

Dr. Gerald M. Clemence Dr. Frederick T. Haddock, Jr. 

Scient if ic Direct or 

U. S. Naval Observatory 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Department of Astronomy 

University of Michigan 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 

Dr. A. D. Code, Director Dr. Walter Orr Roberts 

Washburn Observatory High Altitude Observatory 

University of Wisconsin Boulder, Colorado 

Madison 6, Wisconsin 

Dr. John W. Evans, Jr. Director 

Sacramento Peak Observatory 

Sunspot, New Mdco 

Professor Lyman Spitzer, Jr. 

Princeton University Observatory 

Princeton, New Jersey 

Dr. John Findlay 

National Radio Astronomy 

Observatory 

Green Bank, West Virginia 

Professor Martin Schwarzschild 

Princeton University Observatory 

Princeton, New Jersey 

(Alternate for Dr. Spitzer) 

Dr. Herbert Friedman 

Atmospheres & Astrophysics Division 

Code 7100 

Naval Research Laboratory 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Liaison Representatives 

Dr. Nancy G. Roman 

National Aeronautics & Space 

1520 H Street, N.W. Washington 25, D. C. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Geoffrey Keller 

National Science Foundation 

Administration 1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Secretariat - Edward R. Dyer, Jr. 

- 175 - 
Codttee 3 

FUTURE VEKECULAR IEVELOPMENT 

Dr. Donald F. Hornig, Chairman 

Department of Chdstrg 

Princeton University 

Princeton, New Jersey 

Ad hoc Membership 

Liaison Representatives 

Mr. Elliott Mitchell 

National Aeronautics & Space Administration 

1520 H Street, N. W. I Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - J. P. T. Pearman 
Dr. Herbert Friedman, SuperinAtmospheres & Astrophysics Division 

Code ".lCCl 

Naval Research Laboratory 

Washington 25, D. C. 

int endent 

Dr. Leo Goldberg 

Harvard College Observatory 

Cambridge 38, Massachusetts 

Dr. Hugh Odishaw 

National Academy of Sciences 

2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Homer E. Newell, Jr. 

Deputy Director, Office of Space 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Flight Programs 

Admini st ration 

Liaison Representatives 

Mr. Edward W. Allen, Chief Zngineer 

Federal Comrunications Commission 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Committee 4 

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 

Dr. Richard W. Porter, Chairman 

Engineering Services - 30th Floor 

General Electric Company 

570 Lexington Avenue 

New York 22, New York 

Dr. W. W. Atwood, Jr. Director 

Office of International Relations 

National Acadw of Sciences 

2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr. Arnold W. Frutkin, Director 

Office of International Programs 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration 

1520 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr. W. E. Gathright 

Stat e Department 

4.207 New State Extension 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Howard P. Robertson 

Norman Bridge Laboratory of Physics 

California Institute of Technology 

Pasadena 4, California 

Mr. Alan H. Shapley, Chief 

Office of CRPL Iiaison and Program 

National Bureau of Standards 

Boulder, Colorado 

Division 

Dr. Harry Wexler 

U. S. Weather Bureau 

Old Annex wlilding, Room 65-C 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr. William H. Godel, Director 

Policy and Planning Division 

Advanced Research Projects Agency 

The Pentagon - 33169 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Col. R. E. Huneycutt 

Office of Director, Defense 

Research ani Engineering 

The Pentagon 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. J. Wallace Joyce 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr. Eugene B. Skolnikoff 

President 1s Science Advisory 

Executive Office Building 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Conanittee 

Secretariat - Joel Grlen 

* Committee 5, INI4EDIk'I'Z PROBBI6, is not currently established. 

- 177 - 
Committee 6 

SPAm PROJECTS 

Dr. Bruno B. Rossi, Chairman 

Department of Physics 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Cambridge, Massachusetts 

Dr. Thomas Cold Dr. Philip Morrison 

Cornell University Department of Physics 

Ithaca, New York Cornell University 

Professor Salvador E. Luria 

(Dept . of Bacteriology 

University of IUinois) 

Ithaca, New York 

Visiting Professor of Biology 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

c Cambridge 39, Massachusetts 

Liai son Representative 

Mr. M. J. Stoner 

National Aeronautics and Space Adndnistration 

1520 H Street, N. W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - J. P. T. Peamn 

- 178 - 
Committee 7 

THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE EARTH AND PUNETS 

Mr. Alan H. Shapley, Chairman 

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory 

National Bureau of Standards 

Boulder, Colorado 

Dr. Henry G. Booker 

School of Electrical Engineering 

Cornel1 University 

Ithaca, New York Boulder, Colorado 

Dr. C. Gordon Little 

Central Radio Propagation Laboratory 

National Bureau of Standards 

Dr. Joseph W. Chamberlain 

Yerkes Observatory 

University of Chicago 

Williams Bay, Wisconsin 

Dr. Robert Jastrow 

Chief, Theoretical Division 

Goddard Space Flight Center 

8719 Colesville Road 

Silver Spring, Maryland 

Uaison Representative 

Mr. R. E. Bourdeau 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Admini stration 

1520 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Professor Laurence A. Manning 

Radio Propagation Laboratory 

Stanford University 

Stanford, California 

Secretariat - R. C. Peavey 

- 179 - 
Committee 8 

PHYSICS OF FIELDS AND PARTICUE IN SPACE 

Dr. John A. Simpson, Chairman 

The Enrico Fermi Institute for 

Nuclear Studies 

University of Chicago 

Chicago 37, Illinois 

Dr. James A. Van Allen, Vice-chairman 

Department of Physics 

State University of Iowa 

Iowa city, Iowa 

Dr. Joseph W. Chamberlain 

Yerkes Observatory 

williams Bay 6, Usconsin 

Dr. William Kraushaar 

Laboratory for Nuclear Science 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Cambridge 39, Massachusetts 

Liaison Representatives 

Dr. John E. Naugle 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Admini stration 

1512 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Eugene N. Parker 

The Enrico Fed Institute for 

Nuclear Studies 

University of Chicago 

Chicago 37, Illinois 

Dr. E. H. Vestine 

The Rand Corporation 

1700 Main Street 

Santa Monica, California 

Dr. John WincMer 

Department of physics 

University of Minnesota 

Minneapolis, Minnesota 

Dr. J. H. McMillen 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

- 180 - 
Committee 9 

GENERAL ENGINEERING SERVICE AND CO-ORDINATION 

Dr. 0. G. Villard, Jr., Chairman 

Department of Engineering 

Stanford University 

Stanford, California 

(No standing committee. 

committee is established as the 

need arises . ) 

An ad hoc 

Liaison Representative 

Dr. K. G. Picha 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - J. P. T. Pearman 

- 181 - 
committee 10 

ME'EOROLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SATELLITES 

Dr. Harry WeAler, Chairman 

U. S. Weather Bureau 

Washington 25, 

Dr. Charles C. htes 

Coordinator, Environmental. Systems 

Office of Naval Research 

Code 926 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. George Benton 

Department of Ehgineering 

Johns Hopkins University 

Baltimore, Maryland 

Dr. Sigmund Fritz 

U. S. Weather Bureau 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Wlliam W. Kellogg 

The Rand Corporation 

1700 Main Street 

Santa Monica, California 

Uaison Representatives 

Dr. E. G. Froessler 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dm Cm 

Dr. Norman Phillips 

Department of Meteorology 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology 

Cambridge, Massachusetts 

Dr. Ernst Stanger 

George C. Marshall Space Flight 

Huntsville, Alabama 

Center 

Dr. Verner E. Sud 

Department of Meteorology 

University of Wisconsin 

Madison, Wisconsin 

Dr. William K. Widger, Jr. 

Assistant Chief 

Meteorological Sat ellit e Programs 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Administration 

1512 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Morris Tepper 

National Aeronautics &Space 

Administration 

1520 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - Edward R. Dyer, Jr. 

- 182 - 
Committee ll 

BIOLOGICAL RESEARCH 

Dr. H. Keffer Hartline, Chairman 

The Rockefeller Institute 

66th and York Avenue 

New York 21, New York 

Dr. Howard J. Curtis Dr. E. F. MacNichol 

Department of Biology 

Brookhaven National Laboratories 

Upton, Long Island, New York 

Department of Bio-Physics 

Johns Hopkins University 

Baltimore, Maryland 

Dr. L. E. Farr 

Department of Medicine 

Brookhaven Nati om1 Laboratories 

Upton, Long Island, New York 

Dr. Thomas Francis 

Professor and Chairman 

Department of Epidemiology 

University of Michigan 

Ann Arbor, Michigan 

Dr. Christian J. Lambertsen 

Department of Pharmacology 

University of Pennsylvania 

Philadelphia 4, Pennsylvania 

Dr. Joshua Lederberg 

Department of Genetics 

Stanford University 

Palo Alto, California 

Liaison Representatives 

Dr. Clark Randt 

National Aeronautics &Space 

Administration 

1520 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. Colin S. F'ittendrigh 

Department of Biology 

Princeton University 

Princeton, New Jersey 

Dr. Otto H. Schmitt 

Department. of Bio-Physics 

University of Minnesota 

Minneapolis I,!+, Minnesota 

Dr. Edward L. Tatum 

Department of Bio-Chemical Genetics 

Rockefeller Institute 

66th and York Avenue 

New York 21, New York 

Dr. J. T. Wilson 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - G. A. Derbyshire 
Codttee 12 

GEOrnSY 

Dr. G. P. Woollard, Chairman 

Professor of Geology 

University of Wisconsin 

Madison, Wlsconsin 

Dr. R. K. C. Johns 

12 Woodsi.de Road 

Winchester , Massachusetts 

Dr. D. A. Lautman 

Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory 

60 Garden Street 

Cambridge 38, Massachusetts 

Mr. Donald A. Rice 

U. S. Department of Comerce 

Coast and Geodetic Survey 

Washington 25, Do C. 

Dr. Hellrmrt ScMd 

Ballistics Research Laboratory 

Aberdeen Proving Grounds 

Aberdeen, Maryland 

Dr. William Markacitz, Head 

Time Service 

U. S. Naval Observatory U. S. Department of Comerce 

Mass. Avenue at 34th St., NOW. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr. Charles A. Whitten, President 

International Association of Geodesy 

Coast and Geodetic Survey 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr. W. J. OYhlUvan 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Applied Materials and physics 

Langley Research Center 

Langley Field, Virginia 

Administration 

Divlsion 

Liaison Representatives 

Dr. W. E. Benson 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Administration 

1520 H Street, NOW. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - Edward R. Dyer, Jr. 
Committee 13 

UPPER ATMOSPHERE ROCKET ElESEARCH 

Dr. W. W. Kellogg, Chairman 

Head, Planetary Sciences 

The Rand Corporation 

1700 Mah Street . 

Santa Monica, Califoaa 

. + 1' 

Dr. H. J. aufm Kmpe 

Chief, Atmospheric Physics Branch 

U. S. Army Signal Research and 

Development Laboratory 

Fort Monmouth, New Jersey 

Mr. Warren W. Berning 

Ballistics Research Laboratory 

Aberdeen, Maryland 

Technical Aid for Atmospheric 

Geophysics Branch, Code fJ.6 

Office of Naval Research 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Lt. Cdr. W. We Elam 

Physics 

Dr. Robert D. Fletcher 

Director, Scientific Services 

Hqs., Air Weather Service 

Military Air Transport Service 

Scott Air Force Base, Illinois 

Dr. Herbert Friedman, SuperinAtmospheres and A st rophysi c s 

Code 7lOO 

Naval Research Laboratory 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Liaison Representatives 

Dr. Maurice Dubin 

National Aeronautics & Space 

Administration 

1512 H Street, N.W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

t endent 

Division 

Dr. Stanley M. Greenfield 

Scientific Advisor to the Director 

of Research and Development 

Deputy Chief of Staff, Development 

Headquarters, U. S. Air Force 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Mr. JohnE. Masterson 

Chairman, Inter-Range Meteorological 

Pacific Missile Range 

Point hgu, California 

Mr. Millis Webb, Chairman 

Meteorological Rocket Network 

Inter-Range Instrumentation Group 

Meteorological Working Group 

White Sands Missile Range, 

New Mexico 

Working Group 

Codttee 

Dr. Harry We2Ler 

U. S. Weather Bureau 

Old Annex Building, Room 65-C 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Dr. E. G. Droessler 

National Science Foundation 

1951 Constitution Avenue, N.W. 

Washington 25, Do C. 

Mr. Willis Foster 

Assistant for Research & 

Office of the Secretary of Defense 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - G. A. Derbyshire 

Engineering 

- 185 - 
Committee 14 

EXOBIOLOGY 

Dr. Joshua Lederberg, Chairman 

Department of Genetics 

School of Nedicine 

Stanford University 

Palo Alto, California 

Dr. Melvin Calvin 

Department of Chemistry 

University of California 

Berkeley 4, California 

Dr. Richard Davies 

Jet F'ropulsion Laboratory 

California Institute of Technology 

'4800 Oak Grove Drive 

Pasadena, California 

Dr. Norman Horowitz 

Divisiion of-yBiology 

California Institute of Technology 

Pasadena, California 

Dr. A. G. Marr 

Department of Bacteriology 

University of California 

Davis, California 

Dr. Daniel Mazia 

Department of Zoology 

university of California 

Berkeley 4, California 

Dr. Aaron Novick 

Institute of Nolecular Biology 

University of Oregon 

Eugene, Oregon 

Dr. Carl Sagan 

Department of Astronomy 

University of California 

Berkeley 4, California 

Dr. C. B. van Niel 

Hopkins Marine Station 

Stanford University . Pacific Grove, California 

Dr. Harold F. Weaver 

Lauschner Observatory 

University of California 

Berkeley 4, California 

Dr. Paul Berg 

Department of Biochemistry 

Stanford University 

Palo Alto, California 

Liaison Representative 

Dr. Richard Young 

National Aeronautics & Space Administration 

1520 H Street, N. W. 

Washington 25, D. C. 

Secretariat - G. A. Derbyskire 

- 186 -