Aeronautics 

and 

Space Report 

of the 

’ President 

Fiscal Year 

1993 

Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics 

and Space Report 

of the President 

Fiscal Year 

1993 

Activities 

1994 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Washington, DC 20546 

Con tents 

Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................................... 1 

Department of Defense ..................................................................................................................................... 3 

Department of Energy ...................................................................................................................................... 5 

Department of Interior ............................................................................................................... ...................... 6 

Department of Transportation 

Federal Aviation Administration .................................................................................................................. 7 

Office of Commercial Space Transportation ................................................................................................ 8 

Federal Communications Commission ............................................................................................................. 8 

National Science Foundation ............................................................................................................................ 9 

Department of State ........................................................................................................................................ 10 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ....................................................................................................... 11 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration .............................................................................................. 1 

Department of Commerce ................................................................................................................................ 4 

Department of Agriculture ................................................................................................................................ 8 

Environmental Protection Agency .................................................................................................................... 9 

Smithsonian Institution ................................................................................................................................... 10 

United States Information Agency ................................................................................................................. 11 

Space Launch Activities 

Space Shuttle Missions ................................................................................................................................... 12 

Expendable Launches ..................................................................................................................................... 13 

Space Science 

Astronomy and Space Physics ........................................................................................................................ 14 

Solar System Exploration ............................................................................................................................... 17 

Other Space Science ....................................................................................................................................... 18 

Space Flight and Space Technology 

Space Shuttle .................................................................................................................................................. 21 

Single Stage Rocket Technology Program ..................................................................................................... 22 

Other Launch Systems .................................................................................................................................... 23 

Satellites .......................................................................................................................................................... 23 

Space Station .................................................................................................................................................. 27 

Energy ........................................................................................................................................................... 28 

Safety and Mission Quality ............................................................................................................................ 30 

Other Space Technology ................................................................................................................................ 31 

Space Communications 

Communications Satellites ............................................................................................................................. 32 

Space Network ................................................................................................................................................ 35 

Communications and Data Systems ............................................................................................................... 35 

Ground Network ............................................................................................................................................. 36 

Advanced Systems .......................................................................................................................................... 36 

1 
Aeronautical Activities 

Technological Developments ......................................................................................................................... 37 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation ................................................................................................................ 44 

Weather-related Aeronautical Activities ........................................................................................................ 46 

Flight Safety and Security .............................................................................................................................. 48 

Aviation Medicine and Human Factors .......................................................................................................... 51 

Studies of the Planet Earth 

Terrestrial Studies and Applications ............................................................................................................... 52 

Atmospheric Studies ....................................................................................................................................... 57 

Oceanographic Studies ................................................................................................................................... 61 

Other Aeronautical and Space Activities 

Discussions Concerning Arms Control of Space Related Weaponry ............................................................. 62 

Cooperation with Russia ................................................................................................................................. 63 

Other Foreign Policy Issues ............................................................................................................................ 65 

Commercial Development and Regulation of Space Technology .................................................................. 67 

Space Education and Publicity ....................................................................................................................... 71 

Appendices 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

B-1 U.S. Launched Applications Satellites. 1987-1993 ............................................................................. 81 

B-2 U.S. Launched Scientific Satellites. 1987-1993 .................................................................................. 83 

B-3 U.S. Launched Space Probes. 1975-1993 ............................................................................................ 84 

C U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights ................................................................................................ 85 

D U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ................................................................................................................ 96 

E- 1A Space Activities of the U.S. Government-Historical Budget SummaryBudget Authority ............................................................................................................................ 98 

E-1B Space Activities of the U.S. Government-Budget Authority in Millions of 

Equivalent FY 1993 Dollars ........................................................................................................... 99 

E-2 Space Activities Budget ..................................................................................................................... 100 

E-3 Aeronautics Budget ............................................................................................................................ 100 

F-1 Statement of the President ................................................................................................................. 101 

F-2 Remarks by the Vice President. Signing Ceremony with Russian Prime Minister of 

Cooperative Agreements .............................................................................................................. 103 

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record ................................................................................................... 73 

World Record. Launches Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond .......................................... 74 

Successful U.S. Launches. Oct . 1. 1992.Sept . 30. 1993 ...................................................................... 75 

Glossary ...................................................................................................................................................... 110 

Index ......................................................................................................................................................... 126 

.. 

11 
Executive Summary 

Note: The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 

I958 directed the annual Aeronautics and Space Report to 

include a “comprehensive description of the programmed 

activities and the accomplishments of all agencies of the 

United States in the field of aeronautics and space activities during the preceding calendar year. ’’ This year’s 

report (like last year’s) has been prepared on afiscal year 

basis, consistent with the budgetary period now used in 

programs of the Federal Government. The Administration 

is continuing to work with Congress to amend the National 

Aeronautics and Space Act of I958 accordingly. 

Fiscal Year (FY) 1993 brought numerous important changes and developments in U.S. aeronautics 

and space efforts. It included seven Space Shuttle 

missions and 14 Government launches of Expendable 

Launch Vehicles (ELVs) carrying a variety of payloads ranging from Global Positioning System (GPS) 

satellites to those with classified missions. In addition, there were four commercial launches from Government facilities with the Department of 

Transportation’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation providing regulatory oversight and inspection for them and for one other commercial launch. 

Highlights of the Shuttle missions for the fiscal year 

included deployment of the Laser Geodynamic Satellite (LAGEOS 11). a cooperative endeavor of the U.S. 

and Italy to obtain precise measurements of the Earth’s 

crustal movement and gravitational field; a mission to 

study the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere, 

ozone layer, and elements thought to be the cause of 

ozone depletion via the second Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS); and 

deployment and retrieval of the German-built Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet 

Spectrometer-Shuttle Pallet Satellite (ORFEUSSPAS), which spent six days in free flight, studying 

emissions of ultraviolet radiation from deep space. 

The ELV missions launched 7 GPS satellites; the 

Navy’s second UHF Follow-on (UFO-2) communications satellite; the Array of Low Energy X-ray 

Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS) satellite to test technology for detecting ultrasoft x-rays emitted from space 

nuclear testing and to examine ionospheric distortion 

of VHF radio signals; and a Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) I11 to provide worldwide, secure, uninterrupted communications capability, among other satellites. The year also brought a 

redesign of the Space Station to reduce costs while 

retaining participation of the International Partners 

and adding that of Russia. In aeronautics, efforts 

included the development of new and improved technologies to improve performance and reduce costs as 

well as to increase safety and reduce engine noise. In 

the Earth sciences, a variety of programs across several agencies sought better understanding of global 

change and enhancement of the environment. In these 

and other areas discussed below, the 14 Federal agencies involved in aeronautics and space activities have 

contributed to advancing the Nation’s scientific and 

technical knowledge and furthering an improved quality of life on Earth through greater knowledge, a more 

competitive economy, and a healthier environment. 

National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA) 

NASA continued in FY 1993 to advance the 

nation’s aeronautical and space goals in a number of 

different areas. In space science, one of the most 

significant findings of the year was the recording by 

NASA’s Voyagers 1 and 2, launched in 1977, of the 

first direct evidence of the long-sought-after 

heliopause-the boundary separating the Earth’s solar system from interstellar space. Also important, 

precise measurements made by the Cosmic Background Explorer’s Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer indicate that 99.97 percent of the early 

radiant energy of the universe was released within the 

first year after the Big Bang, widely believed to have 

started the expansion of the universe about 15 billion 

years ago. The Hubble Space Telescope, NASA’s 

first Great Observatory launched in April 1990, continued its string of important discoveries despite 

flaws in its primary mirror. Among many other 

achievements of astronomers working with HST was 

the measurement of the distance of the spiral galaxy 

M8 1 as 11 million light years, a major step in determining the age of the universe. 

Within the solar system, NASA’s Magellan spacecraft, launched in May 1989, having successfully 

1 
completed its original mission of radar-mapping the 

planet, began collecting data on Venus’ gravity. 

However, its highly elliptical orbit blurred its measurements at the furthest distances from the planet. 

To slow the spacecraft and circularize the orbit, NASA 

engineers began a slow process of aerobraking using 

Venus’ atmosphere. This procedure, never used 

before on a NASA planetary mission, placed Magellan 

in a position to profile the planet’s gravity at the midand higher latitudes and poles to give scientists a 

better picture of Venus’ interior. Unfortunately, a 

NASA mission to the red planet, the Mars Observer, 

ceased communicating with Earth on August 2 1, 

1993, shortly before it was set to enter Mars orbit on 

August 24. To determine what caused the loss of 

communication, a Mars Observer Investigation Board 

began meeting in September 1993 and presented its 

findings early in FY 1994. NASA’s research into the 

role of gravity on living systems continued to play a 

critical role in understanding and mitigating the effects of zero gravity on humans, as well as benefiting 

the broader medical research community through findings that spin off into non-space related applications. 

During 1993, NASA redesigned the Space Station to reduce costs while retaining user capability 

and maintaining the program’s international commitments. The new Space Station design is based on a 

modular concept and will be built in stages. The 

European Space Agency undertook a major restructuring effort on its Columbus Programme to downsize 

and simplify the Attached Pressurized Module, making it compatible with NASA’s redesign of the Space 

Station. And in general, NASA and its international 

partners, together with Russia, proceeded with efforts 

to develop the redesigned Space Station. In this 

connection, NASA and the Russian Space Agency 

(RSA) continued to study ways to increase Russian 

participation in the Space Station Program. In June 

1992 the U.S. and Russia had signed a Space Cooperation Agreement that called for a Russian cosmonaut to participate in aU.S. Space Shuttle mission and 

for the Space Shuttle to make at least one rendezvous 

with Mir. NASA’s cooperation with Russia became 

more focused when the two countries reached an 

understanding in July 1993 to “define and determine 

the feasibility of a cooperative human space flight 

program.” Then on September 2, 1992, Vice President Albert Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister 

Victor Chernomyrdin signed a series of joint statements on cooperation in space, environmental observationshpace science, commercial space launches, 

missile export controls, and aeronautical science. 

April 1993 marked the 10th anniversary of 

NASA’s Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TDRSS), a revolutionary, space-based network developed to meet telecommunications needs essential 

to the success of the Space Shuttle, Space Station, and 

other low Earth-orbiting spacecraft missions. Since 

becoming operational, TDRSS has relayed approximately 3.5 million minutes of data to the ground, and 

every subsequent Space Shuttle mission has required 

its resources. In other areas of space communications, NASA has completed the refurbishment of the 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) control center, which 

was ready at the end of the fiscal year for the HST 

repair mission in December 1993. Additionally, in 

FY 1993 NASA provided 48,000 hours of Mission 

Control services to ten on-orbit science missions. 

In aeronautics, the Integrated High Performance 

Turbine Engine Technology (IHPTET) initiative is a 

coordinated DoD/NASA/industry effort to double 

turbopropulsion capability by 2003. Among the programs accomplishments, for the first time ever, it 

tested an advanced core engine with a magnetic 

bearing, with the goal of eliminating lubrication systems from future engines. NASA’s Advanced Subsonic Technology program has as its goal the facilitation of a safe, productive global air transportation 

system that includes a new generation of environmentally compatible, economic aircraft that are superior 

to foreign products. One example of efforts in advanced subsonics involved NASA and Learjet Inc. 

working together during FY 1993 on new technologies and design methods for the development and 

testing of a new, high-performance business jet, using 

supercomputers and wind tunnels at NASA’s Ames 

Research Center in CA. In the supersonic arena, 

NASA’s SR-7 1 Aircraft Testbed Program conducted 

baseline flights for aeronautical research to assist 

industry in making key decisions about developing a 

High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT). More generally, NASA’s High-speed Research program continued during FY 1993 to focus on resolving critical 

environmental issues and laying the technological 

foundation for an economical, next-generation HSCT. 

During FY 1993, NASA also used the B-52 aircraft to 

2 
complete two successful airborne launches of the 

Pegasus rocket, one of which was a commercial 

launch of a satellite payload for Brazil. In its F-18 

High Alpha Technology Program, NASA sought to 

achieve a basic understanding of high angle-of-attack 

aerodynamics, including the effects of selected advanced flight control concepts used individually and 

in combination. NASA also did important aeronautics research using its F-18 Systems Research Aircraft, its V/STOL System Research Aircraft, and 

its F-15 testbed aircraft. 

NASA’s studies of the planet Earth included the 

launch of the joint U.S./Italian Laser Geodynamics 

Satellite I1 (LAGEOS 11), designed to provide precise 

measurements of movements in the Earth’s tectonic 

plates, shedding light on how and when earthquakes 

occur. Also, scientists from the Goddard Space Flight 

Center, using data from the Total Ozone Mapping 

Spectrometer (TOMS) on NASA’s Nimbus 7 satellite, discovered that global ozone levels in late 1992 

and early 1993 reached the lowest levels ever observed. (See below under Doc.) Of great importance 

in the field of oceanography were the measurements 

of the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/ 

Poseidon satellite launched in August 1992. These 

provided the most accurate data yet available on 

global sea level changes, constituting the first map of 

ocean topography. 

NASA was heavily involved in the commercial 

development of space technology through its Office 

of Advanced Concepts & Technology (OACT) established in October 1992. Most of NASA’s commercial 

space initiatives continued to be managed by its 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space 

(CCDSs). Among other developments, two of these 

CCDSs made several advances and documented a 

number of successful cooperative initiatives in commercial applications of remote sensing technologies. 

June 1993 saw the maiden flight of the Spacehab 

module in the cargo bay of Space Shuttle Endeavour. 

Privately funded and developed by SPACEHAB, Inc. 

of Arlington, VA, the module provides an additional 

1,100 cubic feet of pressurized experimental space on 

the Shuttle. NASA also successfully launched the 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

(ACTS) from Space Shuttle Discovery in September 

1993. ACTS represents the next generation of advanced satellite communications technology. Its fundamental goal is to support industry in its development of technologies that will improve the U.S. 

economy and enhance its competitiveness abroad. 

Relatedly , a key mechanism in transferring Federal 

technology to the private sector is the national network of technology transfer centers sponsored by 

NASA in cooperation with other Federal agencies. 

NASA has also joined forces with other Government 

agencies to manage the Technology Reinvestment 

Project announced by President Clinton in March 

1993 to help U.S. industry respond to the twin challenges posed by decreased defense spending and 

increased global economic competition. 

Department of Defense 

(DoD) 

Like NASA, the DoD continued to engage in a 

wide variety of aeronautical and space efforts. Air 

Force Delta 11s successfully launched the 7 GPS 

satellites. Two Titan IV launches supported classified missions, although the second one ended in 

failure. Of two Atlas-Centaur I commercial launches, 

the first failed to send a UFO- 1 into proper orbit but 

the second was successful in placing UFO-2 into 

geosynchronous orbit. A Pegasus launched an 

ALEXIS spacecraft into orbit, and an Atlas I1 placed 

a DSCS I11 in geosynchronous orbit. Two of NASA’s 

Scout rockets placed Miniature Seeker Technology 

Integration-1 and RADCAL satellites into orbit, as 

well. And on December 2, 1992, the crew of Space 

Shuttle Discovery (STS-53) launched the classified 

DoD-1 in the Shuttle’s last dedicated DoD mission. 

The Pegasus booster, developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation and the Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (ARPA)-a three-stage, solid propellant, 

inertially guided, winged launch vehicle-reached 

full operational status in 1993. To date, Pegasus has 

successfully performedin all four of its launches. The 

payload fairing has undergone redesign to resolve 

problems identified in a flight on July 17, 1991, and 

to improve reliability and contamination control for 

future flights. In April 1993, ARPA transitioned the 

program to the Air Force. 

The Taurus Standard Small Launch Vehicle capitalizes on ARPA’s previous investment in the Pe3 
gasus Air-Launched Vehicle to produce a transportable, ground-launched rocket with greater payload 

capacity. Taurus development is nearly complete and 

the program successfully demonstrated, this year, the 

rapid eight-day equivalent turnaround to process the 

rocket fully, integrate the payload and conduct simulated launch countdown operations using a full-scale 

engineering pathfinder. Taurus will be capable of 

providing rapid, affordable access to space for moderate-sized satellites with minimal launch support and 

infrastructure. 

The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization 

(BMDO) was the contracting agent for the Single 

Stage Rocket Technology program whose objective 

was to demonstrate aircraft-like operations and supportability for future single-stage-to-orbit launch vehicles. McDonnell Douglas’ Delta Clipper-Experimental (DC-X) has become the first working, onethird scale technology demonstration vehicle for this 

concept. The first hover test took place on August 18, 

1993. The second flight occurred on September 1 1 and 

the vehicle ended the fiscal year with a third successful 

flight test to 1,200 feet on September 30th. The Air 

Force completed Centaur upper stage development for 

the Titan IV in FY 1993 and will be ready to launch the 

first Titan IV with a Centaur as soon as it has finished 

recovering from the August 2nd launch failure. 

In satellite technology, at the end of the year, the 

Navstar GPS consisted of 23 operational Block 11 

satellites and 1 research and development Block I 

satellite, satisfying requirements for highly precise, 

worldwide, three-dimensional position, navigation, 

and timing data for military and civilian air, land, and 

marine operations. The BMDO’s Miniature Sensor 

Technology Integration (MSTI) Program, met several 

milestones in FY 1993 toward its goal of developing 

new technologies for detecting and tracking ballistic 

missiles. Most notably, the program launched its first 

ofaseriesofsatellitesonNovember21,1992. The sixday MSTI-1 mission met all of its objectives, and the 

satellite routinely collected data for over five months. 

The DSCS program successfully launched a DSCS 111 

satellite on July 19, 1993, as a follow-on to the two 

DSCS 111s launched in FY 1992. These three launches 

marked the start of a replenishment program for the 

DSCS constellation, which experienced severe launch 

set-backs from the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger 

disaster. 

Among the new aircraft in development by the 

DoD was the B-2, which had completed approximately 30 percent of its flight test program by the end 

of FY 1993 and was scheduled for delivery to the Air 

Force’s Air Combat Command in December 1993. 

The Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTY 

F-16) program continued flight testing of advanced 

technologies in support of aircraft with an air-tosurface attack mission. In a rather different area of 

aeronautics development, Raptor/Talon is a BMDOfunded program to provide U.S. armed forces and their 

allies an air-based defense against Theater Ballistic 

Missiles (TBM) by stopping the missiles in their boost 

phase. During FY 1993, the Raptor demonstrator 

aircraft, built by Scaled Composites, made 10 successful test flights. 

Department of Commerce 

(DOC) 

The DOC and its component organizations continued to engage in a variety of space-related activities. 

For example, the Space Environment Laboratory of 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has been involved in the international 

project SOLTIP (SOLar connection to Transient Interplanetary Processes). Its objective is to focus attention 

on various forms of solar activity to answer basic 

questions about the transfer of energy, mass, and 

momentum through the solar wind to the Earth, as well 

as about the generation of geomagnetic storms. During the year, NOAA continued to operate its two polarorbiting satellites, NOAA-11 and NOAA-12. The 

August 9, 1993, Air Force launch of the NOAA-13 

satellite to replace the aging NOAA- 1 1 got the satellite 

into orbit, but all communications with NOAA-13 

ceased on August 21, and attempts to restore them 

have not been successful. An Air Force Titan I1 

launched the last in the NOAA-operated Landsat series of satellites, Landsat-6, on October 5,1993. After 

successful separation from the Titan 11, the satellite’s 

integral “kick motor” apparently did not deliver it into 

final orbit, andcontact with the satellite ceased. Meanwhile, NOAA continued its studies of global change 

with Pathfinder-a joint NASA-NOAA programconstituting a new generation of Earth-science and 

other data sets developed specifically to study global 

4 
environmental change. Also, in late 1992 NOAA’s 

National Geophysical Data Center (NGDC) released 

the Global Change Data Base on CD-ROM to the 

public. Researchers were also using data from the 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program’s F- 10 and 

F-11 series of polar orbiting satellites to monitor 

flooding in the Midwest. With regard to NASA and 

NOAA efforts to monitor Ozone Depletion (see NASA 

above), the Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987 to phase 

out use and end the production of ozone-destroying 

chemicals, appeared to have lowered the use of chlorofluorocarbons to the point where NOAA scientists 

predicted that the chlorine atoms that break off from 

them would peak about the year 2000, although the 

ozone layer would probably not return to “normal” for 

another 50 to 100 years. NOAA engaged in a great 

variety of other research efforts involving the atmosphere. For example, it used ship- and ground-based 

measurements of cloud moisture and rainfall to validate measurements from DMSP satellites. 

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) continued to conduct considerable but 

declining amounts of research and development activities for NASA, with total NASA obligations for 

this work declining from a high (in FY 1993 constant 

dollars) of $7.7 million in FY 1990 to roughly $5.3 

million in FY 1993. Among the projects NIST carried 

out was the measurement and modeling of tropospheric methane, which contributes to global warming, so as to devise ways of controlling human activities contributing to the emission of the gas. Another 

NIST program has been applying developments in 

superconducting electronics to provide infrared images for purposes such as conservation, resource management, and event detection through an entirely new 

type of detector. In one further example of NIST 

activities, research into crystalline structures has provided knowledge that allows production of improved 

crystals of mercuric iodide used for high-energy detectors, triglycine sulfate used for sensitive infrared detectors, and gallium arsenide used for the most sophisticated information processing. 

DOC’S Office of Air and Space Commercialization (OASC) was involved in the development of the 

U.S./Russia Space Launch Trade Agreement signed 

on September 2,1993. OASC has been working with 

other agencies to generate a consistent Government 

policy towards medium-resolution commercial remote 

sensing. Additionally, OASC has participated in discussions with NASA on the commercial implications 

of the joint U.S.-Russian Space Station program, among 

other activities. Finally, OASC has been participating 

in an effort to improve commercial space infrastructures and possibly develop a next-generation commercial launch vehicle. 

Department of Energy (DOE) 

In 1993 the DOE continued to progress beyond the 

achievements of more than 30 years of activities in 

spaceflight research, development, demonstration, and 

verification. Collaboration with NASA on the Space 

Exploration Initiative (SEI) continued to mid-fiscal year 

when deferral of the developmental activities for SEI led 

to phase-down of several elements such as the SP-100 

Space Power Reactor Project jointly performed with 

NASA and DoD by DOE. Collaboration on advanced 

computational development for aeronautics continued as 

the function of one of the seven teams of the Senior 

Management Review Committee established by the 

memorandum of understanding signed by the DOE and 

NASA on July 29,1992. The two agencies deferred other 

joint efforts to identify means for the DOE to support 

developments needed for NASA advancements. 

Other DOE activities included building on the 

successful provision of 37 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) to provide nuclear energy for 

over 20 spacecraft launches. In 1993 advanced versions of the General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS)- 

RTGs moved toward production for the Cassini mission to Saturn scheduled for launch in October 1997. 

Work continued on development of advanced thermoelectric cells (as part of the SP-100 program that is 

being phased out) to provide 25 times the electric 

power of similar-sized cells used on the Galileo mission in 1989. The DOE also made progress on the 

design and technological development of in-core thermionic space nuclear reactor systems looking toward 

the power range of 5 to 40 kilowatts electric (kWe) for 

missions sponsored by the DoD. The DOE let two 

industrial contracts including participation of Russian 

experts to integrate their country’s expertise with that 

of U.S. national laboratories and academic institutions 

for evaluation of capabilities in space power employing thermionic conversion technologies. 

5 
The DOE continued its support of DoD and Air 

Force technological development aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of a particle bed nuclear reactor 

for thermal rocket propulsion applications. The DOE 

participated in review of the Air Force’s final environmental impact statement issued in May 1993 for the 

particle-bed Space Nuclear Thermal Propulsion (SNTP) 

Rocket Program. The agency also examined the possible use of common facilities for the SNTP and future 

high-powered nuclear rockets for the SEI applications 

study in 1992 and 1993 for potential future mission 

requirements of NASA. 

The flight of the Array of Low Energy X-ray 

Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS) satellite launched by a 

Pegasus rocket on April 25,1993, itself carried aloft by 

a B-52 controlled from Vandenberg Air Force Base, 

was the first such flight of an all-DOE sponsored 

satellite. In a 70” inclination, 844 x 749 kilometer 

orbit, the satellite experienced failure of one solar 

panel to deploy properly, at first casting doubts on the 

chances for success of the mission to gather soft x-ray 

background data and VHF radio effects due to the 

ionosphere. Successful regaining of control over the 

spacecraft by the Los Alamos National Laboratory 

resulted in expectations by the end of the fiscal year 

that the AeroAstro Incorporated spacecraft would fully 

meet its original mission requirements. The smaller, 

faster, and cheaper ALEXIS spacecraft-at a cost of 

$17 million for it and its integrated componentsprovides a prototype of less expensive missions to 

come for DOE and other agencies. (See accompanying 

photograph.) 

Department of the Interior 

(Dol) 

The Do1 applied remote sensing from satellites 

and aircraft to a variety of programs. For instance, the 

U.S. Geological Survey wasusing datafromMagellan’s 

earlier mapping mission to prepare several map series, 

including a global map and geologic maps of Venus. 

The DOE ALEXIS Satellite in final checkout at the Los Alamos National Laboratory clean room and 

anechoic chamber. The $I 7 million cost for the satellite, instruments, integration, and test with 

ground control from Los Alamos is a first for the Department of Energy. The spacecraft weighs a 

total of I13 kg and has two experiments. The ALEXIS is a six-telescope, soft x-ray detector array; 

the BLACKBEARD is a VHF radio receiver and digitizerfor study of the ionosphere. The low-cost 

experimental satellite was ready for launch three years from conception but had to wait for a Pegasus booster to be launched on April 25,1993. Damage to a solar panel and a magnetometer 

during launch required a dedicated effort to access the ALEXIS in June 1993. Once that was achieved, data has been received at Los Alamos Control Center at a rate of 100 megabytes per day 

for both experiments. The mission objectives for the satellite are now expected to be fully met. 

6 
The Survey was in its seventh year of participating in 

NASA’s Mars Geologic Mapping program, with several maps completed and ready for publication. The 

Survey also produced and released global digital maps 

of the four satellites of Jupiter to support the Galileo 

spacecraft’s encounter with that planet in 1995. The 

Bureau of Indian Affairs used Landsat Thematic Mapper data to perform land cover inventories and prepare 

image maps on several Indian Reservations. The 

Bureau of Land Management used satellite data and 

aerial photography to promote biological diversity and 

sustainable development on public lands and to fulfill 

a variety of other land management responsibilities. 

The Bureau of Reclamation used remote sensing from 

satellites and Geographic Information Systems (GISs) 

to produce crop area estimates leading to more accurate estimates of consumptive water use by agriculture 

within the Colorado River Basin. The National Park 

Service continued to develop surface cover information for numerous areas using data from satellites. The 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Gap Analysis Program 

has been using Landsat Thematic Mapper data and 

computerized mapping techniques in 36 states to identify areas that are not being protected so as to maintain 

biologicaldiversity. Since the U.S. Geological Survey’s 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Data Center 

was designated the National Satellite Land Remote 

Sensing Data Archive in 1992, it has been adding other 

types of satellite data to its holdings of Landsat data; 

these data support many applications, including efforts by the global change research community to 

produce a global land cover map and to monitor the 

greenness of vegetation on a periodic basis throughout 

the year. 

Department of 

Transportation (DOT) 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

The FAA continued an active research and 

development program in support of its mission to 

ensure the safe and efficient use of the nation’s airspace, 

to foster civil aeronautics and air commerce in the U.S. 

and abroad, and to support the requirements of national 

defense. Agency progress under the ongoing Capital 

Investment Plan included completing installation of 

the Peripheral Adapter Module Replacement Item, the 

first element of the Advanced Automation System 

(AAS), at all 20 Air Route Traffic Control Centers. 

When fully deployed, the AAS will replace the 

automated equipment now in use in controlling air 

traffic. To improve air traffic controller 

communications, the FAA deployed a prototype Voice 

Switching and Control System. Examples of other 

safety-related actions included writing a draft 

specification for a standard stop bar lighting system 

designed to reduce runway incidents and completing 

factory testing of the first seven production Microwave 

Landing Systems. In a joint program with the Coast 

Guard, the FAA successfully completed engineering 

model tests of the Loran-C Automatic BLINK system. 

It makes the use of Loran-C transmissions safer for 

pilots during nonprecision, instrument-approach 

landings. In addition, the agency published 

manufacturing standards for GPS satellite receivers. 

The FAA continued research efforts with NASA 

to investigate structural integrity, flight loads, and 

corrosion. Working with its counterparts in the United 

Kingdom and Canada, the agency completed a series 

of full-scale fire tests to optimize an on-board cabin 

water spray system. The FAA also finished construction 

of the first runway section fully instrumented for 

pavement research. Additionally, the agency tested a 

soft-ground arresting system, proving that such a 

technique could safely stop a commercial-size aircraft 

without damage. Among its other safety-related 

programs, the FAA made significant strides in the 

study of icing, windshear, and other atmospheric 

hazards. 

Progress continued on programs to increase airport 

capacity. As part of those efforts, the FAA 

commissioned the first Precision Runway Monitor at 

Raleigh-Durham airport. That system uses an 

electronically scanned secondary radar with high 

accuracy, improved display, and an automated predictor 

to provide visual and aural alerting when a pilot 

deviates from the proper flight path. The agency also 

continued research to optimize terminal traffic flow 

and proceeded with development of a comprehensive 

all-weather surface traffic automation system. 

Under its civil aviation security mandate, the 

FAA pursued an extensive research and development 

effort that focused on such areas as explosives 

7 
detectors, screeningdevices, aircraft hardening, airport urns. Department of 

Agriculture (USDA) security, and human factors. The agency opened a 

security research laboratory at its Technical Center 

and published final criteria for explosives detection 

systems. Among the many other programs undertaken 

during the fiscal year, the FAA tested four prototype 

luggage containers and initiated a project to gather 

data on x-ray screener improvements. 

Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation (OCST) 

OCST provided regulatory oversight and monitoring for five commercial launches in FY 1993, four 

of them successful. This brought the total of U.S. 

commercial launches of space vehicles to 35 by the 

end of the fiscal year. These and planned future 

activities reflect a growing and diverse commercial 

launch industry that includes the development of 

reentry vehicles, air-launched rockets, single-stageto-orbit technology, and commercial launch sites. 

During FY 1993 the OCST had a total of nine commercial space transportation proposals in various 

stages of review and issued two new licenses. Among 

its other activities, OCST has begun discussions with 

industry representatives on single-stage-rocket vehicles, the first of which is the one-third scale model 

of the DC-X, developed by McDonnell Douglas and 

undergoing testing at the end of the year. The Office 

also assisted in reviewing applications for a DoD 

grant program to improve the commercial space launch 

industry's infrastructure. Some grants were approved 

to assist in the creation of commercial launch sites in 

FL, AK, CA, and NM. OCST has initiated a program 

to encourage the commercial space industry to develop voluntary standards and has continued to conduct a comprehensive research program to respond to 

anticipated developments in commercial space transportation. The Office participates in the National 

Security Council's Task Force on Cooperation with 

the Russians, originally established to assist with the 

U.S./Russia Summit, held in Vancouver in April 

1993. OCST developed market data for the Task 

Force to use at the Summit meeting and for the Gore/ 

Chernomyrdin meeting in September. 

There were a great many uses for remote sensing 

in the USDA. For example, the Soil Conservation 

Service used Landsat imagery to determine the extent 

of the Midwest floods, then employed a combination 

of satellite imagery plus digital soil and land-use data 

to assess flood damage at the state and county level 

with respect to soil and land-cover concerns. The 

National Agricultural Statistical Service employed 

remote sensing data as an aid to crop and acreage 

estimation and in assessment of crop conditions. The 

Forest Service has continued to require remote sensing for a variety of ecosystem management activities, 

including vegetation mapping, inventory, and identification of critical wildlife habitat. Similarly, the 

Foreign Agricultural Service's satellite remote sensing program continued to be a critical element in the 

USDA's analysis of foreign agricultural production, 

supply, and demand-providing timely and accurate 

estimates of global area, yield, and production. Also, 

the Agricultural Research Service has developed models using a combination of meteorological and remotely sensed data to measure moisture and energy 

fluxes at river basins to aid in understanding how the 

land surface affects climate and climate change. 

Federal Communications 

Commission (FCC) 

There were two new domestic, fixed communications satellites launched for the United States during 

FY 1993. Named Galaxy VII(H) and IV(H), they 

were launched from Kourou, French Guiana, by Ariane 

launch vehicles on October 27, 1992, and June 24, 

1993, respectively. With these launches and the 

retirement of several satellites, there were 32 domestic-fixed satellites in orbit between 69" and 139" west 

longitude on the geostationary orbital arc as of the end 

of the fiscal year. The International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), launched 

no new satellites during the fiscal year but continued 

to offer through its 19-satellite system such business 

services as international telex, teleconferencing, data, 

facsimile, and video. The U.S. did not launch any 

8 
separate international satellite systems either. Pan 

American Satellite's PAS- 1 located at 45" west longitude and the Columbia Communications satellites 

located at 41" and 174" west longitude continued to 

provide services similar to those of INTELSAT. The 

International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT) likewise did not add to its complement 

of four INMARSAT I1 and seven older satellites 

during the course of the fiscal year. With these 

satellites, INMARSAT continued to provide global 

mobile satellite communications for commercial, distress, and safety applications at sea, on land, and in the 

air. Among new services offered during the year, on 

October 1, 1992, INMARSAT announced that an 

advanced satellite distress alerting system for ships at 

sea, INMARSAT-E, had become operational for the 

eastern Atlantic Ocean Region. This marked a significant step in implementing the Global Maritime 

Distress and Safety System. 

U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency (EPA) 

The EPA, primarily through its Environmental 

Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV, 

(EMSL-LV) with assistance from its Atmospheric 

Research and Exposure Assessment Laboratory in 

Research Triangle Park, NC, also routinely conducted 

research and provided technical support using remote 

sensing as part of its overall environmental monitoring program. The agency used large-scale aerial 

photography to develop site characterization data 

during the remedial actions under the Comprehensive 

Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, as well as to support site selection and 

monitoring at hazardous waste facilities operated 

under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. 

It developed and used remote sensing systems to 

support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. In FY 

1993, the EMSL-LV completed approximately 150 

aerial photographic site characterization projects. Also 

during the year, aerial photography and satellite data 

supported a broad variety of pollution, global change, 

pollution prevention, compliance, and other ecosystem monitoring studies, such as those of criticalhabitat areas for wildlife. The Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center-a branch of EMSLLV-provided support to the EPA's regional offices 

through the analysis of aerial photographs and documentation of the impacts associated with the severe 

flooding along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. In addition, the EPA continued (with NASA 

support) to use and develop light detection and ranging systems to monitor urban plumes and emission 

sources as well as to measure ozone, sulfur dioxide, 

and particulates. Finally, the EPA was using a geographic information system for data integration and 

analysis in support of many of its programs. 

National Science Foundation 

(NSF) 

The NSF has conducted forefront, space-related 

research using ground-based instrumentation. The 

lidar technique has proved to be especially promising 

in measuring the middle atmosphere in support of 

global change studies. After three years of operation, 

scientists at Colorado State University were able to 

show that the mesopause, the layer of the Earth's 

atmosphere with the lowest temperature, actually 

displays a double minimum, contrary to accepted 

models. Scientists from the University of Illinois 

installed a lidar instrument on the Lockheed Electra 

aircraft operated by the National Center for Atmospheric Research. They flew over Canada and Alaska 

for more than 25 hours to study the atmospheric 

properties associated with noctilucent clouds, which 

occur in a thin layer at altitudes near 85 kilometers. 

SRI International deployed a lidar instrument at Sondre 

Stromfjord, Greenland, to operate in conjunction with 

an NSF-supported atmospheric facility. It will measure middle atmospheric properties at very high latitudes where chemical and dynamical processes are 

especially complex. A consortium consisting of scientists from Maryland, Clemson, and Utah State 

universities began making measurements of the stratosphere and mesosphere using a lidar instrument developed at Logan, UT. These lidar observations are 

extremely important because the middle atmosphere 

and phenomena that occur there such as the noctilucent clouds are extremely sensitive to changes caused 

by global warming and the introduction of anthropogenic chemicals into the atmosphere. During the past 

decade scientists have observed that the middle atmo9 
sphere has been growing cooler and wetter, and understanding the origin of this change requires longterm measurements on a global scale. 

In the field of space physics, observations carried 

out by the Center for Particle Astrophysics, an NSF 

science and technology center, in conjunction with an 

Australian team at Mt. Stromlo Observatory near 

Canberra, have produced strong evidence for invisible matter in a halo surrounding the Milky Way 

galaxy. Somewhat relatedly, study of Sagittarius A* 

(Sgr A*) provided important findings about this small 

but very luminous radio source located at the very 

center of our spiral Milky Way galaxy. SGR A* is ten 

million times more energetic than the sun but is 

smaller than the solar system; it appears to be a black 

hole. In a different area, observations with the National Radio Astronomy Observatory 12-meter millimeter-wave telescope on Kitt Peak have led to the 

discovery of molecular clouds more than 12 billion 

light-years from the Earth. Future observations such 

as these will provide, for the first time, a precise view 

of how gases became stars and stars became galaxies 

at the dawn of the universe. In a quite different area, 

astronomers used radial velocities and the distances 

of remote clusters of galaxies in several directions to 

measure how our local group of galaxies was drifting 

through space. 

Smithsonian Institution 

Through basic research at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, MA, as 

well as the Center for Earth and Planetary Sciences 

and the Laboratory for Astrophysics at the National 

Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC, the 

Smithsonian Institution continued to contribute to 

advances in space science. For instance, in April an 

ultraviolet coronograph designed at the SA0 for 

studies of the sun’s extended corona, or hot outer 

atmosphere, was one of two instruments comprising 

the Spartan-201 satellite deployed and retrieved by 

astronauts aboard NASA’s Space Shuttle Discovery. 

Preliminary analysis of the ultraviolet observations of 

structures and features extending far above the sun’s 

surface suggest scientists may be able to determineand ultimately predict-how material is accelerated 

out of the sun to form the solar wind. Simultaneously 

with the Spartan mission, scientists throughout the 

world carried out coordinated observations from space 

and the ground to correlate the satellite’s ultraviolet 

observations with those in other wavelengths and 

other regions of the sun’s corona. The coordinated 

campaign, which included a Smithsonian-IBM-built 

sounding-rocket-borne x-ray telescope and a white 

light coronograph telescope (also aboard Spartan201, provided by the High-Altitude Observatory in 

Boulder, CO), should produce the most complete 

information ever assembled on the solar wind’s acceleration. Together with other participants, SA0 also 

designed the Small Expendable Tether Deployable 

System, which was launched as a secondary payload 

aboard a Delta I1 rocket from Cape Canaveral, FL, on 

March 29. The 85-pound satellite, attached by a 20- 

kilometer-long flexible cable to the Delta’s secondstage rocket, allowed SAO’s scientists to compare 

data on tether dynamics with computer models of 

predicted behavior in preparation for future flights, 

the first of which occurred on June 26 when another 

Delta I1 from Cape Canaveral launched an electrodynamic tether called the Plasma Motor Generator on a 

six-hour flight that demonstrated the ability of a tether 

to generate an electrical current in space. 

Department of State (DoS) 

The U.S. effort to redesign the Space Station and 

broaden the international partnership therein to include the Russian Federation was the primary focus of 

the State Department’s efforts in the fields of aeronautics and space activities during FY 1993. Relations with the Canadian, Japanese, and European 

governments were an important consideration as the 

redesign process produced a new approach and these 

partners were persuaded of the political and technical 

merits of involving the Russians in the program. The 

U.S.-Russia Commercial Space Launch Agreement 

of September 2, 1993, established basic rules for 

government involvement in the commercial space 

launch market regarding subsidies, marketing inducements, corrupt business practices, etc. Among 

other things, this agreement permits the Russians to 

contract with international customers for the launch 

of up to eight telecommunications satellites, in addition to INMARS AT-3, to geosynchronous Earth orbit 

10 
between September 2, 1993 and December 31,2000. 

Elsewhere, the DoS led a U.S. delegation to the 

Second Space Conference of the Americas held in 

Santiago, Chile, April 26-30,1993. Of particular note 

was agreement by delegations on a U.S. proposal for 

expanding regional cooperation on the use of the 

international satellite-aided search and rescue system, 

COSPAS-SARSAT, which the U.S., France, Canada, 

and Russia operate collectively. Also during 1993, 

the DoS supported seven separate Space Shuttle activities by providing a direct link to U.S. embassies in 

countries with emergency landing facilities. It negotiated the extension of a Space Tracking Agreement 

with Spain. 

Following recommendations developed in FY 1992 

for INTELSAT’s Board of Governors and shepherded 

by DoS, DOC, and the FCC, the INTELSAT Assembly 

of Parties voted to relax and streamline procedures 

affecting private satellite competitors. DoS and DOC 

then established a new private satellite policy to allow 

American licensees to have full advantage of the better 

international climate. The two U.S. companies with 

operating satellites, Pan American Satellite and Columbia Communications, were immediate beneficiaries of these improved international and domestic 

arrangements. During FY 1993, the Republic of the 

Marshall Islands, Bahrain, and Armenia joined 

INTELSAT, bringing its membership to 128 countries 

that owned and operated the sole global communications satellite system in the world. The new member 

countries for INMARSAT during 1993 were the Slovak Republic, Georgia, Bangladesh, and Brunei 

Darussalam, bringing its total membership to 7 1. Both 

INTELSAT and INMARSAT were looking at structural change to further enhance their responsiveness to 

user needs, and private competitors were expanding 

their operations in the wake of new opportunities. 

U.S. Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency (ACDA) 

can efforts from a deployment to a research program 

and reaffirming the traditional interpretation of the 

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, plus strengthening the 

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), which 

requires members to control all missiles, space launch 

vehicles (SLVs), and unmanned air vehicles capable 

of delivering weapons of mass destruction. The 

Regime treats SLVs in the same way as missiles, since 

the technologies are essentially the same for both. 

ACDA was also active in U.S. bilateral and regional 

negotiations on key missile proliferation problems, 

including successful termination of the Russian-Indian program to transfer Russian rocket engines and 

technology to the Indian space program. Russia has 

agreed, in return for the lifting of U.S. sanctions, to 

cease such transfers and observe MTCR standards for 

future exports. Other activities included: negotiations on termination of both the Argentine Condor 11 

ballistic missile program and the South African SLV 

program; negotiations with China, thus far unsuccessful, to resolve the issue of Chinese transfers of M1 1 missile technology to Pakistan, and the subsequent 

imposition of U.S. sanctions; and participation in the 

U.S. missile nonproliferation initiative in South Asia, 

aimed at slowing and ultimately reversing the ballistic missile competition between India and Pakistan. 

The United States Information 

Agency (USIA) 

The USIA informed audiences abroad of American achievements in space and used NASA innovations to further public diplomacy around the world. 

The global radio network Voice of America (VoA) 

covered the space program in news stories, correspondent reports, special features, and documentaries 

broadcast in 48 languages. In a historic agreement, 

USIA implemented a new digital audio service via 

INTERSPUTNIK, the Russian satellite system, providing VoA and Radio Liberty programs to Russia 

and other states formerly part of the Soviet system. 

During FY 1993, ACDA participated in policy USIA’s Worldnet television service offered numerdevelopment and negotiations on a number of space- ous programs on NASA and the U.S. space effort. 

related arms control and missile nonproliferation is- And the Wireless File of USIA continued to provide 

sues. These included reformulation of U.S. policy on news articles for placement in local publications 

ballistic missile defense (BMD), reorienting Ameri- around the world. 

11 
Space Launch Activities 

Space Shuttle Missions 

During Fiscal Year (FY) 1993, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) successfully completed seven Space Shuttle missions. These 

were, in order of flight, STS-52 (STS standing for 

Space Transportation System), STS-53, STS-54, STS56, STS-55, STS-57, and STS-51. Throughout the 

year, NASA continued to have a shuttle fleet consisting of orbiters Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, and 

Endeavour. All launches took place at Kennedy Space 

Center (KSC), FL. 

The launch of STS-52 (Columbia) occurred on 

October 22, 1992. One objective of this mission was 

the deployment of the Laser Geodynamic Satellite 

(LAGEOS II), a cooperative endeavor of the U.S. and 

Italy to obtain precise measurements of the Earth’s 

crustal movement and gravitational field. In addition, 

this mission was the first in a series of flights of the 

U.S. Microgravity Payload (USMP- l), containing three 

scientific and materials-processing experiments to be 

carried out in an environment of reduced gravity. 

Columbia landed safely at KSC on November 1,1992. 

The mission of STS-53 (Discovery) began on December 2, 1992. It was the last dedicated Department of 

Defense (DoD) mission, launching the classified DoD1 satellite on December 2. Discovery returned safely 

to Edwards Air Force Base (EAFB), CA, on December9, 1992. 

The first flight of calendar year 1993, STS-54 

(Endeavour), began with alaunch on January 13,1993. 

This mission included deployment of a Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) and operation of the 

Diffused X-ray Spectrometer Hitchhiker experiment, 

which collected data on stars and the surrounding 

galactic gases. The mission also included the second 

group of Physics of Toys experiments, which were 

broadcast to classrooms throughout the nation. To 

expand knowledge of the differences between training 

on Earth and working in space, the crew conducted a 

4-hour and 28-minute Extravehicular Activity (EVA) 

in the cargo bay. STS-54 landed successfully at KSC 

on January 19,1993. 

On April 8, 1993, STS-56 (Discovery) began a 

mission to study the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere, ozone layer, and elements thought to be the 

cause of ozone depletion. The principal tool for this 

study was the second Atmospheric Laboratory for 

Applications and Science (ATLAS). The Shuttle crew 

also deployed a Spartan-201 retrievable, free-flying 

satellite to study the sun’s outer atmosphere and the 

solar wind. Discovery landed safely at KSC on April 

17, 1993, with the Spartan-201 on board. 

NASA successfully launched STS-55 (Columbia) 

on April 26, 1993. Referred to as Spacelab D-2, this 

was a reimbursable mission contracted by the German 

Space Agency. Experiments, some of which were 

collaborative with U.S. scientists, dealt with materials 

science, biology, and space technology. The orbiter 

carried a European Space Agency (ESA)-designed 

research facility to study the effects of weightlessness 

upon the human body. In addition, it carried an ultrasophisticated, remote-controlled robotic arm to demonstrate the ability of a high-tech robot to complete 

delicate grasping and stacking tasks. This mission 

marked Columbia’s 100th day of space flight and 

ended on May 6,1993, when the orbiter returned safely 

to EAFB. 

The fourth flight of Endeavour, STS-57, began on 

June 21, 1993 and marked the debut of Spacehab, a 

commercially-owned, pressurized module for conducting experiments in a human-tended environment. 

Spacehab-01 carried over 20 NASA-sponsored experiments and another sponsored by ESA. Focus was 

on materials processing, life sciences, biotechnology, 

and microgravity science. The other major task of the 

crew of STS-57 was to bring back the European 

Retrievable Carrier (EURECA- l), which the crew of 

STS-46 (Atlantis) had deployed in August 1992. The 

STS-57 crew also performed an EVA almost six hours 

long to latch two EURECA antennae into place and to 

gain spacewalk experience for the upcoming servicing 

mission to correct the flaws in the primary mirror of the 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST), replace its solar arrays, etc. After successfully completing these missions, STS-57 landed at KSC without mishap on 

July 1, 1993. 

NASAlaunched STS-5 1 (Discovery), the final flight 

of the fiscal year, on September 12,1993. The mission 

featured the deployment and retrieval of the German12 
built Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer-Shuttle Pallet Satellite (ORFEUSSPAS), which spent six days in free flight, studying 

emissions of ultraviolet radiation from deep space. The 

Discovery crew also deployed the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), a testbed for future 

satellite communication systems ranging from highdefinition television (HDTV) to high-speed data transmission. Additionally, two crew members performed an 

EVA of seven hours to test tools and spacewalking 

techniques for use on the HST servicing mission in late 

calendar year 1993. Discovery successfully completed 

the first night landing ever attempted at KSC on September22,1993. 

Expendable Launches 

Both NASA and the DoD employed a number of 

expendable launch vehicles (ELVs) during the course 

of the year. The DoD launched twelve ELVs of its 

own, an Atlas E, an Atlas 11, a Pegasus, two Titan IVs 

and seven DeltaIIs. In addition, contractors conducted 

four commercial launches from government facilities 

with minimal government oversight. These included 

one Delta 11, one Pegasus, and two Atlas-Centaur I 

launches. NASA’s launches consisted of two Scout 

rockets. 

The first Delta I1 launch was the commercial 

operation. It occurred on October 12, 1992, lifting a 

DFS-3 Kopernikus satellite into geosynchronous orbit 

to provide television, radio, and data communications 

services throughout Germany. Other Delta 11s launched 

Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites into orbit 

on November 22,1992; December 18,1992; February 

2, 1993 (local time, February 3 by Greenwich Mean 

Time); March 29, 1993 (March 30, GMT); May 12, 

1993 (May 13, GMT); June 26,1993; and August 30, 

1993. 

Both Titan IV launches supported classified missions. The first launch on November 28, 1992, from 

Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB), CA, successfully delivered the classified payload into orbit. The 

second launch, also from VAFB, ended in failure on 

August 2, 1993. Approximately 100 seconds after 

launch, the Titan IV exploded over the ocean. While 

the Air Force awaited results of a failure investigation 

board, it delayed two further Titan IV launches at Cape 

Canaveral but hoped to resume Titan IV launches by 

early 1994. 

The first Atlas-Centaur I launch of the year occurred on March 25,1993, from Cape Canaveral. The 

General Dynamics rocket carried the Navy’s first UHF 

Follow-on (UFO- 1) communications satellite (also 

known as UHF- l), built by Hughes Aircraft Company, 

into orbit. Because of under-performance by the Atlas 

stage, the launch vehicle left the satellite in orbit at a 

lower altitude than required. With insufficient fuel 

aboard the spacecraft to achieve operational orbit, the 

Navy declared the satellite a total loss and moved it 

into an orbit above geosynchronous altitude to prevent 

it from being a hazard to other satellites. Following a 

comprehensive investigation and corrective action, 

the Atlas fleet returned to flight. On September 3, 

1993, a second Atlas-Centaur I successfully launched 

UFO-2, which reached its required geosynchronous 

orbit and transitioned to normal operating mode with 

all systems nominal. A Pegasus air-launched space 

booster produced by Orbital Sciences Corporation 

launched a Brazilian spacecraft, SCD- 1, and an Orbital Communications Corp. Capabilities Demonstration Satellite (known as OXP) on February 9, 1993. 

NASA provided reimbursable support for this commercial launch, including provision of a B-52 to carry 

the Pegasus to 40,000 feet where it was released and its 

first-stage motor ignited. A second Pegasus launched 

an ALEXIS spacecraft into orbit on April 25, 1993. 

The purpose of the satellite was to test technology for 

detecting ultrasoft x-rays emitted from space testing 

and to examine ionospheric distortion of VHF radio 

signals. 

The sole Atlas I1 launch during the year occurred 

on July 19, 1993. It placed a Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) I11 into geosynchronous 

orbit to provide world-wide, secure, uninterrupted 

communications capability in support of globally distributed DoD users. The Atlas E launch took place on 

August 8, 1993 (August 9, GMT), from Vandenberg 

AFB, CA, to place the NOAA- 13 satellite into orbit for 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The purpose of the satellite was to provide global 

environmental observations; land, sea, and air temperature and moisture profiles; and to detect emergency beacons from ships and planes. The satellite 

went into orbit successfully but subsequently suffered 

a power failure. 

13 
The first of NASA’s Scout rockets launched 

during 1993 carried a DoD payload, Miniature Seeker 

Technology Integration- 1 (MSTI- 1 ), into sun-synchronous orbit on November 21, 1992, from 

Vandenberg AFB. The second Scout launched another DoD satellite named RADCAL into polar orbit 

on June 25,1993. The purpose of the RADCAL is to 

provide space-based radar calibration for over 70 

ground-based radars and to verify GPS use for satellite positioning. 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation 

(OCST) in the Department of Transportation (DOT) 

provided regulatory oversight and monitoring for five 

launches in FY 1993, as shown in the table below. 

The effect of two General Dynamics launch failures 

(one in FY 1992) caused a significant reduction in the 

number of commercial launches for the year. 

Company Pavload Date 

McDonnell Douglas Kopernikus 10/12/92 

Orbital Sciences Corp. SCD- l/OXP 02/09/93 

EER Systems Consort 6 02/19/93 

General Dynamics UFO- 1 03/25/93” 

General Dynamics UFO-2 09/03/93 

“This mission was not successful. 

(See narrative above.) 

Space Science 

Astronomy and Space Physics 

Beginning in the early 1960s with the first orbiting astronomical observatories, space science has 

benefited greatly from the ability to “observe” phenomena in the universe unhindered by the distortions 

caused by the Earth’s atmosphere. Important discoveries continued in FY 1993. One of the most significant was the recording by NASA’s Voyagers 1 and 

2, launched in 1977, of the first direct evidence of the 

long-sought-after heliopause-the boundary separating the Earth’s solar system from interstellar space. 

The radio emissions providing this evidence were too 

faint to be detected from Earth, but the two spacecraft, 

travelling well beyond the solar system, began detecting them in August 1992, although it was months later 

before scientists recognized their source as being the 

boundary of the heliosphere. 

NASA’s Cosmic Background Explorer 

(COBE), launched in November 1989, also added 

significantly to knowledge of the universe. Precise 

measurements made by COBE’s Far Infrared Absolute Spectrophotometer indicate that 99.97 percent of 

the early radiant energy of the universe was released 

within the first year after the Big Bang, widely believed to have started the expansion of the universe 

about 15 billion years ago. 

The Hubble Space Telescope, NASA’s first Great 

Observatory launched in April 1990, continued its 

14 

string of important discoveries. By photographing a 

striking mirror-image of a distant galaxy through a 

natural “lens” formed by the gravity of a cluster of 

foreground galaxies, HST may have begun to unlock 

the secrets of “dark matter” puzzling astronomers for 

decades. The spacecraft has already provided scientists with new information on the nature of distant 

galaxies. HST’s images have also revealed to scientists that star-forming galaxies were far more prevalent in the clusters of the younger universe than in the 

more recent clusters of galaxies near the Earth today 

and that many more stars than previously confirmed 

may form planetary systems. Among many other 

achievements of astronomers working with HST was 

the measurement of the distance of the spiral galaxy 

M81 as 11 million light years, a major step in determining the age of the universe. 

NASA’s second Great Observatory, the Compton 

Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) launched in April 

1991, yielded new data on gamma ray bursts that 

undercut the two most widely accepted theoretical 

models attempting to explain those great mysteries of 

astronomy, although the new findings have yet to 

reveal the true causes of the gamma rays. GRO also 

discovered a powerful pulsar not previously observed, 

the first such discovery by a U.S. spacecraft in more 

than 15 years. 

NASA’s Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE), 

launched in June 1992, obtained the first “sighting” 
ever made of an object beyond our galaxy observed in 

the little explored extreme ultraviolet portion of the 

electromagnetic spectrum. During its first year of 

operation, EUVE also allowed astronomers for the 

first time to observe ionized helium in the gas that 

floats among the sun and nearby stars. Also, the 

satellite may allow scientists to learn more about the 

composition and velocities of matter entering possible black holes through observations of rare objects 

known as BL Lacs, which are surprisingly visible in 

the EUV and are theorized to be centered on massive 

black holes. 

Using the Roentgen Satellite-a joint project of 

Germany, the US., and the United Kingdom launched 

in June 1990-astronomers discovered a huge concentration of mysterious dark matter, apparently confirming previous suggestions that most of the dark 

matter in the universe may be concentrated in and 

around small groups of galaxies. The finding from the 

x-ray observatory added weight to the theory that 

perhaps up to 95 percent of the mass of the universe 

consists of dark matter. The potential implication of 

this discovery, which needs confirmation from other 

x-ray observations, was that there might be enough 

mass in space to bring the expansion of the universe 

to a halt or near halt. 

The International Ultraviolet Explorer, 

launched in January 1978 in cooperation with the 

European Space Agency and the British Science and 

Engineering Research Council, provided new evidence that red supergiants, the largest stars known, 

end their existence in massive explosions known as 

supernovae. Before this direct observation in March 

1993, astronomers could only speculate that this occurred, so the evidence marked an important advance 

in stellar astronomy, substantiating decades of work 

in the field. Closer to home, in April an ultraviolet 

coronograph designed at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) for studies of the sun’s hot 

outer atmosphere, or extended corona, was one of two 

instruments comprising the Spartan-201 satellite 

deployed and retrieved by astronauts aboard NASA’s 

Space Shuttle Discovery. Preliminary analysis of the 

ultraviolet observations of structures and features 

extending far above the sun’s surface suggest scientists may be able to determine-and ultimately predict-how material is accelerated out of the sun to 

form the solar wind, a hot, electrically charged gas 

that pours out of the sun at over a million miles an 

hour. Among other effects, it produces magnetic 

storms near Earth that may disrupt communications 

systems and trigger power outages. Some researchers 

suspect the solar wind may also be linked to both 

short-term weather patterns and long-term climatic 

changes. Simultaneously with the Spartan mission, 

scientists throughout the world carried out coordinated observations from space and the ground to 

correlate the satellite’s ultraviolet observations with 

those in other wavelengths and other regions of the 

sun’s corona. The coordinated campaign, which 

included a Smithsonian-IBM-built sounding-rocketborne x-ray telescope (known as the Normal Incidence X-ray Telescope-or NIXT-and launched 

from White Sands Missile Range, NM) and a white 

light coronograph telescope (also aboard Spartan201, provided by the High-Altitude Observatory in 

Boulder, CO), should produce the most complete information ever assembled on the solar wind’s acceleration. 

Despite the advantages enjoyed by orbiting observatories, scientists continued to make discoveries 

using research facilities on Earth. For example, an 

astronomer from NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

and agraduate student used observations made at Kitt 

Peak National Observatory in AZ to correct information reported in 1988. They showed that a distant 

radio galaxy previously thought to contain old starsolder than some estimates of the age of the universemay instead be a very young system caught in the act 

of formation billions of years ago, when the light seen 

today first left the galaxy. 

Space scientists at NASA’s Ames Research 

Center, mimicking interstellar conditions in a laboratory, showed that certain wavelengths of light from 

distant stars were being absorbed by unexpectedly 

large organic molecules spread throughout the vacuum 

of space. If correct, this discovery solved an 80-yearold mystery about the source of the absorption and 

may influence the theory of solar system formation. 

Observations carried out by the Center for Particle Astrophysics, a National Science Foundation 

(NSF) science and technology center, in conjunction 

with an Australian team at Mt. Stromlo Observatory 

near Canberra, have produced strong evidence for 

invisible matter in a halo surrounding the Milky Way 

galaxy. The scientists detected the dark matter by 

bending light rays from a star as the dark matter 

15 
passed between the Earth and the star, creating the socalled gravitational lensing effect. This result, like 

the findings of Roentgen Satellite, could help solve 

one of the central mysteries in our understanding of 

the nature of the universe: the characteristics of the 

dark matter. 

Somewhat relatedly, study of Sagittarius A* 

(Sgr A*) provided important findings about this small 

but very luminous radio source located at the very 

center of our spiral Milky Way galaxy. SGR A* is ten 

million times more energetic than the sun but is 

smaller than the solar system; it appears to be a black 

hole. Observations with the Very Long Baseline 

Array (VLBA, a set of 10 radio telescopes in the 

continental U.S., Hawaii, and St. Crois) at 43 GHz, a 

high frequency with which the VLBA provides imaging of unprecedentedresolution, reveal that the size of 

Sgr A* is less than 3 astronomical units. Observations such as these, over time, will give astronomers 

the opportunity to study the details of the astrophysics 

of a black hole in the nucleus of a galaxy. The 

knowledge gained can be extrapolated to an understanding of the physics of the nuclei of very energetic 

galaxies such as the quasars and the radio galaxies. 

In a different area, observations with the National 

Radio Astronomy Observatory 12-meter millimeterwave telescope on Kitt Peak in Tucson, AZ, have led 

to the discovery of Molecular Clouds more than 12 

billion light-years from the Earth. These very distant 

accumulations of molecular gas have masses larger 

than that of a galaxy such as the Milky Way. The 

molecular clouds are part of the early history of the 

universe, when galaxies were first forming. Future 

observations such as these will provide, for the first 

time, a precise view of how gases became stars and 

stars became galaxies at the dawn of the universe. 

In another development, on March 28, 1993, 

astronomers using the Very Large Array (VLA, a set 

of 27 radio telescopes near Socorro, NM) observed 

light from Supernova SN1993J in the nearby galaxy 

M81. Two days later, SN1993J became the brightest 

supernova seen in the northern hemisphere in two 

decades. Astronomers made radio observations with 

the VLA several times a day in the first week following the outburst, and they detected emission from the 

supernova on April 1. They monitored the steady 

increase in the radio flux density at five VLA microwave frequencies over the next six months. As a 

result, SN1993J became by far the best-studied radio 

supernova ever observed. Interpretation of this 

uniquely detailed dataset has allowed the first direct 

determination to be made of the mass of the star that 

exploded as well as of the rate the star shed the outer 

layers of its atmosphere in its final years. With further 

analysis it should be possible to glean from the radio 

data an understanding of the efficiency of the physical 

process by which relativistic particles (cosmic rays) 

are accelerated in supernova events. 

In a quite different area, astronomers used radial 

velocities and the distances of remote clusters of 

galaxies in several directions to measure how our 

local group of galaxies was drifting through space. 

Such studies have suggested the existence of a “Great 

Attractor,” a concentration of mass thought to lie in 

the direction of the Hydra-Centaurus supercluster, 

whose gravity causes a bulk flow of material toward 

itself. Bulk flows of galaxies are expected as a natural 

consequence of the large-scale structure of the universe. The amplitude of the flows as a function of the 

spatial scale offers information on the power spectrum of the mass distribution in the universe and thus 

can potentially discriminate between the various theories of formation for both large-scale structures and 

galaxies themselves. For many years, bulk flow 

associated with the Great Attractor defined the largest 

structural scale known in the universe, but more 

recently astronomers have begun to examine larger 

volumes of space to search for structures on even 

larger spatial scales. Work by astronomers at the 

National Optical Astronomy Observatories and the 

Baltimore-based Space Telescope Science Institute, 

using the Kitt Peak National Observatory’s 4-meter 

and 2.1 -meter telescopes and the Cerro-Tolodo 

Interamerican Observatory’s 1.5-meter telescope (in 

Chile), suggests that bulk flows continue over distance scales nearly three times larger than the previously known limit of 6,000 kilometers per second. 

In the area of astrophysics, finally, the Boulder 

Laboratories of the National Institute of Standards 

and Technology (NIST) has recently made highly 

accurate (0.1 part per million) measurements of the 

fine-structure frequencies of the singly-ionized atomic 

nitrogen (N+). This measurement and other highaccuracy spectral measurements by NIST have been 

supported by NASA’s Office of Laboratory Astrophysics. The objective of such accurate spectral 

16 
measurements is to provide sufficient information on 

atomic and molecular species to enable searches in 

the upper atmosphere and the interstellar medium. 

The N+ measurements provided solid confirmation of 

the tentative radio astronomy observations of this 

species, which is an important constituent of the 

interstellar medium. Moreover, the laboratory measurements define a second frequency that can be used 

in future radio astronomy studies. 

Solar System Exploration 

Within the solar system, studies of individual 

planets continued to be pursued with spacecraft as 

well as ground-based telescopes. For example, the 

last findings by NASA’s Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

provided strong new evidence that the planet Venus 

once had three and a half times more water than 

previously thought-enough to have covered the entire surface between 25 and 75 feet (7.6 and 22.8 

meters) deep. (Most scientists believe that early 

oceans on Venus vaporized as a result of a greenhouse 

effect.) After providing this evidence and other data 

about the planet’s ionosphere and atmosphere, the 

spacecraft burned up in the atmosphere on October 8, 

1992, after 14 years of exploration. 

Also studying Venus was NASA’s Magellan 

spacecraft, launched in May 1989. Having successfully completed its original mission of radar-mapping 

the planet, Magellan began collecting data on Venus’ 

gravity near the beginning of FY 1993. However, its 

highly elliptical orbit blurred its measurements at the 

furthest distances from the planet. To slow the spacecraft and circularize the orbit, NASA engineers began 

a slow process on May 25,1993, of dipping Magellan 

into Venus’ atmosphere for minutes at a time on each 

orbit in a process known as “aerobraking.” This 

procedure, never used before on a NASA planetary 

mission, was necessitated by the lack of sufficient 

thruster fuel onboard to make the change in orbit. In 

its new position, reached in August 1993, Magellan 

was positioned to profile the planet’s gravity at the 

mid- and higher latitudes and poles to give scientists 

a better picture of Venus’ interior. In the process, they 

also learned about greenhouse heating close to the 

planet’s surface and strong cooling in the upper atmosphere, processes that could affect the Earth in the 

future. 

In the development of aerobraking for Magellan, 

the only way planners could predict how the process 

would work was through computer simulation. In a 

cooperative research program between Ames Research Center and Stanford University, funded by 

NASA’s Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology, researchers developed a computer code to model 

the millions of individual particles of atmosphere that 

collide with and flow over the surface of the spacecraft. If the simulation had not been accurate, 

aerobraking could have resulted in the loss of the 

spacecraft. For the future, the code can provide 

accurate predictions of aerobraking for other spacecraft in the upper atmospheres of Earth and other 

planets. 

Meanwhile, the U.S. Geological Survey was 

using data from Magellan’s earlier mapping mission 

to prepare several map series. A global map of Venus 

(1 :50,000,000 scale) and a set of maps at 1 : 10,000,000 

scale were finished by the end of the fiscal year and in 

the process of publication. Also, the Survey was in 

the process of producing geologic maps at scales of 

1 :5,000,000 and 1: 1,500,000. Additionally, the Survey was in its seventh year of participating in NASA’s 

Mars Geologic Mapping program, with several maps 

completed and ready for publication on compact disk 

while high-resolution geologic maps (1 :5OO,OOO scale) 

were being prepared to help select Mars landing sites 

for future U.S., Russian, and European missions. 

Earlier in the fiscal year, photos from NASA’s 

Viking Orbiter, launched in 1975, revealed that 

Mars was once, and may still be, more seismically 

active than the Moon though less so than the Earth. 

NASA planned further study of this seismic activity 

through a series of Mars landers planned for the 

period 1996 to 2003. 

Unfortunately, another NASA mission to the red 

planet, Mars Observer, ceased communicating with 

Earth on August 21,1993, shortly before it was set to 

enter Mars orbit on August 24. To determine what 

caused the loss of communication, a Mars Observer 

Investigation Board under the chair of Dr. Timothy 

Coffey began meeting in September 1993 and was 

scheduled to present its findings early in FY 1994. 

Already in September 1993, however, NASA announced the establishment of a study team at its Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory to examine a variety of lowcost spacecraft, instruments, and launch options for a 

17 
possible return mission to the planet to recover some 

of the scientific objectives of Mars Observer. 

Observations from Hubble Space Telescope indicate that Jupiter’s moon Io has a smaller atmosphere than previously thought. Nevertheless, despite continual volcanic activity, Io’s surface has 

remained largely unchanged since it was first photographed by the Voyager spacecraft in 1979. Such 

findings are important because Io is the solar system’s 

most dynamic and evolving moon and has significant 

indirect effects upon Jupiter’s immense magnetosphere and aurorae. 

Scientists who placed instruments aboard NASA’s 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory (a C- 141 aircraft 

equipped with a 0.97-meter telescope) also studied Io, 

finding what they believed were water molecules 

frozen in the surface ices of Jupiter’s natural satellite. 

Conducting infrared examinations from above 99 

percent of the Earth’s atmospheric water vapor, the 

scientists found spectral evidence of the water for 

which they had been searching for years. Another 

group of scientists, however, later disputed that the 

spectral evidence pointed to H,O, claiming that it 

indicated the presence instead of SO,. The difference 

of interpretation remained to be resolved as the fiscal 

year ended. 

Also with regard to Jupiter, NASA’s Galileo 

spacecraf-launched in October 1989-flew by Earth 

on December 8,1992, completingathree-yeargravityassist program and setting a course to reach Jupiter in 

December 1995. In the process of flying past the 

Earth, the spacecraft obtained a great many images 

and spectral scans of the northern regions of the Moon 

and various areas of the Earth over a period of several 

days. Galileo also obtained photographs in August 

1993 of the asteroid Ida, showing that it is not 

geologically as youthful as scientists had theorized. 

On earlier passes by the Earth and Moon in 1990 

and 1992, Galileo had obtained images and compositional data that the U.S. Geological Survey processed 

to produce new multispectral image mosaics. The 

Survey also produced and released global digital 

maps of the four satellites of Jupiter to support the 

spacecraft’s encounter with that planet in 1995. 

Using a new instrument on the United Kingdom 

Infrared Telescope in Hawaii, scientists working at 

NASA’s Ames Research Center and elsewhere meanwhile discovered that the distant planet Pluto is 

covered with surface ices that are 98 percent nitrogen. 

Previously, scientists had believed the surface of the 

planet was dominated by methane because the extremely small amounts of that substance absorb sunlight much better than nitrogen and so are easier to 

detect. 

In a rather different kind of solar system exploration, NOAA’s Space Environment Laboratory in 

Boulder, CO, has been involved in the international 

project SOLTIP (SOLar connection to Transient Interplanetary Processes). This solarlinterplanetary 

program is part of STEP (Solar Terrestrial Energy 

Programme). Its objective is to focus attention on 

various forms of solar activity (flares, coronal holes, 

erupting filament, coronal mass ejections, etc.) and to 

track their interplanetary manifestations as the disturbances propagate towards the Earth’s magnetosphere. 

The basic scientific questions are directed toward the 

transfer of energy, mass, and momentum through the 

solar wind to the Earth, as well as toward the need to 

forecast the generation of geomagnetic storms. 

Other Space Science 

During FY 1993 NASA’s research into the role of 

gravity on living systems continued to play a critical 

role in understanding and mitigating the effects of 

zero gravity on humans, as well as benefiting the 

broader medical research community through findings that spin off into non-space related applications. 

Analysis of data from the June 1991 Spacelab Life 

Sciences-1 (SLS-1) mission led to advances in biomedical practice on Earth in clinical medicine, 

biocomputation, and medical diagnostic systems. 

Many of the findings provided long-awaited confirmation of theories of adaptation to space flight. Others have compelled a reassessment of ideas about how 

individual bodily systems function on Earth and adapt 

to space flight. These unexpected results will allow 

us to understand more about the control of red blood 

cell mass and its relationship to anemia. They have 

disproved the theory that differences in regional blood 

flow to the lungs are totally dependent on gravity. 

The scientific achievements from SLS- 1 will open up 

new areas of scientific study and be immediately 

useful in developing countermeasures for use by 

astronauts on long-duration missions. In addition, a 

18 
commercial unit for testing the function of the body’s 

blood pressure sensors, developed from a key SLS- 1 

experiment, is already helping diagnose patients who 

experience faintness and dizziness, including the 

chronically bedridden. The SLS- 1 results will likely 

contribute to advancing treatments for cardiac patients, understanding certain blood disorders, and 

advancing brain research through studies of neural 

networks. These results could also initiate a potential 

new direction in the fight against osteoporosis in postmenopausal females. 

The Spacelab Life Sciences-2 mission, flown in 

October 1993 aboard Space Shuttle Columbia, continued and extended the SLS- 1 experiments through 

the longest mission yet in the history of the Space 

Shuttle program. Results of this mission are eagerly 

anticipated as analysis of mission data continues 

through the next two years. 

The results of experiments on the first International Microgravity Laboratory flown in January 

1992 and the joint U.S.-Japanese Spacelab-J in September 1992 led to major advances in the field of 

gravitational developmental biology. Both sets of 

experiments used amphibians to test the effects of 

microgravity on embryo development. Both showed 

that although there are noticeable differences between embryo development in space and on Earth, the 

embryo has a considerable plasticity and is able to 

develop into a viable tadpole in space with no major 

abnormalities. 

Three life sciences experiments sponsored by 

NASA flew on the German Spacelab Mission D-2 in 

April 1993. Experiments tested differences in astronauts’ blood pressure reflexes after adaptation to zero 

gravity and the effects of microgravity on the lungs. 

An SLS- 1 follow-on study investigated cardiovascular adaptation. These experiments will provide valuable information about basic bodily functions for the 

design of countermeasures that will enable humans to 

remain healthy and productive for much longer stays 

in space. Commercial equipment, based on flight 

hardware from the blood pressure experiment, is 

helping to diagnose patients with symptoms of orthostatic hypotension (reduced blood pressure upon assuming an upright posture) on the ground. 

The Space Shuttle Middeck continues to be used 

for small, relatively inexpensive life sciences experiments. In 1993 experiments helped to provide a 

cohesive view of the influence of gravity on bone 

development, to understand why plant development is 

detrimentally affected by microgravity, and to verify 

microgravity-elicited changes in cell function. 

In 1993 the NASA life sciences division developed a program in Advanced Technology Development to focus on technologies needed by the NASA 

science community, while simultaneously promoting 

the transfer of these advanced technologies into the 

private sector. 

NASA and the National Institutes of Health 

(NIH) have continued and furthered the cooperative 

activities initiated in 1992. In connection with various memoranda of understanding, NASA and the 

National Institute on Deafness and Other Communications Disorders agreed to contribute $500,000 a 

year for five years to a Center for Vestibular Research 

at Northwestern University Medical Center to address problems of significant interest to both agencies; NASA and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood 

Institute are jointly sponsoring a Center in Integrative 

Physiology at the University of Texas’ Southwestern 

Medical Center; NASA and the National Institute on 

Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Disease issued a joint research announcement soliciting research for musculoskeletal cell culture experiments 

to fly on the Space Shuttle as small payloads in the 

middeck. 

Life sciences have achieved important strides 

through cooperation with international space agencies. Cooperative space missions between Russia and 

the U.S. (discussed below) will allow the U.S. to 

obtain life science data on long-term human physiological adaptations to space flight and to understand 

better Russian medical monitoring, countermeasures, 

and operational medical programs. In December 

1992 a delegation traveled to Moscow to visit Russian 

medical facilities and develop a protocol for a 

Telemedicine Demonstration Project (TDP). This 

enabled NASA to begin working with the Russian 

Medical Information Agency in developing the TDPSpacebridge to Moscow. Already, this protocol has 

resulted in a number of accomplishments, including 

the loan of advanced DoD telepathology/teleradiology 

equipment to Russia and joint conduct of clinical 

oncology sessions using this equipment. NASA’s 

international partners, including Canada, the European Space Agency, France, Germany, and Japan, are 

19 
also participating in the planning and implementation 

of SLS-4, Neurolab. This cooperation, along with 

joint international meetings among these space agencies, is laying the groundwork for future cooperation 

on Space Station. 

During FY 1992, NASA had conducted more 

peer-reviewed, hands-on U.S. space research in 

microgravity science than it had performed cumulatively in all years since Skylab (1973-74). Results 

from those experiments became available in FY 1993. 

Those from the First International Microgravity 

Laboratory (IML- 1) and the First U.S. Microgravity 

Laboratory (USML- 1) missions are providing insights into the behavior of certain processes in space 

and helping to resolve important questions in groundbased research. Protein crystal growth, a process 

complicated on Earth because of gravity-caused convection, is easier to achieve in space. Crystallizing 

proteins is critical to determining the structure and 

therefore the function of these important building 

blocks of life. Information about structure and function provides insight into cures and treatments of 

diseases and contributes to understanding life processes. Experiments using two different crystallization techniques flew on IML- 1, with proteins ranging 

from an enzyme important to the digestion of milk in 

both babies and adults to canavalin, a substance 

obtained from bean plants and a major source of the 

world’s nutritional protein. USML- 1 extended and 

improved upon these experiments. The best crystals 

of Malic enzyme ever obtained were grown on this 

flight. It has potential use in the development of 

antiparasitic drugs. Also, data obtained from spacegrown crystals of bovine proline isomerase-a target 

of transplant rejection studies-was superior to data 

from the best Earth-grown crystals. Analysis of 

inorganic crystal growth experiments from IML- 1 

and USML-1 is showing some interesting and unusual results. Mercuric iodide crystals, which can 

have exceptional and useful electronic properties, 

were grown more rapidly and with fewer defects on 

IML-1 than had previously been possible on Earth. 

Semiconductor crystals with important applications 

ranging from integrated circuits to solid-state lasers 

were grown with improved structural perfection in 

the reusable Crystal Growth Furnace aboard USML1. In-flight studies of the solidification of metal 

alloys, combustion and surface tension on IML- 1 and 

USML- 1 have both refined current theories and provided experimental results that contradict existing 

theories. Experimental studies of the thermocapillary 

flow phenomenon, for example, are of inherent scientific interest and may be an important factor in many 

industrial processes. 

Analysis of scientific results from the First U.S. 

Microgravity Payload (USMP-l), a Shuttle mission 

based in the cargo bay and launched October 22, 

1992, have begun to provide valuable data towards 

testing a Nobel-prize-winning theory on the phase 

transition behavior of very cold liquid helium at its 

“lambda point” (where solid, liquid, and gaseous 

helium coexist). An international experiment involving the U.S. and the French space agency investigated 

solidification phenomena of metals and semiconductors. The mission also demonstrated the value of 

controlling the experiments from Earth to improve 

the quantity and quality of results without the direct 

use of astronauts. During the mission, scientific 

investigators on the ground sent over 5,000 interactive commands directly to their instruments on orbit. 

This is a procedure of vital importance for maximum 

use of the international space station. 

NASA also sponsored a project in microgravity 

science designed to enhance understanding of combustion science by taking advantage of a unique 

microgravity environment. Researchers at the Department of Commerce’s National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) cooperated in this 

project by developing a 3D ignition and flame spread 

computer code and were planning validation experiments for a space flight in 1995 to study Radiative 

Ignition and Subsequent Flame Spread over Cellulosic Materials. Preliminary exploratory flights 

with similar hardware had already occurred using 

drop towers and were underway at the end of the fiscal 

year on a NASA Lear jet. 

Also in the area of microgravity science, the 

performance of High-technology Crystals controls 

the development of the information processing 

required by American industry to remain competitive. 

This performance is determined by crystalline order, 

which is affected by gravity and therefore being 

studied by NASA. NIST activity fundamental to this 

NASA program has shown order in crystals grown in 

microgravity and on Earth; the nature of the 

differences; and the origins of these differences so 

20 
they can be duplicated reliably and inexpensively in 

terrestrial growth. This knowledge allows production 

of improved crystals of mercuric iodide used for highenergy detectors, triglycine sulfate used for sensitive 

infrared detectors, and gallium arsenide used for the 

most sophisticated information processing. 

NIST was also engaged in other research funded 

by NASA to provide an understanding of the effect of 

microgravity on Solidification Processes so that 

scientists and engineers can predict and control those 

processes. For example, in space experiments and 

especially those subject to vibration, the gravitational 

field varies over time. These variations influence 

fluid flow, hence solute segregation during 

solidification. This segregation must be controlled to 

allow preparation of materials with optimum 

properties. During FY 1993, NIST researchers 

calculated the effects of gravitational accelerations to 

enable predictions of the effects to be expected in 

solidification experiments under typical microgravity 

conditions. They obtained specific results applicable 

to materials for which space experiments, planned by 

solidification scientists in coordination with NASA, 

were underway. 

Space Flight and Space Technology 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle’s primary purpose continued 

in FY 1993 to be transporting people and cargo safely 

into low-Earth orbit (100 to 350 nautical miles above 

the Earth). As of the end of the year, there remained 

four active Orbiters in NASA’s fleet: Columbia, 

Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. As the year 

ended, Columbia was in an Orbiter Maintenance 

Down Period (OMDP) at the Orbiter Facility in 

Palmdale, CA. Following this OMDP, the Shuttle 

fleet will have 3 orbiters capable of extended duration 

flights (up to 16 days). Additionally, Atlantis was 

being modified for docking capability with the Russian space station, Mir, a mission scheduled for the 

third quarter of FY 1995. 

The Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) program continued its aggressive test activity during FY 

1993. Engineers conducted more than 80 ground 

tests, accumulating more than 33,000 seconds in 

support of development, certification, and flight programs. NASA made significant progress in the development of hardware designed to increase the safety 

and reliability of the SSME. During the year, engineers conducted over 30,000 seconds of testing in the 

development of the oxidizer turbopump as part of the 

Alternate Turbopump Program (ATP). Preliminary 

testing of the Large Throat Main Combustion Chamber at the Marshall Space Flight Center Technology 

Test Bed demonstrated that NASA had achieved 

significant reductions in temperatures and pressures 

in the main combustion chamber without performance degradation. The Stennis Space Center initiated testing of the Block I SSME upgrade configuration (Phase I1 plus powerhead, single coil heat exchanger, and ATP oxidizer turbopump) and was progressing at the end of FY 1993 toward certification 

and first flight in 1995. 

The Advanced Solid Rocket Motor (ASRM) 

program was terminated by Congress in the 1994 

NASA appropriations conference bill. For FY 1994, 

Congress did provide funding for the purpose of 

terminating ASRM contracts and shutting down the 

construction of facilities in Yellow Creek, MS. As 

FY 1994 began, NASA was formulating a plan to 

carry out the termination in an expeditious fashion. 

NASA was also working to provide a replacement main combustion chamber for the Space Shuttle 

Main Engine using a completely different fabrication 

approach involving a precision-cast structural outer 

jacket and a “formed platelet,” inner hydrogen-cooled 

combustion liner. The new Advanced Main Combustion Chamber can be manufactured at one-sixth 

the cost of the present chamber, yielding improved 

reliability and durability in one-third the construction 

time. Engineers have successfully demonstrated the 

new construction in hot firings in a subscale thrust 

chamber. The full-scale chamber is scheduled for 

full-scale testing in the late spring of 1994. 

The Solid Rocket Booster continued to perform 

well in the seven FY 1993 Shuttle flights. There were 

21 
two static test firings of motors manufactured before 

the Challenger accident. These were the last of 11 

pre-redesign motors that have been used for test 

purposes. Activities were continuing at the end of the 

year to develop a new, non-asbestos insulation to 

replace the asbestos-containing materials in the motor and to prepare for tests of a designed modification 

to the aft skirt structure to improve its strength. 

NASA also began a new activity to eliminate the use 

of ozone-depleting substances used in manufacturing 

the booster. 

In the area of Shuttle Systems Integration, the 

Day-of-Launch- I-Load-Update (DOLILU-I) system 

was available for all FY 1993 missions. This system 

updates the flight trajectory to account for the actual 

winds on the day of launch. Pitch and yaw updates to 

the flight computer have significantly improved the 

launch probability. Integration efforts during FY 

1993 also included structural loads analyses; development of the requirements to allow interaction between the Space Shuttle and Space Station information management systems; resolution of inflight 

anomalies, waivers, and changes; liftoff clearance 

certification; and software development and testing 

for the control of each mission. The DOLILU-I1 

system, which will uplink the main engine control 

tables, solid rocket trim data, and aerodynamic control data on the day of launch, will further improve the 

ascent trajectory of the Shuttle. This improved system was expected to be certified by October 1994, 

with its first flight scheduled for that calendar year. 

The Space Shuttle Ground Processing preparation for launches was significantly improved due to 

several innovations in management and procedures in 

conjunction with enhancements in automation. The 

latter included automation of planning, documentation, and work control. These enhancements reduced 

the work effort per mission on the preparation sequence by approximately one-third and preparation 

timeliness by approximately one-half since the return 

to flight following the Challenger disaster. This 

increased efficiency was accompanied by a streamlining of the workforce, reduced costs, and improved 

safety. 

Finally, building from technology of the cancelled Flight Telerobotic Servicer Program, 

NASA’s Langley Research Center and Johnson Space 

Center have developed a hydraulic manipulator system testbed and a flight qualifiable Shuttle compatible arm. The testbed at Langley was successfully 

tested remotely from Johnson, demonstrating the feasibility of remote control of a flight system and 

verifying video and data networks for telerobotic 

control. 

Single Stage Rocket 

Technology (SSRT) Program 

The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization 

(BMDO) was the contracting agent for the SSRT 

program whose objective was to demonstrate aircraft-like operations and supportability for future 

single-stage-to-orbit launch vehicles. If successfully 

developed, such a vehicle could reduce the cost of 

launching payloads by an order of magnitude. 

McDonnell Douglas’ Delta Clipper-Experimental 

(DC-X) has become the first working, one-third scale 

technology demonstration vehicle for this concept. 

The contractor officially rolled out the DC-X on April 

3, 1993. McDonnell Douglas completed design and 

construction of the vehicle, its flight operations control center and ground support system in just over 18 

months from contract award. By June 17, 1993, the 

system completed a total of nine hot fire and three 

cryogenic cold flow tests at the White Sands Test 

Facility (WSTF) in NM. The progression of tests 

went through successively larger cryogenic loadings 

to various hot fire tests, including a simulated 64- 

second flight profile. The tests actuated all vehicle 

and support systems in preparation for flight testing at 

the White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). Before the 

start of this flight testing, two static firings on the 

WSMR launch mount, using all the relocated support 

systems, verified the total system’s readiness for 

flight testing. The first hover test took place on 

August 18,1993, only two years fromcontract award. 

The DC-X flew to a height of 150 feet, hovered 

briefly, translated to 350 feet, hovered again, and then 

descended to a soft landing on its landing gear. The 

second flight occurred on September 1 1 and followed 

essentially the same flight profile but only going to 

300 feet. The vehicle ended the fiscal year with a third 

successful flight test to 1,200 feet on September 30. 

All tests, both static and flight, took place with an 

operations crew of only 3 people and a total support 

22 
team of 25, demonstrating the primary goal of 

aircraft-like operations and supportability. 

Other launch Systems 

The Pegasus booster, developed by Orbital Sciences Corporation and the Advanced Research Projects 

Agency (ARPA), is a three-stage, solid propellant, 

inertially guided, winged launch vehicle that reached 

full operational status in 1993. To date, Pegasus has 

successfully performed in four out of four launches. 

An optional hydrazine-propelled fourth stage can be 

added as required for additional performance or precision orbital injection. Launch procedures for the 

Pegasus involve being carried aloft by a conventional 

transport or bomber aircraft and then released at 

approximately 40,000 feet, where the first-stage motor is ignited. The payload fairing has undergone 

redesign to resolve problems identified in a flight on 

July 17,1991, and to improve reliability and contamination control for future flights. At the conclusion of 

ground testing of these modifications, ARPA 

transitioned the program to the Air Force in April 

1993. The first Air Force-managed flight occurred on 

April 25, 1993. As FY 1993 ended, a new version of 

the booster called Pegasus XL was under development in a jointly managed effort between the Air 

Force and NASA. The XL offers increased performance so that a payload of 500 lbs. (up from 380) 

could be boosted to a 400-nautical-mile polar orbit by 

stretching the length of the original Pegasus’ first and 

second stages. The Air Force is acquiring Pegasus XL 

for launch of Space Test Program payloads. The first 

Air Force launch of Pegasus XL is scheduled for the 

second quarter of FY 1994. 

The Taurus standard small launch vehicle has 

capitalized on ARPA’s previous investment in Pegasus to produce a ground-launched rocket with greater 

payload capacity. Taurus uses three Pegasus solidrocket motors (with the wing removed), stacked atop 

a Peacekeeper first stage to construct a vehicle capable of placing 1,900 pounds in a 400-nautical-mile 

polar orbit. Taurus is fully road-transportable and can 

operate from austere launch sites independent of 

existing space launch centers. Requiring only a bare 

concrete pad, the Taurus team demonstrated that it 

could establish a launch site within 5 days of arrival 

and that the encapsulated payload could be mated to 

the rocket in the final 72 hours before launch. This 

capability will provide assured, affordable, and rapid 

access to space for moderate-sized payloads despite 

hostile action or natural disasters that could deny the 

use of existing facilities. The rocket passed major 

milestones this year with the successful completion of 

the qualification test program and a total of four 

Pathfinder demonstrations using a full-scale engineering vehicle. These demonstrations, the last of 

which occurred at the launch site, validated the eightday equivalent access-to-space timeline, the integration and test of the launch vehicle and payload, and all 

procedures required to activate the launch site and 

conduct launch operations. The first launch is scheduled for early 1994. 

The Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) continued to be 

the most accurate upper stage in the Air Force inventory. The Air Force has used IUS to deliver the 

Defense Support Program (DSP) spacecraft from lowEarth orbit at about 150 nautical miles, after two 

different bums of the IUS solid stages, to geosynchronous orbit at over 22,000 nautical miles. The Air Force 

plans for the IUS to continue to support the DSP into 

the next century. Additionally, the Air Force will 

continue to assist NASA by procuring IUSs to support 

upcoming Shuttle missions, such as the launching of 

Tracking, Data, and Relay System spacecraft. 

The Air Force completed Centaur upper stage 

development for the Titan IV in FY 1993 and will be 

ready to launch the first Titan IV with a Centaur as 

soon as it has finished recovering from the August 2, 

1993, launch failure (see above). The Titan IV Solid 

Rocket Motor Upgrade (SRMU) development program completed its fifth successful static test firing in 

FY 1993, demonstrating complete recovery from 

early design flaws that caused failure during the first 

test in April 1991. 

Satellites 

The Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS) 

is a space-based, radio navigation system satisfying 

requirements for highly precise, worldwide, threedimensional position, navigation, and timing data for 

military and civilian air, land, and marine operations. 

It consists of space, control, and user segments. When 

23 
completed, the GPS operational constellation will 

consist of 24 satellites (Block 11) that operate in 

inclined, semi-synchronous (i.e., 12-hour) orbits. 

Deployment of the system continued during FY 1993 

with the launch of seven GPS Block I1 satellites. At 

the end of the year, the system consisted of 23 operational Block I1 satellites and 1 research and development Block I satellite. The last Block I satellite will 

be replaced with a Block I1 satellite in early 1994. 

After this 24th Block I1 satellite is on orbit, the Air 

Force will launch replacement satellites on an asneeded basis to sustain the GPS constellation. The 

GPS control segment updates the satellite broadcasts, 

which provide position accuracies to within 16 meters 

for military users and 100 meters for civilian users. 

Delivery of GPS receivers to all of the Armed Services continued in 1993. The production of a new 

handheld military receiver began in 1993 with the 

goal of delivering over 80,000 units to the services by 

1999. ARPA has completed the development of three 

of these receivers. They weigh only eight pounds and 

require 12.5 watts of power. They will permit satellite 

navigation to an accuracy of four meters without 

interaction with satellite ground stations. The flight 

demonstration of these receivers, scheduled for 1994, 

will be a key step in increasing satellite autonomy. 

Such operation by the satellite, independent of ground 

contact, should contribute greatly to reduced lifecycle costs in future space systems. 

In related developments, the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA) recognized that as GPS neared 

operational status, civil aviation users would experience a significant change in the way they navigated 

through the airways and landed at airports. The 

transition from a ground-based to a space-based navigation system was a major program underway at the 

FAA. The agency was cooperating with the International Civil Aviation Organization to exploit the benefits of GPS. By the end of FY 1993, it had established numerous agreements with foreign countries, 

such as those in the Commonwealth of Independent 

States. The FAA and NASA continued work on 

establishing the feasibility of using GPS to satisfy 

precision approach requirements for conditions of 

poor visibility. During FY 1993, the FAA issued the 

standards for manufacturers to build satellite receivers for use in all phases of flight except precision 

approaches to runways. In June 1993, the agency 

approved use of satellite navigation for all phases of 

flight except precision approaches. It also wrote a 

draft standard for the use of satellites and associated 

ground equipment for such approaches. 

ARPA’s Advanced Space Technology Program 

(ASTP) is aimed at achieving an affordability breakthrough in the development, launch, and operation of 

satellite systems. To date, the ASTP has pursued 

projects that demonstrate low-cost access to space; 

reduced size, weight, power, and cost of satellite 

components; and first-generation, lightweight satellite capabilities. ARPA completed this phase during 

FY 1993 and has produced two new launch vehicles 

(Pegasus and Taurus), ten small satellites (MACSATs 

and Microsats-see the FY 1992 report-plus 

PEGSAT mentioned in the 1989- 1990 report), and 

numerous advanced, miniaturized components including the GPS receivers. 

The Defense Support Program (DSP) provided 

a highly available, survivable, space-based surveillance system to detect and report missile and space 

launches as well as nuclear detonations in near real 

time for the National Command Authorities and theater commanders. The DSP system consisted of a 

constellation of satellites in geostationary orbits, fixed 

and mobile ground processing stations, one multipurpose facility, and a ground communications network. The most recent (DSP-I) block of satellites will 

provide the DoD with enhanced missile warning and 

surveillance capabilities. In 1993, the Air Force 

continued modernization projects for sustained and 

improved DSP warning and surveillance. These 

included initiation of projects to replace the fixed 

ground stations and obsolete data processing computers, as well as continuation of projects to replace data 

reception, transmittal, and recording hardware. The 

program also completed delivery of the final increment of the upgraded Mobile Ground System to the 

Air Force Space Command for survivable operations 

with the DSP-I block satellites. These projects will 

allow DSP to maintain a viable warning capability 

until it is replaced by the Improved Space-Based 

Tactical Warning/Attack Assessment (ISB, TW/AA) 

system in the next decade. 

This ISB, TW/AA system will capitalize on the 

infrared sensor technology developed since the first 

DSP satellite went into orbit two decades ago. The 

new system is intended to provide a high probability 

24 
of detection against the threats of the future, characterized by shorter-range and dimmer missile launches 

(as compared with those of the former Soviet systems), deployed in numerous less developed countries around the world. The new system will be 

designed to meet this threat with continuous, worldwide coverage. It will also provide quicker warning 

messages to the field commanders than DSP offers. 

Engineers will design the satellites for longer lifetimes to reduce life-cycle costs and will use cross 

links to eliminate overseas ground stations used for 

DSP. As a result of these design improvements, the 

ISB, TW/AA system should be ready to support 

military forces engaged in future conflicts anywhere 

in the world. 

In the meantime, the BMDO has undertaken a 

program that demonstrates the improvements possible from applying commercially available, ground 

processing power to satellite constellations already in 

orbit. This program, TALON SHIELD, processes 

the infrared sensor data from DSP early warning 

satellites as they observe ballistic missiles during 

booster flight. TALON SHIELD receives the data 

from multiple satellites viewing the same area of the 

Earth. Using advanced digital processing and efficient triangulation algorithms, it provides near realtime launch warning and impact-point prediction for 

theater-class missiles. The system passes the data on 

to the region under attack to cue other sensors and 

defensive weapon systems. TALON SHIELD has 

made no changes to the satellites on orbit and is 

completely compatible with DSP satellites that will 

be launched in the near future. Simply with improvements in ground-based sensor data processing, 

TALON SHIELD has demonstrated launch-point 

accuracy four times better than that provided by older 

data analysis capabilities; its launch azimuth capabilities have improved three-fold over older systems; 

and its impact region estimates are ten times more 

accurate than those of its predecessors. Yet these 

improvements do not come at the sacrifice of speed; 

TALON SHIELD delivers this information to U.S. 

forces in the field less than two minutes after DSP’s 

original observation. Moreover, the development 

and installation costs of the system have been less 

than a tenth the cost of anew spacecraft. During 1993, 

TALON SHIELD observed planned tests of U.S. 

systems as well as foreign targets of opportunity. The 

BMDO-supported demonstration of TALON SHIELD 

was expected to be completed in FY 1994, with the 

Air Force Space Command transitioning the system 

to a limited operational capability in FY 1995. 

Another BMDO effort, the Miniature Sensor 

Technology Integration (MSTI) Program, met several milestones in FY 1993. The overall objective of 

the government-industry program is to develop a 

robust, modular, lightweight spacecraft to meet various research needs of BMDO. The near-term objectives initiated in FY 1993 were to demonstrate onorbit, through a series of missions, new technologies 

for detecting and tracking ballistic missiles, similar to 

the Iraqi Scuds fired during the Persian Gulf War. 

Under Air Force Phillips Laboratory management 

and with NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory as the 

prime space vehicle supplier, the program launched 

its first of a series of satellites on November 21, 1992, 

from Vandenberg AFB, CA, using a NASA-provided 

Scout launch vehicle. The six-day MSTI- 1 mission 

met all of its objectives, and the satellite routinely 

collected data for over five months. Following the 

successful launch and operations, the Phillips Laboratory team continued work on the design, construction, integration, and testing of MSTI-2, -3, and -4 

satellites. MSTI-2 was slated for a late 1993 launch 

on the last planned NASA Scout mission. This will 

provide BMDO with significant theater missile tracking research while providing robust Earth infrared 

backgrounds and emissions research. MSTI-3 and - 

4 were scheduled for launch in 1994. MSTI was the 

cornerstone of the DoD’s effort to investigate the 

dual-use application of missile detection and tracking 

assets for civilian applications. In particular, the 

program was investigating the use of its sensor not 

only to track missiles but also to improve understanding of the Earth’s environment and global changes, as 

well as to monitor ecological disasters. Moreover, the 

MSTI program offered the DoD an ability to conduct 

space-based research with international partners. 

Finally, the program, including its field deployable 

mobile command and control assets, provided the 

DoD with a “space operations testbed” for exploring 

advanced satellite command and control and spacecraft utilization concepts. 

On April 25, 1993, the U.S. Air Force launched 

into an 844 x 749-kilometer orbit a Department of 

Energy (DOE) experimental satellite aboard a Pe25 
gasus launch vehicle. The ALEXIS Satellite (standing for Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors) 

demonstrates a smaller, faster, and cheaper spacecraft 

bus and new instruments sponsored by the DOE’S 

Office of Research and Development and led by the 

Astrophysics and Radiation Measurement group at 

Los Alamos National Laboratory. In addition to the 

x-ray detectors, constituting one of two experiments 

on the 113 kilogram satellite, it has a very high 

frequency receiver and digitizer for the 

BLACKBEARD experiment to study ionospheric 

effects on VHF radio frequency radiation. In this 

pathfinder project, collaboration between Los Alamos 

National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, 

and a small, startup aerospace company, AeroAstro 

Inc., provided the capability for design, construction, 

integration, test, launch, and flight control of small, 

capable, and cost-effective satellites. The experiments, spacecraft, and integration cost approximately 

$17 million. Besides demonstrating new technical 

capabilities for detection of proliferation of nuclear 

weapons, the experiments have been performing stateof-the-art measurements in the areas of astrophysics 

and ionospheric physics. During the launch, damage 

occurred to a solar panel and to a magnetometer. The 

ground crew was able to get both experiments in 

regular operation, returning an average of 100 megabytes per day of data to ground control at Los Alamos. 

As of the end of the fiscal year, the original scientific 

mission was expected to be completed with data 

coverage over a full 70” orbital swath with the six lowenergy, x-ray telescopes and with ionospheric effects 

on VHF radiation from lightning and human-made 

sources. 

Beginning in July 1993, the DoD began a triagency study effort with the Department of Commerce (DOC) and NASA to determine the feasibility 

of merging all, or parts of, the DoD’s Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), the Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites (POES) 

of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and NASA’s Earth Observation 

System (EOS-see below). The White House Office 

of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) will use 

the recommendations of the tri-agency study to develop an implementation plan for a converged program by April 30, 1994. Meanwhile, the effort to 

reduce the overall size of DMSP ground terminals 

continued with the award of the Small Tactical Terminal (STT) development contract. This system will 

gather data from DMSP and civilian satellites in a 

portable, combat-capable configuration. The DMSP 

program continued its support of the first complete 

digital archive of civilian and military weather satellite data. These data will be available to DoD, 

government, civilian agencies, and universities to 

enhance environmental research activities such as 

global climate change. (For other military satellites, 

see below under Communications Satellites.) 

In another development related to satellite technology, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory Micro-precision ControVStructure Interaction Program delivered 

two products of its technology to be used for NASA’s 

Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission that took 

place after the end of the fiscal year in December 

1993. Program engineers developed controlled optics modeling software and used it to analyze the 

precise corrective prescription for the spherical aberration in the telescope’s main mirror. This technology also has applications to future space and groundbased optical instruments. Additionally, the engineers developed a solid state actuator system and 

incorporated it into the telescope’s new Wide Field 

Planetary Camera. This hardware allows ground 

operators to make highly precise adjustments to the 

alignment of the new corrective optics. 

As of the end of the fiscal year, NOAA was 

operating three types of environmental satellite systems: POES; the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (GOES); and the Landsat series of 

satellites. The two operational POES satellites were 

NOAA-11 and NOAA-12, launched in September 

1988 and May 1991, respectively. NOAA-11 remained the operational afternoon satellite andNOAA12, the operational morning satellite. In addition, two 

earlier satellites continued to operate in a stand-by 

mode, providing direct readout services and recorded 

data from the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

(ERBE) and the ozone observing instrument, the 

Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Radiometer (SBUV). 

On August 9,1993, the Air Force launched the NOAA13 satellite to replace the aging NOAA-11, but all 

communications with NOAA- 13 ceased on August 

21. Attempts to restore them have not been successful. A formal failure review board has convened to 

determine the probable cause of the failure. The next 

26 
in this series of satellites, NOAA-J, has been called up 

for earliest launch in May/June 1994. Although it was 

originally configured to be a morning satellite, the 

contractor is reconfiguring NOAA-J for the afternoon 

orbit with the SBUV instrument on board. In the 

meantime, NOAA planned to activate the SBUV 

instrument on NOAA-9 to provide ozone-tracking 

data, while the NOAA-11 and NOAA-12 satellites 

continued to provide operational sounding and image 

data. The Space Environment Monitor (SEM) radiation environment instrument continued to operate on 

the NOAA- 12 spacecraft. An identical instrument 

was scheduled as of the end of the fiscal year for 

launch during FY 1994 on the NOAA- 14 spacecraft. 

An upgraded SEM was scheduled for launch on the 

first of the new series of NOAA polar orbiters in FY 

1995 or 1996. 

Normally, NOAA has maintained two operational GOES satellites in geosynchronous orbit above 

the equator, providing coverage of the Atlantic Ocean, 

the Western Hemisphere, and the eastern Pacific 

Ocean. As of the end of the fiscal year, NOAA had 

only one operational GOES in orbit, GOES-7, launched 

in February 1987. It had been moved from providing 

coverage in the Atlantic during the hurricane season 

to the west to provide coverage of the Pacific and the 

Central U.S. during the non-hurricane season. At the 

end of the fiscal year, GOES-7 was locatedat approximately 112” west longitude, and since February 1993, 

the Atlantic coverage has been provided by the “loan” 

of the European Meteosat-3 satellite, on location at 

75” west longitude. The next in the series of U.S. 

GOES satellites, GOES-I, was on schedule as of the 

end of the fiscal year for launch in the late sprindearly 

summer of 1994. This Earth-oriented satellite will 

carry separate imager and sounder instruments, replacing the existing geostationary satellites’ single 

instrument that provides both functions, but not concurrently. Each of the new instruments will improve 

the current capabilities for monitoring the Earth’s 

dynamic weather by providing atmospheric soundings on a full-time basis and imagery as frequently as 

every six minutes over selected areas of 1,000 

kilometers’. 

An Air Force Titan I1 launched the last in the 

NOAA-operated Landsat series of satellites, Landsat6, on October 5, 1993. After successful separation 

from the Titan 11, the satellite’s integral “kick motor” 

apparently did not deliver it into final orbit, and 

contact with the satellite ceased. A Landsat-6 Failure 

Review Board has convened to determine the probable cause of the failure. 

One further development in the area of satellite 

technology was the launching of two Tether Systems 

conceived and designed by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory but involving other participants 

including the University of Genoa. The first system, 

designated the Small Expendable Tether Deployable 

System, was launched as a secondary payload aboard 

a Delta I1 rocket from Cape Canaveral, FL, on March 

29. The 85-pound satellite was attached by a 20- 

kilometer-long flexible cable to the Delta’s secondstage rocket, and during the 80-minute deployment, 

the entire length of tether slowly unreeled until the 

payload began swinging like a pendulum. Once it 

ceased swinging and came to a vertical position, it 

was severed and allowed to bum up as it reentered the 

Earth’s atmosphere. Meanwhile, it allowed SAO’s 

scientists to compare data on actual tether dynamics 

with computer models of predicted behavior in preparation for future flights of similar systems. The next 

such flight occurred on June 26 when another Delta I1 

from Cape Canaveral launched an electrodynamic 

tether called the Plasma Motor Generator on a sixhour flight that demonstrated the ability of a tether to 

generate an electrical current in space. The tether 

consisted of two plasma contractors, or hollow cathode tubes, at either end of a 500-meter-long, thin 

copper cable coated with teflon. As the system cut 

through the thin ionosphere, ionized xenon gas in the 

tubes generated a weak electrical current (approximately 0.3 ampere, with an electromotive force of 100 

volts) along the line. 

Space Station 

During 1993, NASA redesigned the Space Station at the direction of President Clinton to reduce 

costs while retaining user capability and maintaining 

the program’s international commitments. The redesign effort in the spring of 1993 with the participation 

of the International Partners resulted in three options 

that NASA reported in June to the Advisory Committee on the Redesign of the Space Station. Option A 

was a Modular Approach; Option B was called Free27 
dom Derived and most closely resembled Space Station Freedom; while Option C was a Single Launch 

Core Station. After reviewing the Advisory 

Committee’s recommendations, the President instructed NASA to implement a modified version of 

Option A to maximize the use of the investment in the 

previous design and maintain the commitment of our 

International Partners, while reducing development 

and operations costs. Option A, with appropriate 

enhancements became (provisionally) Space Station 

“Alpha” shortly before the end of the fiscal year. The 

new Space Station design is based on a modular 

concept and will be built in stages. The new design 

draws heavily on the previous Space Station Freedom 

investment by incorporating most of its hardware and 

systems. The power system, truss, modules, and 

many distributed systems will be essentially the same 

as planned for Freedom. Changes essentially took the 

form of simplifying previous features such as the data 

management system plus using hardware already 

developed, such as the U.S. Bus-1 or the Russian 

Salyut for propulsion, guidance, navigation, and control. The Bus-1 and Salyut are capable of being 

modified for Space Station use with modest design 

changes and costs. 

NASA has already designed, developed, and tested 

major portions of the Space Station systems and 

hardware. The Man Tended Capability Critical Design Review, completed in July 1993, certified that 

the previously baselined program had reached sufficient maturity to justify beginning the manufacture of 

flight hardware. In order to reach this advanced state 

of design, NASA achieved many facility, testing, 

hardware, and software milestones during 1993. These 

included: manufacturing facility modifications, test 

hardware production, major testing, software development, production of early assembly flight hardware, procurement of flight hardware material, and 

production planning. NASA contractors and engineers built and tested test hardware for Space Station 

elements such as: the unpressurized berthing adapter, 

star tracker, propulsion modules, truss segments, foot 

restraints, cupola, nodes, environmental control and 

life support systems, and electrical power system. 

They also manufactured some components of flight 

systems such as solar cells for photovoltaic arrays to 

provide power generation and bulkheads for the solar 

array rotary joints. 

With respect to international contributions to the 

Space Station Program, Japan’s Science and Technology Agency and its National Space Development 

Agency, in anticipation of an overall critical design 

review in 1995, conducted several detailed design 

reviews of the Japanese Experiment Module and 

Exposed Facility systems and subsystems throughout 

the latter part of FY 1993. The Canadian Space 

Agency conducted successful critical design reviews 

of the Space Station Remote Manipulator System and 

the Mobile Base System. The Canadians also conducted a preliminary design review of the Special 

Purpose Dextrous Manipulator. The European Space 

Agency undertook a major restructuring effort on its 

Columbus Programme to downsize and simplify the 

Attached Pressurized Module, making it compatible 

with NASA’s redesign of the Space Station. The 

Italian Space Agency, which is providing the MiniPressurized Logistics Module for the U.S., completed 

its preliminary design review on October 8, 1993. 

(See also Other Aeronautical and Space Activities, 

Cooperation with Russia and Other Foreign Policy 

Issues.) 

Energy 

To date, the U.S. has successfully employed 37 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) 

on over 20 spacecraft launches covering a variety of 

different space applications. An RTG is a static 

device (one without moving parts) that directly converts the heat from the decay of the radioisotope 

Plutonium-238 (Pu-238) into electricity. RTGs have 

demonstrated the long lifetimes, self-sufficiency, 

environmental independence, and operational flexibility demanded by a variety of space missions, 

including the capability to operate well beyond specified mission lifetimes and above designed power 

levels. For example, the multi-hundred-watt RTG on 

the Voyager 2 spacecraft, launched in August 1977, 

continues to operate after its encounters with Jupiter, 

Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune and as it continues on 

into space. A new model RTG with a more efficient 

fuel design called the General Purpose Heat Source 

(GPHS) RTG has been the latest in a series of nuclear 

power sources developed for space applications by 

DOE. The GPHS-RTG operated successfully on the 

28 
Galileo and Ulysses missions, launched in October 

1989 and October 1990, respectively. 

DOE program activities in FY 1993 focused on 

production of both GPHS components and GPHSRTG thermoelectric converters in order to meet the 

anticipated power system requirements to use them 

on the Cassini mission to Saturn, scheduled for an 

October 1997 launch. DOE'S restart of production 

and assembly for GPHS components has proceeded 

on schedule. Oak Ridge, TN, has been producing 

iridium-alloy, clad vent sets for use at Los Alamos 

National Laboratory (LANL), NM, in fuel-clad weld 

development, product characterization programs, and 

pre-production start-up operations. The Savannah 

River Plant, SC, completed start-up activities for fuel 

reprocessing and shipped four kilograms of h-238 

powder to LANL. LANL completed process development for fuel pellet and fuel-clad fabrication in 

preparation for beginning production of the flight unit 

in FY 1994. RTG assembly and test planning plus 

preparation activities at the Mound Plant of EG&G 

Mound Applied Technologies in Miamisburg, OH, 

have proceeded according to plan. The prime system 

contractor has reestablished production capability for 

the thermoelectric unicouple; completed production 

of unicouple qualification test hardware; and begun 

production of flight hardware. 

DOE has developed new concepts for smaller and 

lighter-weight RTGs for the Pluto Fast Flyby design 

effort. It has completed review and evaluation of 

advanced, higher-efficiency power converters in concert with the Advanced Technology Insertion program. This included concepts for alkaline metal, 

thermophoto-voltaic, and Stirling engine technology. 

This work will continue in the future to identify and 

possibly develop an advanced converter at the 20 

percent efficiency level. 

During FY 1993 DOE continued its work on the 

SP-100 Space Reactor Power System Program, 

which was developing nuclear reactor power system 

technology to provide tens to hundreds of kilowatts of 

electrical (kWe) power for civil and defense space 

applications. However, this program is scheduled for 

termination in FY 1994. Although the program is 

being phased out, DOE has established technical readiness for most of the key system components. It made 

significant progress in key technological areas during 

the year, building on earlier accomplishments. Previously, design, testing, and fabrication efforts had 

shown that a 100 kWe system with a mass of less than 

4,600 kilograms was achievable; that a thaw concept 

could be implemented, allowing restart in space after 

a system shutdown; and that reactor fuel and fuel pins 

with a seven-year life can be fabricated. 

During FY 1993, efforts also focused on continuing the development of the Thermoelectric Cells 

being designed to produce 25 times the electric power 

available from the similar sized cells used on the 

Galileo mission. Engineers tested several prototype, 

single-cell assemblies at operational temperatures for 

4,000-5,000 hours. For the power converter, engineers demonstrated assembly of a prototypic 4 x 6 

array of thermoelectric cells, including the bonding of 

the converter liquid metal heat exchanger ducts to the 

4 x 6 array. The testing of two materials test loops 

containing lithium at 1,350" kelvin successfully demonstrated the welding and fabrication techniques required to produce space reactor power system components and coolant loops from high-temperature, refractory niobium alloys. One loop operated for over 

3,000 hours and the other for 1,000 hours. Engineers 

have completed tests for void and thaw characterization of lithium. Thaw and extrusion tests have confirmed that the reactor design accommodates lithium 

thaw with minimal stress on reactor components. 

Engineers have also made significant progress in 

developing the self-actuating thermoelectric electromagnetic pumps that will transport the lithium from 

the reactor to the power conversion system. They 

have demonstrated techniques to form the pump ducts 

explosively and to bond thermoelectric cells to the 

ducts. They have completed the fabrication of the 

first demonstration pump assembly containing the 

pump ducts and thermoelectric cells. Also, engineers 

fabricated a prototypic control drive assembly and 

began testing it. 

Progress has also occurred on design and technology development of in-core Thermionic Space 

Nuclear Reactor Systems. Work continued in FY 

1993 under the Thermionic Space Nuclear Power 

System Design and Technology Demonstration Program sponsored by DOE, the BMDO, and the Air 

Force's Phillips Laboratory. The primary objective 

of the program is to develop two designs to the point 

that a preliminary design review and technology 

freeze could be completed, thereby enabling the DoD 

29 
to determine the utility of a system for a potential 

flight demonstration. These designs satisfy BMDO 

and Air Force requirements focusing on mission 

applications in the electric power range of 5 to 40 

kilowatts. Both industrial contractors under this 

program have subcontracts with Russian entities to 

integrate Russian expertise in this area into both the 

design and technological demonstration aspects of 

the program. Significant accomplishments include 

the completion of parametric trade studies resulting in 

a baseline design for each system concept and in a 

definition of technology and critical component demonstrations required to validate those designs; continued development of point designs at 40 kWe meeting 

all functional and safety requirements; thermionic 

fuel element component fabrication in Russia; and the 

completion of creep testing of emitter materials in 

Russia. 

Work also continued on the Thermionic Fuel 

Element (TFE) Verification Program. It began in 

1986 to resolve feasibility issues surrounding longlife, high-power (2 megawatts electric) thermionic 

space reactors for DoD mission applications. It has 

expanded the data base on performance and lifetime 

of TFEs and has demonstrated a TFE lifetime of about 

18 months. To date, the program has identified no 

physical mechanisms that could limit lifetimes to less 

than two years. In response to changing DoD requirements (such as shorter lifetimes and lower power 

levels), the DOE restructured the program late in FY 

1992 to support the Thermionic System Design and 

Demonstration Program. In FY 1993, efforts focused 

primarily on the fabrication and irradiation of a sixcell TFE and the continued irradiation testing of 

additional multicell TFEs in a thermal reactor environment. FY 1994 activities will feature the postirradiation examination of TFEs and TFE components. The TFE Verification Program will be closed 

out by the end of FY 1994. 

Finally, DOE has cooperated with DoD and the 

Air Force in a technological program aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of obtaining high-performance capability from a particle bed nuclear reactor 

in a thermal propulsion application. The Air Force 

completed a final environmental impact statement for 

this Space Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Program 

in May 1993. The program has achieved important 

particle fuel and fuel element development and testing, as well as some overall system design development. During FY 1993 the DOE also conducted a 

series of studies to explore the possibility of using 

common nuclear thermal propulsion facilities to meet 

the testing needs of this program as well as potential 

NASA needs. 

Safety and Mission Assurance 

Along with the seven successful Space Shuttle 

flights and numerous robotic spacecraft missions 

already discussed, the U.S. experienced some mission failures. Despite careful preparation and planning, the Mars Observer is, as noted above, presumed 

lost due to a spacecraft failure. Also, the NOAA- 13 

spacecraft, managed by NASA for NOAA, appears to 

have experienced a power system failure. Despite 

these unexpected setbacks in an ambitious science 

program, FY 1993 was marked by many successes, as 

already discussed. To ensure even greater successes 

in the future, NASA was developing advanced risk 

assessment techniques and methods for use in the new 

“faster, better, cheaper” environment in which NASA 

has begun operating. The agency has been exploring 

newer and more efficient ways of assessing and 

managing risk, using such techniques as uncertainty 

analysis and probabilistic risk assessment for selected 

areas of the Shuttle and Space Station programs. To 

support the new and smaller missions in the Discovery program, NASA has streamlined the traditional 

Safety, Reliability and Quality Assurance approach, 

which relied heavily on documentation, independent 

analysis, and reviews to minimize mission risk. Newer 

policies and practices identify mission success criteria and assure that there is sufficient definition of the 

risks to performance, cost, and schedule. The overall 

goal is to assist the project manager in the development of a well-structured risk model during the early 

phases of the project to serve as a guide in designing 

those portions of the project where the payoff is 

highest, thus conserving the limited resources available to the project. 

In order to prevent repeating past failures and to 

capitalize on past successes, late in the fiscal year 

NASA joined the Air Force, Navy, and FAA in what 

is fast becoming the interagency aerospace lessons 

learned system. This system already contains more 

30 
than 4,500 lessons ready for immediate use. As of the 

end of the fiscal year, NASA had begun contributing 

lessons to the interagency system and NASA centers 

were establishing processes by which the lessons will 

be used in the development of new aerospace hardware and procedures. NASA’s Office of Safety and 

Mission Assurance also continued to provide decision makers with independent assessments of risk for 

such matters as inspection procedures after Shuttle 

aborts on the launch pad and Space Shuttle Main 

Engine transducer failures. The office has also been 

in the forefront of significant streamlining of functional management in the agency, involving 17 functional areas to ensure continual improvement, among 

other goals. The office participated actively in the 

development and initial operation of a new International Space Organization subcommittee on standards for Space Systems and Operations. Cooperation with the DOT and industry in a workshop conducted through the American Institute for Aeronautics and Astronautics was a first step toward developing U.S. standards for commercial space launch vehicles. Finally, NASA-in conjunction with the 

University of West Virginia-was in the process of 

bringing on line a new facility to support Independent 

Verification and Validation of software. This facility 

will provide a single NASA focal point for verification and validation of software to assure proper safety 

and mission assurance requirements are incorporated. 

Other Space Technology 

The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization continued during FY 1993 to develop experiments that 

will fly on a joint BMDOmnited Kingdom Space 

Technology Research Vehicle (STRV- lb) satellite 

in the spring of 1994. The flight through the Earth’s 

trapped radiation belts will demonstrate the survivability of analog neural networks, silicon germanium 

infrared sensors, and other advanced electronics, as 

well as the ability of adaptive control systems to damp 

out unwanted vibration from space cryocoolers, needed 

to obtain clear, accurate imaging from sensors. 

Three BMDO experiments will fly on the Space 

Test Program Experimental Platform (STEP) Mission 3 satellite in September 1994. BMDO continued 

development in FY 1993 of these experiments, which 

will integrate new technologies for vibration control 

of large structures, detection of impacts on sensitive 

materials of the Earth’s space environment, and detection of external threats to satellites. The technology for vibration control can also be used, through 

technology transfer, to improve television and telephone communications from antennas on commercial communications satellites. 

BMDO also continued to develop SPEAR-111, the 

third rocket in a series of sub-orbital tests designed to 

study the interactions between high voltage systems 

and the space plasma associated with the space environment. SPEAR-I11 will carry four lightweight experiments designed to limit damage to spacecraft subsystems from the highly charged space plasma. Launch 

was scheduled (as of the end of the fiscal year) for 

February 1994 from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility. 

In a miscellany of Technological Developments, 

Martin Marietta adopted NASA-sponsored high-performance electric propulsion (arcjet) technology in 

early FY 1993 for station keeping on the upcoming 

Intelsat 8, Asiasat, and Echostar communications 

satellites, with the arcjet technology being instrumental in Martin Marietta’s winning the contracts. Also, 

an advanced, high-temperature rocket motor developed under NASA sponsorship and an upgraded arcjet 

will also be featured in the next generation of satellites by one of the major U.S. producers. And as a 

spin-off of the ion propulsion program at Lewis 

Research Center, engineers developed a plasma 

contactor for use on Space Station to ground the 

structure relative to the space plasma. 

In January 1993 the robot Dante partially descended into the volcanic crater of Mt. Erebus in 

Antarctica until controllers aborted the mission due to 

a severed fiber optics cable, which resulted in the loss 

of communications between the robot and its control 

station. Developed by NASA and Carnegie Mellon 

University, Dante tested prototype robotic technologies for uncrewed planetary exploration and to advance scientific knowledge of the volcano. Despite 

the setback, the project successfully tested new 

telerobotic technologies and the remote operation of 

the robot via satellite communications with time 

delay. Dante was a model for performing missions 

better, faster, and cheaper, having been built in only 

1 1 months under a $2 million NASA grant to Carnegie 

Mellon University. 

31 
Other related Robotic Developments included use 

of a satellite link to maneuver a Russian-built robot in a 

Moscow laboratory in collaboration among NASA's 

Ames Research Center, McDonnell Douglas Space Systems, the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Institute for 

Space Research, and the Russian Space Agency. The 

rover robot was aprototype of adesign Russian scientists 

hope to land on Mars in 1996. The objective of the project 

was to prove the feasibility of the teleoperator interface, 

developed at Ames, and used to steer the robot. 

In a quite different area, NASA's Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology selected 52 proposals 

to develop small-technology flight experiments in the 

IN-Space Technology Experiments Program (INSTEP), whose objective is to validate technological 

concepts developed by NASA, industry, and universities 

for space flight testing and evaluation. The awards cover 

eight areas of technology identified as high priority by 

NASA's customers. Recent awards include a tank 

pressure control experiment that provided data required 

to develop the technology for pressure control of cryogenic tankage; this will aid in the design of future space 

systems using supercooled fluid storage. Additionally, a 

heat pipe experiment confiied many predicted heat 

transport limits. This research will lead to improvements 

in the thermal control systems of future spacecraft as well 

as terrestrial microelectronic applications. 

FY 1993 also saw NASA complete the fabrication of 

a two-stage Stirling Cooler used to maintain temperatures down to 30" kelvin, needed for extremely sensitive 

sensors. Accomplishments included lower temperature 

capability, long lifetime, a high level of reliability, low 

weight, low power consumption, and low levels of 

vibration. This technology enables light-weight, longduration missions of instruments using ultra-cold detectors. Also related to cryogenics, in acooperative program 

with major companies working on ELVs, NASA has 

made significant progress in developing new aluminumlithium alloys that could reduce the weight of cryogenic 

tanks by 10-15 percent without significantly raising 

costs. 

Earth-observing satellites planned by NASA will 

need very sensitive arrays of Detectors to provide infrared images for purposes such as conservation, resource 

management, and event detection. A program at Doc's 

National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) 

has been applying developments in superconducting 

electronics to meet this need with an entirely new type of 

detector. Specifically, NIST has carried out improvements in an initial design of a detector intended to lead to 

a practical focal-plane array of superconducting infrared 

detectors based on kinetic inductance (effectively, the 

degree of penetration of a magnetic field into a superconductor). This has resulted in a sensitivity comparable to 

that in the best semiconducting detectors. Researchers 

have implemented an improved design that has a figure 

of merit some 20 times better than the earlier design, and 

at the end of the fiscal year measurements were underway 

to determine the effect of the improvement on the 

sensitivity. 

Space Communications 

Communications Satellites 

There were two new commercial Domestic, Fixed 

Communications Satellites launched for the United 

States during FY 1993. Both were replacement satellites launched into locations of predecessors nearing 

the ends of their fuel lives. These satellites will 

provide domestic service into the next decade and 

will offer users a wide range of services including 

video, high-speed data, private network, and audio 

services. Named Galaxy VII(H) and IV(H), they 

were launched from Kourou, French Guiana, by Ariane 

launch vehicles on October 27, 1992, and June 24, 

1993 (June 25, GMT), respectively. With these 

launches and the retirement of several satellites, there 

were 32 domestic-fixed satellites in orbit between 69" 

and 139" west longitude on the geostationary orbital 

arc as of the end of the fiscal year. 

Relatedly, NASA successfully launched the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

(ACTS) from Space Shuttle Discovery in September 

1993. ACTS represents the next generation in communications satellites. Its fundamental goal is to test 

and prove advanced communications technologies 

and to evaluate the potential applications of the technologies. These demonstrations were expected to 

promote the creation of new telecommunications 

32 
services, thus improving the nation’s economy and 

enhancing U.S. competitiveness in the global telecommunications market. During the 2-year ACTS 

Experiments Program, participants from industry, 

academia, and Government will investigate applications in medical imagery, long-distance education, 

business and supercomputer networking, high-definition television, and many other areas. An extensive 

network of ground stations will support the satellite, 

operating in the *Ka-band frequency and offering 

unique features that differentiate them from current 

satellite communications ground stations. The High 

Data Rate (HDR) Terminal, for example, is capable of 

transmitting at significantly higher data rates than is 

possible with current technology. In a joint venture 

with ARPA, the HDR terminal will connect fiber 

networks across the U.S. as far as Hawaii, creating a 

seamless, high-speed communications network. The 

experiments will test the ability of the network to 

support real-time user interaction with complex environmental models created with supercomputer visualization, to distribute medical imagery for diagnosis, 

and to provide high-data-rate military communications. The flight-testing of the ACTS technologies 

will eventually lead to lower cost, better service, 

greater convenience, and improved reliability to telecommunication customers around the world. 

For the military, the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) continued to serve as the 

long-haul, high capacity communications system supporting the worldwide command and control of the 

U.S. Armed Forces and other Government agencies. 

The DSCS program successfully launched a DSCS I11 

satellite on July 19, 1993, as a follow-on to the two 

DSCS 111s launched in FY 1992. These three launches 

marked the start of a replenishment program for the 

DSCS constellation, which experienced severe launch 

set-backs from the 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger 

disaster. These launches also mark both the initial 

DSCS use of the Atlas I1 launch booster coupled with 

an inertial upper stage for achieving Earth orbit and 

significant modifications to the satellites for enhanced 

user services. The satellite launched this year will be 

cut over to operational traffic in early FY 1994 in the 

West Pacific as a replacement for the older DSCS I11 

currently on station. The cutover of this new DSCS 

I11 will permit a substantial reconfiguration of the 

constellation with the older DSCS I11 moved into the 

Indian Ocean as a replacement for a DSCS 11, thereby 

improving services to the DSCS customers in that 

area. Then, the constellation for the first time will 

consist of five mission-supporting, fully-capable 

DSCS 111s located in the East Atlantic, West Atlantic, 

East Pacific, West Pacific, and Indian Ocean areas. In 

addition, the residual on-orbit satellite resources having partial capability will consist of two DSCS 11s 

launched before FY 1983, one DSCS I1 launched in 

FY 1989, and two DSCS 111s launched in 1982. Two 

more DSCS 111s are scheduled to be launched in FY 

1994. Five other DSCS I11 satellites presently in 

storage are scheduled for launch between FY 1995 

and FY 1999. 

The DSCS control segment continued to provide 

semi-automated management of DSCS resources to 

maintain the satellite communications network in 

alignment with the needs of the operational commanders. As of the end of FY 1993 there were five 

DSCS operations centers and three auxiliary satellite 

control terminals operated and maintained by the U.S. 

Army Space Command worldwide. During FY 1993, 

proficient network management of DSCS space and 

ground resources enabled support of a wide variety of 

contingencies and high priority requirements including various presidential trips and the United Nations 

Operations Somalia relief effort (Continue Hope). 

The Milstar program, intended as the comerstone of the DoD’s military satellite communications 

architecture in the future, was still in development 

during FY 1993. When operational, it will be a 

multichannel, EHFNHF satellite communications 

system to provide survivable, enduring, jam-resistant, and secure voice and data communication for the 

Armed Forces and other users. The Air Force was the 

lead service for procuring Milstar satellites, a dispersed mission control network, airborne terminals, 

and ground command post terminals. The Army and 

Navy also had programs for terminal development 

and procurement. The Milstar program successfully 

underwent a Defense Acquisition Board program 

review in October 1992, which approved the Air 

Force’s proposed acquisition strategy for the Milstar 

program, including the development of the Milstar I1 

satellites with a new medium-data-rate payload. The 

contractor delivered the first Milstar satellite in February 1993. At the end of the fiscal year, it was 

awaiting launch, which had been delayed due to the 

33 
recent failure of a Titan IV booster. Satellite number 

two was complete and in testing as the year ended. 

Satellite number three was being prepared for medium-data-rate payload. 

The Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FLTSATCOM) provided worldwide Navy and DoD 

UHF satellite communications through a constellation 

of four Navy-owned FLTSAT and three leased satellites positioned in geosynchronous orbit at four locations around the Earth. These satellites will eventually 

be replaced by the new series of UFO satellites being 

developed by Hughes Aircraft Company for the Navy. 

A UFO satellite was successfully launched on September 3, 1993. Upon completion of on-orbit testing, the 

satellite will be positioned over the Indian Ocean to 

establish initial operational capability for the UFO 

constellation. The Navy expected to achieve this 

capability in December 1993. 

The International Telecommunications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT), a consortium established 

in 1964 and consisting (in September 1993) of 128 

member countries that owned and operated the sole 

global communications satellite system in the world, 

launched no new satellites during the fiscal year. 

During FY 1993 the Republic of the Marshall Islands, 

Bahrain, and Armenia were new countries that joined 

INTELSAT. INTELSAT continued to offer through 

its 19-satellite system such business services as international telex, teleconferencing, data, facsimile, and 

video. The INTELSAT Board of Governors met in 

Washington, D.C., from September 9-15 and authorized INTELS AT Management to purchase three additional INTELSAT VIIWIII-A spacecraft from Martin Marietta Astro Space and to lease one Russian 

Express satellite to satisfy increasing demand for communications services. These 4 satellites increased the 

number on order for INTELSAT to 15, the first of 

which was launched early in FY 1994. The remaining 

14 were scheduled for launch over the next 3 years. 

The International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT), a London-based international organization founded in 1979 with 7 1 member countries as of 

October 1993, likewise did not add to its complement 

of four INMARSAT I1 and seven older satellites 

during the course of the fiscal year. New member 

countries during 1993 were the SlovakRepublic, Georgia, Bangladesh, and Brunei Darussalam. Of the 

INMARSAT I1 satellites, two were located over the 

Atlantic Ocean, one over the Pacific, and one over the 

Indian Ocean. With these satellites, INMARSAT 

continued to provide global mobile satellite communications for commercial, distress, and safety applications to over 30,000 ships, aircraft, and land mobile 

facilities throughout the world. The U.S. signatory, 

COMSAT Corp., holds a 23 percent share in the 

organization. On October 1, 1992, INMARSAT announced that a new, advanced satellite distress alerting 

system for ships at sea, INMARSAT-E, had become 

operational for the eastern Atlantic Ocean Region, 

covering not only the Atlantic but the eastern Pacific to 

the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. This marked a 

significant step in implementing the Global Maritime 

Distress and Safety System. Another important development in satellite communications was the commercial start-up of INMARS AT-M service, providing 

mobile digital voice, fax, and data services through 

small, transportable terminals or shipboard antennas 

for use on boats as small as 35 feet. Service began in 

November 1992 for the western Atlantic Ocean Region and in January 1993 for the Pacific Ocean Region. 

Coverage in the eastern Atlantic Ocean Region began 

in the spring of 1993, with full global coverage expected during the first half of 1994. In July 1993, 

digital satellite communications through INMARS ATB became available to some customers. This made 

voice, data, and video communications as much as 50 

percent cheaper than comparable analog services under INMARS AT-A. Eventually, INMARSAT-B will 

fully replace the more expensive analog services. 

Finally, in September 1993, COMSAT Aeronautical 

Services announced three new satellite communications services for aircraft+omputer modem, secure 

voice, and 9.6 kilobits-per-second fax-allowing business travellers on international flights to enjoy many of 

the services available in offices on the ground when 

those aircraft services were expected to become operational early in 1994. INMARSAT also had four “third 

generation” satellites under construction. 

As of the end of the fiscal year INMARSAT 

satellites provided virtually the only commercial mobile-satellite service in the world. However, companies in other countries, as well as several in the U.S., 

had plans to launch competing systems. Plans of these 

new service providers included satellite service globally to pocket telephones. INMARSAT has its own 

program (Project 21) to identify and deploy a pocket 

34 
telephone technology. Technical and feasibility studies on Project 21 continued, but as of the end of the 

fiscal year, the INMARSAT Council had not made the 

decision to proceed with the project. Competition in 

developing and marketing this new service promises 

to be intense over the next few years. The new 

competitors were planning, in most cases, to use satellites in lower orbits where less power would be required for the mobile terminal than from geosynchronous orbit and thus a smaller antenna would be required. On the other hand, it will be more difficult 

technically and more costly to coordinate transmissions among the non-stationary and much larger number of satellites involved. INMARS AT has eliminated 

a low Earth orbit system from further consideration in 

its Project 21. 

Space Network 

April 1993 marked the 10th anniversary ofNASA’s 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), 

a revolutionary, space-based network developed to 

meet telecommunications needs essential to the success of the Space Shuttle, Space Station, and other low 

Earth-orbiting spacecraft missions. TDRSS began 

with the launch of the first satellite on April 4, 1983. 

Since then, four other satellites have joined it in orbit, 

the latest on January 13, 1993. TDRSS is able to 

support up to 24 user spacecraft simultaneously, including the Space Shuttle. It neither processes nor 

alters communications but functions solely as a repeater to extend the “line-of-sight” from a spacecraft 

to a ground site. At its highest capacity, the TDRSS is 

able to transfer in one second the equivalent of a 20- 

volume encyclopediacontaining over 34 million words. 

Each satellite uses three-axis stabilization and weighs 

about 5,000 pounds (2,540 kg), making it one of the 

largest, heaviest, and most complicated satellites ever 

launched into geosynchronous orbit. Each satellite 

measures 57 feet (17.4 meters) across its solar panels. 

Since becoming operational, TDRSS has relayed approximately 3.5 million minutes of data to the ground, 

and every subsequent Space Shuttle mission has required its resources. 

NASA’s two TDRSS ground stations received 

Native American names as a result of a contest held 

among New Mexican students. The names selected 

were Cacique (kah-see-keh, meaning “leader”) and 

Danzante (dahn-zahn-teh, meaning “dancer”). These 

names stem from the Tortugas tribe of Tortugas, NM, 

who preserve their culture through traditional dance. 

Four female students from Zia Middle School, Las 

Cruces, NM, submitted the winning entry. They 

compared the TDRSS to the Tortugas dancers, who 

communicate through complex maneuvers, as do the 

satellites, while the ground terminals are the leaders of 

the orbital dance. 

Communications and Data 

Systems 

The NASA Communications (NASCOM) network provided data and voice transmission capacity 

for 7 crewed Space Shuttle missions and 22 uncrewed 

launch vehicles during FY 1993. The services included telemetry, tracking, command, and data acquisition for each mission. Several enhancements to this 

network became operational during FY 1993. For 

example, NASA completed an Interfacility Fiber Optic Link (IFL), which connects the White Sands Ground 

Terminal and the second Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite Ground Terminal in New Mexico. This link 

enhances the exchange of operational data between 

these sites, increases ground terminal capacity, and 

significantly improves the reliability of the expanded 

TDRS constellation that is being planned to meet the 

requirements for future data-intensive scientific missions. NASCOM also implemented the German Space 

Operations Center multiplexer system, which was 

used for the German Spacelab mission (Spacelab D2) 

on April 26, 1993. NASCOM provided diversely 

routed circuits from the Goddard Space Flight Center 

in Greenbelt, MD, to Germany, providing the data and 

voice capability for ground control operators in Germany to communicate with the astronauts on board the 

spacecraft to assure mission success. 

NASA has completed the refurbishment of the 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST) control center, which 

was ready at the end of the fiscal year for the HST 

repair mission in December 1993. Included in this 

refurbishment are new software programs and calibration data bases for the new instruments. Additionally, 

in FY 1993 NASA provided 48,000 hours of Mission 

Control services to ten on-orbit science missions 

35 
(HST, IUE, Compton Observatory, EUVE, UARS, 

The new control center concept, called the Transportable 

Payload Operations Control Center mCC), was successfully demonstrated with the launch of the first 

SAMPEX mission on July 3,1992. The lessons learned 

and software from the SAMPEX TPOCC were in the 

process of being applied to subsequent missions as the 

year ended. They have demonstrated a significant development cost savings through reuse of over 75 percent of 

existing software. The preparation of data systems for 

the International Solar-Terrestrial Program (ISTP) was 

complete by the end of the year, waiting to meet launch 

requirements in April and June of 1994. 

To date, NASA has processed over 14 trillion bits of 

data (approximately equivalent to 100 million pages of 

text) from free-flyer scientific spacecraft and delivered 

them to scientific communities. As part of NASA’s 

ongoing efficiency and standardization efforts, the agency 

developed a testbed to verify recommendations of the 

Consultative Committee on Space Data Systems 

(CCSDS) regarding spacelground protocols. The testbed 

also provided a prototype for NASA’s modernization of 

its data processing system. The agency conducted a 

technology transfer workshop for this testbed, with participation from over 300 industry representatives. Finally, the development of an operational data processing 

systemusing very large scale integration technology was 

nearing completion for the Small Explorer-2 (SMEX-2) 

Fast Auroral Snapshot (FAST) mission scheduled for 

launch in August 1994. 

COBE, ERBS, NIMBUS-7, SMEX, and IMP-8). 

Ground Network 

NASA’s Ground Network facilities provided communications to a wide variety of NASA and international 

missions. These included Space Shuttle; a variety of 

Earth-orbiting spacecraft performing numerous Earthobserving missions; planetary orbiters; and deep space 

missions. Ground Network facilities also provided communications services during launch, flight, and recovery 

of high-altitude balloons and sounding rockets, used to 

enable research in such scientific disciplines as geophysics, astrophysics, and astronomy. The worldwide capability further allowed ground-based controllers to navigate the spacecraft, to configure them for scientific 

observations, and to recover the resulting data. Notable 

events covered during the past year included the encounter of the spacecraft Galileo with the asteroid Ida and the 

recovery of pictures of this asteroid; likewise, the 

aerobraking of the spacecraft Magellan in orbit about 

Venus. Further uses of the Ground Network facilities 

included astronomical observations employing radio 

and radar. A notable achievement was the radar observation and imaging of the near-Earth crossing asteroid, 

Toutatis, in December 1992, which obtained pictures 100 

times as detailed as the best earlier images of such asteroids. 

Advanced Systems 

During FY 1993, NASA extended the capability of 

the Space Network to include communications with 

scientific balloons that were beyond the line-of-sight 

from mission control, when the Goddard Space Flight 

Center successfully flight tested a low-cost transponder 

on a Long Duration Balloon Project. The gondola and 

payload maintained contact with mission control via the 

Space Network throughout the flight. The feasibility of 

extending this capability to experimental aircraft was 

being studied as the year ended. In past years NASA has 

obtained several of the most significant improvements in 

communications with deep space missions by increasing 

the radio-frequency of the space-to-ground links. This 

year, additional advances were made by the Deep Space 

Network (DSN). Beginning in January 1993, the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, CA, successfully conducted a Ka-band (33 GHz) Link Experiment 

(KaBLE) with the Mars Observer spacecraft. Using 

advanced technology, the DSNResearch Station at Goldstone, CA, simultaneously acquired and tracked this 

spacecraft at Ka-band and X-band (8 GHz) for over a 

seven month period. This was the first Ka-band experiment to receive telemetry from and perform ranging on 

a deep space mission. The lessons learned from KaBLE 

were evolving into the operational DSN as the year 

ended. In another area, it has become clear that space 

missions in the future may require laser beams to communicate larger quantities of scientific data. A milestone 

in technology was passed in December 1992 when JPL 

engineers beamed laser pulses over a distance of 3.7 

million miles (6 million kilometers) to a camera on the 

Galileo spacecraft. To minimize cloud blockage, laser 

beams were transmitted simultaneously from the Table 

Mountain Observatory near Wrightwood, CA, and the 

Starfire Optical Range of the Air Force’s Phillips Laboratory near Albuquerque, NM. 

36 
Aeronautical Activities 

Technological Developments 

Within the Federal Government, the DoD, the 

Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and NASA 

engaged in the development of new and improved 

technologies within the aeronautical field. An important example was the National Aero-Space Plane 

(NASP), a joint DoD-NASA program to develop and 

validate technologies for an entirely new generation 

of hypersonic vehicles, such as single-stage-to-orbit 

space planes that could fly at hypersonic speeds 

(greater than Mach 5) to provide flexible, efficient 

space-launch capability with horizontal takeoffs and 

landings on runways using airbreathing technology. 

The program has completed initial feasibility studies 

and advanced to the technology-development phase. 

The current phase of the NASP program will be 

completed at the end of FY 1994. 

The NASP program has conducted component 

hardware fabrication, materials manufacturing, and 

aerodynamic, mechanical, and thermal ground tests 

with impressive results. Progress in aeropropulsion 

was highlighted by a series of wind-tunnel tests. 

Long-duration tests up to Mach 14 of a large-scale 

model of a NASP supersonic combustion ramjet 

(scramjet) combustor provided valuable new data. 

The test periods of more than ten seconds have provided a wealth of such data for simulated flight speeds 

above Mach 8. The new large-scale tests can match 

many of the test conditions for flight and have satisfied the objective of helping to interpret the much 

more extensive sets of short-duration, pulsed-tunnel 

data. Other propulsion activities included Rocketdyne 

tests at the CalTech T5 tunnel and related work at the 

“HYPULSE’ facility in New York. These provided 

new insights into the design and operation of scramjet 

fuel injectors at Mach 16 flight conditions. Tests up 

to Mach 18 in the Naval Surface Weapons Center 

Tunnel Number 9 in Maryland have contributed valuable data on NASP inlet configurations. These and 

other aeropropulsion advances were matched by improvements in the associated laser-based instrumentation techniques and by updated methodologies for 

computer analyses. Relatedly , hydrogen-cooled structures simulating the engine inlet lip were successfully 

tested at Mach 15 conditions. 

Previous work had advanced slush-hydrogen fuel 

technologies from laboratory exercises to large-scale 

production and ground handling. More recent activities addressed on-board fuel-related operations. NASP 

on-board requirements differ significantly from those 

for the liquid-hydrogen tanks on rocket boosters. The 

latter are vertically oriented and use gravity, pressurized gas, and the booster’s acceleration to drain the 

tanks. NASP tanks are horizontally mounted, have 

much larger surface areas of fuel, and must accommodate recirculation of fuel in the actively cooled structures. The NASP fuel system must cope with fuel 

flow ranging from a super-cold (cryogenic) slush up 

through superheated hydrogen gas. NASP aerodynamics have focused largely on three areas. NASA’s 

Langley Research Center and McDonnell Douglas 

completed a series of tests of the X-30 configuration 

in 1993. They covered the speed regime from takeoff 

to Mach 17+ to provide a solid data base on aerodynamics, stability, and controllability. Boundary-layer 

transition from smooth (laminar) to turbulent strongly 

affects local structure heating (and, consequently, 

vehicle weight) and engine inlet performance. Tests 

and predictive-tool development for hypersonic 

boundary layers have emphasized improvements to 

predictive tools, especially to account for the effects 

of shock waves. The third area, propulsionlairframe 

integration, saw major advances in the development 

of test techniques. 

In the area of materials science, production of 

high-temperature metallic composites was made feasible with a breakthrough in materials processing 

techniques. New coatings technologies are providing 

superior oxidation resistance for carbon-carbon heat 

shields and for highly conductive metallic alloys used 

37 
in actively cooled engine components. The NASP 

team has also conducted successful thermal and mechanical tests of NASP panel assemblies, which have 

joints, numerous fasteners, and complex curves. These 

structures represent specific segments of the X-30 

fuselage. Other realistic tests of heat exchangers, 

engine hot gas seals, actively cooled leading-edgetype structures, and internal substructures were also 

successful. Aeroelastics, the coupling of aerodynamic loads and structural characteristics, was substantially advanced by both analysis and special tests 

in the NASA Langley Transonic Dynamics Tunnel 

(the national facility for aeroelastic testing). The 

culmination of work to date has been the definition of 

NASP structural and controls requirements to match 

the expected flight-path conditions. 

There have been advances in many other areas, 

such as instrumentation, simulation, and computational fluid dynamics (CFD). For example, improvements in strain-gauge designs are now providing the 

rugged, dependable instrumentation essential for piloted flight-research vehicles. In addition, CFD has 

become a routinely applied but very powerful tool for 

either analyzing data or predicting the behavior of 

purely conceptual flow fields. NASP has transferred 

CFD tools to industry experts to enhance both hypersonic calculating efficiency and fidelity in the simulation of natural phenomena. U.S. industry has adopted 

a number of other NASP technological spinoffs as 

well. These include materials for automobile engines, 

computer systems, heart valve replacements, pipes for 

deeper oil wells, and NASP computational algorithms 

for advanced vehicle and engine developments. 

The joint X-31A Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability (EFM) program is a cooperative effort involving Germany, the U.S. Navy, the U.S. Air Force, 

NASA, Rockwell International, and Deutsche Aerospace (formerly Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm) to 

determine the overall utility characteristics and limitations of a military aircraft employing advanced control 

concepts and systems through flight evaluation. The 

program includes two aircraft built under sponsorship 

of ARPA and the German Government. The X-31 

features light-weight, carbon-carbon external thrust 

deflection paddles, a moveable inlet lip, and a flight 

control system to provide superior control during poststall maneuvering flight. The aircraft demonstrated 

pilot-friendly handling during aggressive maneuvering up to 70 degrees angle of attack (AOA). During FY 

1993, the flight envelope was fully expanded to 225 

knots for maneuver entry using a thrust vane deflection 

authority to 35 degrees. As part of the envelope 

expansion, aft fuselage strakes were added to counter 

nose pitch-up bias, nose strakes were investigated to 

reduce high angle-of-attack asymmetry, and control 

law modifications were investigated to provide better 

angle-of-attack controllability. Concurrent with the 

final stages of improving aircraft agility throughout 

the post-stall regime, the X-3 1 began an evaluation of 

combat capabilities using a modified F- 18 adversary. 

During the first half of FY 1994, the F-18 will be 

employed in unrestricted one-on-one engagements to 

verify simulation trends and tactics and to assess 

effects on pilots generated by this form of combat 

maneuvering. In addition, engineers were integrating 

an advanced helmet-mounted audio-visual display 

system to examine situation awareness during close-in 

combat. Finally, program engineers were readying a 

single point experiment to demonstrate quasi-tailless 

flight using the X-31’s advanced thrust vectoring 

system at supersonic speeds. After this, the program 

was scheduled to end in March 1994. 

Another new aircraft in development by the DoD 

was the B-2, whose primary mission remained to 

enable any theater commander to hold at risk and, if 

necessary, attack an enemy’s warmaking potential. As 

of October 6,1993, six of the aircraft were undergoing 

testing, having accumulated 1,35 1 hours of flight test 

in a total of 288 sorties. Approximately 30 percent of 

the flight test program was complete by the end of FY 

1993. Test pilots have experienced the full flight 

envelope with altitudes and speeds up to 100percent of 

those expected under operational conditions. The B2 has released both nuclear and conventional bomb 

shapes, indicating that the aircraft design and aerodynamic airflow are well suited for both nuclear and 

conventional bombing missions. The program has not 

experienced any fuel leaks, a significant achievement 

for such a large aircraft with integral, internal body 

cavity fuel tanks. The airplane successfully completed 

its structural test program. The durability and strength 

of the airframe meet all operational requirements. In 

addition, the B-2 completed electromagnetic compatibility and Tempest (electronic security) testing seven 

weeks ahead of schedule. In July 1993, the B-2 entered 

climatic testing at the Eglin Air Force Base Climatic 

38 
Laboratory for a series of rigorous tests over a sixmonth period. All tests before the end of the fiscal 

year were successful and have verified the system 

operation and integration of the first operational B-2 

scheduled for delivery to the Air Combat Command 

in December 1993. 

The Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTIIF- 16) program continued flight testing of 

advanced technologies in support of aircraft with an 

air-to-surface attack mission. It developed a prototype Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System 

(Auto GCAS) for the AFTI Air-to-Ground mission 

scenario and used this during the AFTI flight tests of 

low altitude night missions. The Auto GCAS design 

uses a Digital Terrain System carried on board the 

aircraft to represent the terrain digitally and preclude 

controlled flight into that terrain. Flight testing of the 

prototype system ended in 1992 but has resumed in 

1993 to replicate recent F-16 mishaps and demonstrate the viability of Auto GCAS in actual operational scenarios. AFTI applications in the future 

include the development of a full envelope system as 

a cooperative partnership between this Wright Laboratory Advanced Development program and the F- 16 

Systems Project Office. 

In a rather different area of aeronautics development, Raptor/Talon is a BMDO-funded program to 

provide U.S. armed forces and their allies an airbased defense against Theater Ballistic Missiles 

(TBM) by stopping the missiles in their boost phase. 

Raptor is the high-altitude, pilotless aerial vehicle 

that will patrol over enemy TBM launch areas. Talon 

is the light-weight interceptor missile that will negate 

the enemy TBM before booster burn-out. During FY 

1993 the Raptor demonstrator aircraft, built by Scaled 

Composites, made 10 successful test flights. Using 

technologies and lessons learned from the aircraft 

named Voyager that made the first around-the-world 

journey without landing or refueling, the demonstrator went from aircraft design to first flight within one 

year. Another version of Raptor named Pathfinder is 

a flying solar-electric wing. As the fiscal year ended, 

it was preparing for its first low-altitude flight test in 

October 1993. Built by AeroVironment, Pathfinder 

built upon the technologies developed for the Solar 

Challenger, which flew across the English Channel in 

1981 powered entirely by sunlight. At mid-latitudes, 

Pathfinder’s energy collection and storage system 

should be capable of supporting flights of indefinite 

duration. 

Another project, the Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology (IHPTET) initiative is a coordinated DoD/NASA/industry effort to 

double turbopropulsion capability by 2003 in all three 

classes of turbine engines-turbofans/turbojets; turboshafts/turboprops; and expendables. Begun in 1987, 

IHPTET incorporates virtually all government and 

industry resources dedicated to research and development of turbine engines for military aircraft and 

missiles. The program’s accomplishments in FY 

1993 included two IHPTET Phase I large demonstrator engines tested under the Air ForceNavy Joint 

Technology Demonstrator Engine program. Both the 

Pratt & Whitney XTE65 and General Electric XTE45 

engines demonstrated performance improvements 

over the XF119 engine that served as a baseline-a 22 

percent increase in thrustlweight and an 18 percent 

reduction in fuel bum. Also, the Compressor Research Facility at Wright-Patterson AFB successfully 

tested swept fan technology and transitioned it to 

industry. The program demonstrated new “supercooling” technologies for turbine engine hot sections, 

including an Allison concept that used quasi-transpiration cooling and a Pratt & Whitney concept called 

Superblade. The Turbine Research Facility achieved 

operational status, making it possible for the first time 

to evaluate turbine aerodynamic and cooling concepts economically using real engine hardware. For 

the first time ever, an advanced core engine was tested 

with a magnetic bearing, with the goal of eliminating 

lubrication systems from future engines. Finally, the 

program formed a governmentlindustry/university 

consortium to address the phenomenon of bladeddisk force response-a major area of concern throughout the military and industrial complex. 

In the face of severe competition from subsidized 

foreign competitors with American industry, NASA’s 

role in civil aeronautics is more important than ever in 

developing technology, in cooperation with the FAA 

and industry, to ensure that the latter is prepared to 

meet the demands of global competition as well as 

those of growing air traffic volume and accompanying safety requirements. NASA’s Subsonic Systems 

Technology programs have as their goals the facilitation of a safe, productive global air transportation 

system that includes a new generation of environmen39 
tally compatible, economic aircraft that are superior 

to foreign products. During FY 1993, NASA researchers were working with their counterparts in 

industry in several areas including: Fly-By-Light/ 

Power-By-Wire, to develop lightweight, highly reliable optical systems that eliminate the electromagnetic interference associated with purely fly-by-wire 

systems; Aging Aircraft, to develop prediction methods and nondestructive evaluation technologies to 

detect flaws or fractures that may shorten the safe 

structural life of commercial aircraft; Advanced Composites Technology (ACT), to establish cost-effective methods of joining composite wings and fuselages to meet goals of 50 percent weight and 25 

percent cost savings over those necessary for metallic 

transports; Advanced Turboprop (ATP), to reduce 

airframe and engine noise levels by 3-4 decibels in the 

near term, relative to the existing state of the art, and 

7- 10 decibels over the longer term. 

In 1993 NASA successfully completed flight 

tests of Fiber-optic Sensors on flight research aircraft. The benefits of fiber optics are lighter weight 

and the inherent immunity of fiber optics to electromagnetic interference. Ten flight control sensors 

underwent engineering flight tests to evaluate how 

fiber optic sensors would react in flight. These trials 

are the foundation for subsequent tests when the pilot 

will use the signals from the fiber-optic sensors to 

control the flight research aircraft and prepare the 

way for tests on civil transport aircraft. To provide 

tools to the industry that prove the electronics in its 

aircraft are truly immune to interference, engineers 

expose aircraft electronics to a variety of high-intensity radiated fields in a Gigahertz Transverse Electromagnetic Chamber and a reverberation chamber. 

These tools will allow NASA to validate the analytical tools used by the FAA and industry as they ensure 

that electronic systems in aircraft are immune to the 

effects of electromagnetic fields. 

NASA has also developed Improved Methods 

that predict the effects of service history and the 

environment on the durability of the airframe structure and transferred them to airplane manufacturers 

and the FAA. Engineers have developed and demonstrated advanced nondestructive inspection methods 

focused on techniques for inspecting large areas to 

reduce costs without decreasing reliability. They 

developed a new thermal imaging prototype to detect 

disbonds and corrosion in joints of aircraft structures, 

and they demonstrated it at commercial airline maintenance facilities. The new systems have economical, 

broad-area inspection capability to describe regions 

of disbonds and corroded areas of the aircraft structure with great accuracy. Also, airplane manufacturers and airlines have been field testing a portable, 

battery-operated, hand-held electromagnetic instrument developed to detect small fatigue cracks in 

riveted joints and prototype instruments. This technology has broad applications beyond the aerospace 

industry to the automotive, electric power and utility, 

shipbuilding, and medical industries. 

As aircraft noise continued to be a persistent 

domestic and international concern, NASA achieved 

progress during FY 1993 in the ATPprogram with the 

testing of Pratt & Whitney’s 10-foot diameter fan 

Advanced Ducted Propulsion engine in the Ames 

Research Center’s 40 x 80 foot wind tunnel that 

showed significant reductions for aircraft engine 

noise-15 decibels for engine fan noise, for instance. 

To meet the goals of the ACT program, NASA has 

been investigating all stages of manufacturing from 

material selection and processing to structural design 

and manufacturing. In FY 1993, engineers fabricated 

a large top (or crown) fuselage panel using advanced 

automated fiber-placement machines. By using a 

computer-controlled machine to place the composite 

fibers, engineers produced a panel requiring oneforth the number of fasteners needed for an aluminum 

panel, significantly reducing the cost of production. 

Tests indicated that innovative techniques in building 

wing panels have outstanding damage tolerance and 

a strong potential for cost savings. 

In the supersonic arena, NASA’s SR-71 Aircraft 

Testbed Program conducted baseline flights for 

aeronautical research to assist industry in making key 

decisions about developing a High Speed Civil Transport (HSCT). The SR-71 is particularly well suited 

for this research because of its ability to meet and 

exceed the projected HSCT cruise speeds of Mach 2.4 

at 60,000 to 65,000 feet. During FY 1993, NASA 

began baseline flight research to support development and validation of softened sonic boom design 

methods for improvement in HSCT aircraft handling 

qualities for better performance, and the development 

of laser techniques to provide remote sensing of 

freestream flight conditions to meet several HSCT 

40 
aircraft needs. Also during this period, the SR-71 

testbed aircraft conducted checkouts for two space 

science sensors and one commercial communication 

satellite payload. 

More generally, NASA’s High-speed Research 

program continued during FY 1993 to focus on resolving critical environmental issues and laying the 

technological foundation for an economical, nextgeneration HSCT. With the rapidly growing market 

for long-range transoceanic air travel, such an aircraft 

could be crucial to the competitive posture of the 

American aircraft industry in the next century. In 

1993, progress continued in assessing the potential 

atmospheric impact of HSCT aircraft. Using twodimensional global models, NASA examined a range 

of aircraft operational scenarios, and predictions indicate the possibility of very small effects on stratospheric ozone from a fleet of low-emission HSCT 

aircraft. During the year, NASA’s ER-2 high altitude 

science aircraft gathered key additional atmospheric 

measurements on research flights to test that the 

chemistry of the models is representative of all seasons and geographic locations and will accurately 

simulate the atmospheric chemical process of the 

proposed aircraft emissions and operations. As the 

year ended the National Academy of Sciences was 

completing a review of the program’s atmospheric 

research to help assure that current scientific knowledge is being accurately reflected and that planned 

research activities over the next two years will reduce 

the key uncertainties. In parallel research, the effectiveness and practicality of the low NOx combustor 

technology being developed for future HSCT engines 

was further reinforced by results of flame tube testing 

at higher inlet temperatures with no significant increase in NOx production. (NOx is any of several 

compounds of nitrogen and oxygen.) Related research in ceramic matrix composite materials and 

processes for the low-emission combustors also 

achieved significant results in FY 1993 with successful development of advanced fibers that meet the 

program goals for strength, temperature, and commercial production feasibility. 

A second major environmental requirement for 

any future HSCT is meeting acceptable airport noise 

levels. This presents a formidable challenge in that it 

represents nearly a 10-fold reduction in noise compared to the only supersonic transport currently in 

service, the Concorde. Testing of improved engine 

noise-reduction concepts such as the mixer-ejector 

exhaust nozzle continued in 1993 with one nozzle 

achieving the required reduction while also producing reasonably high thrust efficiency levels. Research efforts to reduce the weight of the long, complex exhaust systems also progressed with related 

development of several fabrication approaches on 

new, high-temperature, intermetallic matrix composite materials. 

While studies have concluded that an economically viable HSCT is not dependent upon supersonic 

overland flight capability, previous testing of smallscale aircraft models has shown the potential to soften 

the sonic boom with minimal penalties in aerodynamic efficiency. Efforts in this area continued during 1993 and were complemented by initiation of 

flight research to investigate sonic boom propagation 

in the atmosphere. (See coverage above of SR-71.) 

Research directed at significantly improving aerodynamic efficiency also continued, with a key effort 

focussing on the use of suction on the leading edge of 

the wing to maintain laminar flow on the surface. The 

benefits of this technology offer the potential for an 

8.5 percent reduction in maximum takeoff weight. 

During FY 1993, the program flew a modified F16XL to further investigate the ability to maintain 

laminar flow over most of the surface of a representative HSCT wing and successfully demonstrated the 

fabrication process for the wing glove suction system. 

In airframe materials and structures technology, development continued on lightweight advanced titanium alloys, organic matrix composites, adhesives, 

and sealants needed to endure temperatures up to 350” 

Fahrenheit and 60,000 flight hours. 

Although actual flight of the HSCT aircraft is 

more than 10 years in the future, a team of industry 

and NASA pilots experienced their first HSCT 

“flights” in FY 1993 through use of a NASA flight 

simulator. The cockpit included head-up and headdown displays, computer-generated visual scenes, 

controllers, and a representative control panel. Participants conducted evaluations of descent, approach, 

landing, and go-around over a range of wind and 

turbulence to help define key requirements for advanced flight deck technologies. 

NASA’s Hypersonics Research program is an 

ongoing activity that generates technologies neces41 
sary for the design and development of advanced 

airbreathing hypersonic vehicles. The multi-disciplinary program stresses the fundamental understanding and control of the physical phenomena of hypersonic flight. While the emphasis is on airbreathing 

accelerating configurations, the program is also generating technology for cruise and reentry vehicle applications. NASA has made research grants to three 

universities for hypersonics research across the range 

of aeronautical disciplines. NASA researchers have 

performed analyses for generic-vehicle forebody 

flowfields to ascertain real gas effects on lift, drag, and 

pitching moment. They have completed fundamental 

studies on supersonic combustion. These characterized the basic mechanisms by which hydrogen fuel 

damages Beta 2 1 S Titanium alloys. The research also 

included a detailed feasibility study of a Mach 5 

waverider (wing configuration) aircraft. Engineers 

were developing high-temperature fiber optic instrumentation for the hostile environment of elevated 

Mach number flows. They completed analyses, wind 

tunnel testing, and mock-ups for the FY 1995 hypersonic cross-flow boundary-layer transition flight experiment that will piggyback onto the first stage of a 

scheduled Pegasus flight. 

During FY 1993, NASA also used the B-52 aircraft to complete two successful airborne launches of 

the Pegasus rocket, one of which was a commercial 

launch of a satellite payload for Brazil. The airplane 

was also used, in support of the Air Force, to complete 

F-1 1 1 parachute drop tests for crew module recovery. 

In its F-18 High Alpha Technology Program, 

NASA sought to achieve a basic understanding of high 

angle-of-attack aerodynamics, including the effects of 

selected advanced flight control concepts used individually and in combination. The program has demonstrated the use of external engine thrust deflection 

paddles to achieve controlled full rudder pedal sideslips at 65 degrees angle of attack. It has also demonstrated a significant increase in roll rate, an important 

factor in winning air combat engagements. Computational breakthroughs have resulted in the ability to 

calculate the separated and vortical flow characteristics about the entire F-18 aircraft at high angle of 

attack. During FY 1993, NASA obtained flight data in 

support of the High Alpha Nose-down Guidelines 

(HANG) evaluation and the Real Time Thrust Measurement (RTTM) methodology. It also obtained 

forebodyfleading edge extension data through 65 degrees alpha for computational fluid dynamics and 

wind tunnel correlation. The program conducted technology transfer tours in June 1993 that were extremely 

well received by the 12 industry and government 

groups visited. 

NASA also had an F- 18 Systems Research Aircraft (SRA) program that it offered as a testbed for the 

use of many industrial companies and government 

agencies. The subsystems currently planned and under test promise to have important impact on the 

weight and fuel bum characteristics of advanced subsonic civil aircraft yet to be designed. As such, these 

programs will have an important impact on job creation and the competitiveness of U.S. industry. During 

FY 1993, the program got the aircraft instrumented 

and then successfully flight tested its smart actuators 

as part of the Electrically Powered Actuation Design 

program. 

NASA used its F-15 testbed aircraft to develop 

and demonstrate the benefits of integrating selected 

flight controls with selected engine controls (engine, 

nozzle, and inlet) for maximal performance, minimum 

fuel bum for a particular thrust setting, or engine life 

improvement. The technology has enormous implications for reducing the operating cost of future aircraft, 

particularly long-range, cruise-dominated, subsonic 

and supersonic civil transport aircraft. During FY 

1993, the program demonstrated and validated real 

time performance optimization at supersonic flight 

conditions. Also the F-15 demonstrated the first 

planned landing of an aircraft using only propulsion 

power for flight control. The software for propulsiononly flight control provides a significant safety enhancement for civil and military aircraft in the event 

conventional flight control surfaces are inoperable. 

NASA’s Flight Research Instrumentation and 

Test Techniques program emphasizes the transition 

of university ideas and concepts into products and 

processes that will improve the productivity of flight 

testing. During FY 1993 engineers developed a new 

analysis method for quickly determining structural 

mode responses during ground vibration tests. They 

were transitioning it to industry as the year ended. 

They also concluded research on a laser system employing a “sheet pairs” principle, which was designed 

to measure angle of attack, angle of sideslip, and 

aircraft velocity. 

42 
NASA’s Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing 

(V/STOL) technological program included three elements in FY 1993. The first element, a V/STOL 

System Research Aircraft (VSRA) employed a Harrier aircraft equipped with an integrated attitude and 

thrust control research system. The program also 

included provisions to evaluate new cockpit displays 

that assist a pilot in guiding his aircraft from forward 

flight to hover and vertical landings on small ships or 

confined sites. During FY 1993, NASA completed 

initial checkout flights of the VSRA equipped with 

modified digital flight controls and cockpit displays. 

A second element at Ames Research Center involved 

an evaluation of a Mixed Flow Vectored Thrust 

STOVL concept from McDonnell Douglas using 

Ames’ fixed-base simulator. The third element consisted of a test of a modular V/STOL Hot Gas Ingestion model, conducted at NASA’s Lewis Research 

Center. 

NASA’s Critical Technologies Research effort 

has sought to develop innovative concepts and a 

variety of theoretical, experimental, and computational tools needed for the design and operation of the 

next generation of aircraft. In materials research, 

analytical modeling of polymer resins has enabled 

chemists to predict the toughness of new and untried 

molecular formulations. The result has been more 

consistent quality at reduced cost as well as materials 

that are more stable at high temperatures. Use of 

piezoelectric materials and shape memory alloys in 

control applications has led to active suppression of 

aircraft wing flutter and buffet and passive control of 

panel flutter. Engineers have improved computational tools for prediction of structural behavior, 

resulting in greater accuracy and reduced cost. They 

have also improved simulations of complete aircraft 

and propulsion systems, synthesis tools, and the like 

to help prioritize NASA’s aeronautics research and to 

aid industry in its systems studies. 

An example of developments in the area of guidance and control involved development of algorithms 

for advanced control of Vertical Takeoff and Landing 

vehicles. The purpose of the algorithms is to provide 

greatly simplified design and implementation of the 

control system. In another program cosponsored with 

the Air Force, Pratt & Whitney, and General Electric, 

recent test results on a large-scale catalytic heat exchanger for use with fuels absorbing a high level of 

heat have resulted in increased confidence in this 

technology. 

Relatedly, NASA’s Computational Fluid Dynamics program focuses on interaction and technology 

transfer with U.S. aerospace industry, to provide tools 

for improving the competitiveness of the industry in 

the world market. During FY 1993, two distinct 

computer codes for resolving problems with fluid 

flow became integral parts of the aircraft design 

process for a major U.S. airframe manufacturer. One 

code applies to low-speed (take-off and landing) 

applications in the design of new high-lift wings. The 

other code, including a NASA-developed turbulence 

model, provides final verification of wing design for 

the same manufacturer. To reduce drag and improve 

lift performance for high-lift wing systems, NASA 

and a major U.S. airframe manufacturer have developed the micro-vortex generator concept, which dramatically reduces flow separation without adversely 

affecting cruise performance. 

NASA also continued to be integrally involved 

during 1993 with the airframe manufacturers in the 

area of both subsonic and supersonic laminar flow 

control. The agency has provided a technique that has 

become the standard in the engineering industry for 

predicting the onset of transition to turbulence. This 

technology is enabling research and development of 

extended laminar flow control systems by the industry for future subsonic and supersonic civilian transports. Finally, NASA has determined the effects of 

leading edge thickness and the surface roughness of 

compressor stage blades on engine performance. The 

agency has provided recommendations to the U.S. 

aerospace engine industry on alternate leading edge 

shapes for the blades, on the blade refurbishment 

process, and on the need for tighter control of manufacturing tolerances. If implemented, these recommendations can improve both short- and long-term 

engine performance. 

Like NASA and the DoD, the FAA was developing advanced technical capabilities through a wide 

array of programs. For example, the FAA continued 

to study traditional airworthiness and certification 

techniques as applied to fly-by-wire/fly-by-light 

(FBWFBL) concepts. In coordination with NASA, 

the agency proceeded with research in fault tolerant 

architecture and electromagnetic effects assessment 

associated with FBW/FBL, as well as the new power43 
by-wire concepts. Also, the FAA and NASA initiated 

a joint research program, with industry and academic 

participation, to develop new technologies for quieter 

subsonic jet aircraft engines and airframes. Additionally, efforts were underway as the year ended to 

analyze government and industry recommendations 

for assessing the environmental impacts of future 

civil supersonic aircraft. The FAA completed a study 

of a simplified helicopter noise certification procedure that led to adoption of a new appendix to the 

Federal Air Regulation, Part 36, and finished writing 

a proposed advisory circular describing acceptable 

criteria for safe departure profiles that would also 

reduce noise. The agency created the Environmental 

Costing Model to compute the estimated costs to air 

carriers of fleet modernization alternatives to meet 

transition schedules to quieter aircraft. In the new 

Noise Impact Routing System, the FAA also applied 

the latest optimization technology to airspace analysis and design of improved route networks that minimize community noise impact. Moreover, during FY 

1993 the agency began forming the Federal Interagency Committee on Aviation Noise to assist other 

agencies in providing a forum for discussion of FAA 

and public proposals for future noise research. The 

FAA also established a research and development 

study group to review and recommend land use measures around airports in order to minimize the impact 

of aircraft noise through a nationally accepted land 

use policy. 

Air Traffic Control and 

Navigation 

Among the many activities of the FAA in this 

area, the Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance 

System (TCAS) uses air-to-air interrogations of transponder-equipped aircraft to provide pilots with advisories indicating the range, bearing, and altitude of 

aircraft posing potential threats. In the mid-l990s, 

the FAA will require TCAS I, a low-power system 

that provides alerting but not recommended escape 

maneuvers, in turbine-powered commercial airplanes 

with 10 to 30 passenger seats. The TCAS I1 version, 

which alerts the pilot to traffic and advises whether to 

climb or descend when a potential conflict occurs, 

became mandatory in all commercial aircraft of more 

than 30 seats on December 31, 1993. During FY 

1993, the FAA continued to develop minimum operating standards for TCAS enhancements, which will 

provide traffic alerts and resolution advisories that 

include right or left turns as well as altitude changes. 

In a joint project, the FAA and the Coast Guard 

developed and tested an Automatic Signal BLINK 

system for Loran-C transmitter stations that will provide an additional level of system integrity when 

Loran-C is used by pilots as a nonprecision, instrument approach aid to airports. Signal BLINK is a 

recognizable change that begins when the signal 

should not be used for navigation. The automatic 

system will act as a back-up to the conventional, 

manual BLINK now used by transmitter station operators. During FY 1993 the FAA participated in 

engineering model tests and helped prepare for the 

prototype tests that will begin in early 1994. 

Another FAA program, the Advanced Traffic 

Management System sought to develop enhanced 

automation capabilities for air traffic flow management. In FY 1993 the FAA installed at its Command 

Center a test version of computer algorithms for anew 

generation of alternative aircraft routings and dynamic programs to reduce ground delay at multiple 

airports. 

The FAA also continued to modernize voice 

communications for air traffic controllers with its 

integrated Voice Switching and Control System. 

This will offer improved communications performance through touch screen controls and computercontrolled voice-channel technology. In January 1993, 

the FAA completed factory acceptance testing of the 

prototype upgrade system and deployed it in March to 

the Technical Center in Atlantic City, NJ, for additional testing. Also in March, the agency confirmed 

a decision to begin limited production of the system. 

As the fiscal year ended, the FAA was preparing for 

factory acceptance testing and operational test and 

evaluation of the actual system before deploying it to 

the first operational site at the Seattle Air Route 

Traffic Control Center (ARTCC). 

An essential part of aircraft movement on airport 

surfaces is proper guidance during taxiing. Thus, the 

FAA must design and maintain the Visual Guidance 

Systems (lighting, marking, and signs) to avoid any 

ambiguity in their intended operational use. During 

FY 1993 the agency developed a draft specification 

44 
for a standard stop bar lighting system (to prevent an 

aircraft from entering the runway area without proper 

approval), based on International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommendations and previous 

testing at John F. Kennedy International Airport. The 

agency continued an initial in-service evaluation of 

the system at Seattle-Tacoma International Airport 

during the fiscal year. 

Pre-departure clearance Aeronautical Data Link 

service continued at 30 airports, speeding operations 

while reducing controller workload and voice frequency congestion. Participation grew to include 

eight U.S. carriers, as well as Finair and Scandinavian 

Airlines, while general aviation participants increased 

to 260 aircraft. During FY 1993, the FAA continued 

an aggressive development and operational evaluation program for the Tower Data Link Service (TDLS), 

which includes pre-departure clearance Phase 11, Flight 

Data Input and Output emulation, and Digital Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS). The 

agency held a TDLS national kickoff meeting to 

introduce the planned program to the air traffic community. The FAA also completed successful Digital 

ATIS field evaluations at Pittsburgh and BaltimoreWashington International Airports, resulting in the 

refinement and incorporation of requirements that 

will provide further benefits to both pilots and controllers. During the fiscal year, the FAA actively 

supported the development of U.S. and international 

standards for the Aeronautical Telecommunications 

Network (ATN) that would integrate a number of 

different air-ground data links, as well as ground data 

networks, into a seamless inter-network environment. 

During FY 1993, the FAA published the U.S. standards for the initial air traffic control data link services and continued development of U.S. ATN standards. 

The goal of the FAA’s Precision Runway Monitor program is to increase airport capacity through 

safe reduction of constraints on the use of parallel or 

converging runways during instrument meteorological conditions (poor visibility). To achieve this goal, 

the FAA has been using an electronically scanned 

secondary radar with high accuracy, improved display, automated predictor, and visual/aural alerting of 

deviations from the proper flightpath. On June 30, 

1993, the FAA commissioned the first of these systems, consisting of an upgraded version of the prototype hardware, at Raleigh-Durham Airport, NC. Work 

continued on five production systems at Bendix Communications Division of Allied Signal. The FAA 

planned to place the new system at four additional 

airports, with the fifth production unit replacing the 

prototype at Raleigh-Durham. The FAA also continued to study possible applications of the technology at 

airports with closer runway spacings and with three or 

four parallel runways. 

The FAA proceeded with the development of a 

comprehensive, all-weather Surface Traffic Automation System that will automate ground movement 

and increase surface capacity. This developmental 

program combines the Differential Global Positioning System and other surface sensors with a surveillance data link that displays target location with 

alphanumerical data tags and processes track and 

flight data. The system will automatically provide the 

controller with optimal arrival and departure taxi 

routes in all weather conditions, as well as taxi route 

conformance assurance. In FY 1993, the FAA and 

Volpe National Transportation Systems Center began 

researching alternative technologies for alphanumeric 

data tags. Also, the agency and the Air Force together 

with Lincoln Laboratories of MIT began analysis of 

an automated dependent surveillance system. 

Another FAA initiative, the Terminal Area Surveillance System (TASS), sought to develop and 

deploy a terminal area system consisting of several 

sensors interfaced with a processing system that fuses 

input data and develops weather products and target 

reports from all available sources. The two types of 

surveillance required in the terminal area are air 

traffic and environmental. Air traffic includes both 

airborne and surface targets, some of which are 

equipped with radar beacon transponders. The purpose of environmental surveillance is to detect and 

predict meteorological phenomena. During FY 1993, 

the FAA established a team to define the system’s 

operational requirements, prepared an acquisition plan, 

and readied a functional system description for evaluation by industry. The agency also began a simulation 

program to assess requirements and new technologies 

and evaluated exploratory work in microburst prediction, wake vortex detection, and active phased array 

radars. 

The FAA’s Terminal Air Traffic Control Automation program seeks to provide optimized termi45 
nal traffic flow by expeditiously incorporating proven 

automation technology. This promises to reduce 

controller workload, improve traffic efficiency, and 

enhance safety in the terminal air traffic system. 

During FY 1993, the FAA completed development of 

a Converging Runway Display Aid (CRDA) that 

allows continued use of a pair of intersecting runways 

during instrument meteorological conditions. The 

airports at St. Louis, Boston, Philadelphia, and 

Cincinatti have implemented this software enhancement and have realized increased acceptance rates of 

up to 33 percent in certain conditions. The agency 

continued to work on a follow-on effort, the Controller Automation Spacing Aid (CASA), that will extend 

CRDA technology to other applications to improve 

throughput of aircraft to the runway. 

The FAA also continued cooperation with NASA 

in their joint research and development efforts on the 

Center-TRACON (Terminal Radar Approach 

Control) Automation System (CTAS), an integrated 

feedback program that uses aircraft-specific trajectory calculations to schedule and sequence aircraft to 

the runway. Following testing of the system at 

Stapleton International Airport, CO, and the nearby 

air route traffic control center in Longmont, the FAA 

began during FY 1993 to train controllers at the 

Dallas-Fort Worth, TX, approach control facility on 

the system’s final approach spacing element for further testing of the system there. The FAA planned to 

begin an operational assessment of the CTAS scheduling element in early FY 1994. 

As the fiscal year ended, Allied Signal Inc. was in 

full production of the 26 Microwave Landing Systems (MLSs) for operation in Category I conditions, 

which involve a runway visual range of not less than 

1,800 feet, and the FAA had witnessed the successful 

factory production testing of the first seven systems. 

They will be used to demonstrate the economic and 

operational benefits of MLS. Engineering and site 

preparation were underway at more than 20 airports. 

The Raytheon and Wilcox Corporations continued 

the dual development of the Category I1 and I11 MLS, 

for use in conditions of more limited visibility than 

Category I. Both companies successfully completed 

systems requirements and systems design reviews, 

establishing overall system baselines. As of the end 

of the year, they were progressing on schedule for the 

delivery of the first test systems to the FAA Technical 

Center in mid- 1996. 

When completed, another FAA program, the Advanced Automation System (AAS) will upgrade the 

capacity and reliability of the airspace system, increase controller productivity, provide greater fuel 

efficiency, minimize delays, and give the flexibility 

needed for future enhancements. The FAA plans to 

replace the equipment now used by controllers with 

new computer software, processors, tower position 

consoles, and controller workstations called sector 

suites. During the fiscal year, the agency successfully 

installed and commissioned the system’s first element, the Peripheral Adapter Module Replacement 

Item, at all 20 Air Route Traffic Control Centers 

ahead of schedule. The FAA also redesigned the 

entire AAS to establish an achievable schedule for 

implementation of the Initial Sector Suite System 

with first operational readiness scheduled for October 

1996. As part of the AAS project, a strategic planning 

activity was underway at the end of the year to ensure 

that the Terminal Advanced Automation System 

(TAAS), Area Control Computer Complex, and Tower 

Control Computer Complex segments can be fielded 

in such a way as to provide maximum benefits in a 

timely, achievable way. The FAA has made extensive use of the Development Demonstration Facility 

for early evaluation and risk mitigation of Initial 

Sector Suite System functionality, and the TAAS 

hardware was installed at the facility as the year 

ended. Also, during FY 1993 the FAA placed into 

operation at the Technical Center a Tower Integration 

Laboratory. This laboratory is used for testing and 

evaluation of data management, control, and display 

systems and components for air traffic control tower 

applications, for developing the transition engineering tools, processes and procedures to be used for 

integration and implementation, and for operational 

evaluation of tower-workstatiodcontroller interfaces 

under simulated, high-realism, and load conditions. 

Weather-related Aeronautical 

Activities 

During FY 1993 the FAA continued its progress 

on three projects aimed at improving Aviation 

Weather Services. Working with the Air Force, the 

agency was developing the Integrated Terminal 

Weather System, which promises to provide very 

short-range forecasts and warning notices for pilots 

46 
and air traffic controllers. The FAA tested prototypes 

of this system at the Orlando and Dallas-Fort Worth 

airports. Another project involved the Aviation 

Gridded Forecast System (AGFS), which provides 

more accurate and timely weather information from 

the National Weather Service for aviation use. Using 

AGFS, the FAA and the National Oceanographic and 

Atmospheric Administration’s Forecast Systems 

Laboratory began preliminary testing of improvements in analysis and forecasting of weather data at 

Denver’s Stapleton International Airport. In a third 

project, the National Science Foundation and the 

National Center for Atmospheric Research continued 

to assist the FAA in developing the Aviation Weather 

Products Generator, which will create data for the 

AGFS grid tailored for an en route application. During FY 1993, NOAA and the FAA undertook evaluations of prototype products for aviation users at 

Stapleton, the FAA Technical Center, and at NOAA’s 

National Aviation Weather Advisory Unit in Kansas 

City. 

Relatedly, the FAA defines the aircraft atmospheric Icing environment to include super cooled 

clouds, snow, ice crystals, freezing precipitation, and 

mixed conditions from ground level through all flight 

levels. During FY 1993, the agency continued to 

screen and assess commuter class aircraft with potential susceptibility to icing-induced stalls. In cooperation with NASA and the DoD, the FAA worked to 

develop simulation methodologies, analytical techniques, and instrumentation calibration standards from 

which to design and test ice protection systems. The 

agency also investigated the technologies associated 

with ground anti-icing and deicing fluids to determine 

optimal application procedures, hold-over timetables, 

and associated aerodynamic effects. Additionally, 

the FAA is undertaking research, development, and 

evaluation of surface ice detectors and related technologies. The FAA and National Center for Atmospheric Research continued research efforts to better 

diagnose weather information and forecast inflight 

icing conditions that might require ground deicing of 

aircraft. The agency conducted tests of radar-based 

algorithms to predict snowfall rates in the winter of 

1992-1993 at the Denver airport. In cooperation with 

the FAA, United Airlines deicing personnel evaluated prototype products. The agency also studied the 

ability of various numerical weather models to predict accurately weather information needed to forecast icing conditions, and it proceeded with studies to 

determine an icing index independent of aircraft type. 

Additionally, the FAA and NOAA’s Wave Propagation Laboratory investigated techniques for detecting 

super cooled liquid water, which is important in 

determining icing hazard potentials. 

During the year, the FAA completed “The Forward Look Windshear Detection Systems Requirements,” a document that will be issued as an advisory 

circular. The agency also made plans to certify 

airborne doppler radars as Forward Looking 

Windshear Detection devices, equipment that will 

provide advance warning of hazardous windshear. 

Airlines have placed nearly 1,000 firm orders for the 

new equipment, developed under a cooperative program involving the FAA, NASA, and industry. As the 

year ended, NASA and the FAA were considering 

whether pilots needed formal training to interact with 

the new instruments. Development efforts continued 

on radar and Lidar (laser radar) for use in detecting 

windshear. The FAA also proceeded with its work on 

integrating output from airborne detection devices 

with the Air Traffic Control system and began to plan 

for other applications of this technology. 

The FAA had commissioned 169 federally procured Automated Weather Observation Systems 

(AWOSs) by the end of FY 1993, with an additional 

250 non-federal AWOSs providing real-time weather 

observations at airport where weather data were not 

previously available. In cooperation with the National Weather Service, the FAA continued its program to acquire Automated Surface Observing Systems (ASOSs). The agency ordered 110 additional 

systems during FY 1993, and by the end of the fiscal 

year 220 systems had been installed, although none 

had been commissioned. In addition, the FAA installed the AWOS Data Acquisition System (ADAS) 

at six air route traffic control centers. ADAS acquires, processes, and disseminates data from the 

AWOSs and ASOSs. 

During 1993 the FAA was in the process of 

developing an Electromagnetic Environment data 

base to address atmospheric electrical hazards posed 

by high intensity radiation fields (HIRFs), emissions 

that could interfere with electronic systems. The 

agency continued research to determine the adverse 

effects from lightning and HIRF on all advancedtechnology airframes and systems. In a joint program, the FAA, NASA’s Langley Research Center, 

47 
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, and the 

National Institute for Standards and Technology examined the effectiveness of shielding aircraft and 

airframes from HIRF. Through cooperative efforts 

with industry and other governmental agencies, the 

FAA proceeded with full-scale testing, data collection, and modeling of the susceptibility of flight 

control systems to HIRF in an effort to determine 

damage levels to aircraft. 

The FAA planned for the acquisition of 47 Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR) systems 

for deployment at 45 airports. TDWRprovides timely 

detection of hazardous wind shear in and near airport 

terminal approach and departure corridors and reports that information to pilots and controllers. During FY 1993, the FAA began dismantling the testbed 

system at Orlando and installed the first permanent 

TDWR at Oklahoma City. It will use that system for 

training purposes. The agency also deployed a second TDWR to Houston with commissioning scheduled for FY 1994. 

Flight Safety and Security 

In other efforts to make flight safer, the FAA 

published a three-volume set of reports, entitled “Test 

Methods for Composites: A Status Report.” These 

provide information on tension, compression, and 

shear testing of composite materials that manufacturers can use in designing aircraft structures. The 

agency also completed a report on principles and 

practices for the maintenance and repair of Components and Structures made of advanced materials 

and will incorporate this information into a repair 

maintenance handbook for FAA inspectors. In addition, the agency finished its examination of the possible corrosive effects on wheels of compounds released during tire outgassing at high temperatures; it 

concluded that the concentrations of corrosive compounds were too low to present a serious hazard. 

During the course of the year, the FAA engaged 

in a number of tests and other activities to improve 

Aircraft Crashworthiness. For example, it completed an analysis of the previous year’s vertical 

impact test and published a final report evaluating the 

structural response of the fuselage, floor, and seat 

restraint systems of the Fairchild Metro I11 airplane. 

The agency initiated a joint testing program with 

NASA and the DoD to investigate the crash impact 

resistance of airframes constructed of thennosedfiber 

composite material systems. The FAA also upgraded 

the computer program KRASH with an algorithm for 

aircraft water impacts and concluded water impact/ 

ditching studies for both commuter aircraft and rotorcraft, with special emphasis on the performance of 

flotation devices and on occupant survivability. Additionally, the agency demonstrated the adaptability 

of child restraint systems in carrier aircraft and studied dynamic crashworthiness standards for commuter 

aircraft seats. Tests of transport category seat crashworthiness allowed the agency to guide industry in 

seat design for the future Boeing Model 777 aircraft. 

In the area of Aging Aircraft Research, the FAA 

in coordination with NASA organized nine workshops to discuss ongoing research into structural 

integrity, nondestructive investigation, flight loads, 

and corrosion. The two agencies cosponsored the 5th 

International Conference on Structural Airworthiness of New and Aging Aircraft. As part of its 

cooperation with the FAA, NASA was in the process 

of adapting an existing x-ray system to inspect aircraft wings, turbines, and propeller blades for corrosion, cracks, and disbonding. The FAA also continued international cooperative agreements covering 

aging aircraft research with its counterparts in the 

United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Japan, and Australia. It reached a new agreement with Canada and 

formed a consortium with Iowa State University and 

various engine manufacturers to develop improved 

methods for inspection of engine rotating components. In October 1992, the FAA designated Rutgers 

University and the Georgia Institute of Technology as 

a (combined) Center of Excellence in Computational 

Modeling of Aircraft Structures with the goal of 

examining crash-scenario and structural modeling 

relevant to the current fleet of aging aircraft and to 

new technologies. Among many other activities, the 

agency completed an assessment of the capabilities of 

emerging nondestructive inspection techniques; undertook residual strength and fatigue tests of fullscale curved fuselage panels containing multiple site 

damage; augmented research and development capabilities at its Aging Aircraft Nondestructive Inspection Validation Center by acquiring transport aircraft 

with high service times for use as test beds; developed 

48 
a prototype, light-weight, low-cost recorder to collect 

data on flight loads for small airplanes; and concluded 

a field experiment of eddy current inspection reliability that was conducted at several industrial aircraft 

maintenance facilities. 

With respect to Fire Safety, together with its 

counterparts in the United Kingdom and Canada, the 

FAA completed a series of full-scale fire tests to 

optimize an on-board cabin water spray system previously effective against a range of postcrash fires. The 

results indicated that the quantity of water required on 

a variety of aircraft may be reduced by 90 percent by 

zoning the system and using thermal detectors to 

activate each zone. Such zoning increased the survival 

time and improved visibility compared with a system 

that continuously discharged water throughout the 

cabin. The FAA also prepared and made public a fire 

research plan to guide long-term safety efforts, created 

a new operating group to manage aircraft fire safety 

research, and established an interagency coordinating 

group to focus attention on development of new fireresistant materials. Other efforts to improve aircraft 

fire safety included cooperative efforts with both the 

Department of Energy and the National Research 

Council to accelerate development of sophisticated 

computer models for fire prediction and use of emergency material technologies. 

Relatedly, the FAA tested a research firefighting 

vehicle to improve Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting 

(ARFF) response capabilities under conditions of poor 

visibility. It compared Forward Looking Infra-Red 

and Global Positioning System technologies to see 

which provided the best navigational capabilities for 

ARFF vehicles during heavy fog, and it continued 

development of a vehicle performance standard. 

During FY 1993 the FAA continued tests of unleaded Aviation Gasoline in an effort leading to a new 

fuel specification by the American Society for Testing 

and Material. The agency studied the knock characteristics of various fuels with different fuel additives and 

developed plans for an extensive flight test program 

for an unleaded aviation gas substitute to be used in 

general aviation piston engines. Work to date on 

several types of ethanoVgasoline mixtures as replacement fuels for general aviation engines indicate that 

these fuels show considerable promise. 

The FAA continued to be concerned with safety 

issues involving movement of aircraft and other vehicles on Airport Surfaces. The braking action of an 

aircraft can deteriorate drastically because of snow, 

water, or large deposits of rubber on the runway, 

taxiway, or apron, causing an aircraft to slide sideways 

or overrun the runway. In a joint effort with the Port 

Authority of New York and New Jersey, the FAA 

performed tests to measure the effects of rubber buildup 

on the use of aircraft anti-icing and runway deicing 

fluids. The agency designed those tests to show how 

the fluids would affect runway friction and help reestablish realistic guidelines for rubber removal. 

Relatedly, during FY 1993 the FAA developed an 

analytical computer model to provide identification of 

promising arrester design parameters and then performed tests with an agency B-727, proving that a 

commercial-size aircraft could be safely arrested without damage. 

In the area of Airport Pavement Technology, the 

FAA published in April 1993 its first comprehensive 

Airport Pavement Program Plan, which outlined plans 

to develop advanced pavement design methodologies 

based on sound theoretical principles and full-scale 

validation tests. These plans should facilitate development of advanced techniques needed to assess the 

effects on airport pavements of the loads created by the 

new generations of larger and heavier civil transport 

aircraft. In addition, in August 1993 the FAA completed the preliminary design and feasibility study for 

the first National Airport Pavement Test Machine 

facility. It will provide full-scale testing data urgently 

needed to investigate the response and performance of 

airport pavements subjected to the complex gear loads 

of the new-generation aircraft. In September 1993 the 

FAA then led the research effort to complete the 

construction of the first runway section fully instrumented for pavement research. Located at Denver 

International Airport and equipped with 460 sensors 

and state-of-the-art acquisition devices, the runway 

section allowed information about pavement response 

and performance to be obtained instantly under normal 

operating conditions. The agency was also engaged in 

a study to determine the criteria for assessing runway 

roughness. It will use the study to determine appropriate limits and corrective measures for irregular runway 

profiles. 

The FAA continued to develop technology designed to prevent or mitigate the hazard of Turbine 

Rotor System Failure. Test and evaluation results 

49 
have demonstrated the ability of advanced, lightweight material barriers to absorb the high-energy 

rotor fragments liberated by small turbine engine 

failures. During FY 1993, the agency completed a 

prototype demonstration of a unique x-ray inspection 

system that successfully detected simulated disk cracks 

in a rotating turbine rotor subassembly, offering a 

possible means of improving preventive maintenance. 

Another hazard of flying is the threat of Bird 

Ingestion into Jet Engines. The FAA completed a 

study of the performance of high bypass turbine 

engines after bird ingestion. This showed that during 

departures, engines sustained about twice as much 

damage as those that ingested birds during amval. 

The agency will use the results of this effort to assess 

current regulatory requirements. 

During FY 1993, the FAA also addressed Certification Issues related to improved flight safety assessments for new aircraft using advanced displays, 

modified operational profiles, flight management 

systems and procedures. Technical emphasis concentrated on obtaining updated flight test data and 

analysis of fly-by-wire; computer-based, automated 

flight control systems; and equipment that improves 

techniques for certificatiodsafety assessment. 

In addition, the FAA continued research and 

development to enable safe and efficient operation of 

Vertical Flight Aircraft in the National Aviation 

System. The agency initiated work to improve coordination and cooperation with NASA and the DoD on 

programs of mutual interest, such as rotorcraft terminal approach procedures, analysis of tiltrotor technology, rotorcraft noise mitigation, and dual-use technology. Research into improving navigation and air 

traffic control services for rotorcraft continued, and 

the FAA consolidated rotorcraft steep angle approach 

and terminal airspace design requirements into a 

coordinated research and development program plan. 

The FAA conducted initial research evaluating steepangle, Differential Global-Positioning-System, precision-instrument-approach flight tests at NASA’s 

Ames Research Center. As part of the effort to 

identify the potential of GPS technology for rotorcraft 

use, the agency flew non-precision instrument approach flight tests in helicopters and developed a GPS 

non-precision instrument approach to a hospital heliport. Such tests were a part of the overall goal of 

enhancing the safety of helicopter instrument flights 

in poor weather. Heliport research resulted in publication of a heliport design report on emergency rooftop evacuation and a report on the hazards to rotorcraft from magnetic resonance imagers at medical 

facilities. Work continued to provide solutions and 

alternatives for improved access and more efficient 

use of center-city heliports by rotorcraft. The agency 

also initiated analysis of the economic feasibility and 

airspace impact of using civil tiltrotor for short-haul 

air transportation. It completed its analysis of potential delay reduction and cost savings in the National 

Airspace System from implementing civil tiltrotor in 

the Northeast corridor. 

The FAA also continued its program to strengthen 

Aviation Security through research and development. In November 1992, the agency opened and 

dedicated a security research laboratory at its Technical Center. It will use the facility to conduct research, 

testing, and evaluation in the areas of bulk and trace/ 

particle detection of explosives. In March 1993, the 

FAA began a cooperative demonstration program 

involving the deployment of agency-owned, commercially available explosives detection equipment 

to various airports to screen carry-on electronic devices. In May the agency conducted a seven-week 

combined test of technology, analyzing several pieces 

of integrated explosive detection equipment in various configurations at Miami International Airport. 

As part of an overall assessment of commercial aircraft for vulnerability to explosive effects, the FAA 

enlisted the National Institute for Aerospace Studies 

and Service to help address potential terrorist threats 

and identify system design changes that could mitigate vulnerability. During the fiscal year, the agency 

tested four prototype luggage containers for use on 

wide-body commercial aircraft. It also completed a 

security vulnerability analysis at Baltimore-Washington Airport and began testing an enhanced security 

system there. Additionally, the FAA published final 

criteria for explosives detection systems that permit 

airports to employ any of several different detectors. 

During the fiscal year, the Screener Proficiency Evaluation and Reporting System compiled data analysis, 

and the agency generated a final report on improvements in x-ray screener performance. The FAA also 

initiated demonstration projects at two major airports 

to gather data on x-ray screener improvements in an 

operational environment. 

50 
In afinal areaof flight safety, NASA was engaged 

in a project to develop a computer-assisted Engine 

Control System that allows a plane to land safely 

employing only engine power if its normal control 

surfaces-such as elevators, rudders, and aileronsare disabled. This program reached an important 

milestone when a NASA F- 15 touched down at Dryden 

Flight Research Facility, CA, with its flight controls 

deliberately locked. It used only engine power for 

control. The control system varied the speed of the 

engines either singly or together to guide the aircraft 

to a safe landing, proving the capability of the technology. The system may be incorporated into future 

aircraft designs to provide a much greater margin of 

safety in the event of hydraulic failure, such as that 

causing the crash of a United Airlines DC- 10 at Sioux 

City, IA, in 1989. 

Aviation Medicine and 

Human Factors 

In the area of Aviation Medicine, the FAA completed development of a technique for electronically 

recreating operational errors and incidents in air traffic control. Future applications of that system include 

increased capabilities to evaluate causal factors in the 

occurrence of errors, enhanced specialist training in 

air traffic control, and improved field performance 

assessments. The FAA conducted two industry workshops to identify and resolve flight safety issues 

pertinent to emergency medical service and completed risk evaluation tests on the use of night vision 

goggles in civilian air ambulance operations. Investigation in FAA hypobaric chambers defined the 

safety of packing materials for biologically hazardous substances under conditions of rapid decompression. As part of an exchange with the Russian Ministry of Transportation in the field of aviation medicine, the FAA initiated cooperative research projects 

to study effects on pilot performance of antihypertensive medications and wearing glasses. 

In Human Factors Research, the FAA began 

work to develop and validate a computer-based test of 

the readiness for duty of employees in safety-sensitive positions-to be administered just prior to the 

start of a work day. During the fiscal year, the agency 

completed studies on the effect of automation on 

corporate aircraft pilots, on the factors that influence 

pilot decisions on the use of automatic features, and 

on the Aviation Safety Reporting System’s data on 

problems pilots experienced in using flight management systems. The agency also initiated a program of 

research to address human factors associated with 

accidents in general aviation. Additionally, the FAA 

finished development and simultaneous evaluation of 

a flight deck information management system for the 

terminal area arrival flight phase. Several airlines 

evaluated an improved instrument approach procedure chart in the commercial format for flight training 

simulators. The FAA also completed a survey of pilot 

usage and problems with GPS and LORAN-C receivers, and it conducted laboratory and flight tests of 

pilot performance and training requirements for several GPS receivers. 

The FAA signed new five-year interagency agreements with NASA for fatigue research, decision making and crew resource management research, data 

link human factors research, and the development of 

an automated performance measurement system for 

flight recorder data. In this connection, a new method 

for combatting flight crew fatigue that NASA developed has been expanded into a training module for 

U.S. commercial air carriers, overnight cargo carriers, military pilots, and the National Transportation 

Safety Board. Some of the commercial airlines are 

using the training for other groups, such as mechanics 

and flight attendants. 

In addition, the FAA signed an agreement with 

the Naval Training Systems Center for flight crew 

training research. It also awarded research grants for: 

(1) analysis of the curren.t spectrum of flight deck 

automation approaches and identification of potential 

safety or training issues; (2) tradeoff studies of different degrees of data link automation; (3) validation of 

methodology and development of advanced qualification program model curricula, training requirements, and evaluation criteria for regional and commuter airlines; (4) development and evaluation of a 

proof-of-concept, digital, video debriefing station for 

use by line operational simulation instructors and 

check pilots; and (5) research on shared pilotlcontroller decision making in the evolving National Airspace 

System. 

During FY 1993 the FAA finished classifying the 

quantification of voice errors in the en route air traffic 

51 
environment and continued with the next study phase 

using voice tapes from the terminal area environment. 

The agency installed a personal, computer-based, 

visual simulator of an air traffic control tower at 

Chicago’s O’Hare airport and began evaluating it as 

a training aid for ground controllers. The FAA 

prepared a draft human factors handbook and checklists for use by air traffic controller teams assigned to 

evaluate new systems under development. The agency 

finished a computer model of Atlanta’s Hartsfield 

airport and began collecting data on ground and local 

controller communications at the airport. It also 

initiated experiments to determine the effects of human signal detection and false alarm responses for 

future surface traffic automation systems. Finally, 

the FAA in cooperation with Transport Canada continued its research into aeronautical decision making 

to promote aviation safety. As part of that effort, the 

agency initiated work on an expert decision making 

program to help flight crews react better in stressful 

situations. Additionally, the FAA began projects to 

study ways of enhancing the performance of technicians through computer-based training and job-aiding systems. The agency also initiated a project to 

investigate methods for improving maintenance and 

work-site communication. 

Studies of the Planet Earth 

Spacecraft launched into Earth orbit over the past 

35 years have enabled humans to observe the home 

planet repeatedly and on a global basis, allowing 

scientists in a great variety of disciplines to study the 

Earth as a whole and parts thereof in ways analogous 

to practices carried on by other scientists in a laboratory. Applications of this comparatively new capability have ranged widely but can be broken down 

basically into terrestrial, atmospheric, and oceanographic studies, although there was considerable overlap among these categories in some programs and 

projects . 

Terrestrial Studies and 

Applications 

Terrestrial studies themselves encompass a broad 

range of activities. One of these during FY 1993 was 

the launch of the joint U.S./Italian Laser 

Geodynamics Satellite I1 (LAGEOS 11), designed to 

provide precise ‘measurements of movements in the 

Earth’s tectonic plates. Deployed from the Space 

Shuttle Columbia in October 1992, the satellite is 

covered with hundreds of reflectors that “bounce” 

laser pulses beamed from Earth stations back to their 

sources. Measurements of the time it takes a pulse to 

travel to the satellite and back to Earth allow high 

accuracy in determining specific positions, and repeated measurements over many years will tell scientists how far specific locations have moved relative to 

one another. Since most earthquakes and volcanic 

eruptions occur where plates meet, LAGEOS I1 is 

expected to shed light on how these cataclysmic 

events occur and when they are likely to happen. To 

this end, a team of 27 international investigators 

representing the U.S., Italy, Germany, France, the 

Netherlands, and Hungary will study the data from 

LAGEOS 11. 

Also relevant to terrestrial studies were two flights 

of the Space Radar Laboratory (SRL) projected in 

1994. The SRL flights will acquire multi-wavelength/polarization radar images of the Earth’s surface. These will be used for making maps, interpreting geological features, studying ice processes, conducting bio- and geochemical as well as soil-moisture 

investigations, and studying resources. 

Meanwhile, Analysis of Existing Data contributed significantly to our understanding of the Earth 

during FY 1993. In October 1992, geologists at 

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and at Louisiana 

State University released a report citing the discovery 

of several previously unknown earthquake faults in 

California’s northeastern Mojave Desert. They made 

the discoveries by analyzing images taken by the 

Landsat Thematic Mapper at optical, infrared, and 

radar wavelengths. Analysis of the images, combined 

with field observations and earthquake information, 

indicated that the area is crossed by many young fault 

lines. 

52 
Also, a NASA-University of New Hampshire 

study released in 1993 indicated that, while the rate of 

tropical deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon Basin was decreasing, the overall extent of the deforestation and its adverse effects on the tropical forest 

habitat have increased since the late 1970s. Data from 

the Landsat 4 and 5 satellites covering 1978-1988 

indicate that although the extent of deforestation is 

less than expected, it has increased substantially and 

created degradation of natural habitats on the fringes 

of deforested areas, posing a significant threat to the 

habitat of plant and animal species. 

Scientists also partially completed work during 

FY 1993 on the initial Pathfinder Data Sets for the 

20-month benchmark period of April 1987 through 

November 1988. Pathfinder-a joint NASA-NOAA 

program-constitutes a new application of Earthscience and other data sets, developed specifically to 

study global environmental change. Pathfinders take 

advantage of the long history of satellite observations 

in existing archives that are reprocessed to add new 

features and/or refinements. In particular, stable 

calibration, including both instrument drift and interinstrument calibration within a series is needed so a 

consistent, geophysical product can be generated to 

cover a time series. The benchmark period includes 

field campaigns, spans several growing seasons, and 

covers a period when satellite sensors were all operating correctly. Pathfinder sets include data from the 

Advanced Very High-Resolution Radiometer 

(AVHRR) and TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder 

on the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites, the Visible 

and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer (VISSR) Atmospheric Sounder on the two GOES satellites operating 

during the period, the Special Sensor Microwave/ 

Imager (SSM/I, on Defense Meteorological Satellite 

Program satellites), Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer on the Nimbus 7 spacecraft launched 

in October 1978, and LandsatLand Cover Change 

Pathfinders, which used data from the Landsat satellites launched beginning in the 1970s to study land 

cover. Data from the Landsat Multispectral Scanner 

and Thematic Mapper were added to the Pathfinder 

activity in 1992. 

In late 1992, NOAA’s National Geophysical Data 

Center (NGDC) released the Global Change Data 

Base on CD-ROM to the public. Data from AVHRR 

on vegetation, ecosystems, climate, topography, soils, 

a global vegetation index, and other topics have been 

integrated for improved multivariate analysis on Geographic Information Systems (GISs) and other software. The NGDC was in the process of compiling 

additional CD-ROMs for this series, which pioneers 

new techniques of scientific peer review for data 

compilations, improved documentation, attention to 

geolocation, and integrated analysis. 

NGDC has also been developing techniques to 

seek rigorous associations between layers of the Global Change Data Base to recreate the Global Vegetation Index (computed from AVHRR imagery) as a 

function of vegetation types, climate, soils, and other 

information in the data base. Better environmental 

data bases would improve the models, but existing 

data can nevertheless produce better descriptions of 

the Earth’s environment than currently exist. 

Researchers from NOAA were also using data 

from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program’s 

F-10 and F-11 series of polar orbiting satellites to 

monitor flooding in the Midwest. Using an experimental Soil Wetness Index derived from the SSM/I 

on these satellites, the researchers have succeeded in 

monitoring the areal extent of flooding under nearly 

all weather conditions except active precipitation. As 

the fiscal year ended a climatology of this index was 

being developed for the period 199 1 to the present. 

Within the Department of the Interior (DoI), the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs continued to conduct resource inventory and image mapping projects to support its Indian Integrated Resource Information Program. Analysts used Landsat Thematic Mapper data 

to classify agricultural land use/cover on the 

Winnebago and Omaha Indian Reservations in NE. 

They also performed land cover inventories on the 

Zuni and Ramah Indian Reservations in NM, with 

emphasis on modeling fire fuels potential. Numerous 

image maps employed Landsat Thematic Mapper and 

(French) Satellite Pour I’Observation de la Terre 

(SPOT-satellite for the observation of the Earth) 

panchromatic data. Reservation-wide products also 

were prepared for the Standing Rock (SD/ND), 

Jicarilla Apache (NM), Ft. Berthold (ND), Spokane 

(WA), and Umatilla (OR) Reservations. 

The Bureau of Land Management used satellite 

data and aerial photography to promote biological 

diversity and sustainable development on the public 

lands through ecosystem-based land management. 

53 
Remotely sensed data from a variety of sensors continued to play acritical role in all aspects of inventory, 

assessment, modeling, and monitoring to support 

ecosystem-based management activities. Analysis of 

aerial photographs and satellite data from Landsat, 

SPOT, and AVHRR supported ecosystem-based 

management of mineral resources in NV and UT; 

recreation in WY; wildlife habitat and grazing in NM, 

ID, and CO; threatened or endangered species in CA 

and OR; and hazardous material management at a 

number of sites throughout the western U.S. 

The Bureau of Reclamation used remote sensing from satellites and GISs to generate more accurate 

estimates of consumptive water use by agriculture 

within the Colorado River Basin. Accurate crop area 

estimates are essential for making accurate estimates 

of consumptive water use. To produce crop area 

estimates, bureau analysts map agricultural field 

boundaries from aerial photographs and panchromatic SPOT imagery, storing them in a GIs. They 

have been developing techniques for combining the 

high spatial accuracy of the boundaries stored in the 

GIS with crop classification information derived from 

timely but spatially coarse Landsat Thematic Mapper 

and multispectral SPOT imagery. This approach 

provides accurate crop area estimates and results in 

improved estimates of consumptive water use. 

The National Park Service continued to develop 

surface cover information for numerous areas via 

computer-based classification of Landsat Thematic 

Mapper data. Results included a vegetatiodand 

cover map at Denali National Park, AK, as part of a 

plan to design and construct new park trails; a land 

cover map to augment the GIS data base for Death 

Valley National Monument, CA/NV; and an integrated image processing/GIS approach for distinguishing agricultural land from natural vegetation in 

Niobrara National River, NE. 

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has been 

using Landsat Thematic Mapper data and computerized mapping techniques in the Gap Analysis Program to depict the distribution of vegetative cover 

types, terrestrial vertebrates, and other key indicator 

species in 36 state-wide projects. By comparing these 

data with land-use practices and ownership, managers have been able to identify “gaps” or areas that are 

not being managed and protected to maintain biological diversity. As part of the global change research 

and wetlands status and trends programs, remote 

sensing continued to be used to map wetland types 

and monitor wetland health and hydrology in the 

Lower Mississippi River Valley and along the Gulf 

Coast. Sources of data included Landsat Thematic 

Mapper, AVHRR, and airborne multispectral scanner 

and radar data. 

The U.S. Geological Survey’s Earth Resources 

Observation Systems Data Center has archived, processed, and distributed Landsat data since the launch 

of Landsat 1 in 1972. The Land Remote Sensing 

Policy Act of 1992 designated the center as the 

National Satellite Land Remote Sensing Data Archive. 

This designation has broadened the center’s responsibility for preserving and providing long-term access 

to satellite-acquired, remotely-sensed data of the 

Earth’s land areas. The 21-year collection of approximately a million Landsat scenes is the largest component of the archive, whose personnel have begun 

converting the data from aging magnetic media to 

new cassette tapes to preserve them for future use. 

Approximately 15 percent of the Landsat data was 

converted to this new medium during FY 1993. 

Archive personnel have been adding other types of 

satellite data to their holdings. Since April 1992, the 

U.S. Geological Survey has been working with NASA, 

NOAA, the European Space Agency, and more than 

20 foreign ground receiving stations to collect AVHRR 

data of 1-kilometer resolution for each daily pass of 

relevant satellites over the Earth’s land surface. These 

data support many applications, including efforts by 

the global change research community to produce a 

global land cover map and to monitor the condition 

(greenness) of vegetation on a periodic basis throughout the year. The Survey has been coordinating this 

program with the International Geosphere-Biosphere 

Program and the Committee on Earth Observation 

Satellites. The Data Center began compiling digitally-processed and mosaicked AVHRR data sets, 

including vegetative greenness, operationally for the 

conterminous U.S. since 1990, distributing them on 

CD-ROMs. Researchers have used these data with 

other Earth science data sets covering elevation, climate, and ecological regions to develop a prototype 

digital data base on land-cover characteristics for the 

conterminous U.S. The effectiveness of this information for environmental simulation modeling became 

evident in several case studies of global change re54 
search, land and water resource management, and 

environmental risk assessment. In a different area, 

the Survey developed computer algorithms to provide a spectral match of data from the NASA Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer 

with a library of spectral characteristics of geologic 

materials, yielding a semi-automated procedure for 

mapping mineralogy in areas of exposed bedrock and 

soils. Using this process, researchers mapped subtle 

changes in clay mineralogy to understand better the 

workings of geologic processes and the environmental degradation of soils and water. 

In the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 

the use of Landsat imagery continued to increase 

within the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) during 

FY 1993. It used Landsat imagery to determine the 

extent of the Midwest floods, then employed a combination of satellite imagery plus digital soil and landuse data in the service’s Geographic Resource Analysis Software System to assess flood damage at the 

state and county level with respect to soil and landcover concerns. The SCS was also evaluating the use 

of Landsat and SPOT imagery to identify wetlands, 

detect changes in them, and review and update wetland inventories. The SCS remained a primary contributor, user, and developer of aerial photographic 

and digital orthophotographic imagery. The service 

used digital orthophotography (one meter resolution) 

as the primary base map for collecting and digitizing 

GIS data layers containing information on natural 

resources. The SCS remained the lead agency within 

the USDA contributing to the National Aerial Photography Program and to the development of a National Digital Orthophotography Program. 

The National Agricultural Statistical Service 

(NASS) employs remote sensing data in area sampling 

frame construction (using data from small sample 

areas as an aid to crop and acreage estimation), direct 

estimation of planted crop area, and assessment of 

crop conditions. Products from the first two areas 

have been based mainly on digital Landsat-5 Thematic 

Mapper data. Crop condition assessment has been 

using data from the NOAA-11 satellite. NASS has 

continued to use the Computer-Aided Stratification 

and Sampling (CASS) system to create area frames 

for use in its agricultural surveys. Using digital 

Landsat and Digital Line Graph (road and water 

boundary) data, the CASS system enables the user to 

assign each piece of land to one of a variety of 

categories based on percent of cultivation andor land 

use. With continued support from NASA’s Ames 

Research Center, NASS has used the Oklahoma area 

frame (created in 1992 using CASS) in its first survey 

in 1993, has completed the California frame (begun in 

1992), and has started on the New York frame. It will 

employ digital SPOT data for urban areas in New 

York. The second Landsat application in NASS 

continued the Delta Remote Sensing Project using 

Thematic Mapper data to estimate plant acreage for 

major crops in Arkansas. NASS provided this data on 

acreage for rice, cotton, and soybeans in Arkansas to 

the Agricultural Statistics Board on August 1, 1993, 

for its use in making the official estimate. Thematic 

Mapper classifications also provided the basis for 

county estimates and color theme maps. Using NOAA11 AVHRR data, finally, NASS created and used 

color map products to monitor crop conditions over 

large areas during the 1993 growing season. NASS 

distributed maps biweekly to decision makers in the 

USDA and to various NASS state statistical offices. 

These color maps depicted changes in vegetation 

vigor by comparing 1993 indices with those from 

similar periods in 1992. Although limited by the one 

kilometer resolution of the data, the maps were quite 

useful for large area reviews of the Midwest flood 

regions plus areas affected by drought in the southeast. 

The USDA’s Forest Service, which manages 

191 million acres of National Forest System, has 

continued to require remote sensing for a variety of 

ecosystem management activities, including vegetation mapping, resource change detection, land management planning, damage assessment following natural disasters, identification of critical wildlife habitat, 

support to law enforcement, inventory, and mapping. 

Timely and accurate information on ecosystem components is vital for good resource management. The 

need for remote sensing data and associated technologies such as GIS and GPS has increased as resource 

managers are required to perform complex spatial 

data analysis to support the Forest Service’s ecological approach to multiple use management. Consequently, the service has integrated remotely sensed 

data (satellite, aerial photography, airborne video, 

scanner, and radar) from a variety of sources into its 

operations at all levels of the agency. GPS technology 

is revolutionizing field survey and inventory meth55 
ods. At the end of the fiscal year, over 800 GPS 

receivers were in use and the Forest Service was 

administering 25 community base stations. In addition, the agency was moving toward the development 

of an integrated information structure to help define 

uniform processes for ecological classification, resource mapping, and inventory. Remotely sensed 

data provided unique information over large areas 

quickly and inexpensively to promote good management decisions and generate cost-effective results. 

Similarly, the Foreign Agricultural Service’s 

satellite remote sensing program continued to be a 

critical element in the USDA’s analysis of foreign 

agricultural production, supply, and demand-providing timely and accurate estimates of global area, 

yield, and production. For example, the agency used 

satellite imagery, remotely sensed weather data, and 

crop models to support State Department relief activities by evaluating regional grain production in the 

former state of Yugoslavia, focusing on Bosnia. The 

Foreign Agricultural Service also prepared a detailed 

assessment of the flooding in the U.S. Midwest, using 

Landsat Thematic Mapper data, classification algorithms, and GIS analysis to class counties according 

to flooding severity and its effects on crop conditions. 

The USDA used this information to prioritize its 

disaster relief efforts. 

Also in the USDA, the Agricultural Research 

Service has developed aremote sensing instrument to 

detect residue on the soil surface. Such residue 

increases water infiltration while minimizing erosion. Consequently, accurate measurement of the 

residue is important for program monitoring. The 

instrument (still being tested and not yet deployed) 

uses an ultraviolet light source and a response detector at appropriate wavelengths to differentiate between soil and residue. Also, a newly developed 

Water Deficit Index will allow producers to use 

remote sensing to provide accurate measurements of 

crop water need at all stages of crop growth. The 

USDA expects that this development will substantially reduce water use for irrigation while maintaining crop growth and yield. The service has also 

developed models using a combination of meteorological and remotely sensed data to measure moisture 

and energy fluxes at river basins. This is important to 

understanding how the land surface affects climate 

and climate change. Finally, a combination of technologies including aircraft video multispectral sensing, differential GPS location data, and a within-farm 

field GIS coupled with computer map-driven equipment that differentially applies fertilizers and chemicals is allowing producers to optimize yield and 

production cost while protecting the environment by 

supplying only the chemicals necessary for seasonal 

growth of the crop. This is particularly important 

with our concerns about the agricultural contribution 

to chemical leaching from ground and surface water. 

Researchers, agribusinesses, and other producers are 

working together at several locations to implement 

this new “prescription” or “precision” method of 

farming. 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA), primarily through its Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV (EMSLLV), with assistance from its Atmospheric Research 

and Exposure Assessment Laboratory in Research 

Triangle Park, NC, also routinely conducted research 

and provided technical support using remote sensing 

as part of its overall environmental monitoring program. The agency used large-scale aerial photography to develop site characterization data during the 

remedial actions under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 

as well as to support site selection and monitoring at 

hazardous waste facilities operated under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. It developed 

and used remote sensing systems to support the provisions of the Clean Water Act. In FY 1993 the 

EMSL-LV completed approximately 150 aerial photographic site characterization projects. Also during 

the year, aerial photography and satellite data supported a broad variety of pollution, global change, 

pollution prevention, compliance, and other ecosystem monitoring studies, such as those of criticalhabitat areas for wildlife. The Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC)-a branch of 

EMSL-LV-provided support to the EPA’ s regional 

offices through the analysis of aerial photographs 

acquired in cooperation with the Army Corps of 

Engineers and of documentation of impacts associated with the severe flooding along the Mississippi 

River and its tributaries. The agency used this information to identify the flood’s effects on industrial and 

agricultural facilities for assessment of hazardous and 

toxic waste movement and containment. As the year 

56 
ended, EPIC was in the process of conducting further 

analysis of pre- and post-flood aerial photographs to 

identify and map changes that have occurred at known 

waste disposal sites impacted by the flooding. In 

addition, the EPA continued (with NASA support) to 

use and develop light detection and ranging systems 

to monitor urban plumes and emission sources as well 

as to measure ozone, sulfur dioxide, and particulates. 

Finally, the EPA was using a GIS for data integration 

and analysis in support of many of its programs. (For 

other information on terrestrial studies, see the coverage of the Miniature Sensor Technology Integration 

Program above.) 

Atmospheric Studies 

In partnership with Aurora Flight Sciences Corporation and some other organizations, NASA was 

engaged in the Small High Altitude Science Aircraft (Perseus) program to develop an airplane that 

can fly above 80,000 feet subsonically to acquire “in 

situ” atmospheric science data useful in understanding the cause and effect relationship between engine 

exhaust emissions and ozone depletion or other adverse atmospheric impact. The first closed-loop run 

of the Perseus’ Rotax 9 12 engine occurred in September 1992, and the Perseus aircraft rollout occurred in 

December 1992. Delivery and checkout of the Harvard 

Science Payload and Ames Engineering Data System 

followed in August 1993. 

Other NASA and NOAA efforts to monitor Ozone 

Depletion brought some disturbing environmental 

news early in the fiscal year. (The ozone layer protects 

the Earth from excessive doses of the sun’s ultraviolet 

rays.) Scientists from the Goddard Space Flight Center, using data from the Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) on NASA’s Nimbus 7 satellite, 

discovered that global ozone levels in late 1992 and 

early 1993 reached the lowest levels ever observed. 

Although falling values had been predicted for 1992, 

the actual observed values were substantially lower 

than predicted (some two to three percent lower than in 

any previous year). Extensive analysis of independent 

data from the Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectral 

Radiometer (SBUV/2) on the NOAA- 1 1 satellite and 

a NASA TOMS instrument on the Russian Meteor 3 

spacecraft confirmed the Nimbus 7 results. In addition, preliminary findings from the SBUV instrument 

flown on the Space Shuttle (SSBUV) as part of the 

ATLAS-2 mission in April 1993 were in agreement 

with the TOMS data. Comparison of all these 

spaceborne data with the ground-based World Standard Dobson Instrument and the Dobson network 

indicated that the satellite instruments’ measurements 

were consistent during this period. 

The ozone levels were especially low in the midlatitudes of the northern hemisphere, including large 

portions of North America. The December 1992 midlatitude ozone levels were 9 percent below normal, 

while January figures were 13-14 percent below normal. TOMS measurements also showed that the area 

of ozone depletion over Antarctica, commonly referred to as the “ozone hole,” was the largest on record 

as of late 1992. The “hole” also persisted longer than 

usual, not breaking up until early December. In 

addition, observations from NASA’s Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), launched in September 1991, found that ozone destroying forms of 

chlorine existed in the Arctic stratosphere for much 

longer in the winter of 1993 than during a comparable 

period in 1992, leading to ozone levels 10 percent 

below those in 1992, with some regions up to 20 

percent lower. Though recovering somewhat, lower 

than normal global ozone levels persisted into the 

summer months. Fortunately, scientists at NOAA 

could foresee an end to the decline in the ozone layer. 

The Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987 to phase out 

use and end the production of ozone-destroying chemicals, appeared to have lowered the use of chlorofluorocarbons to the point where NOAA scientists predicted that the chlorine atoms that break off from 

them would peak about the year 2000, although the 

ozone layer would probably not return to “normal” for 

another 50 to 100 years. 

Also relevant to ozone measurement, the Ballistic 

Missile Defense Organization flew the Polar Ozone 

and Aerosol Measurement (POAM-11) experiment as 

part of the SPOT-3 spacecraft launched on an Ariane4 rocket on September 25, 1993. POAM-I1 will 

measure the Earth’s stratospheric environment, particularly the aerosols, nitrogen dioxide, water vapor, 

and ozone depletion between 10 and 60 kilometers 

over the north and south poles. 

Meanwhile, the TOMS instrument on Nimbus 7 

failed in May 1993 after providing data since Novem57 
ber 1978, during which time it had served as the 

primary monitor of global ozone levels. Another 

NASA TOMS instrument went into orbit on the 

Russian Meteor 3 in August 1991, and the NOAA 

SBUV/2 instrument had been measuring ozone since 

January 1989, while the SSBUV has flown annually 

on the Space Shuttle since 1989. 

NASA’s ozone measurements are part of the 

agency’s Mission to Planet Earth (MTPE) program, 

a long term effort seeking to provide the measurements necessary to help understand the Earth as a 

unified system and to help distinguish the effects of 

natural and human-induced global climatic change. 

Using the unique perspective available from space, 

NASA and its domestic and international partners 

have been observing, monitoring, and assessing largescale environmental processes that affect climate 

change. NASA’s contribution to the U.S. Global 

Change Research Program (USGCRP) includes measurements from instruments on free-flying spacecraft 

and the Space Shuttle; aircraft, in-situ, and groundbased observations; a comprehensive data and information system to process and distribute the findings; 

and a modeling effort designed to help understand, 

and eventually predict, the behavior of and changes in 

the Earth’s system. The first phase of MTPE includes 

the expected flight by NASA and its partners of more 

than 20 missions through 1998. The first such mission was that of the Upper Atmosphere Research 

Satellite in September 1991. Data from MTPE and 

other global change research efforts will enable policy 

makers to formulate prudent policies regarding the 

future of the global environment. 

An important part of MTPE Phase 1, the ATLAS2 mission aboard STS-56 in April 1993 was the 

second in a series of such spacelabs studying solar 

output as well as the chemistry and dynamics of the 

middle atmosphere over a solar cycle of 11 years. 

These measurements are important because even small 

changes in the sun’s total irradiance or its spectral 

distribution can have a significant influence on the 

Earth’s climate. Similarly, changes in the quantity of 

trace gases in the atmosphere can have both climatic 

and other effects. Scientists also use measurements 

from ATLAS flights to correlate data from UARS. 

The ATLAS series is projected to fly a core series of 

instruments that are recalibrated after each mission. 

This will enable scientists to differentiate between 

changes in the way UARS instruments measure over 

time and actual atmospheric phenomena. Scientists 

were still studying data from ATLAS-2 as the year 

ended. 

The second phase of MTPE is the Earth Observing System (EOS) program, a series of spacecraft 

planned to carry a variety of sophisticated instruments to make the most comprehensive measurements ever of the interrelated elements of the global 

environment. These measurements-along with those 

from other MTPE satellites, ground experiments, and 

scientific research-should enable scientists to model 

the Earth as a total system and to project the ways 

human activity has affected and will affect the planet. 

NASA’s program is part of the International Earth 

Observing System (IEOS), in which satellites and 

instruments from Europe, Japan, and Canada are 

being closely coordinated to provide complementary 

data on different aspects of the Earth’s biosphere. 

The first EOS satellite (EOS-AMI) launch is targeted 

for June 1998. (The AM indicating a morning crossing time over the equator.) Progress toward this goal 

continued in FY 1993, with completion of preliminary design reviews on three of the five EOS-AM1 

instruments as well as similar reviews of components 

of the EOS-AM1 spacecraft. 

Development also continued on the EOS Data 

and Information System (EOSDIS), the means by 

which information from EOS and other Earth science 

satellites will be translated into useful information 

and made available to scientists worldwide. The 

evolutionary nature of EOSDIS will allow it to keep 

pace with advancing technology, while offering 

unprecedented ease of access for researchers. In 

March 1993, NASA started development of a key 

component of the system-the EOSDIS Core System 

(ECS)-with award of a contract to Hughes Applied 

Information Systems of Seabrook, MD, for design, 

development, and operation of the ECS. A major 

program milestone, the system requirements review, 

tookplace in September 1993. In addition, discussions 

continued throughout 1993 with NASA’s international 

partners on establishing tlie data agreements needed 

to make IEOS and other information available for 

research purposes to scientists worldwide. 

Also in the area of atmospheric studies, tropospheric methane (CH,) is second only to carbon 

dioxide (CO,) in its effects on Global Warming. 

58 
Although the tropospheric CH, concentration is a 

small fraction (5 percent) of the CO, levels, CH, 

accounts for about 12 percent of global temperature 

rise, due to strong absorption in a relatively transparent part of the infrared spectrum. In order to quantify 

emission sources for the CH, between those stemming from human activities such as leaks of natural 

gas and those occurring naturally, NIST was engaged 

in intensive CH, measurement and modeling, using 

isotopic methods to differentiate between the two. 

The ultimate goal of this research, of course, was to 

devise ways to control the human activities contributing to the emission of CH,. 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) supported three programs involving ground-based observations of atmospheric properties related to global 

change: CEDAR (Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions), GEM (Geospace Environment Modeling), and SunRISE (Radiative Inputs 

of the Sun to Earth). Based on previous observations 

and modeling, scientists now know that an increase of 

greenhouse gas concentrations will cool the middle 

atmosphere and increase the occurrence of noctilucent clouds. In 1993, atmospheric scientists under 

support from the NSF have made great strides in 

applying new research techniques and facilities to the 

investigation of processes and phenomena in the 

middle atmosphere. 

In one example of the progress that has been made 

in this area, scientists from Colorado State University 

studied the temperature in the Middle Atmosphere 

using a sodium lidar facility that has been routinely 

operated since 1991. Its measurements have indicated that the temperature profile in this altitude range 

does not always display the single minimum that most 

atmospheric models assume. Instead, this minimum, 

referred to as the mesopause, occurs in two areas, one 

near 86 kilometers and the other near 99 kilometers. 

The temperature at the lower altitude varies with the 

season in a manner that is more consistent with the 

behavior predicted by atmospheric models. The upper minimumonly varies by about 16 degrees throughout the year and its origin is still unexplained. 

In another example, during the summer of 1993, 

atmospheric scientists and students from universities 

and industry conducted airborne measurements of 

Arctic Noctilucent Clouds along flight paths that 

extended across much of western Canada and Alaska. 

These clouds are the highest in the Earth's atmosphere, originating from sunlight that is scattered off 

ice crystals at altitudes between 80 and 90 kilometers. 

Ice crystals can only form at these altitudes in the high 

latitude summer mesopause, which paradoxically is 

colder than the winter mesopause. With temperatures 

between 120" and 140" kelvin, the summer mesopause has the coldest temperatures on Earth. The 

clouds are observed at twilight and dawn at high 

latitudes during the summer when the sun is below the 

horizon but still illuminates high altitude aerosol 

layers. Scientists have reported an increase in the 

frequency with which these clouds occur during the 

last century, leading some to speculate on a connection between the clouds and the introduction of anthropogenic greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. 

The group of scientists that conducted the observations flew aboard a Lockheed Electra aircraft owned 

by NSF and operated by the National Center for 

Atmospheric Research. Project scientists coordinated the flights with selected overpasses of NASA's 

UARS. 

Scientists have also been conducting studies of 

the middle atmosphere at two other strategic locations. Maryland, Clemson, and Utah State universities have developed a lidar in Logan, UT, to observe 

waves launched by wind systems over the Rocky 

Mountains. And SRI International deployed a lidar at 

Sondre Stromfjord, Greenland, to operate in conjunction with a large atmospheric radar facility also 

funded by the NSF. This is the highest latitude at 

which the U.S. operates a lidar facility and is critically 

important in understanding the complex chemical 

and dynamical processes that occur in the polar regions. 

With support from NSF, SRI International was in 

the process of overseeing construction of a facility to 

house instruments used for making observations in 

Arctic Canada. It is to include a 1,400 square foot 

building with living quarters and four optical domes, 

a detached generator building, and a 1.5 kilometerlong road connecting the site to the nearby hamlet of 

Resolute Bay in the Northwest Territories. With 

rising concerns about the depletion of ozone in polar 

regions, atmospheric scientists have recognized the 

importance of making observations at these high 

latitudes. By next summer, the facility will include an 

all-sky imaging instrument to measure airglow and 

59 
auroral emissions, two radiowave devices for measuring ionospheric drifts, and a Canadian-supplied interferometer for detecting temperatures and winds in the 

upper atmosphere. 

Other instruments that have been developed with 

support from the CEDAR program have led to new 

capabilities for monitoring the atmosphere from the 

ground. The demands placed upon industrial partners 

in the development of these instruments have led to 

technical advances. For example, scientists from Utah 

State University recommended design changes to an 

interferometer built by Bomem Corp. The company 

found that the new device had marketing potential and 

has sold similar models to universities, industry, and 

the government. Three other universities (Colorado, 

Clemson, and New Hampshire) developed and deployed radars that use the trails left by meteors to 

measure winds in the middle atmosphere. These 

instruments join an existing array of similar radars that 

collectively offer a means to study global climatology 

of the middle atmosphere. Previous measurements 

have been used to establish the existence of a two-day 

tidal wave in the middle atmospheric motion. Boston 

University scientists have developed a ground-based 

technique for studying the space environment to altitudes up to 12,000 kilometers. The method makes use 

of combining measurements from a sensitive spectrometer and any one of the large atmospheric radar 

facilities supported by NSF. They have validated the 

ability to measure ionized and neutral hydrogen concentrations by making observations from the radar 

sites in Greenland, MA, and PR. 

Finally, NSF has taken a unique position in supporting studies of the effects of solar variability on 

global change. The SunRISE program is directed at 

monitoring and understanding this variability. NSF 

plans to support the design, construction, and deployment of two precision solar photometric telescopes 

optimized for accurate observations of sunspots, faculae, and other photospheric brightness inhomogeneities. 

Scientists will couple these observations with theoretical and modeling efforts that are integral parts of the 

program. 

NOAA, of course, engaged in a great variety of 

research efforts involving the atmosphere. For example, it used ship- and ground-based measurements 

of Cloud moisture to validate similar SSM/I measurements from DMSP satellites. It also compared 

the data about cirrus clouds from surface-based sensors with observations from satellite sensors. It has 

been using data from the GOES 7 and Meteosat 3 

satellites to develop a new forecasting tool for winds 

derived from cloud motions. These and other developments were important both for short-range weather 

forecasting and because the lack of accurate cloud 

physical processes in climate models is currently 

thought to be the major source of uncertainty in the 

longer-range prediction of climatic change due to the 

greenhouse effect. For the latter reason, NOAA’s 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NESDIS) has been using information 

from the Tiros Operational Vertical Sounder, GOES 

7’s Visible-and-Infrared-Spin-Scan-Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder, and AVHRR to develop a greater 

understanding of clouds, their amounts, types, and 

components. In collaboration with NASA, NOAA’s 

Office of Global Programs, and several universities, 

NESDIS was also using satellite data to determine the 

influences of land-surface phenomena upon clouds 

and radiation. This work has produced evidence, for 

example, that, as of 1988, deforestation in Brazil was 

influencing an increase in the frequency of dry-season afternoon cumulus clouds. 

With regard to Precipitation Estimates, there 

has been a lack of detailed, uniform observations over 

the Great Lakes, so NOAA has been using hourly 

infrared imagery from the GOES satellite in conjunction with raingage measurements to provide what it 

hopes will be better information for water budget 

models of the region. NOAA scientists have also 

compared SSM/I estimates of rainfall over land and 

oceans for the 1987- 1992 period with radar measurements and raingage reports. This effort, supported by 

NOAA’s Climate and Global Change Program, has 

already demonstrated the utility of SSM/I for providing monthly rainfall estimates comparable to surfacebased observations. To help predict flash floods, 

NOAA has used GOES data to study the relationships 

between water vapor plumes and the upper- and 

lower-level circulation patterns related to rainfall of 

125 millimeters or more in a 24-hour period. It has 

also been devising a Flash Flood Index, which will 

eventually include data from GOES and SSMA. (For 

other information on atmospheric studies, see also 

coverage of the MSTI program and the Environmental Protection Agency above.) 

60 
Oceanographic Studies 

Of great importance in the field of oceanography 

were the measurements of the Ocean Topography 

Experiment (TOPEX)/Poseidon satellite launched 

in August 1992. These provided the most accurate 

data yet available on global sea level changes, constituting the first map of Ocean topography. Oceanographers will use it to calibrate the computer models that 

help forecast future changes in climate. The satellite 

uses a radar altimeter to measure sea surface height 

over 90 percent of the world’s ice-free oceans. In 

combination with very precise determination of the 

spacecraft orbit, the altimetry data has yielded global 

maps of the ocean’s topography with an accuracy of 

within 3 centimeters (1.2 inches). From this data, 

scientists will be able to determine the speeds and 

directions of ocean currents worldwide, thereby gaining a greater understanding of the role Oceans play in 

regulating the Earth’s climate. Using data from 

TOPEXPoseidon in early 1993, scientists analyzed a 

prominent “Kelvin wave” that appeared in TOPEW 

Poseidon altimeter data. This large, warm-water mass 

moving along the Equator is typically the condition 

that gives rise to an El Niiio event, dramatically affecting fish harvests in the eastern equatorial Pacific. El 

Niiios are also believed to be responsible for other 

meteorological developments, including significant 

rainfall and temperature variations across the US. 

Also in the area of ocean science, from November 

1992 to February 1993, NASA joined scientists from 

15 nations and several other U.S. agencies in a Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere/Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment (TOGNCOARE) 

based in Townsville, Australia. This field experiment, 

which involved oceanographic ships, buoys, aircraft, 

and spacecraft, should help researchers better understand tropical air-sea interactions. It also offered 

scientists involved in the joint U.S./Japan Tropical 

Rainfall Measuring Mission (TFWM) Earth Probe a 

unique opportunity to test candidate algorithms being 

developed for the satellite mission, planned for launch 

in 1997. 

In addition, analysis of data from a series of joint 

research aircraft flights sponsored by NASA’s Ocean 

Biogeochemistry Program and the NSF in the Pacific 

region (part of the international Joint Global Ocean 

Flux Study) revealed an unexpectedly high productivity of microscopic plants near the equator in the Pacific 

Ocean. The NASA researchers gathered more than 35 

hours of data over the Pacific during the airborne 

campaigns. They then linked these data with observations from the Space Shuttle to guide NSF ships to the 

areas of high productivity. 

In the area of tactical oceanography, Ball Aerospace Corporation was developing the Geodetic/Geophysical Follow-on (GFO) satellites for the Navy, 

with the first radar altimeter satellite expected to be 

launched in late 1995 and up to two additional satellites as needed to provide the Navy an operational 

capability until a radar altimeter can be placed aboard 

the DMSP satellites. GFO will provide timely, worldwide, and extremely accurate measurements of ocean 

topography via direct read out to ships at sea and 

selected shore sites. It will also store data on board and 

provide full orbital coverage to the Naval Oceanography Command’s primary numerical forecasting tenters. The direct-read-out data will enhance on-scene 

tactical support, with forecasting centers using the 

stored data to improve the performance of ocean 

circulation models. The Navy completed the preliminary design review for the program in October 1993. 

The critical design review is scheduled for April 1994. 

Also, Coastwatch, a part of the NOAA Coastal 

Ocean Program, sought to provide satellite, in-situ, 

and weather model information in near real time to 

federal and state environmental decision makers. It 

did this by providing products via eight Coastwatch 

Regional Sites (CRSs) covering all U.S. Coastal states. 

Selected NOAA facilities, such as the National Marine 

Fisheries Service laboratories, have been serving as 

CRSs. These CRSs store products produced centrally 

or locally and make them available via Internet or dialup modem to state and national resource offices, Federal environmental agencies, and university researchers. Satellite products provided to Coastwatch users 

consist of mapped images of AVHRR data, which are 

produced twice aday overall U.S. coastal regions. The 

NESDIS satellite mapping system that supports this 

effort reached full operational capability in September 

1992. Since then, products have included sea surface 

temperature imagery and visible imagery (useful for 

ice analysis and for calculation of relative turbidity in 

estuaries). All Coastwatch mapped satellite images 

continued to be archived by NOAA’s National Oceano61 
graphic Data Center and are available retrospectively 

via a near-line storage system accessible to Internet 

users. Coastwatch data are applied in coastal areas of 

the western U.S. in the operation of El Niiio Watch 

andRed TideDomoic Acid Watch. Also, Coastwatch 

surface temperatures are used to model evaporation, 

net longwave radiation, latent and sensible heat fluxes, 

and their spatial patterns over the Great Lakes. 

The period 1992-1993 has been especially exciting for the Satellite Altimetric Community owing to 

the availability of new data from the European Space 

Agency’s Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS- 1) launched 

in 1991, TOPEXPoseidon, and declassified data from 

the Navy’s Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite 

(Geosat) launched in 1985. NOAA’s National Ocean 

Service (NOS) has been actively involved in data 

preparation, distribution, and analysis. The 

declassification of the Geosat data for the southern 

hemisphere in 1992 permitted NOAA’s National 

Ocean Service to produce for release in 1993 by 

NOAA’s National Oceanographic Data Center two 

CD-ROMs containing the information. Satellite altimetry continues to have an extraordinary impact on 

the Earth sciences because the sea surface topography 

measured by radar altimeters can be used to map the 

gravity field of the Earth. To date, however, only 

Geosat data have possessed both the accuracy and 

density of coverage necessary to resolve tectonic 

details clearly in the marine gravity field on a global 

basis. Because the majority of the world’s oceans are 

in the southern hemisphere, the declassification of 

Geosat data for areas south of latitude 30” S. permitted scientists to view the fine-scale tectonic features 

of much of the world’s gravity field, and hence the sea 

floor, for the first time because the inaccessible southern ocean has been only sparsely surveyed by ship. 

This mapping of the gravity field has resulted in 

numerous discoveries about the sea floor and underlying crust, and NOS has computed and distributed 

this gravity field to the public in the form of full-color 

posters and an atlas as well as digital data on CDROM. 

Other Aeronautical and Space Activities 

Discussions Concerning Arms 

Control of Space Related 

Weaponry 

In FY 1993, the DoD established new priorities 

and related program decisions for its Ballistic Missile 

Defense (BMD) program. The highest priority became the development and deployment of Theater 

Missile Defense. The second priority became National Missile Defense for the U.S., which is oriented 

toward limited long-range ballistic missile threats to 

the U.S. that may emerge after the turn of the century. 

The focus of the second program is research and 

technology development, not deployment. The last 

priority became advanced follow-on BMD technologies. This is a research program directed toward the 

development of technologies offering promise for 

improved performance in both tactical and strategic 

defenses. Space-based interceptors are in this category. Consequently, the U.S. is no longer pursuing 

development and deployment of space-based missile 

defenses or a Global Protection Against Limited 

Strikes (GPALS) system. 

The Clinton Administration has reaffirmed the 

U.S. commitment to the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) 

Treaty. Additionally the administration announced 

on July 13, 1993, that the “narrow” or “traditional” 

interpretation of the ABM Treaty is the correct one, 

and therefore the ABM Treaty prohibits the development, testing, and deployment of sea-based, air-based, 

space-based, and mobile land-based ABM systems 

and components, without regard to the technology 

used. On October 1, 1993, at the conclusion of the 

Fourth ABM Treaty Review in Geneva, delegations 

of the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation, 

Ukraine, and the U.S. reaffirmed their commitment to 

the Treaty and agreed that it remained important to 

maintain its viability in view of political and technical 

changes. These developments further de-emphasized 

space-based ballistic missile defenses. 

Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan have all been 

considering converting some of their Intercontinental 

Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) and Submarine-Launched 

62 
Ballistic Missiles (SLBMs), to be reduced under the 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), to Space 

Launch Vehicles (SLVs) and then providing space 

launch services using such vehicles. On this issue, the 

U.S. must be assured that the START restrictions on 

such activities are adhered to. Moreover, START 

prohibits transfers of strategic offensive arms to third 

countries, and this prohibition extends to SLVs that 

are converted ICBMs or SLBMs. U.S. obligations 

under the Missile Technology Control Regime 

(MTCR) also apply with respect to transfers of hardware or technology to non-MTCR countries. Finally, 

the international marketing and sale of launch services using converted ICBMs and SLBMs must be 

regulated by the same civil space agreements that 

regulate civilian space launch systems. The U.S. has 

such a bilateral agreement with Russia providing, 

inter alia, that Russia will observe MTCR standards 

for future exports. The agreement will permit Russia 

to contract for up to eight launches into geosynchronous orbit between 1996 and 2000 (see below). 

The MTCR continues to be the centerpiece of 

U.S. multilateral missile nonproliferation efforts. 

Originally, the MTCR controlled the export of hardware and technology that could contribute to missiles, 

SLVs, and unmanned air vehicles capable of delivering a payload of 500 kilograms to a range of 300 

kilometers. The MTCR has recently been expanded 

in scope to cover delivery vehicles for all weapons of 

mass destruction (nuclear, chemical, and biological) 

and all systems intended for delivery of such weapons. The membership of the Regime has also expanded, now comprising 25 countries. Because the 

technology for developing an SLV is essentially identical to that for a ballistic missile, the MTCR requires 

members to control the export of such technology in 

the same way; only exports to programs judged not to 

contribute to systems capable of delivering weapons 

of mass destruction are acceptable under the MTCR. 

FY 1993 saw the U.S. deeply involved in bilateral 

negotiations with countries engaged in missile proliferation. With the U.S. having imposed sanctions on 

entities in both Russia and India because of the 

transfer of Russian cryogenic rocket engines and 

related technology to the Indian Space Research Organization, the U.S. and Russia agreed in July 1993 

that the U.S. would lift the sanctions in return for the 

essential termination of the transfers and Russian 

agreement to observe MTCR standards in future 

exports. At the same time, the U.S. took actions to 

allow Russia to compete for international commercial 

space launch contracts and to cooperate in the U.S. 

Space Station program. This opened the path for 

Russia to qualify for membership in the MTCR, an 

avowed objective of Russia and the MTCR partners. 

Relatedly, in response to the ongoing ballistic missile 

competition between India and Pakistan, the U.S. has 

undertaken a diplomatic initiative aimed at slowing 

and ultimately reversing the missile programs of both 

countries. Culminating years of U.S. diplomatic 

efforts, the Argentine government terminated the 

Condor 11 ballistic missile program. The government 

of South Africa terminated its missile-related SLV 

program, also after long negotiations with the U.S., 

thus placing itself on the path leading to MTCR 

membership-a goal the U.S. fully supports. By 

contrast, missile-related negotiations with China have 

been difficult and thus far, unsuccessful. Having 

lifted previous U.S. sanctions, imposed because of 

missile proliferation, in return for Chinese assurances 

that it would observe MTCR export standards, the 

U.S. again imposed sanctions because of growing 

evidence China was engaged in the transfer of M- 1 1 

missile technology to Pakistan, in violation of its 

pledge. 

Cooperation with Russia 

Concurrent with the Space Station redesign (discussed above), NASA and the Russian Space Agency 

(RSA) continued to study ways to increase Russian 

participation in the Space Station Program. In June 

1992 the U.S. and Russia had signed a Space Cooperation Agreement that expanded cooperation in space 

activities between the two countries. Specifically, the 

agreement called for a Russian cosmonaut to participate in aU.S. Space Shuttle mission and for the Space 

Shuttle to make at least one rendezvous with Mir. In 

October 1992, NASA and the RSA concluded another 

agreement that began the implementation of that 

program. Cosmonauts Sergei Krikalev and Vladimir 

Titov arrived in November 1992 at the Johnson Space 

Center to begin their training as Space Shuttle flight 

mission specialists. Plans call for Krikalev to be a 

mission specialist on STS-60 in early 1994. Planning 

63 
continued in FY 1993 for the flight of a U.S. astronaut 

on the Soyuz for a long-duration stay (more than 90 

days) on the Russian Space Station Mir in 1995 and 

for a Shuttle rendezvous with Mir scheduled for June 

1995. Meanwhile, NASA had also signed a study 

contract in June 1992 to investigate space systems 

and capabilities available in the Russian space program for potential application within the U.S. space 

program. This study, which continued into FY 1993, 

covered such areas as the use of Soyuz-TM as an 

interim Assured Crew Return Vehicle, automated 

rendezvous and docking, life sciences exchange, and 

other additional applications for Space Station. 

NASA’s cooperation with Russia became more 

focused when the two countries reached an understanding in July 1993 to “define and determine the 

feasibility of a cooperative human space flight program.” To do this, a Russian Integration Team began 

operations in Crystal City, VA, with representatives 

from the RSA and NASA. The team worked toward 

two objectives-defining an interim program for use 

of Mir-1 and Space Shuttle before the Space Station 

becomes operational and conducting a “top level” 

Space Station study to determine how to add Russian 

capabilities to the Space Station. The Russian Integration Team completed its initial study on the addition of Russian capabilities to the Space Station on 

August 30, 1993, concluding that a combined Space 

Station with U.S., international partner, and Russian 

contributions was feasible and had attractive performance and program capabilities. 

On September 2, 1992, Vice President Albert 

Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister Victor 

Chernomyrdin signed a series of joint statements on 

cooperation in space, environmental observations/ 

space science, commercial space launch, missile export controls, and aeronautical science. The joint 

statement on space cooperation specified that in pursuing potential cooperation with Russia, NASA would 

work with its current international partners and in 

accordance with existing international obligations. 

The space cooperation agreement called for proceeding in two phases-expanded ShuttleMir cooperation and then an interim human-tended space science 

capability, using an upgraded Mir module with a U.S. 

laboratory module and the U.S. Space Shuttle. In the 

first phase, Mir will be available for U.S. experiments 

including up to two years of “astronaut stay time.” 

The second phase would allow significant scientific 

experimentation to take place in a microgravity environment while providing practical space operations 

experience that will be useful for Space Station operations. As the year ended, the Russian Integration 

Team continued to work on the details of these phases. 

The other agreements called for such things as the 

sharing of data from space for environmental monitoring and global change research; opening the commercial space launch market to Russia; promoting the 

nonproliferation of missiles; and cooperating on research in aeronautics. The two sides agreed to establish a framework for new collaboration in fundamental research, taking advantage of the complementary 

facilities and expertise in the U.S. and Russia. (For 

further details on these matters, see Appendix F-2.) 

With regard to the commercial launch agreement, 

at the June 1992 summit between Presidents George 

Bush of the U.S. and Boris Yeltsin of Russia, the U.S. 

agreed to support the selection of a Russian launcher 

for the INMARSAT-3 satellite and to enter into 

negotiations on an agreement on commercial space 

launch that would allow future Russian launches of 

western spacecraft. Russian entry, with its major 

space launch capacity developed under the priorities 

of Soviet central planning and with no market-based 

notion of costs and prices, required a transition agreement limiting Russian activity in order to prevent 

undue disruption of normal competition among market-oriented western providers. Negotiations, led by 

the U.S. Trade Representative and the RSA, began in 

September 1992. After several rounds of talks, the 

two sides negotiated a final agreement that they 

initialled on July 6, 1993. Vice President Gore and 

Prime Minister Chernomyrdin formally signed it on 

September 2. The agreement established basic rules 

of the road for government involvement in the commercial space launch market regarding subsidies, 

marketing inducements, corrupt business practices, 

etc. These permit the Russians to contract with 

international customers for the launch of up to eight 

telecommunications satellites, in addition to 

INMARSAT-3, to geosynchronous Earth orbit between September 2, 1993, and December 31, 2000. 

Russia is also permitted three launches (of seven 

satellites each) to low Earth orbit for Motorola’s 

Iridium system. Additionally, the U.S. agreed to 

consider Russian proposals for other launches to low 

64 
Earth orbit on a case-by-case basis as this uncertain 

market develops. The agreement also requires Russia 

to charge prices comparable to those in the west for 

similar services. In the mature and static market for 

launches to geosynchronous Earth orbit, a Russian 

bid more than 7.5 percent below the lowest western 

bid would trigger consultations where the Russians 

would be required to explain and justify such a bid. 

Other Foreign Policy Issues 

The Presidential decision to undertake a major 

redesign of the Space Station had significant implications for the International Partners in this important 

international cooperative undertaking. Growing concern about the uncertainty of Space Station’s costs 

and the technical risks in its actual construction put 

the program in increasing danger of losing its domestic support in the U.S. At the same time, however, 

partner governments had committed some $8 billion 

to their contributions and had already spent $3.2 

billion. Thus, they were not happy to learn in February 1993 of the U.S. decision to redesign the Space 

Station. Through a series of ad hoc meetings with 

representatives of the partner governments in Washington, the Department of State (DoS) took action to 

reassure the partners that their concerns and interests 

would be taken into account in the redesign process. 

One of the first results of this DoS involvement was 

the development of agreed ground rules for the redesign process so as to factor in the partners’ concerns. 

To provide a political forum for these concerns to be 

addressed, DoS hosted two Intergovernmental Consultative Meetings in Washington on May 13 and 

June 11, 1993. The first meeting served to register at 

the political level the partners’ interest in ensuring 

that the U.S.-initiated changes in the program not 

erode their own bases of domestic support for participation. The second provided the partners with an 

opportunity to make their views known on the three 

finalized options. 

In June the President’s decision directed NASA 

to refine the Option A scaled-down, modular approach and to explore the feasibility of involving the 

Russians in some aspects of the redesigned Space 

Station program, as already seen. As NASA’s redesign team began intensified bilateral discussions to 

this end with the RSA, DoS undertook to assuage 

partner governments by making clear that the redesigned Space Station would proceed whether or not 

the Russians were involved; State also sought to 

persuade the partners of the political and technical 

merits of the Russian involvement. With the completion of the NASA-RSA study at the end of August, 

DoS instituted in concert with NASA an informal 

group where partner representatives could regularly 

make known their views on emerging issues. In 

September a State representative participated in a 

briefing in Paris to explain the U.S. views on Russian 

participation to partner government representatives. 

The success of this effort to improve consultation 

with the partners became evident shortly after the end 

of the fiscal year when, at the intergovernmental 

meeting in Paris on October 16, the partner governments agreed to explore collectively the idea of inviting the Russians into the partnership. 

In other areas, the DoS led a U.S. delegation to the 

Second Space Conference of the Americas held in 

Santiago, Chile, April 26-30, 1993. The conference 

brought together policy makers and respected authorities in space research from the Western Hemisphere to consider opportunities for regional cooperation. It was a unique mix of representatives from 

space agencies, non-governmental organizations, and 

foreign ministries designed to take stock of the current state of cooperation and lay the foundation for a 

fuller understanding of the prospects for greater collaboration on a regional scale. The U.S. participated 

actively and was greatly impressed with the results. 

Of particular note was agreement by delegations on a 

U.S. proposal for expanding regional cooperation on 

the use of the international satellite-aided search and 

rescue system, COSPAS-SARSAT, which the U.S., 

France, Canada, and Russia operate collectively. 

(Statistics on COSPAS-SARSAT’s rescues were not 

available on a fiscal year basis, but through the first 

week of December 1993, there had been 4 13 rescues 

through the system during the calendar year, bringing 

total rescues to that date up to 3,506 since the inception of the system in 1982.) 

Also during 1993, the DoS supported seven separate Space Shuttle activities by providing a direct link 

to U.S. embassies in countries with emergency landing facilities. It negotiated the extension of a Space 

Tracking Agreement with Spain. Per Presidential 

65 
directive, DoS created an interagency working group 

that reviewed the coverage of spacecraft and related 

components. Chaired by the DoS, the Space Technical Working Group (STWG) consisted of representatives from State, DOC, DoD, and other executive 

agencies. The group was established to identify and 

recommend removal from the U.S. Munitions List 

(USML) commercial satellites and related articles 

covered by the Coordinating Committee Industrial 

List (IL) except where such movement would jeopardize U.S. national security interests. In pursuing this 

objective, the STWG also sought to eliminate real and 

apparent overlaps between the USML and the Commodity Control List (CCL). The STWG developed 

language to capture all military GPS receivers on the 

USML; to transfer certain commercial communications satellites that do not possess characteristics 

requiring them to remain on the USML, from that list 

to the CCL; to transfer components, parts, accessories, and associated equipment for those satellites to 

the CCL; and to transfer passive, receive-only remote 

sensing ground stations to the CCL as well. 

DoS also facilitated U.S. Government participation in international space science, satellite remote 

sensing, and related environmental applications programs. During the year the DoS coordinated interagency review of several agreements involving intellectual property, data management, export licensing, 

and bilateral regulatory issues. Of particular note was 

the conclusion of agreements with the European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMESAT) and the Mongolian government 

that established unique and precedent-setting cooperation in vital geostationary spacecraft system backup, 

global environmental monitoring, and international 

data management policy. The DoS also participated in 

interagency deliberations on the convergence of civil 

and military meteorological satellite systems, development of a Space-based Global Change Observing 

System to support the U.S. Global Change Research 

Program, licensing of private remote sensing systems, 

and planning for the future Landsat-7 program. 

Following recommendations developed in FY 

1992 for INTELSAT’s Board of Governors and 

shepherded by DoS, DOC, and the FCC, the 

INTELSAT Assembly of Parties voted to relax and 

streamline procedures affecting private satellite competitors. Meeting in Sydney, Australia, November 3- 

6, 1992, the Assembly decided to give a presumptive 

favorable finding to all private systems except those 

carrying more than 1,250 circuits of public switched 

network (telephone and telegraph) per satellite. 

INTELSAT member countries are required by Article 

XIV(d) of the INTELSAT Agreement to consult with 

all other members before establishing any separate 

international satellite systems. On the heels of this 

U.S. policy success within the INTELSAT organization, the State Department’s Bureau of International 

Communications and Information Policy and the 

Commerce Department’s National Telecommunications and Information Administration jointly established a new private satellite policy to allow American licensees to have full advantage of the better 

international climate. In a January 8, 1993, letter the 

agencies told the FCC that private systems should be 

allowed to exploit fully the new opportunity to provide international telephone and telegraph services. 

The two U.S. companies with operating satellites, 

Pan American Satellite and Columbia Communications, were immediate beneficiaries of these improved 

international and domestic arrangements. 

Recognizing the necessity of change in the face of 

growing competition, the INTELSAT Assembly also 

called for the establishment of a special working group 

to consider not only further revisions to Article XIV(d) 

procedures but also any other changes appropriate to 

ensure the health of INTELSAT. The working group 

held its first meeting in September 1993 and established an ambitious work program to consider a full 

range of options for the future of INTELSAT. Also, 

over the past year the INTELSAT Board of Governors 

has taken significant steps to improve opportunities 

for companies that are not signatories to the INTELSAT 

Operating Agreement to deal directly with INTELSAT 

headquarters in Washington for ordering service, billing, and investment. This was yet another step in 

transforming the organization into a more commercially responsive provider of facilities. 

The Ninth Assembly of Parties of INMARSAT 

took place in Paris from October 5-8, 1993. The 

assembly accepted the recommendation of the 

Intersessional Working Group (IWG) on the Article 8 

(separate systems approval) process. The IWG recommended that all applications for separate systems 

made between the Ninth Assembly and the next 

ordinary assembly in 1995 would be determined, a 

66 
priori, to have no adverse economic impact on 

INMARSAT. The INMARSAT Council will continue to review issues of technical compatibility and 

could, if necessary, recommend that an extraordinary 

assembly be called to consider any case that might 

possibly cause significant economic harm. The assembly decided to constitute a new IWG to study 

further matters related to the financial structure of 

INMARSAT, including investment determination; 

matters relating to access to the system; and any 

proposed options for the future structure and status of 

the organization. The assembly requested that the 

council report its proposals on the adaptation of the 

structure of the organization to the future environment, including all the financial aspects, by the end of 

February 1994 and that the IWG report to the next 

session of the assembly with regard to the implementation of its recommendations. 

Commercial Development 

and Regulation of Space 

Technology 

Todate, a total of 35 U.S. Commercial Launches 

of space vehicles has taken place. These and planned 

future activities reflect a growing and diverse commercial launch industry that includes the development of reentry vehicles, air-launched rockets, singlestage-to-orbit technology, and commercial launch 

sites. The industry is also beginning to develop 

voluntary standards to increase industry safety and 

competitiveness. According to the latest DOT Commercial Launch Manifest, issued by the Office of 

Commercial Space Transportation (OCST) in September 1993, more than 42 commercial launches are 

expected to take place in the next few years. In 

January 1993 OCST distributed its first Launch Forecast Report, which covers current and near-term worldwide launch events conducted by domestic and foreign launch firms. The report is scheduled to be 

published quarterly and will include U.S. commercial 

launches, government payload missions, and foreign 

commercial launches. 

During FY 1993 the OCST had a total of nine 

commercial space transportation proposals in various 

stages of review. It issued two new licenses, conducted five determinations of maximum probable 

loss for insurance requirements, and participated in 

four failure investigations. These figures do not, 

however, provide a full or accurate picture of the 

changing nature and complexity of the commercial 

space transportation industry. 

One instance of that change is Orbital Sciences 

Corporation’s Pegasus, a launch vehicle capable of 

placing a variety of small payloads in orbit. The 

vehicle is first carried to an altitude of approximately 

40,000 feet by a specially modified B-52 or civil L101 1 aircraft. The first commercial launch was of a 

satellite for Brazil, licensed in December 1992, using 

a B-52 carrier aircraft operated by NASA. The 

company is now modifying an L-1011 that it will 

operate under FAA jurisdiction. The licensing of this 

PegasusL-1011 combination has required OCST to 

develop close working relationships with other regulatory agencies that are not traditionally involved in 

commercial space activities, such as the FAA and the 

National Transportation Safety Board. 

Another example of the commercial space 

industry’s growth and diversity is Space Industries 

International’s planned launch of the “Freeflyer” 

spacecraft developed under the NASA COMmercial 

Experiment Transporter (COMET) program. It will 

contain a number of experiments for industry and 

academic researchers and include a reentry vehicle 

capable of returning the experiments to Earth. The 

reentry system will use orbital information from the 

U.S. Space Command in CO and will land at the Utah 

Test and Training Range (UTI’R). OCST is conducting both a Vehicle Safety Approval and an Operations 

Review in order to authorize this mission. The 

Freeflyer is to be launched on a Conestoga rocket in 

the first flight of this new launch vehicle developed by 

EER Systems Corporation. 

OCST has begun discussions with industry representatives on single-stage-rocket-technology vehicles, 

the first of which is the one-third scale model of the 

DC-X, developed by McDonnell Douglas. If fully 

developed, the DC-X will be a completely reusable, 

one-stage launch system capable of placing people 

and payloads in orbit and returning them to Earth. 

Regulating this or other similar proposals requires 

OCST to continue refining its regulatory process. 

OCST has participated in reviewing applications 

for a DoD grant program to improve the commercial 

67 
space launch industry’s infrastructure. Some of the 

grants will assist in efforts to create Commercial 

Launch Sites in FL, AK, CA, and NM. The OCST 

has encouraged and been active in this development. 

The state of Hawaii has issued a draft state Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) for a planned commercial launch site, and OCST has been involved 

with the development of Hawaii’s Federal EIS. OCST 

also served as a cooperating agency for the site 

specific environmental assessment for the COMET 

Freeflyer recovery at the UTTR in 1994. 

OCST has begun a program to encourage the 

commercial space industry to develop Voluntary 

Standards. Through the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, OCST sponsored a series of 

workshops to identify those areas where the development of voluntary industry standards offer the highest 

potential for ensuring public safety and enhancing 

international competitiveness. In addition, the Office 

joined with NASA and industry to fund a secretariat 

position in a new subcommittee for space in the 

International Standards Organization. The new group, 

known as SC-14, is charged with developing international standards for commercial space activity. 

OCST also continued to conduct a comprehensive Research Program to respond to anticipated 

developments in commercial space transportation. 

This includes risk analyses and assessments, the development of risk management strategies and options, the development of licensing procedures and 

standards for new space vehicles and activities, and 

the evaluation of factors that affect risks in space and 

their relationship to design and operational practices. 

OCST participates in the National Security 

Council’s Task Force on Cooperation with the 

Russians. It was originally established to assist with 

the U.S./Russia Summit, held in Vancouver in April 

1993. OCST developed market data for the Task 

Force to use at the Vancouver Summit and for the 

Gore/Chernomyrdin meeting. OCST will continue to 

work with this Task Force as it develops joint U.S.! 

Russian projects in science and technology and supports the Joint Commission on Energy and Space. 

In addition, OCST served as a member of the U.S. 

interagency negotiating team, led by the Office of the 

U.S. Trade Representative (USTR), for the development of the U.S./Russia Space Launch Trade Agreement. During the negotiating period, OCST took part 

in preliminary discussions with the Russians regarding their entry into the international commercial launch 

market; provided market analyses and statistics on the 

impact of Russian entry into the market; and assisted 

with the drafting of the text of the agreement. As 

discussed above, Vice President Gore and Russian 

Prime Minister Chernomyrdin signed the agreement 

on September 2, 1993, during the historical two-day 

meeting of the U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on 

Energy and Space. OCST, along with the interagency 

community, will continue its work in this area by 

monitoring Russia’s compliance with the provisions 

outlined in the agreement. 

DOC’S Office of Air and Space Commercialization (OASC) was also involved in the development of 

the agreement. OASC coordinated Doc’s review of 

the document, and before it was signed, the office 

worked closely with the USTR and other government 

agencies to negotiate the terms of the agreement. The 

office also met with U.S. industry representatives to 

discuss ideas and concerns regarding the structure of 

the agreement. Moreover, OASC served as a member 

of the interagency working group that prepared the 

agenda for the September 1-2, 1993, meeting of the 

Joint Commission on Economic and Technology 

Cooperation, chaired by Vice President Gore and 

Prime Minister Chernomyrdin. OASC representatives attended the second day of the meeting, which 

was dedicated to discussions of U.S.-Russian space 

cooperation and the signing of the agreements already 

discussed. OASC, along with NOAA, continued to 

represent the DOC as a member of the Secretariat 

Working Group on Science, Environment and Space, 

the formation of which resulted from the September 

meeting. 

OCST, meanwhile, has also been working with 

other Federal agencies on the U.S./F’eople’s Republic of China (PRC) Memorandum of Agreement 

(MOA) Regarding International Trade in Commercial Launch Services. OCST carries out DOT’S responsibility as the chair agency of the Interagency 

Working Group on Information, which collects, analyzes, and provides information needed to monitor 

the compliance of the PRC with the terms and conditions of the MOA. 

OCST is also a participant in the National Facilities Study, led by NASA and the DoD and concerned 

with ways of improving the infrastructure for the 

68 
nation's space launch facilities. To further support 

the development of new space launch infrastructure 

or improvement of existing facilities, in January 1993 

OCST completed and distributed a report entitled 

United States Commercial Space Transportation Infrastructure and Long-Term Financing Plan. 

To return to OASC, that office worked closely 

with members of the GPS community concerning the 

announcement by the Secretary of Commerce and the 

President of Magellan Systems Corp. of a joint venture between the CA-based firm and a consortium of 

three major Japanese companies. The goal of the 

arrangement is to produce an on-board navigational 

system for Japanese automobiles using GPS technology so as to capture a market that could exceed $5 

billion annually by the end of this decade. 

OASC has been working with other agencies to 

generate a consistent Government policy towards 

medium-resolution commercial Remote Sensing. The 

goal is to encourage the growth of the U.S. remote 

sensing industry while preserving U.S. national security interests. OASC has met with representatives of 

numerous remote sensing firms both in meetings and 

at conferences to discuss their business needs and 

concerns regarding a comprehensive U.S. Government policy. OASC also assisted with preparing 

testimony for DOC'S Under Secretary for Oceans and 

Atmosphere (NOAA) to use in a recent appearance at 

a Senate Intelligence Committee hearing on commercial remote sensing. 

Additionally, OASC has participated in discussions with NASA on the commercial implications of 

the joint U.S.-Russian Space Station program discussed above. It has sponsored briefings to the DOC 

by NASA officials who are exploring ways to build a 

next-generation commercial space station, a project 

that could result in closer NASA-DOC technical partnership. OASC has initiated an informal DOC-NASA 

working group to cooperate further on Commercial 

Space Issues. 

Finally, OASC has been participating in an effort 

led by the OSTP and involving numerous Government 

agencies, as well as U.S. industry, to strengthen US. 

capabilities with the improvement of commercial space 

infrastructures and the possible development of a nextgeneration Commercial Launch Vehicle. 

In a totally separate development related to space 

commercialization and regulation, in May 1993 the 

FCC granted PanAmSat, operator of the first Separate International Satellite System of the U.S., conditional authority to construct a second and third hybrid 

(C- and Ku-band) Separate International Communications Satellite System for operation at orbital locations 43" West and 169" East longitudes. Relatedly, 

in July 1993 the FCC completed two consultations 

with INTELSAT according to Article XIV(d) of the 

INTELSAT agreement. The first concerned the 

PanAmSat system at 169" East longitude, scheduled 

for launch in May 1994. The second consultation, for 

the Orion Satellite Corporation whose satellites are 

intended for orbital positions at 47" and 37.5" West 

longitudes, updated an earlier consultation required 

because of technical modifications made to the Orion 

satellites. 

NASA, too, was heavily involved in the commercial development of space technology through its 

Office of Advanced Concepts &Technology (OACT) 

established in October 1992 by a merger of the Office 

of Commercial Programs and the Space Technology 

Directorate. A focus of NASA's commercial space 

initiatives continued to be its Centers for the Commercial Development of Space (CCDSs). Located 

across the nation, these 17 centers sought to increase 

U.S. industry's involvement and investment in spacerelated enterprises. Examples of the CCDSs' efforts 

to identify and capitalize on the real possibilities of 

space-related commerce appear below. 

In the general category of Protein Crystallography, after 16 research flights on the Space Shuttle and 

extensive ground research the Center for Macromolecular Crystallography (CMC) at the University of 

Alabama at Birmingham, a NASA CCDS, has developed the world's largest database on the subject. 

Working with industry, NASA, Government laboratories, and other academic research institutions, the 

CMC strives to reduce costs and risks associated with 

space-based protein crystal growth, biomedical research, and drug design/development. Current commercial research in this area could lead to a new 

generation of drugs, potentially used to help treat 

cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, periodontal disease, influenza, septic shock, emphysema, and AIDS. 

Preparations have made substantial progress for 

the first flight of the Wake Shield Facility on STS-60 

in January 1994. It will become the first commercial 

production facility to manufacture extremely pure 

69 
materials in low Earth orbit. The facility is essentially 

a 12-foot stainless steel disk with four attachment 

points for small payloads. It will trail 40 miles behind 

the Shuttle for two days of free flight, be retrieved, and 

return to Earth. The Space Vacuum Epitaxy CCDS at 

the University of Houston and Space Industries, Inc. of 

League City, TX, conceived and built it for approximately one-sixth of the cost that traditional aerospace 

hardware development programs would have incurred. 

During FY 1993, NASA made several advances 

and documented a number of successful cooperative 

initiatives in commercial applications of Remote Sensing technologies. NASA’s Earth Observation Commercial Applications Program continues to produce 

valuable spinoffs of these technologies into the private 

sector to improve public service and enhance U.S. 

competitiveness. Two of NASA’s CCDSs also work 

toward similar goals in the field of remote sensing. 

Among the many notable achievements were the testing by NASA and two companies of the ability of 

NASA’s satellite remote sensing to survey a wide 

ocean area off the West Coast in order to pinpoint 

vessel location, direction, and speed. This application 

can enhance the efficiency of law enforcement efforts 

and may also be used to address ship safety or to 

provide near real-time fisheries monitoring. On land, 

a NASA-sponsored team developed a faster, cheaper 

way to update regional land-use information, which is 

expected to save urban planners and map makers a lot 

of time and money as well as provide them with more 

accurate information about an area’s resources. The 

team developed a unique GIS that provides information about a region’s population distribution and many 

other features vital to research planners in rapidly 

growing regions. Potential applications range widely 

from market research to insurance risk assessment. 

Finally, NASA’s Ames Research Center used aerial 

and satellite images to help CA wine growers battle a 

serious insect problem facing the state’s $10 billion-ayear wine industry. Sensitive electronic scanners on 

aircraft and satellites helped a team of government, 

industry, and universities map and analyze phylloxera 

(root louse) damage in northern CA. These scanners 

can detect plant stress before it is visible to the naked 

eye, aiding vintners to develop plans for replanting. 

June 1993 saw the maiden flight of the Spacehab 

module in the cargo bay of Space Shuttle Endeavour. 

Privately funded and developed by SPACEHAB, Inc. 

of Arlington, VA, the module provides an additional 

1,100 cubic feet of pressurized experimental space on 

the Shuttle, quadrupling the available working and 

storage volume. The first flight carried 15 commercial 

experiments. Four of NASA’s CCDSs and the Johnson 

Space Center collaborated with 24 industry affiliates 

to perform biotechnology experiments. Four other 

CCDSs and NASA’s Langley Research Center collaborated with 11 industrial partners to perform experiments in materials science. Many of Spacehab-01 

investigators will continue their research on subsequent Spacehab flights, the next of which is scheduled 

for January 1994. 

A key mechanism in transfemng Federal technology to the private sector is the national network of 

technology transfer centers sponsored by NASA in 

cooperation with other Federal agencies. The network’s 

core structure includes six Regional Technology 

Transfer Centers (RTTCs) located throughout the 

country and the National Technology Transfer Center 

(NTTC) in Wheeling, WV. The RTTCs have recently 

developed regional networks that involve more than 

70 affiliated organizations operating at the state and 

local levels. During their first full year of operation 

(January-December 1992), the RTTCs provided services to more than 2,500 private sector clients. To 

boost awareness of these opportunities, the Ohio Department of Development and NASA’s Great Lakes 

Industrial Technology Center (GLITeC) in Cleveland 

initiated a minority enterprise called TECHSHARE, 

which began in April 1993 to inform minority- and 

women-owned companies in Ohio about available 

sources of Federal technology, reaching more than 125 

such businesses. Recognizing the importance of commercializing invention, GLITeC and NASA’s Lewis 

Research Center (LeRC) engaged students from diverse fields to evaluate the technical and commercial 

feasibility of LeRC technology. Under this Student 

Technology Evaluation Program, graduate students 

from Case Western Reserve University worked with 

90 patents and 30 disclosures, completing detailed 

market opportunity analyses for 40 of them. They 

identified 9 companies interested in pursuing licensing 

agreements with LeRC, 28 interested in an Advanced 

Coatings Consortium, and 11 interested in on-going 

technology transfer relationships with LeRC. 

Relatedly, OACT began a three-year technology commercialization experiment in February 1993 by fund70 
ing two Technology Commercialization Centers, one 

at Ames and the other at Johnson Space Center in an 

effort to foster new industry and create new jobs. 

During 1993 the NTTC designed a new, on-line 

electronic bulletin board to enhance its current gateway service. Called Business Gold-NTTC Online, it 

will begin operating in early 1994, featuring a comprehensive directory of Federal Research and Development laboratories and highlighting Federal technologies available for commercialization. This augmented the NTTC’s toll-free information gateway 

(800/678-NTTC), which allows companies to access 

technologies and expertise from more than 700 Federal laboratories nationwide. 

The nation’s top technology managers gathered 

in Baltimore, MD, in December 1992 at Technology 

2002, the third national technology transfer conference and exposition. Sponsored by NASA, NASA 

Tech Briefs magazine, and the Technology Utilization Foundation, the conference featured more than 

120 presentations and 250 exhibitors. Two other 

conferences, the President’s National Technology 

Initiative and the MIT Entrepreneurial Technology 

Transfer Conference coincided with Tech 2002 in 

Baltimore, attracting over 6,000 attendees and over 

130 media representatives. 

NASA has also joined forces with the NSF, ARPA, 

DOE’S Defense Programs, DOT, and NIST to manage 

the Technology Reinvestment Project. Announced 

by President Clinton in March 1993, this is a $472- 

million effort to help U.S. industry respond to the twin 

challenges posed by decreased defense spending and 

increased global economic competition. One thrust 

of the project is to reorient the military/industrial base 

toward dual-use technologies, processes, and products. Companies, state and local governments submitted 2,800 proposals to the project during a twomonth solicitation period ending in late July. Generally, proposals had to include provision for commercial application of the technology and for the company to provide at least 50 percent of the funding. 

In another project, the Small Business Innovation Research Program (SBIR), NASA sought to 

stimulate technological innovation in the U.S. by 

using small, minority, and disadvantaged firms to 

help meet Federal research and development needs 

and to encourage commercial applications of federally supported research innovations. As required by 

law, NASA allocated 1.5 percent of its FY 1993 

extramural research and development budget to fund 

SBIR. In November and December 1992, NASA 

selected 348 research proposals for negotiation of 

Phase I contracts to establish the feasibility of research and development concepts. In January 1993, 

the agency announced the selection of 38 Phase I1 

proposals for further development, with a total value 

in contract awards of about $19 million. An example 

of a success story from NASA’s SBIR program was 

the Glasair I1 kit-built general aviation aircraft made 

of composite materials, the first such aircraft that has 

verified lightning protection. 

Space Education and 

Publicity 

Throughout FY 1992 many Government agencies engaged actively in educating the American 

people about space-related developments, in publicizing them both in the U.S. and abroad, and in using 

their resources to improve American education. The 

Federal Coordinating Council for Science, Engineering, and Technology’s Committee on Education and Human Resources focussed the programs 

of 16 participating Federal agencies, including NASA, 

on improving primary and secondary teaching and 

learning in mathematics, science, history, and geography; on helping teach students to use their minds 

effectively; and on ensuring that every American 

would gain the knowledge and skills necessary to 

compete in the global economy and to be an effective 

citizen. 

NASA has responded to the country’s increased 

attention to education with enthusiasm. Born during 

the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo years, NASA’s 

continuing educations efforts used the agency’s mission to support the national education reform movement with programs extending from grade school to 

graduate school. A wide array of elementary and 

secondary programs seeks to foster systemic and 

permanent change in educational programs in science, mathematics, and technology, targeting students, teachers, and administrators. A variety of 

programs in higher education supports faculty preparation and enhancement while providing undergraduate and graduate opportunities through active involve71 
ment in NASA research. These include the Aerospace 

Education Services program, the National Space Grant 

College and Fellowship Program, the Teacher Resource 

Center Network, and the Spacelink computer information service. Finally, NASA has fostered educational 

partnerships with other educational, industrial, and nonprofit organizations and associations such as Space Camp, 

the Challenger Centers, and the National Science Teachers Association. 

Similarly, NOM’ s efforts to increase educational 

outreachthroughapplyingthecapabilities ofcoastwatch 

to Schools (kindergarten through 12th grade and 

undergraduate) have included teacher workshops, a 

network of active teachers similar to the one used by the 

American Meteorological Society, Coastwatch 

participation in pertinent national and regional educational 

conferences, formal teacher training programs, and use 

of the well-developed marine education capability in the 

Sea Grant system. The Great Lakes Environmental 

Research Laboratory (GLEE) will be working with the 

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan (ERIM) 

to make Great Lakes Coastwatch near real-time, high 

resolution satellite data available for K-12 classroom 

educational projects and teaching materials through the 

NASA- and NOAA-funded Space Technology Education 

Program implemented at ERIM. In addition, NOMS 

National Geophysical Data Center’s Global Change 

Data Base includes the Global Change Educational 

Diskette Project. This product combines environmental 

data for Africa with extensive documentation, plus a 

training exercise manual designed for schools and for 

self-teaching of the use of GISs to explore regional 

environments. The product containsboth satellite-derived 

Along the same lines, the OCST Program Affairs 

Division continued its outreach program to expand public understanding of the commercial space transportation 

industry and its growing importance as a national asset 

and component of international competitiveness. It also 

worked with the legislative branch to increase knowledge of this newest transportation mode among members 

of Congress. Also during FY 1993, OCST participated 

with the Aerospace States Association and Spaceport 

Florida Authority in the first “Rockets for Schools” 

program, under which high school students from across 

the country were brought to Florida to learn of careers in 

commercial space industry while participating in a variety of space related activities, including the launch of an 

actual scientific research rocket. The program aimed at 

increasing participation in science and math courses, 

particularly among women and minority students. 

and ground-based data. 

While these and similar programs were working to 

improve education in the U.S., the United States Information Agency (USIA) informed audiences abroad of 

American achievements in space and used NASA innovations to further public diplomacy around the world. 

The global radio network Voice of America (VoA) 

covered the space program in news stories, correspondent reports, special features, and documentaries broadcast in 48 languages. Each Space Shuttle mission was 

reported from Cape Canaveral, and VoA examined 

planetary probes from Washington or the NASA sites 

responsible for them. Science writers attended NASA 

briefings at Goddard Spaceflight Center in MD and 

Johnson Space Center in TX to prepare for the Hubble 

Space Telescope repair mission. NASA’s Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory in CA and the VoA entered into a joint 

venture to develop the prototype of a receiver for a digital 

audio broadcast and began transmitting digital audio 

services to South America and Europe to enhance signal 

quality. In a historic agreement, USIA implemented a 

new digital audio service via INTERSPUTNIK, the 

Russian satellite system. The new service provides VoA 

and Radio Liberty programs to Russia and other states 

formerly part of the Soviet system. 

USIA’s Worldnet television service offerednumerous programs on NASA and the U.S. space effort, 

including 6 interactive dialogues, 86 newsfile stories, 7 

TV satellite file pieces, 13 science world features, and 32 

newly acquired video programs. Interactive dialogues 

included discussions on women in space, Spacehab, and 

science education, with astronaut Dr. Ellen Ochoa and 

journalists in Caracas, Venezuela. Dr. Ochoa was also 

the guest on a telepress conference with journalists in Rio 

de Janeiro, Brazil. 

The Wireless File of USIA continued to provide 

News Articles for placement in local publications around 

the world. Highlights of the approximately 40 included 

NASA articles covered all seven Space Shuttle missions 

in FY 1993, the Magellan spacecraft, and the latest news 

on the reduced-cost Space Station. Also, USIA’s regional magazines featured stories relating NASA activities to their particular audiences. Topic magazine, produced in French and English for African readers, told for 

example of Astronaut Frederick Gregory’s visit to Africa. America Illustrated, reaching readers in Russia and 

the surrounding region, carried items on Hubble Space 

Telescope, a new archive for NASA’s space films, and 

the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. Relatedly, 

Moon rock samples continued to be popular attractions 

around the world. In FY 1993 seven showings of Moon 

rocks in four countries drew more than 200,000 visitors. 

72 
APPENDIXES 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraftfrom cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Calendar 

Year 

Earth OrbiP 

Success Failure 

Earth Escape’ 

Success Failure 

1957 ..................................................................... 0 

1958 ..................................................................... 5 

................................... 9 

............................................................. 16 

1961 ................................................................... 35 

1962 ................................................................... 55 

1963 ................................................................... 62 

1964 ................................................................... 69 

1965 ................................................................... 93 

1966 ................................................................... 94 

1967 ................................................................... 78 

1968 ................................................................... 61 

1969 ................................................................... 58 

1970 .................................................................... ......................................................... 45 

1972 ................................................................... 33 

1973 ................................................................... 23 

1974 ................................................................... 27 

1975 ................................................................... 30 

1976 .................................................................... 1977 ................................................................... 27 

1979 ................................................................... 18 

1980 ................................................................... 16 

1981 ................................................................... 20 

1982 ................................................................... 21 

1983 ................................................................... 31 

1984 ................................................................... 35 

1985 ................................................................... 37 

1986 ................................................................... 11 

1987 ..................................................................... 9 

1988 ................................................................... 16 

1989 ................................................................... 24 

1991 ................................................................... 32c 

1992 ................................................................... 26= 

1993 ................................................................... 24c 

(through September 30) 

1 

8 

9 

12 

12 

12 

11 

8 

7 

12 

4 

15 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

0 

2 

2 

0 

4 

1 

0 

0 

3 

1 

4 

1 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

0 

4 

0 

4 

4 

7 

10 

3 

8 

3 

8 

8 

3 

1 

4 

1 

2 

7 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

4 

2 

2 

2 

1 

0 

0 

1 

lb 

0 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

TOTAL ......................................................... 1. 283 144 83 15 

‘The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success . “Escape” 

flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth . 

This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals . 

This excludes commercial satellites . It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle. as on Feb . 9.1993. when a 

single Pegasus launch vehicle placed two satellites in orbit . (See Appn . A-3.) 

73 
APPENDIX A-2 

World Record Of Space launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People’s European 

Calendar United USSW Francea Italy Japan Republic Australia United Space India Israel 

Year States CIS of China Kingdom Agency 

1957 .................. 1958 ................ 5 

1959 .............. 10 

1960 .............. 16 

1961 .............. 29 

1962 .............. 52 

1963 .............. 38 

19 64 .............. 57 

1965 .............. 63 

19 66 .............. 73 

1967 .............. 57 

1968 .............. 45 

1969 .............. 40 

1970 .............. 28 

1971 .............. 30 

1972 .............. 30 

1973 .............. 23 

1974 .............. 22 

1975 .............. 27 

1976 .............. 26 

19 77 .............. 24 

1978 .............. 32 

1979 .............. 16 

1980 .............. 13 

1981 .............. 18 

1982 .............. 18 

1983 .............. 22 

1984 .............. 22 

1985 .............. 17 

1986 ................ 6 

1987 ................ 8 

19 88 .............. 12 

1989 .............. 17 

1990 .............. 27 

1991 ............. 13‘ 

1992 ............. 25‘ 

20 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 

17 ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 

66 ................ 2 ............ 1 ............................................................. 1 .................................................................................... 

b 

b 

81 ................ 2 ............ 1 ........... 1 .................. 1 .............................................................................................................. 83 ................ 1 ............ 2 ........... 2 .................. 1 ............................................... 1 ........................................................... 74 ............................... 1 ............. 1 ................................................................................................................................... 

b 81 ............................... 2 ............ 1 ....................................................................................................... 89 ................ 3 ............ 1 2 3 

99 ................................................ 1 .................. 2 .......................................... : ................................................................... 

98 ................................................ 2 ................................................................................................................................... 88 ................................................ 3 .................. 1 .............................................................................................................. 87 ................................................ 2 ............................................................................................ 1 .................................... 89 ................................................ 2 ............................................................................................................... 1 ................ 98 ................................................ 3 .................. 1 ....................................................................... 2 ................ 1 ................ 101 ................................................ 1 .................. 1 .............................................................................................................. 98 ................................................ 3 .................. 1 ....................................................................... 2 ................ 1 ................ 97 ................................................ 3 .................. 3 ....................................................................... 4 .................................... 98 ................................................ 2 .................. 1 ....................................................................... 3 .................................... 91 ................................................ 2 .................. 2 ....................................................................... 2 .................................... 95 ................................................ 3 .................. 2 ....................................................................... 2 .................................... 90 ................................................ 2 .................. 4 

74 ........................ ......... 2 ............................................................................................ 7 .................................. 1 

75 ........................ .5 ....................................................................... 5 .................................. 1 

. 1 ....................................................................... 9 ................ 1 ................ 

............. .................. .............................................................................................................. 

....................................................................... 7 .................................... 

.3 ....................................................................... gb ............. 2 ................ 

TOTAL ......... 961 2,373 .............. 10 ............ 8 ........... 45 ................ 32d .................... Id ................. 1 .................... 49 ................ 6 .............. 2 

d 1993 ............. 1f ............................................................................... 4 ................................. (through Sept. 30) 

TOTAL ......... 978 d 2,411 .............. 10 ............ 8 32d .................... 1 ................. 1 .................... 53 ................ 6 .............. 2 

aSince 1979 all launches for ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA. 

bIncludes foreign launches of U.S. spacecraft. 

‘This excludes commercial expendable launches. 

%e Weekly Satellite Situation Report for Aug. 20,1992, incorrectly listed a Chinese launch of an Australian satellite (AUSSAT B1 on 

Aug. 13) asan Australianlaunch. Thiserror was repeated inlast year’sappendix but is corrected here. Similarly corrected areerroneous entries in last year’s appendix of Canadian and Indonesian satellites as launches by those countries. 
APPENDIX A-3

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1992-September 30,1993 

Launch Date (GMT). 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

~~ ~~ 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Equator (') 

Remarks 

Oct. 12 

DFS-3 

66A 

Delta I1 

Oct. 22 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-52) 

70A 

Oct. 23 

LAGEOS I1 

708 

Oct. 31 

CTA 

7oc 

Nov. 21 

MSTI-1 

78A 

scout 

Nov. 22 

GPS 

79A 

Delta I1 

Nov. 28 

USA 86 

83A 

Titan IV 

Objective: To provide televsion, radio, and data 

Spacecraft: Kopemikus 

communication services throughout Germany. 

Objective: To study the influence of gravity on 

basic fluid and solidification processes using US. 

Microgravity Payload (USMP)-1 and to deploy 

the second Laser Geodynamics Satellite 

(LAGEOS 11) to measure the Earth's crustal 

movement plus nine secondary payloads in an 

international mission with cooperative efforts 

between NASA and the French, Italian, and 

Canadian space programs as well as the European 

Space Agency (ESA). 

listed above. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter carrying the experiments 

Objective: To measure regional crustal deformation, 

improve geodetic reference datum and Earth 

orientation, measure secular variation in Earth's 

gravitational field and wandering of Earth's polar 

axis plus variations in Earth rotation. 

Spacecraft: No moving parts, designed for use as a 

target for laser ranging from 65 sites around the 

world, operated by 30 countries. 

Objectives: To test the Canadian Space Vision 

System, itself designed to enhance human vision 

in connection with operation of the Canada arm, 

by taking it through a series of maneuvers, and 

then to release and track the Canadian Target 

Assembly (CTA) in space using the Space Vision 

System. 

Spacecraft: A small satellite. 

Objective: To demonstrate low-cost, light-weight 

modular test bed for Miniature Seeker and Sensor 

technologies. 

Spacecraft: Miniature Seeker Technology 

Integration-1 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, including position, velocity, 

and timing data to the DoD and civilian 

users. 

spacecraft: A Block II satellite in the NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System. 

Objective: To deliver a classified payload into P 

orbit. 

Spacecrajt: Not announced. 

35,832.0 

35,738.0 

1,436.1 

0.0 

299.0 

290.0 

90.4 

28.4 

5,951 .O 

5,616.0 

222.5 

52.7 

243.0 

161.0 

88.4 

28.4 

446.0 

341.0 

92.2 

96.7 

20,251.0 

18,341.0 

681.4 

53.5 

tot available 

Launched by McDonnell Douglas 

for Germany. In geosynchronous 

orbit. 

Fifty-first flight of Space 

Transportation System (STS). 

Piloted by James D. Wetherbee and 

Michael A. Baker. Mission Specialists 

Charles L. Veach, 

William M. Shepherd 

Tamara E. Jernigan. Payload 

Specialist Steven G. MacLean. 

Launched from KSC, 1:09 p.m. EDT. 

Landed at KSC, 9:05 a.m. EST, Nov. 1. 

Mission duration: 9 days, 20 hours, 

57 minutes. 

In a joint NASA and Italian Space 

Agency mission, the passive 

satellite was successfully launched 

from Columbia at 9:56 a.m. EDT. In 

orbit. 

Released from Columbia and tracked 

on Oct. 31. Reentered the atmosphere 

and burned up Nov. 1. 

Launched into sun-synchronous orbit 

by NASA for the DoD at Vandenberg 

AFB. Remained in orbit until 

Jul. 18,1993. 

Sixteenth in a series of 

operational GPS satellites. 

System expected to be 

composed of 24 satellites in 

inclined, semi-synchronous 

orbit. In orbit. 

Launched from Vandenberg 

AFB, CA. In orbit. 

75 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1992-September 30,1993 

Apogee and 

Launch Date (GMT). Perigee (km), 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Period (min), Remarks 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Launch Vehicle Equator V) 

Dec. 2 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-53) 

86A 

Dec. 2 

DoD 1 

USA 89 

86B 

Dec. 18 

GPS 

USA 87 

89A 

Delta I1 

Jan. 13 

Space Shuttle 

Endeavour 

(SSW 

3A 

Jan. 13 

TDRS-6 

3B 

Feb. 3 

GPS 

USA 88 

7A 

Delta II 

Objective; To deploy the last major DoD 381.0 

372.0 

92.0 

57.0 

classified payload currently planned for the 

Shuttle fleet. Secondary objectives include ten 

different payloads including Space Tissue Loss 

(STL) and Battlefield Laser Acquisition Sensor 

Test (BLAST). 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter with 13 detailed test 

objectives and 12 detailed supplementary 

objectives. 

Objectives: To deliver a classifed payload into orbit. Not available 

Spacecraft: Deployable spacecraft and associated 

airborne deployment system. 

Objective; To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, including position, velocity, and 

timing data to the DoD and civilian users. 

Spacecraj: A Block 11 satellite in the NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System. 

Objective: To deploy Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite (TDRS)-f5 and operate the Diffused 

X-ray Spectrometer Hitchhiker experiment 

to collect data on stars and the surrounding 

galactic gases. Other objectives included the 

second Physiological and Anatomical Rodent 

Experiment (PARE-2), a Solid Surface 

Combustion Experiment, and the second group 

of Physics of Toys experiments to be broadcast 

to classrooms throughout the nation. 

Spacecraj: Shuttle orbiter with above experiments 

and equipment. 

Objective: To launch the sixth in a series of 

communication satellites in the Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) to provide 

communications with the Space Shuttle and other 

spacecraft in low-Earth orbit. 

Spacecraj: Satellite equipped with two solar arrays, 

two single access antennae, a C-band antenna, 

a K-band antenna, and an omni antenna. 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, including position, velocity, 

and timing data to the DoD and civilian 

Spacecraj: A Blodc II satellite in the NAVSTAR 

users. 

Global Positioning System. 

20323.0 

20,039.0 

718.0 

54.7 

307.0 

302.0 

90.6 

28.4 

35,708.0 

35,704.0 

1,431.9 

0.5 

20,359.0 

20,005.0 

718.0 

54.8 

Fifty-second STS flight. 

Piloted by David M. Walker 

and Robert D. Cabana. Mission 

Specialists Guion S. Bluford, Jr., 

James S. Voss, and 

Michael Richard Clifford. Launched 

from KSC at 824 a.m. EST. Landed 

at Edwards AFB, CA, 343 p.m. EST 

Dec. 9. Mission duration: 7 days, 

7 hrs., 19 min. 

Launched from Discovery, 9th 

dedicated DoD Shuttle mission. 

In orbit. 

Seventeenth in a series of operational 

GPS satellites. System expected to be 

composed of 24 satellites in inclined, 

semi-synchronous orbit. In orbit. 

Fifty-third STS flight. Piloted by 

John H. Casper and 

Donald R. McMonagle. Mission 

Specialists Gregory J. Harbaugh, 

J. Harbaugh, Mario Runco Jr., and 

Susan J. Helms. Launch from KSC 

8:59 a.m. EST. Landed at KSC 

838 a.m. EST. Jan. 20. Mission 

duration: 6 days, 23 hrs., 39 min. 

Designated TDRS F until in orbit, 

following release from Endeavour’s 

cargo bay, on )an. 14 it reached its 

initial destination following two 

successfult booser firings of the 

inertial upper stage. In orbit. 

Eightenth in a series of 

operational GPS satellites. 

System expected to be 

composed of 24 satellites in 

inclined, semisynchronous 

orbit. In orbit. 

76 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful US. Launches 

October 1,1992-September 30,1993 

Apogee and 

Launch Date (GMT). Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Launch Vehicle Equator (*I 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Period (min), Remarks 

Feb. 9 Objective: To demonstrate new, commercial, 

ow-1 

9A Earth orbit. 

Pegasus Spucecraft: An experimental, demonstration 

satellite weighing about 32 lbs., the size 

of a large briefcase, for transmitting brief 

messages with hand-held communicators. 

global, mobile communications from lowFeb. 9 

SCD 1 

9B 

Pegasus 

Mar. 25 

UFO-1 

15A 

AtlasCentaur I 

Mar. 30 

GPS 

USA 90 

17A 

Delta II 

Mar. 30 

SEDS I 

178 

Delta I1 

Objective: To monitor cloud cover, rainfall, flood 

and tide levels, and air quality over Brazil. 

Spacecruft: Satelite de Coleta de Dados (SCD), a 

remote, sensing spacecraft that collects 

environmental data from ground sensors in 

the Amazon River Basin. 

Objective: To provide communications and UHF 

links for the U.S. Navy, Strategic Command, 

and Army/Marine Rapid Deployment Forces. 

Spacecraft: A 6,319-pound satellite with a planned 

lifetime of 14 years and greater communications 

capacity than the Navy’s current communications 

spacecraft. 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, including position, velocity, and 

timing data to the DoD and civilian users. 

Spacecruft: A Block II satellite in the NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System. 

Obiective: To allow scientists to comDare data on 

794.0 

732.0 

100.1 

25.0 

793.0 

729.0 

100.1 

25.0 

36,108.0 

36,041.0 

1,450.9 

27.1 

20,292.0 

20,073.0 

718.0 

55.0 

Elements 

actual tether dynamics with comiuter models 

of predicted behavior. 

spacecraft: The Small Expendable Tether Deployable 

System (SEDS I), an 85-pound satellite attached by 

a 20-kilometer-long flexible cable to the Delta’s 

second-stage. 

not available 

Apr. 8 Objective: To provide the orbiter Discovery and the 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS56) 

23A 

Spacelab pallet as a platform for experiements on 

the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and 

Science (ATLAS) payload, to monitor global ozone 

with the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet 

instruments, and to study the solar wind and the 

sun’s corona, among other purposes. 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter featuring 12 development test 

objectives and 15 detailed supplemental objectives. 

307.0 

295.0 

90.5 

57.0 

Launched by Pegasus rocket, 

carried to 40,000 feet for release 

and first-stage motor ignition in 

a NASA 852, which had taken off 

from KSC. In orbit. 

Launched by Pegasus rocket, carried 

to 40,000 feet for release and firststage motor ignition in a NASA 852, 

which had taken off from KSC. In 

orbit. 

Because of malfunction of the Atlas 

stage, the satellite went into lower 

orbit than required. With insufficient 

fuel to move it to operational orbit, 

the Navy moved it above geosynchronous altitude and declared it a 

total loss. In orbit. 

Nineteenth in a series of operational 

GPS satellites. System expected to be 

composed of 24 satellites in inclined, 

semi-synchronous orbit. In orbit. 

During the 80-minute deployment, 

the entire length of tether slowly 

unreeled until the payload began 

swinging like a pendulum, Once it 

ceased swinging and came to a 

vertical position, it was severed and 

allowed to bum up as it reentered 

the Earth’s atmosphere. 

F&y-fourth STS flight. Pilot by 

Kenneth D. Cameron and 

Stephens S. Oswald. Payload 

Commander C. Michael Foale. 

Mission Specialists 

Kenneth D. Cockerel1 and 

Ellen Ochoa. Launched from KSC 

1:29 a.m. EDT. Landed at KSC 

737 a.m. Apr. 17. Mission duration: 

9 days, 6 hrs., 9 min. 

77 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1992-September 30,1993 

Launch Date (GMT). 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Mission Objectives, Period (min), 

Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Equator C) 

Remarks 

Apr. 11 

SPARTAN-201 

238 

Apr. 25 

ALEXIS 

26A 

Pegasus 

Apr. 26 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STs55) 

27A 

May 13 

GPS 

USA 91 

32A 

Delta I1 

Jun. 21 

Space Shuttle 

Endeavour 

(STS57) 

37A 

Jun. 25 

RADCAL 

41A 

Scout 

Obejctive: To study the velocity and 31 1 .O 

295.0 

90.3 

57.0 

acceleration of the solar wind and 

observe aspects of the sun’s corona. 

Spucecruf: Shuttle Point Autonomous Research 

Tool for Astronomy (SPARTAN-201), a heeflying payload with two telescopes, the White 

Light Coronagraph (WLC) and the Ultraviolet 

Coronal Spectrometer (UVCS). 

Objective: To test technology for detecting ultra-soft M.0 

x-rays emitted from space nuclear testing and to 749.0 

examine ionospheric distortion of VHF radio 99.6 

signals. 70.0 

Spacecraft: Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors 

(ALEXIS) Spacecraft, featuring a smaller, faster, and 

cheaper spacecraft bus, x-ray detectors, and a very 

high frequency receiver and digitizer. 

Objective: To launch, operate, and return Spacelab D-2, 306.0 

a German-sponsored payload for conducting 298.0 

microgravity research, to Earth. 90.5 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter featuring a Spacelab long 28.4 

module with transfer tunnel, a unique support 

structure for mounting experiments outside the 

module, and the autonomous payload, Reaction 

Kinetics in Glass Melts-all to investigation material 

and life sciences, space technology, automation, and 

robotics. Secondary objective: Shuttle Amateur Radio 

Experiement II. 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 20342.0 

20,020.0 

717.9 

55.0 

navigation, including position, velocity, and 

timing data to the DoD and civilian users. 

Spacecrajl: A Block II satellite in the NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System. 

Objective: To provide a platform for experiments 483.0 

407.0 

93.5 

28.4 

on the SPACEHAB 1 payload and to retrieve the 

deployed from Atlantis Aug. 2,1992. There were 

also 7 secondary objectives, 16 developmental test 

objectives, and 11 detailed supplemental objectives. 

commercially developed, pressurized module that 

provides about 1,100 cu. ft. of additional pressurized 

volume to the Shuttle’s habitable working space and 

supports primarily orbiter middeck-type experiments. 

ESA’s European Retrievable Carrier satellite 

Spacecraf: Shuttle orbiter featuring SPACEHAB, a 

Objective: To provide space-based radar calibration 883.0 

for over 70 ground-based radars and to venfy GPS 752.0 

use for satellite positioning. 101.3 

Spacecrafi: Radar Calibration (RADCAL) experiment. 89.6 

Astronauts released the Spartan 

instruments platform from Discovery 

at 211 a.m. EDT and recovered it 

between 320 a.m. and 402 a.m. EDT 

on Apr. 13. 

First such flight of an all-DoE 

sponsored satellite. It cost $17 million 

for the satellite and its integrated 

components. In orbit. 

Fifty-fifth STS flight. Piloted by 

Steven R. Nagel and 

Terence T. Henricks. Mission 

Specialists Jerry L. Ross, 

Charles J. Precourt, 

Bernard A. Harris, Jr. Payload 

Specialists Ulrich Walter and 

Hans Schlegel. Launched from KSC 

10:50 a.m. EDT. Landed at 

EAFB, CA., 10:29 a.m. EDT May 6. 

Mission duration: 9 days, 23 hrs., 39 

min. 

Twentieth in a series of operational 

GPS satellites. System expected to be 

composed of 24 satellites in inclined, 

semi-synchronous orbit. In orbit. 

Fifty-sixth STS flight. Piloted by 

Ronald J. Grabe and Brian J. Duffy. 

Mission Specialists G. David Low, 

Nancy J. Sherlock, Peter J. K. Wisoff, 

and Janice E. Voss. Launched from 

KSC 9:07 a.m. EDT. Recovered Eureca 

at 1236 p.m. EDT Jun. 24. Landed at 

Ksc 852 a.m. EDT Jul. 1. Mission 

duration: 9 days, 23 hrs., 46 min. 

Twenty-second consecutive successful Scout launch. In orbit. 

78 
APPENDIX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1992-September 30,1993 

Launch Date (GMT). 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Mission Objectives, Period (min), Remarks 

Equator (') 

Jun. 26 

GPS 

USA 92 

42A 

Delta I1 

Jun. 26 

Plasma Motor 

Generator 

428 

Delta I1 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, includin position, velocity, and 

timing data to the DoD and civilian users. 

Spacecraft: A Block 11 satellite in the NAVSTAR 

Global Positioning System. 

Objective: To demonstrate the ability of a tether 

to generate an electrical current in space. 

Spacecraft: The tether consisted of two plasma 

contractors, or hollow cathode tubes, at either 

end of a 500-meter-long, thin copper cable coated 

with teflon. 

Jul. 19 

DSCS In 

USA 93 

46A 

Atlas 11 

Aug. 9 

NOAA-13 

50A 

Atlas E 

Aug. 30 

GPS 

USA 94 

54A 

Delta 11 

sep. 3 

UFO-2 

USA-96 

%A 

AtlasCentaur I 

Objective: To provide a world-wide, secure, 

uninterrupted communications capability in 

support of globally distributed DoD users. 

Spacecraft: Improved, third-generation Defense 

Satellite Communications System (DSCS) satellite. 

Objective: To provide global environmental 

observation; land, sea, and air temperature and 

moisture profiles; and to detect emergency beacons 

from ships and planes. 

satellite equipped with an Advanced Very High 

Resolution Radiometer, a High-resolution Infrared 

Sounder, a Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectral 

Radiometer, plus Search and Rescue instruments 

provided by Canada and France among other 

equipment. 

Spacecraft: A 3-axis-stabilized, near-polar-orbiting 

Objective: To provide radio positioning and 

navigation, including position, velocity, 

and timing data to the DoD and civilian users. 

Positioning System. 

Spacecraft: A Block 11 satellite in the NAVSTAR Global 

Objective: To provide communications and UHF 

links for the U.S. Navy, Strategic Command, 

and Army/Marine Rapid Deployment Forces. 

Spacecraft: Second of nine UHF satellites built for the 

Navy by Hughes Space and Communications Corp. 

to replace an aging Fleet Satellite Communications 

System. 

20,248.0 

20,115.0 

718.0 

54.7 

844.0 

196.0 

94.8 

25.7 

35,743.6 

35,743.6 

1,440.0 

0.0 

860.0 

846.0 

102.0 

98.9 

20,257.0 

20,109.0 

718.0 

59.0 

36,446.0 

35,140.0 

1,436.5 

5.1 

Twenty-first in a series of operational 

GPS satellites. System expected to be 

composed of 24 satellites in inclined, 

semi-synchronous orbit. In orbit. 

Launched from Cape Canaveral AFS 

9:27 a.m. attached to second stage of 

Delta II. Decayed 30 August 1993. 

Initial DSCS use of the Atlas I1 launch 

booster coupled with an inertial 

upper stage for achieving Earth orbit. 

Satellite to be cut over to operational 

traffic in early FY 1994 in the West 

Pacific. In orbit. 

The purpose of the satellite was to 

replace the aging NOAA-11, but all 

communications with NOAA-13 

ceased Aug. 21 and attempts to 

restore them have not been 

successful. In orbit. 

Twenty-second in a series of 

operational GPS satellites. System 

expected to be composed of 24 

satellites inclined, semi-synchronous 

orbit. In orbit. 

Successfully launched into 

geosynchronous orbit and 

transitioned to normal operating 

mode with all systems nominal. In 

orbit. 

79 
APPENDLX A-3 

(continued) 

Successful U.S. Launches 

October 1,1992-September 30,1993 

Launch Date (GMT). 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Designation, 

Launch Vehicle 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Spacecraft Data Inclination to 

Mission Objectives, Period (min), Remarks 

Equator c) 

sep. 12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS-51) 

58A 

sep. 12 

ACTS 

58B 

Sep. 13 

ORFEUS 

SPAS 

58c 

Objective: To deploy a satellite that will serve as a 307.0 

275.0 

90.3 

28.4 

testbed for new communications satellite technology 

free-flying scientific observation satellite, among 

numerous other missions. 

Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS), 

Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme 

Ultraviolet Spectrometer-Shuffle Pallet Satellite 

(ORFEUSSPAS), plus nine other cargo bay and 

in-cabin payloads. 

as well as to deploy and retrieve a U.S./German 

Spacecraft: Shuttle orbiter with Advanced 

Objective: To flight test high-risk, advanced 35,929.0 

communications satellite technology for 35,709.0 

providing up to three times the 1,437.8 

0.2 

of today’s satellites, 20 times the rate of 

communications between users, and other 

advances over existing technology. 

Spucecruft: Basically rectangular satellite equipped 

with two solar arrays, a 30-GI-h receiving 

antenna, a C-band omni antenna, a steerable 

antenna, and a 20 GHz transmitting antenna 

among other equipment. 

communications capacity for the weight 

Fifty-seventh STS flight. Piloted by 

Frank L. Culbertson, Jr., and 

William F. Readdy. Mission 

Specialists James H. Newman, 

Daniel W. Bursch, and Carl E. Walz. 

Launched from KSC at 745 EDT. 

Landed at KSC at 3:56 a.m. EDT 

Sep. 22. Mission duration: 9 days, 

20 hrs., 11 min. 

Deployed from Discovery at 5:13 p,m. 

EDT. Transfer Orbit Stage fired on 

time 45 min. later and boosted it to its 

planned orbit. Second mission of 

Transfer Orbit Stage and first use on a 

Shuttle mission. In orbit. 

Objectiue: To investigate very hot and very cold 

matter in the universe using the retrievable 

ASTRO-SPAS spacecraft built by Germany. 

Spucecruft: ASTRO-SPAS containing the onemeter 

diameter ORFEUSTelescope with the Far Ultraviolet Spectrograph and the Extreme Ultraviolet 

Spectrograph plus the Interstellar Medium Absorption 

Profile Spectrograph and the Surface Effects Sample 

Monitor. 

304.0 The Discovery crew released 

270.0 

90.1 Sep. 13. Mission Specialist 

28.4 

ORFEUSSPAS on the morning of 

Dan Bursch recaptured the satellite at 

750 a.m. EDT on Sep. 19 using the 

Shuttle’s robotic arm. 

80 
APPENDLX B-1 

US.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1987- Sep. 1993 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Mar. 20,1987 

Sep. 29,1988 

Mar. 13,1989 

Sept. 25,1989 

Jan. 1,1990 

Jan. 1,1990 

Jan. 9,1990 

Mar. 14,1990 

Apr. 13,1990 

Jun. 23,1990 

Aug. 18,1990 

Aug. 2,1991 

Feb. 10,1992 

Mar. 14,1992 

May 14,1992 

Jun. 10,1992 

Jul. 2,1992 

Aug. 31,1992 

Oct. 12,1992 

Jan. 13,1993 

Feb. 9,1993 

Mar. 25,1993 

Jul. 19,1993 

Sep. 3,1993 

Sep. 12,1993 

Feb. 26,1987 

Jun. 20,1987 

Feb. 2,1988 

Sep. 24,1988 

Dec. 1,1990 

May 14,1991 

Nov. 28,1992 

Feb. 9,1993 

Aug. 9,1993 

Oct. 23,1992 

Palapa B-2P 

TDRS-3 

TDRs-4 

Fltsatcom F-8 

Skynet 4A 

JCSAT 2 

Syncom IV-5 

Intelsat 6 F-3 

Palapa-Ba 

Intelsat 6 F-4 

BSB-2R 

TDRS-5 

Dscs 111 

Galaxy 5 

Palapa434 

INTELSAT K 

Dscs 111 

Satcom C4 

DFS3 

TDRS-6 

om-1 

UFO-1 

Dscs 111 

UFO-2 

ACTS 

GOES 7 

DMSP F-8 

DMSP F-9 

NOAA-11 

DMSP F-10 

NOAA-12 

DMSP F-11 

SCD 1 

NOAA-13 

LAGEOS II 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Delta 182 

Space Shuffle 

Space Shuffle 

AtlasKentaur 

Titan 111 

Titan III 

Space Shuttle 

Titan 111 

Delta 

Titan III 

Delta 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas 11 

Atlas I 

Delta 

Atlas IIA 

Atlas I1 

Delta II 

Delta II 

Space Shuttle 

Pegasus 

AtlasCentaur I 

Atlas I1 

AtlasCentaur I 

Space Shuttle 

Indonesia domestic communications. 

Space-based communications and tracking satellite. 

Space-based communications and tracking satellite. 

Sixth, and last in series of geosynchronous satellites, for U.S. Navy. 

Launched for British Ministry of Defense. 

Second of dual Titan Ill launch, for Japanese Communications 

Satellite Co. 

Leasat 5, fourth in series of satellites, for U.S. Navy. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for British Satellite Broadcasting. 

Space-based communications and tracking satellite. 

Launched by the Air Force for the DoD. 

Commercial communications satellite. 

Launched for Indonesia. 

Launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched by the Air Force for the DoD. 

Commercial communications satellite. 

Launched by McDonnell Douglas for German communications. 

Space-based communications and tracking satellite. 

Experimental, demonstration satellite for transmitting brief 

messages with hand-held communicators. 

Launched for the Navy but to a useless orbit. 

Launched by the Air Force for the DoD. 

Second of nine UHF satellites to replace the Navy’s Fleet Satellite 

Communications System. 

Test of advanced communications satellite technology. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION^ 

Delta 179 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Pegasus 

Atlas E 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOESPacific. 

Third in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

DoD Meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to repair NOAA-9. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Satellite to monitor cloud cover, rainfall, flood and tide levels, and 

air quality over Brazil. 

Launched for NOAA but communications lost Aug. 21,1993. 

EARTH OBSERVATION AND GEODESY~ 

Space Shuttle Joint NASA-Italian satellite for a variety of Earth observation and 

geodetic missions. 

:Does not include Department of Defense satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

Previously separate categories. See also Weather Observation for satellites with multiple missions including Earth observation. 

81 
APPENDLX El 

(continued) 

U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1987-Sep. 1993 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 25,1988 

Jun. 16,1988 

Aug. 25,1988 

Feb. 14,1989 

June 10,1989 

Aug. 18,1989 

Oct. 21,1989 

Dec. 11,1989 

Jan. 24,1990 

Mar. 26,1990 

Aug. 2,1990 

Oct. 1,1990 

Nov. 16,1990 

Jul. 4,1991 

Feb. 23,1992 

Apr. 10,1992 

Jul. 7,1992 

Sep. 9,1992 

Nov. 22,1992 

Dec. 18,1992 

Feb. 3,1993 

Mar. 30,1993 

May 13,1993 

Jun. 26,1993 

Aug. 30,1993 

soos3 

NOVA-2 

soos4 

GPSl (Block II) 

GPS2 (Block 11) 

GPS3 (Block II) 

GM (Block II) 

GPS5 (Block II) 

GF5-6 (Block 11) 

GPS7 (Block II) 

GF5-8 (Block II) 

GPS9 (Block 11) 

GPS-10 (Block 11) 

GPSll (Block II) 

GPS-12 (Block 11) 

GSl3 (Block 11) 

GPS14 (Block II) 

GPS15 (Block II) 

GPS16 (Block II) 

GPS17 (Block 11) 

GPSl8 (Block II) 

GPS19 (Block II) 

GS2O (Block II) 

GPS21 (Block II) 

GPS22 (Block II) 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta 

Delta II 

Delta 11 

Delta II 

Delta 11 

Delta II 

Delta II 

Delta II 

NAVIG AT ION^ 

Dual satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Third of improved Transit System satellites, for DoD. 

Dual Satellites, part of Navy navigation system. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

Global Positioning System Satellite. 

not include Department of Defense satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

82 
APPENDIX B-2

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1987-Sep. 1993 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Mar. 25,1988 

Nov. 18,1989 

Feb. 14,1990 

Feb. 14,1990 

Apr. 5,1990 

Apr. 25,1990 

June 1,1990 

Jul. 25,1990 

Apr. 7,1991 

Sep. 15,1991 

Jun. 7,1992 

Jul. 3,1992 

Jul. 24,1992 

Aug. 2,1992 

Mar. 30,1993 

Apr. 11,1993 

Jun. 26,1993 

Sep. 13,1993 

San Marco D/L 

COBE 

LACE 

RME 

PEGSAT 

Hubble Space Telescope 

ROSAT 

CRRES 

Compton Gamma Ray 

Observatory 

Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

Solar, Anomalous 

and Magnetospheric 

Particle Explorer 

Geotail 

Eureka-1 

SEDS I 

Plasma Motor 

Generator 

ORFEUSSPAS 

SPARTAN-201 

Scout 

Delta 

Delta I1 

Delta I1 

Pegasus 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Atlas/Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Scout 

Delta I1 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Space Shuttle 

Delta I1 

Space Shuttle 

International satellite to study Earth's lower atmosphere. 

Measurement of cosmic background. 

Low-powered atmospheric compensation experiment, for DoD. 

Second payload, relay mirror experiment satellite, for DoD. 

Chemical release experiment satellite for NASA and DoD. 

Long-term astronomical observations. 

Measurement of x-ray and extreme ultraviolet sources. 

Chemical release experiment. 

Measurement of celestial gamma-rays. 

Measurement of Earth's atmosphere and ozone layer. 

Spectroscopic and wide-band observations over the entire extreme 

Investigation of cosmic rays and other phenomena of space physics. 

ultraviolet spectrum. 

Investigation of geomagnetic tail region of the magnetosphere. 

Research in the fields of material and life sciences. 

Comparison of actual tether dynamics with model. 

Study solar wind and sun's corona. 

Demonstrate ability of tether to generate electrical current in space. 

Study very hot and very cold matter in universe. 

83 
APPENDIX E3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-Sep. 1993 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20,1975 

Sept 9,1975 

Jan. 15,1976 

Aug. 20,1977 

Sept. 5,1977 

May 20,1978 

Aug. 8,1978 

May 4,1989 

Oct. 18,1989 

Oct. 6,1990 

sep. 25,1992 

Viking 1 

vig 2 

Helios 2 

Voyager 2 

Voyager 1 

Pioneer 

Venus 1 

Pioneer 

Venus 2 

Magellan 

Galileo 

UYM 

Mal3 

Observer 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan JIIECentaur 

Titan DIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

AtlasCentaur 

AtlasCentaur 

Space 

Shuttle 

Space 

Shuttle 

Space 

Shuttle 

Titan III 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6,1976, while orbiter 

circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its 

surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and tookmeasurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, July 20,1976, while orbiter 

circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its 

surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and tookmeasurements of atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km. of Sun, measuring solar wind, 

corona,electrons,andcosmicrays. Pay1oadhadsomeWestGermanandU.S. experiments 

as Helios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, arrived Saturn in 

1981,going on to Uranus by 1986, Neptune by 1989. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swung around Jupiter in 

Mar. 1979, amved at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headed for outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data. 

Camed 1 large, 3smd probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended throughVenus atmosphere 

Dec. 9, returned data. 

Venus orbiter, achieved Venus orbit Aug. 10,1990, returning radar image of surface. 

Planetary exploration spacecraft, composed of probe to enter Jupiter’s atmosphere and 

orbiter to return scientific data. 

Solar exploration spacecraft, to explore interstellar space and the Sun. 

Planetary exploration spacecraft to study the geology, geophysics, and climate of Mars. 

84 
APPENDIX c 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew Flight Time 

(days:hmmin) 

Highlights 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

voskhod 1 

voskhod 2 

Gemini3 

Gemini4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini7 

Gemini 6-A 

Geminis 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

Syuz 1 

Apollo 7 

SoF3 

Apollo 8 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apr. 12,1961 

May 5,1961 

July 21,1961 

Aug. 6,1961 

Feb. 20,1962 

May 24,1962 

Aug. 11,1962 

Aug. 12,1962 

Oct. 3,1962 

May 15,1963 

June 14,1963 

June 16,1963 

Oct. 12,1964 

Mar. 18,1965 

Mar. 23,1965 

June 3,1965 

Aug. 21,1965 

Dec. 4.1965 

Dec. 15,1965 

Mar. 16,1966 

June 3,1966 

July 18,1966 

Sept. 12,1966 

Nov. 11,1966 

Apr. 23,1967 

Oct. 11.1968 

Oct. 26,1968 

Dec. 21,1968 

Jan. 14,1969 

Jan. 15,1969 

Mar. 3,1969 

May 18,1969 

Yury A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Vigil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Vi$ I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, II 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Ceman 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Ceman 

Boris v. Volynov 

01:48 

0015 

0016 

1:1:18 

0455 

0456 

3225 

222.59 

0913 

1:1020 

423.6 

2250 

1:017 

1:22 

0453 

41% 

7255 

13:1835 

1:1:51 

01041 

3021 

2247 

22317 

3235 

1:237 

10209 

3251 

631 

22323 

3056 

10l:l 

803 

First human flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; astronaut safe. 

First flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km. beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km. of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km. from target. 

First US. flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

Second dual mission (withvostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km. of Vostok 5. 

First %person crew. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min.). 

First U.S. 2-person flight; first manual maneuvers 

21-min. extravehicular activity (Wh~te). 

Longestduration human flight to date. 

Longest human flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 an. of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 with 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

then Agena 8). 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight; 

highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 km.). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 ha.) 

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First U.S. >person mission. 

in orbit. 

Agena target rocket). 

Maneuvered near uncrewed Soyuz 2. 

First human orbit(s) of Moon; first human departure 

from Earth's sphere of influence; highest speed 

attained in human flight to date. 

from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cosmonauts 

Successfully simulated in Earth-orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and takeoff from lunar 

surface and rejoining with command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system including 

lunar module to 14,300 m. from the lunar surface. 

85 
APPENDR C 

(continued) 

US. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

Apollo II 

sv=6 

Soyuz7 

sv=8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

syuz 9 

Apollo 14 

Soyuz 10 

Soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

Soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

86 

July 16,1969 

Oct. 11,1969 

Oct. 12,1969 

Oct. 13,1%9 

Nov. 14,1969 

Apr. 11,1970 

June 1,1970 

Jan. 31,1971 

Apr. 22,1971 

June 6,1971 

July 26,1971 

Apr. 16,1972 

Dec. 7,1972 

May 25,1973 

July 23,1973 

Sept. 27,1973 

Nov. 16,1973 

Dec. 18,1973 

July 3,1974 

Aug. 26,1974 

Dec. 2,1974 

Jan. 10,1975 

Neil A. Armskong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valery N. Kubasovf 

A. V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Vokov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey 5. Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haii, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly II 

Eugene A. Ceman 

Harrison H. Sdunitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kenvin 

Paul J. Weik 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Gennady V. Sarafanov 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatoly V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Yury P. Ar@lkhm 

839 

42242 

42241 

42250 

10436 

52255 

171659 

902 

1:u:46 

23:1822 

12712 

11:1:51 

121352 

28050 

5911:9 

1:23:16 

84.1:16 

72055 

151730 

2012 

55224 

291320 

First human landing on lunar surface and safe retum to 

Earth. First return of rock and soil samples to Earth, 

and human deployment of scperiments on lunar surface 

actually docking. Each conducted certain experiments, 

including welding and Earth and celestial observation. 

Soyuz 6,7, and 8 operated as a group flight willuot 

Second human lunar landing Explored surface of Moon and 

retrieved parts of Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed 

in Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19,1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in ervice module. Ship circled, 

Moon, with crew using LM as "lifeboat" until just before 

reentry. 

Longest human spaceflight to date. 

Third human lunar landing. Mission demonstrated 

pinpoint landing capability and continued human 

exploration. 

launched Apr. 19. Crew recovered Apr. 24,1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board space station 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied space 

station for 22 days. Crew perished in final phase 

of Soyuz 11 capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth human lunar landing and first Apollo "J" series 

mission, which carried Lunar Roving Vehicle. 

Worden's inflight EVA of 38 min. 12 sec was performed 

during retum trip. 

Fifth human lunar landing, with Lunar Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo human lunar landing, again with 

roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched uncrewed May 14) for 

28 days. Repaired damaged station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; last of 

Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources 

Docked with salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied space 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTF' configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

experiments. 

station. 
APPENDLX c 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time High 1 i gh ts 

(days:hmmin) 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Sop 19 

Apllo 

Soyuz 21 

kyuz22 

sv= 23 

Soyuz 24 

Sow 25 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

~yuz30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyuz 32 

SoyUz33 

SoyUzM 

~yuz35 

~yUz36 

S~~UZ T-2 

Soyuz 37 

kyUz38 

Soyu~ T-3 

Soyuz T4 

Soyuz 39 

Apr. 5,1975 

May 24,1975 

July 15,1975 

July 15,1975 

July 6,1976 

Sept. 15,1976 

Oct. 14,1976 

Feb. 7,1977 

Oct. 9,1977 

Dec. 10,1977 

Jan. 10,1978 

Mar. 2,1978 

June 15,1978 

June 27,1978 

Aug. 26,1978 

Feb. 25,1979 

Apr. 10,1979 

June 6,1979 

Apr. 9,1980 

May 26,1980 

June 5,1980 

July 23,1980 

Sept. 18,1980 

Nov. 27,1980 

Mar. 12,1981 

Mar. 22,1981 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valery N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valery F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valery I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yury N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valery V. Ryumin 

Yury V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valery F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valery V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid I. Popov 

Valery V. Ryumin 

Valery N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Yury V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vitor V. Gorbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yury V. Romanenko 

Amaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennady M. Strekalov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha 

Boris v. Volynov 

0020 

62:23:20 

5231 

91:28 

48:1:32 

7:21:54 

206 

171723 

20:46 

37106 

a253 

7217 

91523 

724 

672014 

108424 

1:23:1 

71817 

551:29 

a2054 

3221 

79:1517 

7:2043 

12198 

741838 

7~2043 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered after 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint experiments of ASTP 

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint (ASTP) experiments of ASTP 

abort. 

mission. 

mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Earth resources study with multispectral camera system. 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech cosmonaut 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first Polish 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; crew 

duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

duration 5 days, 22 hrs., 59 min. 

to orbit. 

duration 139 days, 14 hrs, 48 min. 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 49 min. Jaehn was first German 

Democratic Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

duration 175 days, 36 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; crew 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. Ivanov 

Docked with Salyut 6, later ‘served as ferry for Soyuz 32 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. Crew 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. Crew 

was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

crew while Soyuz 32 returned wiThuot a crew. 

duration 184 days, 20 hrs, 12 min. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 46 min. Farkas was first 

Hungarian to orbit. 

generation ferry. 

duration 7 days, 20 hrs, 42 min. Pham was first 

Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First crewed flight of newDocked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 36. Crew 

Docked with SaIyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First %person flight in Soviet 

program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

87 
APPENDIX c 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

~ 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hmmin) 

Space Shuttle Apr .12,1981 

Columbia (STS 1) 

Soyuz* 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 2) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 3) 

Soy T-5 

Soyuz T-6 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

S~~UZ T-7 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 5) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(SS 6) 

Soyuz T-8 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 7) 

Soyu~ T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 8) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(m 9) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STSQW 

SO~UZ T-10 

May 14,1981 

Nov. 12,1981 

Mar. 22,1982 

May 13,1982 

June 24,1982 

June 27,1982 

Aug. 19,1982 

Nov. 11,1982 

Apr. 4,1983 

Apr. 20,1983 

June 18,1983 

June 28,1983 

Aug. 30,1983 

Nov. 28,1983 

Feb. 3,1984 

Feb. 8,1984 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

DumitruPrunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Anatoly Berezovoy 

Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chrbtien 

Thomas K. Mattingly II 

Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr. 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Joseph P. Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

Paul J. Weik 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Robert L. Crippen 

Frederick H. Hauck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

ladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Truly 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thomton 

John W. Young 

Brewster W. Shaw 

Owen K. Gamott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

ByronK. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Roben L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir solovev 

01% Atkov 

2621 

72041 

2613 

a449 

211:95 

721:51 

71:9 

721:52 

5214 

5024 

2018 

6224 

1499% 

61:9 

10747 

72336 

622243 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested spacecraft in orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian cosmonaut 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first scientific payload 

First landing of airplanelike craft from orbit for reuse. 

to orbit. 

(OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator arm. Returned for 

reuse. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scientific payload 

(OSS 1). Second test of remote manipulator arm. Flight 

extended 1 day because of flooding at primary landing 

site; alternate landing site used. Returned for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 days. Crew 

returned in S~~UZ T-7. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Chrbtien first French cosmonaut to 

orbit. 

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD payload, 

additional scientific payloads. Returned July 4. 

Completed testing program. Returned for reuse. 

to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5. 

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second Soviet woman 

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first operational flight; 

launched 2 commercial satellites (SBS 3 and Anik C- 3); 

first flight with 4 crew members. EVA test canceled 

when space suits malfunctioned. 

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle, launched TDRS 1. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 station. 

Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 commercial 

satellites (Anik C-2 and Palapa El), also 

launched and retrieved SPAS 01; first flight 

with 5 crewmembers, including first woman 

US. astronaut. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle, launched one commercial 

satellite (Insat I-B), first flight of U.S. black 

aSkOMUt. 

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of Spacelab 1, 

first flight of 6 crew members, one of whom was West 

German, first non-U.S. astronaut to fly in US. space 

p~ogram (Merbold). 

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two communication 

satellites fded to achieve orbit. First 

use of Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space duration 

record of 237 days. Crew returned in Soyuz T-11. 

88 
APPENDLX C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft 

Soy T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS41C) 

Soy T-12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(%ID) 

Launch Date crew 

Space Shuttle Oct. 5,1984 

Challenger 

(STS41G) 

Space Shuttle Nov. 8,1984 

Discovery 

(STS51A) 

Space Shuttle Jan. 24,1985 

Discovery 

(SS51C) 

Space Shuttle Apr. 12,1985 

Discovery 

(STS-51D) 

Space Shuttle Apr. 29,1985 

Challenger 

(STS-51 B) 

Soy T-13 June 5,1985 

Space Shuttle June 17,1985 

Discovery 

(STS51G) 

Apr. 3,1984 Yury Malyshev 

Gennady Strekalov 

Rakesh Sharma 

Apr. 6,1984 Robert L. Crippen 

Frances R Scobee 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. van Hoften 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Aug. 30,1984 Henry W. Hartsfield 

Midlael L. coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley 

Judith A. Resnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Gameau 

Frederick H. Hawk 

David M. Walker 

Joseph P. Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. Buchli 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M. Rhea Seddon 

S. David Griggs 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E. J. Gam 

Robert F. Overmyer 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thomton 

Lodewijk van den Berg 

Taylor Wang 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Viktor Savinykh 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

John 0. Creighton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

Steven R. Nagel 

Patrick Baudry 

Sultan bin Salman bin 

Abdul-Azii AI-Saud 

July 17,1984 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

~~~ ~ 

181:21:48 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first Indian in 

space. Crew returned in Soyuz T-10. 

62341 Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment of LDEF-1, 

for later retrieval, Solar Maximum Satellite retrieved, 

repaired, and redeployed. 

11:1914 Docked with Myut 7 station. First female 

extravehicular activity. 

6056 Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of US. 

non-astronaut. 

8524 Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first of 7 crew 

members, including fist flight of two U.S. women and 

one Canadian (Gameau). 

723:45 Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle, first retrieval and 

return of two disabled communications satellites 

(Westar 6, Palapa 82) to Earth. 

313 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

62355 Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications satellites 

First U.S. Senator in space (Gam). 

709 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo bay of 

shuttle. 

112312 

71:39 

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to Earth with 

Grechko on Soyuz T-13 spacecraft, Sept. 26,1985. 

Eighteenth STS flight. Three communications satellites. 

One reusable payload, Spartan-I. First U.S. flight 

with French and Saudi Arabian crewmen. 

89 
APPENDLX c 

(continued) 

US. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:bmin) 

Highlights 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(rn51F) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(SS51I) 

Soyu~ T-14 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(SS5lJ) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS61A) 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS61B) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS61C) 

S~~UZ T-15 

soyuz TM-2 

Soyuz TM-3 

July 29,1985 

Aug. 27,1985 

Sept. 17,1985 

Oct. 3,1985 

Oct. 30,1985 

Nov. 27,1985 

Jan. 12,1986 

Mar. 13.1986 

Feb. 5,1987 

July 22,1987 

Charles G. Fullerton 

Roy D. Bridges 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England 

F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartoe 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van Hoften 

William F. Fisher 

John M. Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grechko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Pailes 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Steven R. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

Emst Messersdunid 

Reinhard Furrer (FRG) 

Wubbo J. Ockels (EA) 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Bryan D. OConnor 

Mary L. Cleve 

Sherwood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolf0 Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden Jr, 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steve A. Hawley 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenker 

Bill Nelson 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovyov 

Yury Romanenko 

Aleksandr Laveykin 

Aleksandr Viktorenko 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Mohammed Faris 

soyuzTM-4 Dec. 21,1987 Vladimir Titov 

Musa Manarov 

Anatoly Levchenko 

Anatoly Solovyev 

Aleksandur Aleksandrov 

soyuz TM-5 Jun. 7,1988 Vitor Savinykh 

7245 Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo bay. 

7218 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three communications 

satellites. Repaired Syncom N-3. 

64:21:52 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Viktor Savinykh, 

Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir Vasyutin returned 

to Earth Nov. 21,1985, when Vasyutin became ill. 

41:45 Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated DOD mission. 

7045 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated German Spacelab 

D1 in shuttle cargo bay. 

62.54 

624 

125:I:l 

174326 

160:716 

18&5 

92013 

Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three communications 

satellites. First flight of Mexican astronaut (Neri Vela). 

Twenty-fourth STS flight. Launched one communications 

satellite. First member of U.S. House of Representatives 

in space (Bdl Nelson). 

Docked with MIR space station on May 5/6 transferred 

to Salyut 7 complex. On June 25/26 transferred from 

Salyut 7 back to MIR. 

Docked with MIR space station. Romanenko established 

long distance stay in space record of 326 days. 

Docked with MIR space station. Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

remained in MIR 160 days, returned with 

Yury Romanenko. Viktorenko and Faris returned in 

Soyuz TM-2, July 30 with Aleksandr Laveykin who 

experienced medical problems. Mohammed 

Faris first Syrian in space. 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew of Yury 

Romanenko, Aleksandr Aleksandrov, and 

Anatoly Levchenko returned Dec. 29 in Soyuz TM-3. 

Bulgarian in space. Crew returned Jun. 17 

Docked with MIR space station, Aleksandrov first 

in Soyuz Th4-4. 

90 
APPENDLX c 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

soyuzTM-6 Aug. 29,1988 Vladimir Lyakhov 

Valery Polyakov 

Abdul Mohmand 

Richard 0. Covey 

John M. Lounge 

David C. Hilmers 

George D. Nelson 

soyuzTM-7 Nov. 26,1988 Aleksandr Volkov 

Sergey Krikalev 

Jean-Loup Chrktien 

STS-26 Sept. 29,1988 Frederick H. Hauck 

STS-27 

STS-29 

STS-28 

Dec. 2,1988 

May 4,1989 

Aug. 8,1989 

S~~UZ TM-8 Sept. 5,1989 

51534 Oct. 18,1989 

STS-33 

Robert "Hoot" Gibson 

Guy S. Gardner 

Richard M. Mullane 

Jerry L. Ross 

William M. Shepherd 

John E. Blaha 

James P. Bagian 

James F. Buchli 

Robert C. Springer 

David M. Walker 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Nomman E. Thagard 

Mary L. Cleave 

Mark C. Lee 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Richard N. Richards 

James C. Adamson 

David C. Leghna 

Mark N. Brown 

Aleksandr Viktorenko 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Donald E. Williams 

Michael J. McCulley 

Shannon W. Lucid 

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz 

Ellen S. Baker 

Nov. 23,1989 Frederick D. Gregory 

John E. Blaha 

Kathryn C. Thomton 

F. Story Musgrave 

Manley L. "SOMY'' Carter 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

James D. Wetherbee 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

Marsha S. Ivins 

G. David Low 

Aleksandr Balandin 

John 0. Creighton 

John H. Casper 

David C. Hilmers 

Richard H. Mullane 

Pierre J. Thuot 

Mar. 13,1989 Michael L. Coats 

Anatoly solovyov 

STS-32 Jan. 9,1990 

soyuz TM-9 Feb. 11,1990 

STS-36 Feb. 28,1990 

81927 

41 

151:ll 

496 

Docked with MIR space station, Mohmand first 

Afghanistani in space. Crew returned Sept. 7, 

in soyuz TM-5. 

Twentysixth STS flight. Launched TDRS 3. 

Docked with MIR space station. Soyuz TM-6 returned with 

Chretien, Vladimir Titov, and Musa Manarov. Titov 

and Manarov completed %day mission Dec. 21. 

Crew of Krikalev, Volkov, and Valery 

Polyakov returned Apr. 27,1989 in Soyuz TM-7. 

Twenty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

423:39 Twenty-eighth STS flight. Launched TDRS-4. 

4:057 Twenty-ninth STS flight. Venus orbiter 

Magellan launched. 

51 Thirtieth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

166:6 

4B39 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew of Viktorenko and 

Serebrov returned in Soyuz TM-8, Feb. 9,1990. 

Thirty-first STS flight. Launched Jupiter probe and 

orbiter Galileo. 

507 

1021 

178:22:19 

41019 

Thirty-second STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Thirty-third STS flight. Launched Syncom IV-5 and 

retrieved Long-Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF). 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew returned Aug. 9, 

Thirty-fourth ST'S flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

1990, in soyuz TM-9. 

91 
APPENDIX c 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

Highlights 

STS-31 Apr. 24,1990 Loren J. Shriver 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Steven A. Hawley 

Bruce McCandless II 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Gennady Manakov 

Gennady Strekalov 

%~UZ TM-10 Aug. 1,1990 

SEA1 Oct. 6,1990 

STS-38 Nov. 15,1990 

STS35 Dec. 2,1990 

soyuz TM-11 

STS-37 

sE-39 

Dec. 2,1990 

Apr. 5,1991 

Apr. 28,1991 

SO~UZ TM-12 May 18,1991 

STS-40 Jun. 5,1991 

Aug. 2,1991 

Richard N. Richards 

Robert D. Cabana 

Bruce E. Melnick 

Williani M. Shepherd 

Thomas D. Akers 

Richard 0. Covey 

Frank L. Culberkon, Jr. 

Charles "Sam" Gemar 

Robert C. Springer 

Carl J. Meade 

Vance D. Brand 

Guy S. Gardner 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

John M. "Mike" Lounge 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Vitor Afanasyev 

Musa Manarov 

Steven R. Nagel 

Kenneth D. Cameron 

Linda Godwin 

Jerry L. Ross 

Michael L. Coats 

Blaine Hammond, Jr. 

Gregory L. Harbaugh 

Donald R McMonagle 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

Lacy Veach 

Richard J. Hieb 

Anatoly Artsebarskiy 

Sergei Krikalev 

Helen Sharman 0 

Jay Apt 

Bryan D. O'Conner 

Sidney M. Gutierrez 

James P. Bagian 

Tamara E. Jemigan 

M. Rhea Seddon 

Francis A. "Drew" Gaffney 

Millie HugheFulfmd 

John E. Blaha 

Michael A. Baker 

Shannon W. Luad 

G. David Low 

James C. Adamson 

51:16 

1m2036 

4210 

421:55 

llurty-fifth STS flight. Launched Hubble Space 

Telescope (HST). 

Docked with MIR space station. Crew returned 

Dec. 10,1990, with Toyohiro Akiyama, 

Japanese astronaut. 

Thirty-sixth STS flight. TJlysses spacecraft to 

investigate interstellar space and the Sun. 

Thirty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

8535 Thirty-eighth STS flight. ASTRO-1 in cargo bay. 

17501:52 

6032 

a722 

1M1522 

9215 

8:21:21 

Docked with MIR space station. Toyohiro Akiyama 

returned Dec. 10,1990, with previous MIR crew of 

Gennady Manakov and Gennady Strekalov. 

llurty-ninth STS flight. Launched Gamma Ray Observatory to measure celestial gamma-rays. 

Forti& STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

Docked with MIR space station. Helen Sharman first 

from United Kingdom to fly in space. Crew of Viktor 

Afanasyev, Musa Manarov, and Helen Sharman 

returned May 20,1991. Arbebarskiy and Krikalev 

remained on board MIR, with Arlsebarskiy returning 

ob. 10,1991, and Krikalev doing so Mar. 25,1992. 

(SLSl) in cargo bay. 

Forty-first STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life Sciences 

Forty-second STS flight. Launched fourth Tracking and 

Data Relay satellite (TDRS5). 

92 
APPENDE C 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hmmin) 

Highlights 

S~~UZ TM-13 Oa. 2,1991 

Nov. 24,1991 

Jan. 22,1992 

Soyuz TM-14 Mar. 17,1992 

sTs48 sept. 12,1991 John Creighton 

Kenneth Reightler, Jr. 

Charles D. Gemar 

James F. Buchli 

Mark N. Brown 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Toktar Aubakirov 

(Kazakh Republic) 

Franz Viehboedc (Austria) 

Frederick D. Gregory 

Tom Henricks 

Jim Voss 

Story Musgrave 

Mario Runco, Jr. 

Tom Hennen 

Ronald J. Grab 

Stephen S. Oswald 

Norman E. Thagard 

David C. Hilmers 

William F. Readdy 

Roberta L. Bondar 

Ulf Merbold (SA) 

Alexandr Viktorenko 

Alexandr Kaleri 

Klaus-Dietrich Flade 

(Germany) 

sTs-45 

sTs-49 

STS50 

Mar. 24.1992 

May 7,1992 

Jun. 25,1992 

S~YUZ TM-15 Jul. 27,1992 

Charles F. Bolden 

Brian mfy 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

David C. Leestma 

Michael Foale 

Dirk D. Frimout 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

Kevin P. Chilton 

Richard J. Hieb 

Bruce E. Melnick 

Pierre J. Thuot 

Kathryn C. Thomton 

Thomas D. Akers 

Richard N. Richards 

Kenneth D. Bowersox 

Bonnie Dunbar 

Ellen Baker 

Carl Meade 

Anatoly Solovyov 

Sergei Avdeyev 

Michel TogniN (France) 

5828 

90:1600 

6251 

Forty-third STS flight. Launched Upper Atmosphere 

Research Satellite WARS). 

Docked with MTR space station. Crew returned Oct. 10, 

1991, with Anatoly Artsebarsky. 

Forty-fourth STS flight. Launched Defense Support 

Program (DSP) satellite. 

81:12 Forty-fifth STS flight. Carried International 

Microgravity Laboratory-1 in cargo bay. 

1451511 

9010 

81617 

131930 

1891743" 

First manned CIS space mission. Docked with Mir space 

station Mar. 19. The TM-13 capsule with Hade, 

Aleksandr Volkov, and Sergei Krikalev returned 

to Earth Mar. 25. Krikalev had been in space 313 days. 

Viktorenko and Kaleri remained in the TM-14 spacecraft. 

for Applications and Science (Awl). 

Forty-sixth STS flight. Carried Atmospheric Laboratory 

Forty-seventh STS flight. Reboosted a crippled 

INTELSAT VI communications satellite. 

Forty-eighth STS flight. Carried U.S. Microgravity 

Laboratory-1. 

Docked with Mir Space Station Jul. 29. Tognini returned 

to Earth in TM-14 capsule with Alexandr Viktorenko 

and Alexandr Kaleri. Solovyov and Avdeyev spent over 

six months in the Mir orbital complex and returned to 

Earth in the descent vehicle of the TM-15 space craft on 

1 February 1993. 

'Figures supplied by Marcia S. Smith, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, based on information in m. 

93 
APPENDIX c 

(continued) 

US. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew Flight Time Highlights 

(days:hrs:min) 

sT5-47 sep. 12,1992 

S552 at. 22,1992 

STS46 Jul. 31,1992 Loren J. Shriver 

Andrew M. Allen 

Claude Nicollier (ESA) 

Marsha S. Ivins 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Franco Malerba (Italy) 

Robert L. Gibson 

Curtis L. Brown, Jr. 

Mark C. Lee 

Jerome Apt 

N. Jan Davis 

Mae C. Jemison 

Mamoru Mohri (rapan) 

Franklin R. Chang-DiaZ 

s553 Dec. 2,1992 

S554 Jan. 13,1993 

Soyuz TM-16 Jan. 24,1993 

S556 Apr. 8,1993 

s555 Apr. 26,1993 

James D. Wetherbee 

Michael A. Baker 

William M. Shepherd 

Tamara E. Jemigan 

Charles L. Veach 

Steven G. MacLean 

David M. Walker 

Robert D. Cabana 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

James S. Voss 

Michael Richard Clifford 

John H. Casper 

Gregory J. Harbaugh 

Mario Runco, Jr. 

Susan J. Helms 

Gennady Manakov 

Aleksandr Poleshchuk 

Donald R McMona@e 

Kenneth D. Cameron 

Stephen S. Oswald 

C. Michael Foale 

Kenneth D. Cockerell 

Ellen Ochoa 

Steven R. Nagel 

Terence T. Henricks 

Jerry L. Ross 

Charles J. Precourt 

Bernard A. Harris, Jr. 

Ulrich Walter (Germany) 

Hans W. Schlegel (Germany) 

723:16 

7223 

92057 

7719 

623.39 

179:044a 

969 

Forty-nineth STS flight. Deployed Tethered Satellite 

System-1 and Eureka-1. 

Fiftieth STS flight. Carried Spacelab J. Jemison first 

African American woman to fly in space. Mohri first 

Japanese to fly on NASA spacecraft. Lee and Davis 

first married couple in space together. 

Fifty-first STS flight. Studied influence of gravity on basic 

fluid and solidification pm- using US. Miaogravity 

Payload-1 in an interMtiOMl mission. Deployed second 

Laser Geodynamics Satellite and Canadian Target 

Assembly. 

Fiftysecond STS flight. Deployed the last major DoD 

classified payload planned for Shuttle @oD 1) with ten 

different secondary payloads. 

Fifty-third STS flight. Deployed Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellitp6. Operated Diffused X-ray Spectrometer 

Hitchhiker experiment to collect data on stars and galactic 

gases. 

Dmked with Mir Space Station Jan. 26. On July 22,1993, the 

TM-16 descent cabin landed back on Earth with Manakov, 

Poleschuk, and French cosmonaut Jean-Pierre Haignere 

from Soyuz TM-17 on board. 

Fifty-fourth STS flight. Completed second flight of 

A~ospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science and 

deployed SPARTAN-201. 

923:39 Fifty-fifth STS flight. Completed second German 

microgravity research program in Spacelab D-2. 

aFigures supplied by Marcia S. Smith, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, based on information in Tass. 

94 
APPENDIX c 

(continued) 

U.S. and Russian Human Spaceflights, 1961-Sep. 1993 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days:hmmin) 

Highlights 

sTs57 Jun. 21,1993 Ronald J. Grabe 

Brian J. Duffj 

G. David Low 

Nancy J. Sherlock 

Peter J. K. Wisoff 

Janice E. Voss 

%~UZ TM-17 JuL 1,1993 Vasiliy Tsibliyev 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Jean-Pierre Haignere 

S551 Sep. 12,1993 Frank L. Culberkon, Jr. 

William F. Readdy 

James H. Newman 

Daniel W. Bursch 

Carl E. Walz 

92346 F~fty-sixth SIS flight. carried Spacelab commercial payload 

module and retrieved European Retrievable Camer in 

orbit since August 1992. 

1961745a Docked with Mir space station July 3. Haignere returned to 

Earth with Soyuz TM-16. Serebrov Tsibliyev landed in 

TM-17 space craft after end of fiscal year on Jan. 14,1994. 

92011 F~fty-seventh STS flight. Deployed ACTS satellite to serve as 

tgtbed for new communications satellite technology and 

U.S./German ORFEXJS/SPAS. 

~ 

lFigures supplied by Marcia S. Smith, Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, based on information in 

95 
hPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Pavload (kdd 

Geosynch. Sun185-Km Transfer Synch. First 

Orbit Orbit Orbit' Launch' 

Max. Dia 

x Height 

(m) 

Thrust 

PrnpelIant' (kilonewtons)bc 

stages: 

Vehicle Enginehiotor 

255g 54 155 1979,G-1 

210' 1960,X-1 

Scout GI 1.14x22.90 

1.14x9.40 

0.79x6.31 

0.76x3.51 

0.51x1.48 

6.71~15.04~ 

1.28X8.88 

1.28X2.66 

0.97x1.34 

2.44x38.20 

2.44x38.20 

1.01x11.16 

2.446.97 

1.25X2.04 

1. Algol mA .................... 2. Castor IIA .................... 3. Antares mA ................ 4. Altair rn ....................... 

Solid .................................. 414.8 (SL) 

Solid .................................. 267.2 

Solid .................................. 80.8 

Solid .................................. 25.8 

PegasUS 

1. Orion 505 .................... 2. Orion 50 ....................... 3. Orion 38 ....................... 

Delta 11 

(6920,6925) 

1. RS270/B ..................... Castor IVA (9) ............ 2. AJ10-118K ................... 3. Star 48B' ....................... 

380 - 210 1990 

280' 

Solid .................................. 580.5 

Solid .................................. 138.6 

Solid .................................. 35.8 

3983 1447' 2413 1989,4920 

2943 ' [1960, Delta] 

LOX/RP-1 ........................ 921.0 (SL) 

N204/A-50 ........................ 42.9 

Solid .................................. 432.0 (SL) 

Solid .................................. 67.2 

5039 1814 3175 1990,-7920 

3819 ' [1960, Delta] 

Delta II 

(7920,7925) 

1. RS270/C ..................... Hercules GEM (9) ...... 2. AJlO-ll8K ................... 3. star 48BI ....................... 

AtlasE 

2.44~29.70 

LOX/RP-l ........................ 894.4 (SL) 

Nz04/A-50 ........................ 42.9 

Solid .................................. 440.0 (SL) 

Solid .................................. 67.2 

2.9Ox26.09 

1.01x12.95 

2.44x5.97 

1.25X2.04 

3.05x28.1 

1. Atlas: MA-3 ................ LOX/RP-1 ........................ 1739.5 (SL) 3.05x21.3 

Atlas I 3.05x45.6 

3.05x22.16 

3.05x9.14 

5900 2375 - 1990,1[1966, 

Atlas Centaur] 

1. Atlas: MA-5 ................ 2. centaur I: .................... RL10A-3-3A (2) 

LOX/RP-l ........................ 1954.0 (SL) 

LOX/LH, ......................... 73.4 

Atlas II 3.05x49.3 

3.05X24.9 

3.05x10.05 

6580 2610 4300 1991,II[1966, 

5510' Atlas Centaur] 

1. Atlas. MA-5A ............. 2. centaur E ................... RL10A-3-3A (2) 

LOX/RP-1 ........................ 2110.0 (SL) 

Lox/- ......................... 73.4 

Atlas IIA 

1. Atlas: MA-SA ............. 2. centaur II: ................... RL10A-4 (2) 

Titan 11 

1. LR-67-AJ-5 (2) ............. 2. LR-91-AJ-5 .................. 

3.05x49.3 

3.0SX24.9 

3.05x10.05 

7280 2745 4750 1992, IIA [1966, 

6170' Atlas Centaur] 

LOX/RP-l ........................ 2110.0 (SL) 

LOX/LHz ......................... 92.5 

1905' - - 1988,IISLV 

[1964, II 

Gemini] 

3.05x42.9 

3.05X21.5 

3.05x12.2 

Nf14/A-50 ........................ 1045.0 

NZOJA-50 ........................ 440.0 

96 
APPENDIX D 

(continued) 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Payload &gld 

Max. Dia Geosynch. Sunstages: ThNSt xHeight 185-Km Transfer Synch. First 

Vehicle FnginelMotor Propellanta (kilonewtone)" (m) Orbit Orbit Orbit' Launch' 

Titan 111 3.05x47.3 14515 4990' - 1989, III 

0. Titan III SRM (2) ......... Solid .................................. 6210.0 3.05x27.6 

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) ............ Nz04/A-50 ........................ 1214.5 3.05x24.0 

2. LR91-AJ-11 .................. N2O4/A-50 ........................ 462.8 3.05x10.0 

0. Titan IV SRM (2) ........ Solid .................................. 8ooo.O 3.05x34.1 14110e 

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2) ............ Nz04/A-50 ........................ 1214.5 3.05x26.4 

2. LW1-AJ-11 .................. Nz04/A-50 ........................ 462.8 3.05x10.0 

(5-1/2 segments) 

Titan N 3.05x47.3 17700 6356" - 1989, N 

(7 segments) 

Space Shuttle" 23.79~56.14~ 24900' 

1. SRB Shuttle SRB (2) .... Solid .................................. 13616.0(SL) 3.7ox45.46 

2. Orbiter/ET:SSME (3) .. LOX/LHz ......................... 1668.7(SL) 8.41x47.00 (ET) 

3. Orbiter/OMS: OMS ... N,04/MMH ..................... 118.8 23.79~3724~ 

23.79~3724~ (orbiter) 

engines (2) 

Notes 

59oop - 1981, 

Columbia 

a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: 

A-50 = Aerozine 50 (50% Monomethyl Hydrazine, 

50% Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine) 

LH, = Liquid Hydrogen 

LOX = Liquid Oxygen 

MMH = Monomethyl Hydrazine 

N,04 = Nitrogen Tetroxide 

RP-1= Rocket Propellant 1 (kerosene) 

Solid =Solid Propellant (any type) 

Thrust at vacuum except where indicated at sea level (SL). 

Thrust per engine. Multiply by number of engines for 

thrust per stage. 

Inclination of 28.5" except where indicated. 

e Polar launch from Vandenberg AB, CA. 

First successful orbital launch [ditto of initial version]. 

37.7' launch from Wallops Flight Facility, VA. 

Diameter dimension represents vehicle wing span. 

Applies to Delta 11-6925 version only. i 

i ~pplies to ~e~ta 11-7925 version only. 

' with TE-M-M upper stage. 

' With Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS). 

With appropriate upper stage. m 

" Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters (SRBs) fire 

in parallel with the Space Shuttle Main Engines 

(SSMEs), which are mounted on the aft end of the 

Shuttle Orbiter Vehicle (OV) and bum fuel and 

oxidizer from the External Tank (ET). SRBs 

stage first, with SSMEs continuing to fire. The 

ET stages next, just before the orbiter attains 

orbit. The Orbiter Maneuvering 

Subsystem (OMS) is then used to maneuver or 

change the orbit of the OV. 

280 x 420 km. orbit. 

With Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) or Transfer 

Orbit Stage (TOS). 

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the 

Director of Space Transportation System Support Programs. 

SOURCE OF DATA: David H. Burks, Senior Engineer, Science Applications International Corporation, Washington, DC. 

97 
APPENDIX E-1A 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORl7Y 

(in millions of real-year dollars) 

Fiscal NASA NASA Com- Inter- Agri- Total 

Year Total Space’ Defense Other Energy merce ior culture NSF DOT EPA Space 

1959 ........................ 331 

1960 ........................ 524 

1961 ........................ 964 

1962 ........................ 1, 825 

1963 ........................ 3, 673 

1964 ........................ 5, 100 

1965 ........................ 5, 250 

1966 ........................ 5, 175 

1967 ........................ 4, 966 

1968 ........................ 4, 587 

1969 ........................ 3, 991 

1970 ........................ 3, 746 

1971 ........................ 3, 311 

1972 ........................ 3, 307 

1973 ........................ 3, 406 

1974 ........................ 3, 037 

1975 ........................ 3, 229 

1976 ........................ 3, 550 

TQ* ......................... 932 

1977 ........................ 3, 818 

1978 ........................ 4, 060 

1979 ........................ 4, 596 

1980 ........................ 5, 240 

1981 ........................ 5, 518 

1982 ........................ 6, 044b 

1983 ........................ 6, 875c 

1984 ........................ 7, 248 

1985 ........................ 7, 573 

1986 ........................ 7, 766 

1987 ........................ 10, 507 

1988 ........................ 9, 026 

1989 ........................ 10, 969 

1990 ........................ 13, 073 

1991 ........................ 14, 004 

1992 ........................ 143 16 

1993 ........................ 143 23 

261 

462 

926 

1. 797 

3. 626 

5. 016 

5. 138 

5. 065 

4. 830 

4. 430 

3. 822 

3. 547 

3. 101 

3. 071 

3. 093 

2. 759 

2. 915 

3. 225 

849 

3. 440 

3. 623 

4. 030 

4. 680 

4. 992 

5328 

6. 328 

6. 648 

6. 925 

7. 165 

8. 302 

10. 098 

12. 142 

13. 036 

13. 199 

13. 077 

9. sese 

490 

561 

814 

1. 298 

1. 550 

1. 599 

1. 574 

1. 689 

1. 664 

1. 922 

2. 013 

1. 678 

1. 512 

1. 407 

1. 623 

1. 766 

1. 892 

1. 983 

460 

2. 412 

2. 738 

3. 036 

3. &48 

4. 828 

6. 679 

9. 019 

10. 195 

12. 768 

14. 126 

162 87 

17. 679 

17. 906 

15. 616 

14. 181 

15. 023 

14. 106 

34 

43 

69 

200 

259 

216 

244 

217 

216 

177 

141 

115 

127 

97 

109 

116 

107 

111 

31 

131 

157 

178 

160 

158 

234 

242 

293 

474 

368 

352 

626 

440 

383 

562 

619 

553 

34 

43 

68 

148 

214 

210 

229 

187 

184 

145 

118 

103 

95 

55 

54 

42 

30 

23 

5 

22 

34 

59 

40 

41 

61 

39 

34 

34 

35 

48 

241 

97 

79 

251 

223 

165 

... 

... 

... 

51 

43 

3 

12 

27 

29 

28 

20 

8 

27 

31 

40 

60 

64 

72 

22 

91 

103 

98 

93 

87 

145 

178 

236 

423 

309 

278 

352 

301 

243 

251 

327 

324 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

0.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

10 

10 

10 

12 

12 

12 

5 

3 

2 

2 

8 

14 

17 

31 

29 

34 

33 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

0.7 

0.8 

1 

2 

2 

3 

2 

4 

1 

6 

8 

8 

14 

16 

15 

20 

19 

15 

23 

19 

18 

21 

25 

26 

29 

25 

... 

0.1 

0.6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

d ... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

785 

1. 066 

1. 808 

3. 295 

5. 435 

6. 831 

6. 956 

6. 970 

6. 710 

6. 529 

5. 976 

5. 341 

4. 741 

4. 575 

4. 825 

4. 640 

4. 914 

5. 320 

131 

5. 983 

6. 518 

7. 244 

8. 689 

9. 978 

12. 441 

15. 589 

17. 136 

20. 167 

21. 659 

26. 448 

26. 607 

28. 444 

28. 141 

27. 779 

28. 841 

27. 736 

aExcludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402) . bIncludes $33.5 million for unobligated funds that lapsed . CIncludes $37.6 million for reappropriation of prior year funds . dNSF funding of balloon research transferred to NASA . %dudes $2.1 billion for replacement of shuttle orbiter Challenger . Transit Qtr 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget . 

98 
APPENDIX E-1B 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

BUDGET AUTHORl7Y INMILLIONS OF EQUIVALEATTFY 1993 DOLLARS 

(adjusted for inflation) 

GDP 

Fiscal Inflator NASA NASA Com- Inter- Agri- Total 

Year to1993$ Total Space Defense Other Energy merce ior culture NSF DOT EPA Space 

1959 

1960 

1961 

1962 

1963 

1964 

1965 

1966 

1967 

1968 

1969 

1970 

1971 

1972 

1973 

1974 

1975 

1976 

TQ' 

1977 

1978 

1979 

1980 

1981 

1982 

1983 

1984 

1985 

1986 

1987 

1988 

1989 

1990 

1991 

1992 

1993 

4.8255 

4.7737 

4.7302 

4.6472 

4.5671 

4.5011 

4.4040 

4.2755 

4.1336 

3.9842 

3.7937 

3.5986 

3.4207 

3.2510 

3.0974 

2.8777 

2.6176 

2.4306 

2.3464 

2.2489 

2.0908 

1.9238 

1.7646 

1.6017 

1.4907 

1.4312 

1.3709 

1.3205 

1.2824 

1.2455 

1.2018 

1.1500 

1.1027 

1.0581 

1.0269 

1.oooO 

Transit Qtr 

1,597 

2,501 

4,560 

8,481 

16,775 

22,956 

23,121 

22,126 

20,528 

18,276 

15,141 

13,480 

11,326 

10,750 

10,550 

8,739 

8,453 

8,630 

2,186 

8,586 

8,489 

8,841 

9,247 

8,839 

9,009 

9,840 

9,936 

9,999 

9,959 

13,086 

10,848 

12,614 

14,415 

14,817 

14,701 

14,323 

1,259 

2,205 

4,380 

8,351 

16,560 

22,578 

22,628 

21,656 

19,965 

17,650 

14,499 

12,764 

10,608 

9,984 

9,581 

7,938 

7,631 

7,840 

1,993 

7,737 

7,575 

7,754 

8,259 

7,996 

8,240 

9,057 

9,114 

9,144 

9,188 

12,217 

9,978 

11,613 

13,388 

13,793 

13,554 

13,077 

2,364 

2,678 

3,850 

6,032 

7,079 

7,197 

6,932 

7,221 

6,878 

7,658 

7,637 

6,038 

5,173 

4,574 

5,027 

5,082 

4,954 

4,821 

1,080 

5,424 

5,725 

5,840 

6,791 

7,732 

9,956 

12,908 

13,976 

16,860 

18,115 

20,285 

21,247 

20,592 

17,219 

15,004 

15,427 

14,106 

164 

206 

324 

931 

1,181 

972 

1,075 

929 

892 

705 

534 

415 

435 

314 

337 

333 

279 

270 

73 

294 

328 

341 

282 

253 

349 

346 

401 

626 

472 

439 

752 

506 

422 

595 

636 

553 

164 

205 

322 

688 

977 

945 

1,009 

800 

761 

578 

448 

371 

324 

179 

168 

120 

77 

57 

11 

49 

72 

113 

70 

65 

90 

56 

47 

45 

44 

59 

289 

112 

87 

266 

229 

165 

0 

0 

0 

237 

196 

14 

53 

115 

120 

112 

76 

29 

94 

102 

123 

173 

169 

174 

52 

204 

215 

189 

163 

139 

215 

254 

324 

558 

396 

346 

422 

346 

268 

266 

336 

324 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

1 

4 

6 

19 

32 

26 

22 

25 

6 

21 

20 

19 

21 

20 

18 

7 

4 

3 

3 

9 

16 

20 

34 

31 

35 

33 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

3 

3 

3 

5 

6 

9 

6 

9 

2 

14 

16 

16 

24 

25 

23 

29 

27 

20 

29 

23 

22 

24 

28 

28 

30 

25 

0 

0 

3 

6 

7 

14 

14 

14 

12 

13 

7 

9 

8 

9 

8 

5 

5 

6 

1 

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

0 3,788 

0 5,089 

0 8,555 

0 15,314 

0 24,820 

0 30,747 

0 30,635 

0 29,806 

0 27,736 

0 26,012 

0 22,670 

0 19,217 

0 16,217 

0 14,872 

0 14,945 

0 13,353 

0 12,864 

0 12,931 

0 3,145 

0 13,455 

0 13,628 

0 13,935 

0 15,332 

0 15,981 

0 18,545 

0 22,311 

0 23,491 

0 26,629 

0 27,776 

0 32,940 

0 31,977 

1 32,711 

1 31,030 

1 29,392 

2 29,616 

2 27,736 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

99 
Federal Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars byfiscal year) 

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1991 1992 1993 1991 1992 1993 

actual actual estimated actual actual estimated 

NASA ......................................... Defense ...................................... 

Energy ........................................ Commerce ................................. Interior ....................................... Agriculture ................................ Transportation .......................... 

EPA ............................................. 

13,036 

14,181 

251 

251 

29 

26 

4 

1 

13,199 

15,023 

223 

327 

34 

29 

4 

2 

13,077 

14,106 

165 

324 

33 

25 

4 

2 

13,351 12,838 

14,432 14,437 

251 223 

266 298 

29 33 

26 29 

4 4 

1 2 

13,092 

13,779 

165 

308 

33 

25 

4 

2 

TOTAL ....................................... 27,779 28,841 27,736 28,360 27,864 27,408 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Federal Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars byjiscal year) 

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

1991 1992 1993 1991 1992 1993 

actual actual estimated actual actual estimated 

NASAa ....................................... 968 1,117 1,246 1,017 1,122 1,212 

Deferweb .................................... 6,149 7333 7,601 6,793 6,790 7,165 

TransportationC ........................ 2m 2,681 2,532 1,691 2,099 2,378 

TOTAL ....................................... 9,417 11,164 11979 9,501 10,011 10,755 

%search, Development, Construction of Facilities, Research and Program Management. 

bReseard.l, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft and related equipment. 

CFederal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

100 
APPENDJX F-1 

The White House 

Office of the Press Secretary 

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE Thurday, Jhe 17,1993 

STATEMENT OF THE PRESIDENT 

At a time when our long-term economic strength depends on our technological leadership and our ability to reduce the 

deficit, we must invest in technology but invest wisely, making the best possible use of every dollar. That’s why I asked for a review 

of NASA’s space station program. Concerns over rising costs and mismanagement raised serious questions about a program vital to 

our technological leadership. I instructed NASA to redesign the space station program in a way that would preserve its critical science 

and space research, and ensure international cooperation, but significantly reduce costs and improve management. 

NASA has met that challenge, offering a plan that will substantially reduce costs to taxpayers, improve management, 

preserve research, and allow the United States to continue to work with its international partners and keep its international commitments. That was the conclusion of an outstanding panel of independent experts who carefully reviewed NASA’s proposals. And, that 

is my conclusion as well, after thoroughly considering their report and recommendations. It will take not just a redesign of the space 

station, but a redesign of NASA itself. 

I am calling for the U.S. to work with our international partners to develop a reduced cost, scaled-down version of the 

original Space Station Freedom. At the same time, I will also seek to enhance and expand the opportunities for international participation in the space station project, so that the space station can serve as a model of nations coming together in peaceful cooperation. 

Finally, I will be directing NASA to implement personnel reductions and major management changes to cut costs, reduce bureaucracy, 

and improve efficiency. The National Performance Review team, led by Vice President Gore, has been essential in working with 

NASA to develop these management proposals. We are going to redesign NASA at the same time that we redesign the space station. 

To make maximum use of our investments and meet the scientific goals we have set, the specific design we will pursue will 

be a simplified version of Space Station Freedom recommended by the review panel. We will work with Congress, NASA and our 

international partners during the next ninety days to made the very best use of this design. The details of the proposal will be 

delivered to Congress within the next few days. I have asked Dr. John Gibbons, my Science and Technology Advisor, to transmit a 

letter to NASA with more detailed instructions for implementing this decision. 

The redesigned program will capitalize on the investments we have already made. However, with its deep cuts in future 

development and operations costs, this redesigned program will save more then $4 billion over the next 5 years, compared with our 

assessments of what the real costs of funding the planned Space Station Freedom would have been. Over the two-decade life of the 

program, these savings will grow to more than $18 billion. 

There is no doubt that we are facing difficult budget decisions. However, we can not retreat from our obligation to invest in 

our future. Budget cuts alone will not restore our vitality. I believe strongly that NASA and the space station program represent 

important investments in that future, and that these investments will yield benefits in medical research, aerospace and other critical 

technology areas. As well, the space station is a model of peaceful international cooperation, offering a vision of the new world in 

which confrontation has been replaced with cooperation. 

In making this announcement today, I want to recognize the extraordinary efforts of all those involved. Vice President Gore, 

and Dr. Gibbons assembled an outstanding team of experts, led by Dr. Charles Vest, President of MIT, who assessed several costsaving options prepared by NASA. This review included not only the design of the space station, but also the structure and management of NASA itself. Their work and the work of all those at NASA involved in this project, has been invaluable. 

SPACE STATION REDESIGN DECISION 

REDUCES COSTS, PRESERVES RESEARCH, ENSURES INT’L COOPERATION 

WASHINGTON-President Clinton today (6/17) announced he is recommending a scaled-down version of the Space 

Station Freedom that will significantly reduce costs to taxpayers, preserve critical research, ensure international cooperation, and mean 

a major redesign of America’s space agency as well. 

The redesigned space station will save an estimated $18 billion over the projected two decade life of the program, with more 

than $4 billion in savings in the next 5 years due to decreased development, operations, and management costs. 

101 
”At a time when our long-term economic strength depends on our technological leadership and our ability to reduce the 

deficit, we must invest in technology but invest wisely, making the best possible use of every dollar,” President Clinton said in a 

statement announcing his decision. 

”I instructed NASA to redesign the space station program in a way that would preserve its critical science and space 

research and ensure international cooperation but sigruhcantly reduce costs and improve management. NASA has met that challenge,” the President said, announcing that he is proposing a scaled-down version of the Space Station Freedom recommended by an 

expert panel that reviewed NASA’s redesign proposals. 

President Clinton said the Administration would work with Congress, NASA, and America’s international partners during 

the next 90 days to make the very best use of the simplified design, an option based on the Space Station Freedom and recommended 

by the expert panel assembled to review NASA’s proposals for the redesign of Space Station Freedom. 

“I am calling for the U.S. to work with our international partners to develop a reduced cost, scaleddown version of the 

original Space Station Freedom. At the same time, I will also seek to enhance and expand the opportunities for international participation in the space station project so that the space station can serve as a model of nations coming together in peaceful cooperation. 

Finally, I will be directing NASA to implement personnel reductions and major management changes to cut costs, reduce bureaucracy, 

and improve efficiency,” the President said. “We are going to redesign NASA as we redesign the space station.” 

President Clinton cited the involvement of the National Performance Review team, led by Vice President Gore, in working 

with NASA to develop proposed management changes. 

Ninety days ago, President Clinton asked NASA to review the Space Station Freedom program to confront rising costs and 

management problems. NASA’s proposals were reviewed by a team of experts, led by Dr. Charles Vest, President of MIT, assembled 

by Vice President Gore, and Dr. John Gibbons, the President’s Science and Technology Advisor. The option chosen by the President 

was one of the options recommended by the Vest panel. 

102 
APPENDIX F-2 

The White House 

Office of the Vice President 

EMBARGOED FOR RELEASE 

UNTIL 10:45 A.M. EDT 

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 2,1993 

REMARKS BY THE VICE PRESIDENT 

IN SIGNING CEREMONY WITH 

PRIME MINISTER CHERNOMYRDIN OF RUSSIA 

Room 450, Old Executive Office Building 

The Prime Minister and I have worked hard over the past two days to bring to life the vision first sketched by President Clinton and 

President Yeltsin at their summit in Vancouver: it is time to leave behind the vestiges of the Cold War and reach for a new partnership 

between the United States and Russia. 

No where will this partnership be so keenly felt as in the area of high-technology cooperation. Each of our countries spent the Cold 

War years pouring our resources into competition. So much was achieved, but at such a high cost. Now, we can work together to 

advance a joint agenda in energy and space, science and technology, using our cooperation to keep costs down, husband our limited 

resources and work together for our mutual benefit. 

Turning forty years of competition into a future of cooperation is no easy task. Our Presidents agreed at Vancouver that high-level 

attention would be needed to jump-start our cooperation, and their agreement was the genesis of this commission. Prime Minister 

Chemomyrdin and I have focused fully on beginning the jump-starting process during our two days here in Washington. Our aim is 

to broaden the U.S.-Russian partnership so that it encompasses not only security and foreign policy concerns, but also the evolution of 

an economic partnership for the future. 

Nothing pleases me more than the results that we already see emerging, especially the agreements on space cooperation that we have 

signed here today. Everyone remembers the great firsts that each of our space programs achieved. Sputnik 1, the first human-made 

satellite, electrified the world when it was launched on October 4,1957. We were equally excited when Yury Gagarin became the first 

human being to fly in space in 1961. Then came the great period of lunar exploration with the U.S. Apollo program and, on the 

Russian side, the Luna probes. 

But the agreements that we signed here today, as much as they owe to the accomplishments of that competitive era, most clearly have 

their roots in the Apollo-Soyuz rendezvous and docking in July 1975. It was through this project that Russian and American space 

scientists and engineers, astronauts and cosmonauts first began to work together. I am very pleased to have here today General Tom 

Stafford and General Alexei Leonov, who flew together on that pathbreaking mission. Gentlemen, would you stand to be recognized? 

The future holds more of what the Apollo-Soy project foretold: close work together to minimize costs and cut the time needed to do 

projects while achieving more than would otherwise have been possible. Let me review briefly for you the agreements that we have 

signed relating to space: first, the commercial launch agreement, which will give Russia access to the international launch services 

market; second, a joint statement on space cooperation, which defines a phased approach for cooperation on human space flight. This 

statement embraces the potential for cooperation on a truly international Space Station if technical and partnership considerations are 

met. Finally, two joint statements, one on environmental monitoring and space science and the other on aeronautics, will help us to set 

a broad strategy for cooperation in global environmental change as well as in the design of future aircraft. 

Dan Goldin, our NASA Administrator, and Yury Koptyev, Director of the Russian Space Agency, will have much to do in coming 

months to nail down the agenda of our joint work. I know, however, that they relish the task, and we will stand ready to help. 

In many ways, the agreements on space that we signed today represent the leading edge of what we are striving to accomplish, Russia 

and the United States together: from broad market access for Russian high-technology goods to long-term projects to work together in 

complex, productive ways. 

103 
At the same time, I would like to take special note of an agreement signed today that puts an important issue behind us: the Memorandum of Understanding on the Missile Technology Control Regime. By committing to adhere to the guidelines of the MTCR, Russia 

isshowing its readiness to be a responsible partner in the sale of high-technology goods and services. This is a welcome and important 

step, and I would like to recognize the hard work of Under Secretary of State Davis and Deputy Prime Minister Shokhin in bringing it 

to pass. 

But space is not all we have worked on during this meeting. We also had an exceptionally productive series of discussions on energy 

matters: gas, oil and nuclear energy, as well as our efforts, on both sides, to deal with barriers to trade and investment. In this, I think 

the Prime Minister will agree with me when I say that we owe much to the experience and suggestions that the American business 

community has brought to us during these sessions. We really welcome the input of business, and expect to work directly with 

companies through the joint U.S.- Russian Business Development Committee chaired on the U.S. side by Commerce Secretary Brown 

and on the Russian side by Deputy Prime Minister Shokhin. Ultimately, it will be the American business community and not just the 

American government, that supplies the capital and technology Russia needs to continue its long-term reforms. 

I would like to outline a few of our accomplishments on the energy side: we will be working closely with Russia and our own business 

communities to complete the many US. private sector oil and gas deals that are ready to go. We were able, I’m pleased to say, to agree 

to two specific projects relating to the private sector. In one, the Overseas Private Investment Corporation will provide $28 million in 

guaranty and insurance support for Texaco’s $80 million oil well restoration project in Western Siberia. In another, OPIC and the 

Russian State Investment Corporation are together supporting a new Investment Fund, managed by Paine Webber. These investments 

- $50 million from OPIC and $2.5 million from Russia - are for a private investment fund that is a model for the joint cooperation 

that we are trying to achieve. 

We will work very hard to expand our energy trade and investment. We have agreed that each of our governments will name an 

ombudsman - one American and one Russian - who will work full time to identify and overcome obstacles to specific investment 

and trade projects. At the same time, Energy Secretary O’Leary will be working with her counterpart, Minister Shafrannik, to define 

new policies that will encourage cooperation in energy. 

Finally, we agreed to launch an important joint study on nuclear reactor safety issues. This study will add to the fund of knowledge 

that has been accumulated in the past few years and will help us to plan the most productive areas for joint work on nuclear safety 

issues. I especially appreciate the Prime Minister’s personal commitment to enhance the safety of his nation’s nuclear plants. 

The Prime Minister and I have agreed in the course of our meetings that the commission should specifically focus its work on two 

other very important subjects: the environment, and science. We will be organizing two groups to carry forward these agendas, and 

will see their first inputs at our next commission meeting, which will take place within the next few months. The Prime Minister has 

invited me to visit Russia this fall, and I look forward to doing so. 

In conclusion, I would like to extend my thanks to the many people on both the U.S. and Russian side who have made this meeting 

possible. Mr. Prime Minister, if its beginning foretells the future, this Commission will be one of the most productive engines that we 

have to propel us forward into new areas of cooperation and partnership. I welcome the challenge, as I know you do, and I heartily 

look forward to working with you. 

104 
APPENDLX F-2 

(continued) 

The White House 

Office of the Vice President 

FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE September 2,1993 

Joint State ments on Svace Cooverah 'on, 

Aeronautics and Earth Observation 

Vice President A1 Gore and Russian Prime Minister Victor Chernomyrdin issued three joint statements today in the areas of space and 

aeronautical cooperation. Through our high-technology partnership, the U.S. and Russia will work to realize new technological 

advances, productivity gains and cost savings. These joint statements create a framework and a strategy for cooperation in these 

important high-technology areas. 

Joint Statement on Cooperation in Space 

In a joint statement signed at the conclusion of the first meeting of the U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on Energy and Space, Vice 

President Gore and Prime Minister Chernomyrdin agreed to combine OUT considerable experience and resources in space to carry out 

a large-scale program of scientific, technical, and technological research. Both sides agreed that significant mutual benefits could be 

achieved through cooperation in space science and exploration activities. 

Through the joint statement, the U.S. and Russian have agreed to begin the first phase of space cooperation immediately. This phase 

will expand cooperation involving the U.S. Space Shuttle and the Russian Mir Space Station. A second phase will provide an interim 

human-tended space science capability, by utilizing a Mir module with a US. laboratory module and the U.S. Space Shuttle. It also 

will provide practical experience in the use of different transportation systems, performance of complex construction and assembly 

efforts, and command and control. 

All planned U.S.-Russian space cooperation programs are interconnected and have the common goal of creating an effective spacebased scientific research complex earlier and with less cost than if undertaken separately. The United States and Russia are convinced 

that a unified Space Station can offer significant advantages to all concerned, including current U.S. partners - Canada, Europe and 

Japan. The U.S. and Russia will jointly develop a detailed plan of activities for such a Space Station. This plan will serve as the basis 

for early review and decision within each government and as the basis for consultation with their current international partners. 

Joint Statement of the Development of Cooperation in Environmental Observations from Space and Space Science 

The Vice President and Prime Minister Chernomyrdin agreed that the US. and Russia will examine the enormous potential and 

mutual benefit of expanding cooperation in environmental observations from space and in space science. The joint statement 

highlights the importance each country attaches to bilateral and multilateral cooperation in the fields of space-based Earth observation, 

environmental monitoring and space science and the benefits to be gained from such cooperation by both sides. 

To advance US-Russian partnership in this area, we will conduct a joint study to determine the feasibility of cooperative programs in 

environmental observations from space and in space science. The study will be conducted by NASA, the National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the Russian Space Agency, under the auspices of the 1992 US.-Russian Space Cooperation 

Agreement. It is to be completed by November 1,1993. 

Joint Statement on Cooperation in Aeronautical Sciences 

The Vice President and Prime Minister Chernomyrdin agreed that the U.S. and Russia will undertake new cooperation in the area of 

fundamental aeronautical sciences. To this end, the US. and Russia will negotiate a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) on 

Cooperation in Aeronautical Sciences between NASA and the Russian State Committee for Defense Industries (Roskomoboronprom). 

Later this month, a delegation of NASA specialists will travel to Russia to meet with Russian officials and visit technical institutes 

which may be involved in the agreed-upon activities. The delegation will identify specific projects and joint research activities of 

mutual interest and discuss the potential establishment of a U.S.-Russian Joint Working Group in Aeronautical Sciences to manage the 

cooperative relationship. It is expected that these negotiations will be completed in time to allow the new agreement to be signed and 

enter into force by November 1,1993. 

105 
Vice President Gore and Russian Prime Minister Chemomyrdin, co-chairs of the U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on Energy and Space, 

signed several important agreements today at the end of their two-day meeting to promote greater U.S.-Russian cooperation in energy 

and space. These agreements represent our joint intention to strengthen economic cooperation and significantly increase trade and 

investment, especially in energy-related projects. The agreements will also help to bolster Russia’s move to privatize major areas of its 

economy and increase joint cooperation between our two governments, as well as our private sectors. 

The Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) announced two major projects for Russia, demonstrating the Administration’s 

commitment to further assist Russia’s efforts to implement economic reforms. OPIC President Ruth R. Harkin and Deputy Prime 

Minister Aleksandr Shokhin signed the first-ever U.S.-Russian Investment Fund. This $100 million project will support the 

privatization process in Russia and provide substantial equity investment to new, emerging businesses. The fund is expected to 

generate over five times the initial amount of investment in the Russian economy, roughly half a billion dollars, while also creating 

investment opportunities for U.S. businesses. OPIC will provide a $50 million loan guarantee with Paine Webber, who will manage 

the fund, and the Russian Government has agreed to contribute $25 million. 

OPIC signed an additional agreement providing $28 million in loan guarantees and insurance for Texaco’s $80 million project to 

restore oil wells in Russia’s Western Siberia region. The Administration is hopeful this and similar efforts will help the Russians to 

begin rebuilding their energy sector by restoring and increasing vital oil exports. 

A Memorandum of Cooperation in the Field of Fossil Energy, signed by Secretary of Energy OLeary and the Russian Minister of Fuels 

and Energy Yuriy Shafranik, will facilitate cooperation in fossil energy development. Through this agreement the U.S. and Russia will 

work jointly in four major areas: to identlfy improved technologies for supplying residential and industrial energy needs; to develop 

environmental remediation technologies by transferring U.S. know-how and technology which may improve Russia’s environmental 

protection measures; to conduct joint research and development for improving the production and distribution methods of nonnuclear energy sources; and to provide recommendations to commercialize and privatize Russian facilities. 

EXIMBANK and the Russian Ministry of Finance signed a memorandum of understanding that will lead to an expansion of the range 

of exports to Russia currently financed by EXIMBANK. Signed by EXIMBANK Chairman Kenneth D. Brody and Russian First Deputy 

Minister of Finance Andrey Vavilov, the memorandum outlines the principles to be included in a Project Finance Agreement currently 

under negotiation which would allow EXIMBANK to expand the scope of trade relations between the U.S. and Russia to new oil and 

gas projects, as well as projects in other promising sectors. We believe this is one of many steps the Russians have taken to demonstrate their continued commitment to promote market reform and encourage further privatization. 

T Jnited States-Russian Toint Commission on 

Joint Statement o n 

*e Development of Coopera tion in 

Environmental Observah ‘om from %ace and in %ace Science 

Having reviewed the status of the Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes dated June 17,1992, the Parties agree that it would be mutually 

beneficial to examine expanded cooperative activities in Environmental Observations from Space and in Space Science. 

Given the particular importance to Russia and the United States of their current efforts to understand the scientific basis for global 

environmental change and to conduct scientific exploration to expand human understanding of the origin and nature of the solar 

system and universe, the parties consider further cooperation in this area as most important and consistent with the interests of both 

Russia and the United States, as well as the entire international community. 

With this in mind, the U.S. and Russia will ask the Joint Working Groups established under the 1992 Space Cooperation Agreement to 

initiate a study to define and determine the feasibility of cooperative programs in Environmental Observations from Space and in 

Space Science. This joint study shall be pursued in accordance with the following principles: 

joining on a mutually beneficial basis the resources, and the scientific and technical potential and experience of Russia and the 

United States in Environmental Observation from Space and Space Sciences; 

committing to the full and open sharing of civil space-based and in & data for the purposes of Environmental Monitoring and 

Global Change Research; 

106 
working with current international partners (in coordination mechanisms such as the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites), 

and bilaterally in the U.S.-Russian Joint Working Groups on Solar System Exploration, Astronomy and Astrophysics, SolarTerrestrial Physics, Earth Sciences, Mission to Planet Earth (including the Subgroup on Operational Satellites Systems and Data 

Exchange), and Space Biomedical and Life Support Systems, and consistent with existing international obligations assumed by 

each of the Parties: 

seeking to expand U.S.-Russian cooperation in Environmental Observations from Space and in Space Science with a goal to 

increase international cooperation to minimize cost, decrease duplication, and increase the scope and effectiveness of research in 

these disciplines. 

The Parties hereby instruct the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Russian Space Agency, the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, the Russian Federal Hydrometeorological and Environmental Monitoring Service, the 

Ministry of Environmental Protection and Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, the Russian Academy of Sciences, and other 

relevant entities to undertake, in pursuance of this Joint Statement, the planned studies that will define development of the specific 

projects involving both countries’ firms and organizations, being guided by the above principles and provisions and by existing 

agreements of both nations with their international partners, with a completion date for the studies not later than November 1,1993. 

United States-Russian Toint Commission on 

Enerw and Space 

Joint Statement on 

CooDeration in SDace 

Having reviewed the status of the Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes dated June 17,1992, the Parties note with satisfaction past 

agreement on the following: the flight of a Russian cosmonaut on the Space Shuttle System in 1993 and 1994, and American astronauts 

on the MIR station, the docking and a joint flight of these two space complexes in 1995. These activities are consistent with the 

national space programs of both countries and the overall development of a spirit of trust, partnership, and long-term political and 

scientific and technological cooperation between Russia and the United States. 

Based on the agreement reached at a meeting of the U.S. and Russian Presidents in Vancouver on April 34,1993 and June 17,1992, the 

Parties see great promise and mutual benefit through cooperation in space science and exploration activities. 

Given the particular importance for Russia and the U.S. of their respective efforts in developing a new generation of orbital stations for 

scientific and technological progress and human activities in space, the Parties regard further cooperation in this area as most 

important, and consistent with the interests of both Russia and the U.S. as well as the broader international community. 

With this in mind it is the intent of the U.S. and Russia to undertake a cooperative human space flight program. Interim investigation 

has already indicated potential advantages-of joint cooperative activities in a truly international space station program. The parties 

intend to pursue such cooperation in accordance with the following principles: 

- joining on a mutually beneficial basis the resources and the scientific, technological, and industrial potentials of Russia 

and the U.S. in space activities to carry out a large-scale program of scientific, technical, and technological research; 

working with each of our current partners, and in accordance with earlier international obhgations assumed by each of 

the parties under the Freedom and MIR projects: 

operating in an orbit which is accessible by both U.S. and Russian resources; 

utilizing compatible service systems, enhancing reliability of the station and increasing the flexibility of transportation 

and technical maintenance: 

- 

- 

- 

- performing activities under cooperative programs on mutually beneficial terms, and including on a contract basis the 

procurement of individual systems and units or the provision of services. 

The first phase of our pit programs begins immediately and is designed to form a basis for resolution of engineering and technical 

problems. This initial phase encompasses an expansion of our bilateral program involving the U.S. Space Shuttle and the Russian MIR 

Space Station. The MIR will be made available for U.S. experiments for up to two years of total U.S. astronaut stay time. The number 

of Space Shuttle flights and the length of crew stay time will depend upon the details of the experiments to be defined by November 1, 

1993. During phase one, the use of the Russian modules ”Priroda” and ”Spektr,” equipped with US. experiments, could undertake a 

wide-xale research program. These missions will provide valuable in-orbit experience in rendezvous, docking, and joint space-based 

research in life sciences, microgravity, and Earth resources. It will bring to reality performance of large-scale space operations in the 

future. The Parties consider it is reasonable to initiate in 1993 the joint development of a solar dynamic power system with a test flight 

107 
on the Space Shuttle and MIR in 1996, the joint development of environmental control and life support systems, and the joint development of a common space suit. 

Subsequent joint efforts on the second phase will be directed to the use of a Russian MIR module of the next generation, in conjunction 

with a US. laboratory module and the U.S. Space Shuttle. This facility would provide an interim human-tended space sciences 

capability where significant scientific experimentation can take place in a microgravity environment and also provide practical 

experience gained out of the use of different transportation systems (including the U.S. Space Shuttle and the Russian Proton), 

performance of complex construction and assembly efforts and command and control process of orbital structure of considerable 

complexity. Successful implementation of this phase could constitute a key element of a truly international space station. 

It is envisioned that the US. will provide compensation to Russia for services to be provided during phase one in the amount of $100 

million dollars in FY 1994. Additional funding of $300 million dollars, for compensation of phase one and for mutually agreed upon 

phase two activities, will be provided through 1997. This funding and appropriate agreements will be confirmed and signed by no 

later than November 1,1993. Other forms of mutual cooperation and compensation will be considered as appropriate. 

All the above programs are mutually connected and are considered as a single package, the main goal of which is to create an effective 

scientific research complex earlier and with less cost than if done separately. The parties are convinced that a unified Space Station can 

offer significant advantages to all concerned, including current U.S. partners, Canada, Europe, and Japan. 

The precise planning process and organization of drafted phases of joint activity will give the opportunity to benefit both countries 

through expanded cooperative efforts on the space station project. 

The Parties hereby instruct NASA and RSA, in pursuance of this Joint Statement, to develop by November 1,1993, a detailed plan of 

activities for an international space station. This will serve as the basis for early review and decision within each government and as 

the basis for consultations with the international partners. Upon conclusion of the process of government approval and consultation, 

appropriate implementing agreements will be signed. NASA and RSA will include within the plan overall configuration, volumes, 

and forms of contributions and mutual compensation for Russian and US. activities. 

FACT SHEET 

US.-Russian Commerical %ace Launch Aereement - 

Vice President Gore and Prime Minister Chernomyrdin signed an agreement today between the United States and the Russian 

Federation regarding commercial space launch services. The agreement opens the international commercial space launch market, 

hitherto limited to US., European and Chinese launch service providers, to Russia. The Russian space launch industry, with its strong 

performance record, should find a ready market for its services. We also believe this agreement is a first step toward Russian entry 

into other high-technology international markets. 

The agreement establishes basic des for the commercial space launch market concerning government involvement in such areas as 

subsidies, marketing inducements and corrupt business practices. Russian commercial space launch providers will be able to compete 

for contracts to launch up to eight telecommunications satellites, in addition to the INMARSAT 3 satellite, to geosynchronous earth 

orbit for international customers until December 31,2000. Up to four launches may be of two satellites, and these may be counted as 

one, if the parties mutually agree that market conditions warrant such treatment. Russia will also be able to provide three launches (of 

seven satellites each) to low earth orbit for the Iridium system. Russian proposals for additional launches to low earth orbit will be 

reviewed by the parties and decided by mutual agreement as this unpredictable market segment develops. 

The agreement obligates Russia to charge prices for its launch services comparable to Western prices for comparable services. Prices 

more than 7.5 percent below the lowest Western bid for launches to geosynchronous earth orbit would trigger consultations in which 

the Russians would need to explain why such a price was comparable to Western prices. 

Other provisions of the agreement include information exchange, a mid-term review, annual consultations on its operation and urgent 

consultations on bids suspected of being out of compliance with the agreement. An "anti-bunching" provision prevents more than 

two launches under the agreement in a 12-month period. The agreement requires the U.S. to exercise "best-efforts" to issue export 

licenses for operations under the agreement, but the U.S. reserves its right to deny export licenses or impose sanctions when required 

under U.S. law. The parties may terminate the agreement by mutual consent. 

108 
U.S.-Russian Mssile E x~atrob - Awm .. 

Vice President Gore and Prime Minister Chemomyrdin signed a Memorandum of Understanding on Missile-Related Exports today, at 

the conclusion of the inaugural meeting the U.S.-Russian Joint Commission on Space and Energy. The agreement illustrates our 

mutual commitment to promoting non-proliferation and effective export controls. It provides a strong foundation upon which we will 

continue to build our partnership with Russia in space cooperation and other areas of mutual interest. 

The U.S. and Russian reached an agreement on missile export controls on July 15. This agreement cleared the way for an expanded 

partnership on proliferation issues and in space cooperation. In the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU), Russia agreed to 

conduct its missile-related exports according to the criteria and standards of the multilateral Missile Technology Control Regime 

(MTCR). This formal commitment on the part of Russia met a major objective of the U.S. and the 22 other members of the MTCR. We 

also reached an understanding on the disposition of Russia’s cryogenic rocket engine contract with India. We expect a final arrangement on this issue to be reached by the beginning of next year. 

Russia’s commitment to abide by the criteria and standards of the MTCR is a welcome and important step that shows its readiness to 

be a responsible partner in the sale of high-technology goods and services. 

United States -Russian Toint Commiss ion on 

-vv and %ace 

bint Statement on 

CooDeration in Aeronaub ‘cal Science 

The United States and the Russian Federation have agreed in principle to undertake new cooperation in the area of fundamental 

aeronautical sciences. 

As part of the US.-Russian Joint Commission on Energy and Space, co-chaired by Vice President Gore and Prime Minister 

Chemomyrdin, the two sides agreed to take concrete steps to complete the framework for new cooperative research in fundamental 

aeronautical sciences, utilizing the complementary capabilities, facilities and talents of each side. 

The Commission agreed that cooperation will take place through a variety of mechanisms, including cooperative scientific research 

projects, cooperative utilization of test facilities and test articles, jointly-sponsored scientific conferences, symposia and workshops, 

and exchanges of data, information and documentation. Areas that were noted as particularly promising included hypersonic 

research, transition and turbulence, thermal protection system materials, chemically reacting flows, and composite structures and 

materials, including computational modelling. 

In order to arrive at a concrete agreement on the framework for cooperation in fundamental aeronautical sciences, the Commission 

agreed that a delegation of specialists from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will travel to Russia during the month 

of September 1993 for the purpose of holding technical discussions, with ROSKOM OBORONPROM. These discussions will be for the 

purpose of identifying specific projects and joint research activities to be pursued over the next several years between the two 

countries. The delegations will also discuss the establishment of a U.S.-Russian Joint Working Group in Aeronautical Sciences to 

manage the cooperative relationship. 

The Commission also agreed that following the September 1993 meeting of technical specialists, representatives will meet in Washington, D.C., for negotiations on the text of a Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation in Aeronautical Sciences bet.. 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration and ROSKOM OBORONPROM. It is expected that these negotiations will be 

completed in time to permit the new agreement to be signed and enter into force by November 1,1993. 

?.€ 

109 
Glossary 

AAS 

AASE 

ABM 

ACARS 

ACDA 

ACRIM 

ACRV 

ACT 

ACTS 

Ada 

ADAS 

ADEOS 

ADP 

AEM 

AESOP 

AFB 

AFSC 

AFSCN 

AFT1 

AFW 

AGFS 

AGRHYMET 

AIDA 

AIDS 

AKM 

albedo 

ALEXIS 

ALOHA 

AMASS 

AMOS 

AMSC 

anechoic 

angle of attack 

AOA 

APCG 

APM 

APT 

APE-B 

ARFF 

Advanced Automation System 

Airborne Arctic Stratospheric Expedition 

Anti-Ballistic Missile 

Arinc Communications Addressing and Reporting System 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency 

Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor 

Advanced Crew Return Vehicle 

Advanced Composite Technology 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

A programming language used by the DoD 

AWOS Data Acquisition System 

(Japanese) Advanced Earth Observing Satellite 

Advanced Ducted Propeller; Automated Data Processing 

Animal Enclosure Modules 

ARGOS Environmental Shipboard Observer Platform 

Air Force Base 

Alaska Fisheries Science Center 

Air Force Satellite Control Network 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration 

Active Flexible Wing 

Aviation Gridded Forecast System 

AGRiculture, Hydrology, and METeorology 

Arecibo Initiative on Dynamics of the Atmosphere 

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome 

Apogee Kick Motor 

The ratio of the amount of electromagnetic radiation reflected by a body to 

Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors 

Airborne Lidar and Observations of Hawaiian Airglow 

Airport Movement Area Safety System 

Air Force Maui Optical System 

American Mobile Satellite Corporation 

Neither having nor producing an echo 

The acute angle between the chord of an airfoil and its direction of motion 

relative to the air, often referred to as “alpha”; when an airfoil’s angle of 

attack exceeds the one that provides maximum lift, it goes into a stall, 

losing airspeed and potentially, the capability of the pilot to control the 

airplane 

the amount incident upon it 

Angle of Attack 

Advanced Protein Crystal Growth 

Auroral Photography Experiment-B 

Ascent (or Atmospheric) Particle Monitor 

Automatic Picture Transmission-a low-cost ground terminal for receiving 

Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting 

data from polar orbiting satellites, developed by NASA 

110 
Arinc 

ARPA 

ARS 

ARTCC 

ASAT 

ASD 

ASF 

AS1 

ASOS 

ASR 

ASRM 

ASTP 

Astro 

astronomical unit 

ATIS 

ATLAS 

ATMS 

ATN 

ATP 

Auto GCAS 

AVHRR 

AWOS 

AXAF 

baseband processor 

BATSE 

BBXRT 

BIMDA 

black hole 

boundary layer 

BMD 

BMDO 

canard 

carbon-carbon 

CASA 

CASS 

Cassini 

CAT 

CCAFS 

C-CAP 

CCDS 

Aeronautical Radio, Inc 

Advanced Research Project Agency (formerly Defense Advanced Research 

Agricultural Research Service 

Air Route Traffic Control Center 

Anti-Satellite 

Aircraft Situation Display 

Area Sampling Frames 

Acronym for the Italian Space Agency 

Automated Surface Observing System 

Airport Surveillance Radar 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor 

Advanced Space Technology Program; Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

Astronomy Observatory 

A measure for distances in space, equal to the mean distance of the Earth 

Automatic Terminal Information Service 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science 

Advanced Traffic Management System 

Aeronautical Telecommunications Network 

Advanced Turboprop 

Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiomet 

Automated Weather Observing System 

Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility 

A computer processor similar in function to a telephone switching office 

Burst and Transient Source Experiment 

Broad Band X-Ray Telescope 

Bioserve ITA Materials Dispersion Apparatus 

A completely collapsed, massive dead star whose gravitational field is so 

Project Agency) 

from the sun, i.e., 93,000,000 miles (149,599,000 kilometers) 

powerful that no radiation can escape from it; because of this property, its 

existence must be inferred rather than recorded from radiation emissions. 

A layer of fluid, close to the surface of a body placed in a moving stream, that 

is distinguishable from the main airflow by distinctive flow characteristics 

of its own caused by friction. 

Ballistic Missile Defense 

Ballistic Missile Defense Organization, formerly SDIO 

An aircraft or aircraft configuration having its horizontal stabilizing and 

In one application, an improved form of disk brakes featuring carbon rotors 

Controller Automation Spacing Aid 

Computer Aided Stratification and Sampling 

A Saturn Orbitermitan Probe 

Clear Air Turbulence 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station 

Coastwatch-Change Analysis Program 

Center for the Commercial Development of Space 

control surfaces in front of the wing or wings 

and carbon stators in place of the beryllium formerly used 

111 
CCL 

CCSDS 

CD-ROM 

CEDAR 

CEES 

CERCLA 

CFD 

CGMS 

CELLS 

CEOS 

CEPS 

CFC 

CGF 

CGMS 

CINC 

CIP 

CIRA 

CIRRIS 

CIS 

CITE 

CLAES 

CMC 

CNES 

COARE 

COBE 

COMET 

COMPTEL 

COPUOS 

COSMIC 

cosmic rays 

COSPAS 

COSTR 

CRAF 

CRDA 

CREAM 

CRO 

CRRES 

CRS 

CSA 

cryogenic 

cscc 

CTAS 

CTR 

CTV 

CWG 

Commodity Control List 

Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems 

Compact Disk-Read Only Memory 

Coupling, Energetics, and Dynamics of Atmospheric Regions 

Committee on Earth and Environmental Sciences 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 

Computational Fluid Dynamics 

Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System 

Committee on Earth Observations Satellites 

Center for Earth and Planetary Studies 

Chlorofluoro-carbon 

Crystal Growth Facility 

Coordination Group for Meteorological Satellites (formerly, the Coordination 

Commander-in-Chief 

Capital Investment Plan 

Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere 

Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle 

Commonwealth of Independent States, a grouping of now independent states 

Cargo Interface Test Equipment 

Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer 

Center for Macromolecular Crystallography (at the University of Alabama at 

Acronym for the French Space Agency 

Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Response Experiment 

Cosmic Background Explorer 

COMmercial Experiment Transporter 

Compton Telescope 

(U.N.) Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

Computer Software Management Information Center 

Not forms of energy, like X-rays or gamma rays, but particles of matter 

A Soviet satellite used for search and rescue 

Collaborative Solar-Terrestrial Science 

Comet Rendezvous Asteroid Flyby 

Converging Runway Display Aid 

Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor 

Chemical Release Observation 

Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite 

Coastwatch Regional Site 

Canadian Space Agency 

Very low in temperature 

Concurrent Supercomputing Consortium 

Center-TRACON Automation System 

Civil Tiltrotor 

Cargo Transfer Vehicle 

Council Working Group (of INMARSAT) 

of Geostationary Meteorological Satellites group) 

formerly part of the Soviet Union 

Birmingham) 

112 
DARPA 

dB 

DBS 

DCS 

DE 

DemNal 

DLC 

DMSP 

DNA 

DOC 

DoD 

DOE 

Do1 

DOLILU 

DOT 

drag 

DSCS 

DSN 

DSP 

DST 

EAFB 

ECS 

EDFE 

EDMS 

ED0 

EDOMP 

EFM 

EGRET 

EHF 

EIS 

electromagnetic 

ELV 

EMAP 

EMSL-LV 

enthalpy 

envelope 

EOS 

EO-ICWG 

EOSDIS 

EOSAT 

EPA 

See ARPA 

Decibel 

Direct Broadcast Satellite 

Data Collection System 

Directed Energy 

Demons tratio nNalidation 

Diamond-Like-Carbon 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program-DoD’s polar orbiting weather 

Defense Nuclear Agency 

Department of Commerce 

Department of Defense 

Department of Energy 

Department of Interior 

Day-of-Launch I-Load-Update 

Department of Transportation 

The force, produced by friction, that impedes a body’s motion through a fluid 

Defense Satellite Communication System 

Deep Space Network 

Defense Support Program 

Defense and Space Talks 

Edwards Air Force Base 

EOSDIS Core System 

EVA Development Flight Experiments 

Emissions and Dispersion Modeling System--an EPA-approved computer 

Extended Duration Orbiter 

Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Program 

Enhanced Fighter Maneuverability 

Energetic Gamma Ray Experiment Telescope 

Extremely High Frequency, between 30,000 and 300,000 megacycles per 

Environmental Impact Statement 

A collective term for all known radiation spectrum from the shortest-waved 

gamma rays through x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared waves, to 

radio waves at the long-waved end of the spectrum 

satellite system 

model for the assessment of air quality around airports 

second 

Expendable Launch Vehicle 

Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program 

Environmental Monitoring Systems Laboratory in Las Vegas, NV-part of 

The heat content of a system undergoing change 

The operational parameters within which an aircraft can fly 

Earth Observations-International Coordination Working Group 

Earth Observing System-a series of satellites, part of the Mission to Planet 

the EPA 

Earth, being designed for launch beginning near the end of the decade to 

gather data on global change 

EOS Data and Information System 

Earth Observation Satellite Company 

Environmental Protection Agency 

113 
EPIC 

EPIRB 

EPM 

EPRI 

ERBE 

ERBS 

ERIM 

EROS 

ERS 

ERTS 

ESA 

E-scan 

EUMESAT 

EURECA 

EUVE 

EVA 

FAA 

FAEED 

FAS 

FASA 

FAST 

FBW/FBL 

FCCSET 

FDF 

Floquet theory 

FLTSATCOM 

FRED 

FSAR 

FTS 

fuel cladding 

Gorg 

galactic cosmic 

gamma rays 

GAS 

GBI 

GCDIS 

GD 

GDR 

GEM 

geoid 

Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center 

Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacons 

Enabling Propulsion Materials 

Electric Power Research Institute 

Earth Radiation Budget Experiment 

Earth Resources Budget Satellite 

Environmental Research Institute of Michigan 

Earth Resources Observation System 

European Space Agency Remote Sensing Satellite 

Earth Resources Technology Satellite 

European Space Agency 

Electronically scanned 

European Organization for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites 

European Retrievable Carrier 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 

Extra-vehicular Activity 

Fahrenheit 

Federal Aviation Administration 

FAA Aircraft Engine Emissions Database, which contains emissions factors 

Foreign Agricultural Service 

Final Approach Spacing Aid 

Fast Auroral Snapshot 

Fly-by- wire/fly-by-light 

Federal Coordinating Council on Science, Engineering, and Technology 

Flight Dynamics Facility 

A method of solving a second-order differential equation 

Fleet Satellite Communications System 

FAA Research Electromagnetic Database 

Final Safety Analysis Report 

Flight Telerobotic Servicer 

A coating designed to contain fission products released in nuclear fuel 

A symbol used to denote gravity or its effects, in particular the acceleration 

for various aircraft engines and data correlating engines to specific aircraft 

due to gravity; used as a unit of stress measurement for bodies undergoing 

acceleration 

volts and velocities approaching the speed of light 

substances 

Cosmic rays with energy levels as high as tens rays of billions of electron 

The shortest of electromagnetic radiations, emitted by some radioactive 

Get Away Special 

Ground Based Interceptor 

Global Change Data and Information System 

General Dynamics 

Geophysical Data Records 

Geospace Environment Modeling 

The figure of the Earth as defined by the geopotential surface that most 

nearly coincides with mean sea level over the entire surface of the planet’s 

contiguous bodies of water 

114 
Geosat 

Geostar 

geostationary 

geosynchronous 

GETSCO 

GFO 

GFS 

GGS 

GGSF 

GHRS 

GHz 

GIS 

GLITeC 

GLONASS 

glove 

GMDSS 

GMT 

GOES 

GPALS 

GPHS 

GPS 

GRO 

ground effect 

GSA 

GSFC 

GTS 

GVI 

Hall effect 

HALOE 

HANG 

HAPS 

HARV 

HAX 

HDTV 

HEAO 

HESP 

HIDEC 

high-alpha 

high-bypass engine 

Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite 

A private firm providing a satellite tracking service 

Travelling about Earth’s equator at an altitude of at least 35,000 km and at a 

speed matching that of Earth’s rotation, thereby maintaining a constant 

relation to points on Earth 

geostationary 

General Electric Technical Services Co Inc 

Geodetic/Geophysical Follow-on (program) 

Generic Flight System 

Global Geospace Science 

Gas-Grain Simulation Facility 

Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph 

Gigaherz (one billion cycles per second) 

Geographic Information System 

Great Lakes Industrial Technology Center 

(Soviet) Global Navigation Satellite System 

In relation to laminar flow control, a suction device employing tiny, laserdrilled holes to draw off turbulent air and produce a smooth (laminar) flow 

of air over an aircraft’s wing 

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System 

Greenwich Mean Time 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

Global Protection Against Limited Strikes 

General Purpose Heat Source 

Global Positioning System 

Gamma Ray Observatory 

The temporary gain in lift during flight at very low altitudes due to the 

General Services Administration 

Goddard Space Flight Center 

Global Telecommunications System 

Global Vegetation Index 

The development of a transverse electric field in a solid.materia1 when it 

compression of the air between the wings of an airplane and the ground 

carries an electric current and is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to 

the current. 

Halogen Occultation Experiment 

High Alpha Nose-down Guidelines 

Hydrazine Auxiliary Propulsion System 

High Angle-of-Attack Research Vehicle 

Haystack Auxiliary Radar 

High Definition Television 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory 

High-Energy Solar Physics 

Highly Integrated Digital Electronic Control 

High angle of attack 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of more than four to one, the by-pass 

ratio being the proportion of air that flows through the engine outside the 

inner case to that which flows inside that case 

115 
HIRF 

HIRE 

HLFC 

HPCC 

HRDI 

HSCT 

HST 

HUT 

hypersonic 

IBSS 

ICAO 

ICBM 

ICE 

IELV 

IEOS 

IFL 

IFM 

IFR 

IHFTET 

I-Lab 

IMI 

IML 

IMO 

IMP 

INF 

INM 

INMARS AT 

INTELSAT 

interferometry 

IOC 

ionosphere 

IPMP 

IPOMS 

IR 

IRAS 

IRT 

ISAC 

ISAMS 

ISAS 

ISB, TW/AA 

IS0 

ISTP 

ISY 

High Intensity Radiation Field 

High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer 

Hybrid Laminar Flow Control 

High Performance Computing and Communications 

High Resolution Doppler Imager 

High Speed Civil Transport 

Hubble Space Telescope 

Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope 

Faster than Mach 4; the borderline between high speed and hypersonic is 

Infrared Background Signature Survey 

International Civil Aviation Organization 

Intercontinental Ballistic Missile 

International Cometary Explorer 

Intermediate ELV 

International Earth Observing System 

Interfacility Fiber Optic Link 

Internal Fluid Mechanics 

Instrument Flight Rules 

Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine Technology 

(FAA) Integration and Interaction Laboratory 

Inner Magnetosphere Imager 

International Microgravity Laboratory 

International Maritime Organization 

Interplanetary Monitoring Platform 

Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (Treaty) 

Integrated Noise Model-a computer tool for simulation of aircraft noise 

International Maritime Satellite (Organization) 

International Telecommunications Satellite (Organization) 

The production and measurement of interference from two or more coherent 

Initial Operational Capability 

That region of the Earth’s atmosphere so named because of the presence there 

somewhat fuzzy but lies at about that velocity 

wave trains emitted from the same source 

of ionized atoms in layers that reflect radio waves and shortwave 

transmissions 

Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing 

International Polar Orbiting Meteorological Satellite Group 

Infrared 

Infrared Astronomy Satellite 

Icing Research Tunnel 

Intelsat Solar Array Coupon 

Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder 

(Japanese) Institute of Space and Astronautical Science 

Improved Space-Based, Tactical Warning/Attack Assessment (formerly, 

International Organization for Standardization 

International Solar-Terrestrial Program 

International Space Year (1992) 

Follow-on Early Warning System-EWS-a successor to DSP) 

116 
ITA 

IT0 

ITP 

ITU 

ITWS 

IUE 

IUS 

IV&V 

IWG 

JEM 

JGOFS 

Josephson effect 

Josephson junction 

JPL 

JSC 

Ka-band components 

KaBLE 

KAO 

KE 

Kelvin 

KSC 

Ku-band 

kWe 

LAGEOS 

laminar 

Landsat 

LANL 

laser 

LDEF 

LEAP 

LEO 

LEOEX 

LEX 

LFC 

LfA 

Lidar 

lift 

liftldrag ratio 

Instrumentation Technology Associates 

International Test Organization 

Integrated Technology Plan 

International Telecommunication Union, an intergovernmental organization 

founded in 1865 that became a specialized agency of the United Nations in 

1947 

Integrated Terminal Weather System 

International Ultraviolet Explorer 

Inertial Upper Stage 

Independent Validation and Verification 

Intersessional Working Group (of INMARSAT) 

Japanese Experiment Module 

Joint Global Ocean Flux Study 

The radiative effect associated with the passage of electron pairs across an 

The weak connections between superconductors through which the Josephson 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory 

Johnson Space Center 

Components to receive and transmit a new, high radio frequency 

Ka-band Link Experiment 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory-a C-141 Starlifter at Ames Research Center, 

Kinetic Energy 

Temperature scale in which absolute zero is 0" and water freezes at 273.16" 

Kennedy Space Center 

Radio frequencies in the 1 1 - 12 gigaherz range 

Kilowatts of electrical (power) 

Laser Geodynamic Satellite 

Of fluid flow, smooth, as contrasted with turbulent; not characterized by 

Also known as ERTS, a series of satellites designed to collect information 

Los Alamos National Laboratory 

Light amplified by simulated emission of radiation-a device that produces 

insulating barrier separating two superconductors 

effects occur 

equipped with a 0.97-meter telescope 

crossflow of fluid particles 

about the Earth's natural resources 

an intense beam of light that may be strong enough to vaporize the hardest 

and most heat-resistant materials, first constructed in 1960 

Long Duration Exposure Facility 

Lightweight Exo- Atmospheric Projectile 

Low Earth Orbit (100 to 350 nautical miles above the Earth) 

Low Earth Orbit Experiment 

Leading Edge extension 

Laminar Flow Control 

Laboratory for Astrophysics 

Light radar 

The force exerted on an airfoil such as a wing by a flow of air over and 

around it, causing it to rise perpendicularly to the direction of flight 

The ratio of the lift to the drag of any body, especially an airfoil; it is the 

measure of the aerodynamic effectiveness of the wing or airfoil 

117 
lightsats 

LiH 

LLWAS 

Loran 

Loran-C 

LOX 

low by-pass engine 

low-Earth orbit 

LWIR 

M 

Mach 

MACSAT 

magnetosphere 

maser 

mbps 

MBR 

MCC 

MCS 

MELV 

Mesopause 

MESUR 

Meteosat 

MIDEX 

MILS ATCOM 

MLS 

MMD 

MO 

MOA 

MODE 

Mode C transponder 

MOD-RTG 

MOU 

MSS 

MSTI 

Light-weight satellites 

Lithium hydride 

Low Level Windshear Alert System 

Long-range navigation-a two-dimensional, pulse-synchronized radio navigation system to determine position through pulse-time differencing from a 

master compared to two slave stations; it uses the frequency band 1.7 to 2.0 

megacycles. 

A Loran system that uses transmission at 100 kilocycles; the C stands for Cytac. 

Liquid oxygen 

A turbo-engine having a by-pass ratio of less than four to one-see high bypass engine 

An orbit of the Earth some 100 to 350 nautical miles above its surface 

Long-Wavelength Infrared 

Mach number-a relative number named after Austrian physicist Ernst Mach 

(1838-1916) and indicating speed with respect to that of sound in a given 

medium; in dry air at 32" F and at sea level, for example, Mach 1 = 

approximately 741 mph or 1,192 kilometers per hour. 

See M 

Multiple Access Communications Satellite 

The region of the Earth's atmosphere where ionized gas plays an important 

role in the dynamics of the atmosphere and where consequently, the 

geomagnetic field also exerts an important influence; other magnetic 

planets, such as Jupiter have magnetospheres that are similar in many 

respects to the Earth's. 

Microwave Amplification by Simulated Emission of Radiation-a device 

introduced in 1953 with multiple applications in physics, chemistry, radio 

and television communication 

megabits per second 

Mars Balloon Relay 

Mission Control Center 

Maritime Communications Subsystem 

Medium ELV 

The layer of the Earth's atmosphere with the lowest temperature 

Mars Environmental Survey Mission 

Meteorological satellite 

Middle-class Explorer 

Military Satellite Communications 

Microwave Limb Sounder 

Mean Mission Duration 

Mars Observer 

Memorandum of Agreement 

Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment 

A radar beacon receiver/transponder capable of reporting the attitude of the 

Modular Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Memorandum of Understanding 

Multispectral Scanner Sensors; Mobile Satellite Service 

Miniature Sensor Technology Integration 

aircraft aboard which it is installed 

118 
MTCR 

MTD 

MTPE 

NAPP 

NAS 

NASA 

NASCAP 

NASCOM 

NASDA 

NASM 

NASP 

NASS 

Navier-S toke 

NCAR 

NCC 

NCDC 

NDVI 

NERVA 

NESDIS 

NETSTAR 

neutron star 

NGDC 

NHC 

NIH 

NIST 

NIXT 

NMC 

NMFS 

NOAA 

NODC 

nominal 

NOS 

NOx 

NRAO 

NSCAT 

NSCOR 

NSF 

NSSFC 

NST 

T 

Missile Technology Control Regime 

Maneuver Technology Demonstrator 

Mission to Planet Earth-a program developed by NASA and the world 

scientific community to provide scientists with data that will allow them to 

understand the planet as a total system and to measure the effects of the 

human population upon it 

National Aerial Photography Program 

National Airspace System 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

NASA Charging Analysis Program 

NASA Communications network 

(Japanese) National Space Development Agency 

National Air and Space Museum 

National Aero-Space Plane 

National Agricultural Statistics Service 

:s (equations) Three equations that describe conservation of momentum for the motion of a 

viscous, incompressible fluid; developed in the nineteenth century by 

French engineer Claude-Louis-Marie Navier and English physicist Sir 

George Gabriel Stokes, who made the final derivation of the equations 

National Center for Atmospheric Research 

Network Control Center 

National Climatic Data Center 

Normalized Difference Vegetation Index 

Nuclear Energy for Rocket Vehicle Applications-a program from 1961-72 to 

(NOAA) National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

Network System for TV and Radio 

Any of a class of extremely dense, compact stars thought to be composed 

primarily of neutrons; see pulsar. 

National Geophysical Data Center 

National Humcane Center 

National Institutes of Health 

(DOC) National Institute of Standards and Technology 

Normal Incidence X-ray Telescope 

National Meteorological Center 

National Marine Fisheries Service 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, also the designation of 

National Oceanographic Data Center 

Functioning as designed 

National Ocean Service 

Any of several compounds of nitrogen and oxygen, including nitrogen oxide 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory 

NASA Scatterometer 

NASA Specialized Center of Research and Training 

National Science Foundation 

National Severe Storms Forecast Center 

Nuclear and Space Talks 

develop a nuclear rocket for post-Apollo missions 

that administration’s sun-synchronous satellites in polar orbit 

119 
NTB 

NTF 

NTI 

NTIA 

NTTC 

NUDET 

NWS 

OACT 

OASC 

OCTW 

OLR 

OMDP 

on-orbit 

order of magnitude 

ORFEUS-SPAS 

osc 

OSL 

OSSE 

OSTP 

out-of-ground 

ov 

PAMRI 

PAM 

PARE 

PCG 

PEACESAT 

PEM 

petrology 

piezoelectricity 

pitch-pointing 

pixels 

plasma 

National Test Bed 

National Test Facility 

National Technology Initiative 

(DOC) National Telecommunications and Information Administration, the 

Federal Government’s radio spectrum manager, which coordinated the use 

of LEO satellite networks like those for LANDSAT, NAVSTAR GPS, the 

Space Shuttle, and TIROS with other countries of the world 

National Technology Transfer Center 

Nuclear Detonation 

National Weather Service 

(NASA) Office of Advanced Concepts and Technology 

(DOC) Office of Air and Space Commercialization 

Optical Communications Through the Shuttle Window 

Outgoing Longwave Radiation 

Orbiter Maintenance Down Period 

In orbit 

An amount equal to 10 times a given value; thus if some quantity was 10 

times as great as another quantity, it was an order of magnitude greater; if 

100 times as great, it was larger by 2 orders of magnitude. 

Pallet Satellite 

Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer-Shuttle 

(NASA) Office of Space Commerce; Office of Space Communications 

Orbiting Solar Laboratory 

Oriented Scintillation Spectrometer Experiment 

Office of Science and Technology Policy 

See “ground effect” effect 

Orbiter Vehicle 

Peripheral Adapter Module Replacement Item 

Payload Assist Module 

Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment 

Protein Crystal Growth 

Pan-Pacific Education and Communication Experiments by Satellite 

Particle Environment Monitor 

The science that deals with the origin, history, occurrence, structure, and 

chemical classification of rocks 

The property exhibited by some asymmetrical crystalline materials that, when 

subjected to strain in suitable directions, develop polarization proportional 

to the strain 

The pointing of an aircraft with respect to its pitch (its angular displacement 

about an axis parallel to the aircraft’s lateral axis, that is, movement of the 

nose up or down) 

Short for “picture elements,” which provide image resolution in vidicon-type 

detectors 

A gas formed when one or more negatively charged electrons escape from an 

atom’s positively charged nucleus, creating an electrically neutral gas 

composed of positive and negative particles; because it is ionized, plasma 

interacts with electric and magnetic fields; approximately 99 percent of 

matter in the Universe is thought to be in the plasma state. 

120 
plasma sheet 

plastic media 

PLS 

PMS 

POAM 

POES 

polar orbit 

PRA 

PRC 

PROSPER 

PSC 

PSCN 

PSE 

Pu-238 

pulsar 

PVO 

quasar 

RAH 

ramjet 

R&D 

R&T 

RAWS 

RCRA 

real-time 

Resin Transfer Molding 

resolution 

REX 

Reynolds number 

RFI 

RFP 

An extensive area of low-energy, ionized gases in the tail region of the 

magnetosphere that undergoes considerable change during magnetospheric 

storms 

with plastic beads 

A method of removing paint from aircraft skins blasting by propelling them 

Personnel Launch System 

Physiological Monitoring System 

Polar Ozone and Aerosol Measurement 

Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellites 

The path of an Earth satellite that passes near or over the North and South Poles 

Probabilistic Risk Assessment 

People’s Republic of China 

PROgramme Spot Et Radar (the SPOT and radar program) 

Performance Seeking Control 

Program Support Communications Network 

Physiological Systems Experiment 

A Plutonium isotope 

A pulsating radio star, which is thought to be a rapidly spinning neutron star; 

the latter is formed when the core of a violently exploding star called a 

supernova collapses inward and becomes compressed together; pulsars 

emit extremely regular pulses of radio waves. 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

A class of rare cosmic objects of extreme luminosity and strong radio emission; many investigators attribute their high energy generation to gas 

spiraling at high velocity into a massive black hole 

Reconnaissance Attack Helicopter 

A jet engine with no mechanical compressor, consisting of specially-shaped 

tubes or ducts open at both ends, the air necessary for combustion being 

shoved into the duct and compressed by the forward motion of the engine 

Research and Development 

Research and Technology 

Remote Automatic Weather Station 

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 

Immediate, as an event is occurring 

A process for the fabrication of composite parts for aerospace vehicles in 

which a dry preform of reinforcements is placed in a mold, resin is infused 

by vacuum or pressure, and the part is cured in the mold 

thus, an 80 meter resolution indicates the ability to detect an object of at 

least 80 meters in diameter 

With reference to satellites, a term meaning the ability to sense an object; 

Radiation Experiment 

A nondimensional parameter representing the ratio of the momentum forces 

in fluid flow, named for English scientist Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912); 

among other applications, the ratio is vital to the use of wind tunnels for 

scale-model testing, as it provides a basis for extrapolating the test data to 

full-sized test vehicles. 

Request for Information 

Request for Proposal 

121 
RME 

RMP 

RMS 

ROSAT 

Rover 

RSA 

RTG 

RTTC 

RlTM 

SAIN 

SAM 

SAMPEX 

SAMs 

SA0 

SAREX 

SARSAT 

SBIR 

SBUV 

scs 

SDI 

SDIO 

SEALAR 

Seasat 

SeaWIFS 

SEDS 

SEI 

SEM 

Sgr A* 

S-GCOS 

SHARE 

SIMMOD 

SLBM 

SMEX 

SIRTF 

SLAR 

SLC 

SLS 

SLV 

SNOTEL 

SOFIA 

SOH0 

Radiation Monitoring Equipment 

Rotorcraft Master Plan 

Remote Manipulator System-a remotely controlled ann, developed by 

Canada and controlled from the orbiter crew cabin, used for deployment 

and/or retrieval of payloads from the orbiter payload bay 

Roentgen Satellite 

After 1955, a program to develop a nuclear rocket, renamed NERVA in 1961 

Russian Space Agency 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator 

Regional Technology Transfer Center 

Real Time Thrust Measurement 

Satellite Applications Information Notes 

Shuttle Activation Monitor 

Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer 

Space Acceleration Mapping System 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment 

Satellite Aided Search and Rescue Program 

Small Business Innovation Research 

Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (spectral radiometer) 

Soil Conservation Service 

Strategic Defense Initiative 

See BMDO 

Sea Launch and Recovery 

Experimental oceanic surveillance satellite launched June 27, 1978; it demonstrated that much useful information about the ocean could be obtained 

through satellite surveillance 

Sea-Viewing Wide Field Sensor 

Small Expendable Tether Deployable System 

Space Exploration Initiative 

Space Environment Monitor 

Space-based Global Change Observation System 

Sagittarius A*, a small but very luminous radio source located at the very 

Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element 

Simulation Model 

Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile 

Small Explorer 

Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

Side-Looking Airborne Radar 

Space Launch Complex 

Space Life Sciences Laboratory or Spacelab Life Sciences 

Space Launch Vehicle 

SNOWpack TELemetry 

Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy 

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

center of the spiral Milky Way galaxy 

122 
solar flare 

solar maximum 

solar wind 

SOLSTICE 

SOLTIP 

Space Test Program 

SPAS 

SPEAR 

SPOT 

SPPD 

SRA 

SRAM 

SRL 

SRM&QA 

SRMU 

SSAAC 

SSBUV 

SSCE 

SSME 

SSMII 

ssm 

SSRT 

SST 

stall 

START 

STDN 

STEP 

STGT 

STEP 

STME 

STOL 

STOVL 

STRV 

STS 

STORM-EST 

STV 

SunRISE 

sunspot 

A sudden, intense brightening of a portion of the sun’s surface, often near a 

sunspot group; these flares, enormous eruptions of energy that leap millions of miles from the sun’s surface, pose a potential radiation hazard to 

humans in space. 

The period in the roughly 1 1 -year cycle of solar activity when the maximum 

number of sunspots is present 

A stream of particles accelerated by the heat of the solar corona (outer region 

of the sun) to velocities great enough to permit them to escape from the 

sun’s gravitational field 

Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment 

SOLar connection to Transient Interplanetary Processes 

A program in existence since 1965 in the DoD to test hardware in space and 

Shuttle Pallet Satellite 

Space Power Experiment Aboard Rocket 

Satellite Pour l’observation de la Terre (satellite for the observation of the 

Signal Processing Packaging Design 

Systems Research Aircraft 

Static Random Access Memory 

Space Radar Laboratory 

Safety, Reliability, Maintainability, and Quality Assurance 

Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade 

Space Science and Applications Advisory Committee 

Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (spectrometer) 

Solid Surface Combustion Experiment 

Space Shuttle Main Engine 

Special Sensor Microwaveflmager 

Special Sensor Microwave/Temperature 

Single Stage Rocket Technology (Program) 

Sea Surface Temperature 

A loss of lift by an aircraft or airfoil resulting from insufficient airspeed or 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

Solar Terrestrial Energy Programme 

Second TDRSS Ground Terminal 

Space Test Program Experimental Platform 

Space Transportation Main Engine 

Short Takeoff and Landing 

Storm-Fronts Experiment Systems Test 

Short Take-off and Vertical Landing (Aircraft) 

Space Technology Research Vehicle 

Space Transportation System, also used together with a mission number such 

Space Transfer Vehicle 

Radiative Inputs of the Sun to Earth 

A vortex of gas on the surface of the sun associated with stray local magnetic 

study the space environment 

Earth) 

excessive angle of attack, resulting in a drop of the aircraft’s nose 

as STS-55 to designate a particular Space Shuttle mission 

activity 

123 
SUPER 

super high frequency 

supernova 

SUSIM 

SWAS 

TAAS 

TASS 

TBM 

TCAS 

TDLS 

TDP 

TDRS 

TDRSS 

TDWR 

TFE 

thermionics 

TIMED 

TIROS 

TM 

TNA 

TOGA 

TOMS 

TONS 

TOPEX 

TOPS 

TOS 

TOVS 

TPCE 

TPOCC 

TR 

TRACON 

tribology 

TRMM 

TSS 

TV 

TVCS 

UARS 

UFO 

UHF 

UIT 

UMS 

Name for a survivable solar-power subsystem demonstrator 

Any frequency between 3,000 and 30,000 megacycles per second 

An exceptionally bright nova (a variable star whose brightness changes 

suddenly) that exhibits a luninosity ranging from 10 million to 100 million 

times that of our sun 

Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor 

Submillimeter Wave Astronomy Satellite 

Terminal Advanced Automation System 

Terminal Area Surveillance System 

Theater Ballistic Missile 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System 

Tower Data Link Service 

Telemedicine Demonstration Project 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite 

TDRS System 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar 

Thermionic Fuel Element 

A field of electronics that uses electrical current passing through a gaseous 

medium (vacuum tube) instead of a solid state (semi-conductor), permitting 

use in high-temperature and radiation environments in which other electronic devices fail 

Thermosphere-Ionosphere-Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics 

Television and Infrared Operational Satellite 

Thematic Mapper 

Thermal Neutron Analysis 

Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer 

TDRSS Onboard Navigation System 

Ocean Topography Experiment 

Toward Other Planetary Systems 

Transfer Orbit Stage 

TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder 

Tank Pressure Control Experiment 

Transportable Payload Operations Control Center 

Thrust-reversing 

Terminal Radar Approach Control 

The study of the interaction of sliding surfaces with respect to friction, wear, 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission 

Tethered Satellite System 

Thrust-vectoring 

Thrust Vector Control System 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite 

UHF Follow-on 

Ultra High Frequency, any frequency between 300 and 3,000 megacycles per 

Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope 

Urine Monitoring System 

and lubrication 

second 

124 
UNEP 

USAF 

USCINCSPACE 

USDA 

USGCRP 

USML 

USMP 

USTR 

UTTR 

uv 

uvcs 

VAFB 

VAS 

vcs 

very high frequency 

VFC 

viscosity 

VISSR 

VLBA 

VLBI 

VLSI 

VoA 

V/STOL 

VSRA 

WARC 

WEFAX 

WGD 

white dwarf 

WIND11 

WMO 

WSGT 

WSMC 

WSMR 

WSP 

WSTF 

WUPPE 

x-rays 

XTE 

United Nations Environment Program 

U.S. Air Force 

Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Space Command 

U.S. Department of Agriculture 

U.S. Global Change Research Program 

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory; U.S. Munitions List 

US. Microgravity Payload 

Office of the U.S. Trade Representative 

Utah Test and Training Range 

Ultraviolet 

Ultraviolet Coronal Spectrometer 

Vandenberg Air Force Base 

Visible-and-Infrared-Spin-Scan-Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder 

Voice Command System 

Any radio frequency between 30 and 300 megacycles per second 

Vortex Flow Control 

Resistance to flow or change of shape under pressure 

Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer-an instrument on NOAA’s 

GOES-7 satellite 

Very Long Baseline Array, a set of 10 radio telescopes in the continental 

U.S., Hawaii, and St. Crois 

Very Long Baseline Interferometry 

Very Large Scale Integration 

Voice of America 

VerticaVShort Takeoff and Landing 

V/STOL System Research Aircraft 

World Administrative Radio Conference 

Weather Facsimile 

(CEOS) Working Group on Data 

Any of a class of faint stars, characterized not only by low luminosity but by 

Wind Imaging Interferometer 

World Meteorological Organization 

White Sands Ground Terminal 

Western Space and Missile Center 

White Sands Missile Range 

Windshear Processor 

White Sands Test Facility 

Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photopolarimeter Experiment 

Radiations of very short wavelengths, beyond the ultra-violet in the spectrum 

X-ray Timing Explorer 

masses and radii comparable to that of our sun 

125 
INDEX 

Advanced Automation System, 7,46 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration program, 

Advanced Main Combustion Chamber, 21 

Advanced Solid Rocket Motor, 21 

Advanced Space Technology Program (ASTP), 24 

Advanced Subsonics Technology program, 2 

Advanced Traffic Management System, 44 

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer 

AeroAstro Incorporated, 6,26 

AeroVironment, 39 

aerobraking, 2, 17 

Aeronautical Data Link, 45 

aeronautics, 2-3,37-44 

Agricultural Research Service (USDA), 8,56 

Agricultural Statistics Board, 55 

Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer, 

airport surface programs, 49 

air traffic control, 44-46,5 1 

ALEXIS, see Array of Low-Energy X-ray Imaging 

Sensors 

Allied Signal Inc., 45,46 

Allison, 39 

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 

Ames Research Center, 2, 15, 17, 18,32,40,43,50, 

Antarctica, 3 1 

Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, 1 I, 62 

Argentina, 11,63 

Ariane launch vehicle, 8, 32, 57 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), 

Array of Low-Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors 

astronomy, 1-2, 12, 14-18; see also names of heavastrophysics, see space physics 

Atlas E, 13 

Atlas-Centaur I, 13 

(ACTS), 3, 13,32-33 

4, 39 

(AVHRR), 53,54,55,60,61 

55 

(AIAA), 68 

55,71 

11,62-63 

(ALEXIS) satellite, 1, 3,6, 13, 25-26 

enly bodies and observatories 

Atlas 11, 3, 13 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Sciatmospheric studies, 9-10, 12, 26, 57-60; see also 

Aurora Flight Sciences Corporation, 57 

Australia, 10, 15,48, 60,66 

Automated Weather Observation System (AWOS), 

automatic signal BLINK, 7,44 

Aviation Gridded Forecast System, 47 

aviation medicine, 5 1-52 

ence-2 (ATLAS-2), 1, 12,57,58 

ozone layer 

47 

B-2,4, 38-39 

B-52, 2-3, 13,42,67 

B-727,49 

B-777,48 

ballistic missile defense, 11, 62-63 

balloon research, 36 

Belarus, 62 

Big Bang, 1, 14 

black holes, 10, 15-16 

Bomem Corp., 60 

Boston University, 60 

Brazil, 13,42, 53,60,67,72 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (Dol), 7,53 

Bureau of Land Management (DoI), 7,53-54 

Bureau of Reclamation (DoI), 7,54 

Bush, President George, 64 

California Institute of Technology, 37 

Canada, 10, 11, 19-20,28,48,49,52, 58,59-60,65 

Capabilities Demonstration Satellite (OXP), 13, 14 

Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, 10, 13, 27 

Carnegie Mellon University, 3 1 

Case Western Reserve University, 70 

Cassini, 5,29 

Centaur, 4,23 

Center for Particle Astrophysics (NSF), 10, 15-16 

Center-Terminal Radar Approach Control AutomaCerro-Tolodo Interamerican Observatory, 16 

Chernomyrdin, Russian Prime Minister Victor, 2, 8, 

tion System (CTAS), 46 

64,68 

126 
Chile, 65 

China, 11,63 

U.S.People’s Republic of China (PRC) Memorandum of Agreement, 68 

Clemson University, 9, 59, 60 

Clinton, President William J., 3, 27, 62, 65 

Coast Guard, 44 

Coastwatch, 61-62 

Coffey, Dr. Timothy, 17 

Colorado State University, 9,59 

Columbia Communications, 9, 11, 66 

Columbus program, 28 

commercial development of space, 3,66,67-71 

COMmercial Experiment Transporter, 67 

commercial launches, 1,8,14,67; see also Ariane and 

Commonwealth of Independent States, 24 

communications satellites, 1,3,9, 10, 11, 13, 31-35, 

66,69 

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, 9,56 

Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, 14 

computational fluid dynamics, 38,43 

computer development and tools, 36,43,44-46,48, 

49,50, 52, 55,71 

COMSAT Corp., 34 

Conestoga rocket, 67 

Consort 6 satellite, 14 

Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), 1, 14 

COSPAS-SARSAT search and rescue system, 1 1,65 

critical technologies research, 43 

cryogenics, 32, 37 

names of U.S. companies 

Dante, 31 

dark matter, 15-16 

DC-X, see Delta Clipper-Experimental 

Deep Space Network, 36 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), 

5,26,53,60,61 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) 

satellites, 1, 3,4, 13, 33 

Defense Support Program, 24 

Delta 11, 3, 10, 13, 27 

Delta Clipper-Experimental (DC-X), 4, 8,22-23,67 

Department of Agriculture, see United States DepartDepartment of Commerce (DOC), 4-5,26,32,66,68- 

DC- 10,5 1 

ment of Agriculture 

69,71 

Department of Defense (DoD), 3-4,12,13-14,22-26, 

29-31,33-34,37-39,43,45,46-47,48,50,51,56, 

57, 61,62,66,67,68,71 

Department of Energy (DOE), 5-6,25-26,28-3 1,49 

Department of the Interior (DoI), 6-7,53-55 

Department of State (DoS), 10- 1 1,65-67 

Department of Transportation (DOT), 1,7-8, 13,30- 

Deutsche Aerospace, 38 

DFS-3 Kopernikus satellite, 13, 14 

Diffused X-ray Spectrometer Hitchhiker experiment, 

Dryden Flight Research Facility, 5 1 

DSCS, see Defense Satellite Communications System 

31, 37, 39,40,43-52,67-69,71, 72 

12 

Earth Observing System (EOS), 58 

earthquake studies, 3, 12, 52 

education, 7 1-72 

Edwards Air Force Base, 12 

EER Systems Corporation, 14,67 

EG&G Mound Applied Technologies, 29 

Eglin Air Force Base, 38-39 

Electra, see Lockheed Electra 

environmental issues, 40,41,44,50, 53,54, 55, 56- 

57, 58; see also ozone layer 

EOS Data and Information System (EOSDIS), 58 

ER-2,41 

Europe, 10, 27, 58 

European Organization for the Exploitation of MeEuropean Retrievable Carrier (EURECA- l), 12 

European Space Agency, 2, 12, 19-20,28,54 

European Space Agency Remote Sensing satellite 

expendable launch vehicles, 1, 13- 14,23,24,25-26, 

27, 42, 67; see also Ariane, Pegasus, and other 

individual launch vehicles 

teorological Satellites (EUMESAT), 66 

(ERS-l), 62 

Extravehicular Activity (EVA), 12, 13 

Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer, 14-1 5 

F-15,3,42, 51 

F-16,4, 39,41 

F-18,3, 38,42 

Federal Aviation Administration, 7-8,30-3 1,37,39, 

Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 8-9, 

fiber optic sensors, 40 

Fleet Satellite Communications System, 34 

40,43-52,67 

32, 34-35,66, 69 

127 
flight safety and security, 7-8,40,42,46-5 1 

fly-by-light, fly-by-wire, power-by-wire, 40, 43-44, 

Foreign Agricultural Service (USDA), 8, 56 

Forest Service (USDA), 8,55 

Forward Looking Windshear Detection devices, 47 

France, 11, 19-20,52,65,66 

Freeflyer, see COMmercial Experiment Transporter 

Galaxy IV(H), 8,32 

Galaxy VII(H), 8, 32 

Galileo, 7, 18,29 

gamma rays, 14 

General Dynamics, 13, 14 

General Electric, 39,43 

Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite (Geosat), 62 

Geodetic/Geophysical Follow-on (GFO) satellite, 6 1 

Georgia Institute of Technology, 48 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 

Germany, 1, 19-20, 35,38,52 

German Space Agency, 12 

Glasair 11, 71 

global change studies, 4-5, 9, 26, 53, 54, 58-60,66; 

see also greenhouse effect, ozone layer, global 

warming 

50 

(GOES), 60 

Global Maritime Distress and Safety System, 34 

Global Positioning System (GPS), 1,3,4, 13,23-24, 

55-56,66,69 

applications to civil aviation, 7,24,49,50 

Global Protection Against Limited Strikes (GPALS), 

global warming, 5, 9, 58-59; see also greenhouse 

Goddard Space Flight Center, 3, 35,36,57 

Gore, Jr., Vice President Albert, 2, 8,64,68 

gravitational studies, 12, 62 

Great Attractor, 16 

greenhouse effect, 17,59,60; see also global warming 

Greenland, 9,59 

Gregory, Frederick, 72 

Ground Network, 36 

62 

effect 

Harrier aircraft, 43 

heliopause, 1, 14 

High-Altitude Observatory, 10, 15 

high angle-of-attack research, 3,37-38,42 

high speed civil transport, 2,40-41 

Hubble Space Telescope, 1,2, 12, 13, 14, 18,26,35- 

3672 

Hughes Aircraft Company, 13,34 

Hughes Applied Information Systems, 58 

human factors research, 51-52 

Hungary, 52 

hypersonic research, 41-42 

HYPULSE facility, 37 

IBM, 10, 15 

Ida (asteroid), 18 

Improved Space-Based, Tactical Warning/Attack AsIndia, 11, 63 

inertial upper stage, 23 

IN-Space Technology Experiments Program, 32 

integrated aerospace lessons learned system, 30-3 1 

Integrated High Performance Turbine Engine TechIntegrated Terminal Weather System, 46-47 

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), 

International Earth Observing System (IEOS), 58 

International Maritime Satellite Organization 

International Microgravity Laboratory, 19,20 

International Solar-Terrestrial Program, 36 

International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT), 8, 11, 34,66,69 

International Ultraviolet Explorer, 15 

INTERSPUTNIK, 11,72 

Iowa State University, 48 

Italian Space Agency, 1,28, 52 

sessment (ISB, TW/AA), 24-25 

nology, 2, 39 

45 

(INMARSAT), 9, 11, 34-35,64, 66-67 

Japan, 10, 19-20,28,48,58 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), 15, 17-18, 25, 26, 

36,52 

Johnson Space Center, 22,63,70,71 

Jupiter, 7, 18 

Kazakhstan, 62 

Kennedy Space Center, 12, 13 

Kitt Peak National Observatory, 10, 15-16 

Kopernikus, see DFS-3 

Krikalev, Sergei, 63 

Kuiper Airborne Observatory, 18 

laminar flow control, 41,43 

Landsat satellites, 4, 27 

Langley Research Center, 22, 37,38,47-48, 70 

Landsat data, 7, 8,52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 66 

128 
Laser Geodynamics Satellite (LAGEOS II), 1,3,12,52 

laser, other uses of, 37,40,42 

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (DOE), 48 

Learjet Inc., 2 

Lewis Research Center, 31,43,70 

life sciences, 2, 12, 18-21 

light detection and ranging (lidar), 9,57, 59 

Lockheed Electra, 9,59 

Loran-C Automatic Signal BLINK system, 7,44 

Los Alamos National Laboratory (DOE), 6,25-26,29 

Louisiana State University, 52 

M81 (spiral galaxy), 1, 14, 16 

MACSATs, 24 

Magellan, 1-2, 6, 17 

Magellan Systems Corp., 69 

Mars, 7, 17 

Marshall Space Flight Center, 2 1 

Mars Observer, 2, 17-18 

Martin Marietta, 31, 34 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 45,7 1 

materials research, 12, 37-38,41,43,48, 69 

McDonnell Douglas, 4, 8, 14, 22-23, 32, 37,43, 67 

Meteor 3,57,58 

meteorological satellites, services, and studies, 8, 15, 

Meteosat-3, 27, 60 

Microgravity Laboratory, see U.S. Microgravity 

Laboratory 

microgravity research, 12, 18-21 

Microsats, 24 

microwave landing system, 7,46 

Milky Way galaxy, 10, 15-16 

Milstar, 33-34 

Miniature Seeker Technology Integration (MST1)- 1 

Miniature Sensor Technology Integration program, 

Mir, see Russia 

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), 1 1,63 

Mission to Planet Earth, 1, 3, 58 

Mongolia, 66 

Montreal Protocol, 5, 57 

Moon, 18 

Motorola, 64 

MSTI, see Miniature Seeker Technology Integration 

Lincoln Laboratories, 45 

26,27,45,46-48,60,61, 66 

satellite, 3,4, 13, 25 

4, 25 

Moon rocks, 72 

MTCR, see Missile Technology Control Regime 

Mt. Stromlo Observatory, 10, 15-16 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 1-3, 

4,7,9,12-22,23,24,26,30-44,46,47,48,50,5 1, 

52-55,57-59,60,61,63-65,67,68,69-72 

Centers for the Commercial Development of Space, 

NASA Communications (NASCOM) network, 35- 

safety and mission assurance, 30-3 1 

69-70 

36 

National Aerospace Plane, 37-38 

National Agricultural Statistical Service (USDA), 8, 

National Air and Space Museum, 10 

National Center for Atmospheric Research, 9,47,59 

National Environmental Satellite, Data, and InformaNational Institute of Standards and Technology (DOC), 

National Institutes of Health, 19 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

55 

tion Service (NESDIS), 60 

5, 16-17,20-21, 32,48,59,71 

(NOAA, DOC), 4-5, 13, 18,26-27,47,53,54,57, 

60-62,68,69, 72 

National Park Service (DoI), 7,54 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory, 10 

National Research Council, 49 

National Science Foundation, 9-10,47, 59-60 

National Security Council, 68 

National Transportation Safety Board, 5 1, 67 

National Weather Service, 47 

Navstar Global Positioning System, see Global Positioning System 

Netherlands, 48 

New Launch System, 

Nimbus 7, 3, 57-58 

NOAA satellites, 4, 13, 26-27, 57 

Normal Incidence X-ray Telescope (NIXT), 15 

Northwestern University, 19 

nuclear power, 28-30 

nuclear propulsion, 30 

ocean floor, 62 

oceanography, 3,6 1-62 

Ocean Topography Experiment, 3,61,62 

Ochoa, Dr. Ellen, 72 

Office of Air and Space Commercialization (DOC), 5, 

68-69 

129 
Office of Commercial Space Transportation (DOT), 

Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), 26, 

Orbital Sciences Corporation, 13, 14,23,67 

Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extreme Ultraviolet 

Spectrometer-Shuttle Pallet Satellite (ORFEUSSPAS), 1, 13 

1, 8, 13,67-69,72 

69 

Orion Satellite Corporation, 69 

OXP, see Capabilities Demonstration Satellite 

ozone layer, 1,3, 5,9, 12,26,57-58,59-60 

Pakistan, 11,63 

Pan American Satellite, 9, 11, 66, 69 

Pathfinder data sets, 4,53 

Pegasus booster, 3, 13,23,24,25-26,42,67 

PEGSAT, 24 

Perseus (high altitude science) aircraft, 57 

Phillips Laboratory (DoD), 25, 29, 36 

Physics of Toys experiments, 12 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter, 17 

Pluto, 18 

Pluto Fast Flyby, 29 

Polar Ozone and Aerosol Measurement (POAM-11) 

experiment, 57 

power-by-wire, see fly-by-light 

Pratt & Whitney, 39,40,43 

precision runway monitor, 7,45 

publicity, 72 

Radar Calibration (RADCAL), 3, 14 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators, 5,28-29 

Raptorflalon program, 4,39 

Raytheon, 46 

red supergiants, 15 

remote sensing, $6-7, 8,9,53-57,66,69,70 

robotics, 12, 22, 31-32 

Rocketdyne, 37 

Roentgen Satellite, 15 

Russia, 2,8, 10, 11, 19,28,30,32,34,51,57,62,63- 

65,68,69 

Mir space station, 21,63-64 

Russian Space Agency, 2,32,63-65 

SOYUZ-TM, 64 

Rutgers University, 48 

Sagittarius A*, 10, 16 

Salyut, 28 

Sandia National Laboratories (DOE), 26 

Satellite for the Observation of the Earth (SPOT), 53, 

Savannah River Plant, 29 

Scaled Composites, 4, 39 

SCD-1 satellite, 13, 14 

Scout launch vehicle, 13, 14,25 

scramjet, 37 

Shuttle Systems Integration, 22 

Single Stage Rocket Technology program, 4,22-23; 

Small Explorer-2 (SMEX-2) Fast Auroral Snapshot 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, 10, 15 

Smithsonian Institution, 10, 15 

Soil Conservation Service (USDA), 8,55 

Solar Anomalous and Magnetospheric Particle ExSolar Backscatter Ultraviolet Spectral Radiometer 

54,55 

see also Delta Clipper Experimental 

(FAST) mission, 36 

plorer, 36 

(SBUV), 57,58 

on Space Shuttle (SSBUV), 57,58 

SOLar connection to Transient Interplanetary Processes (SOLTIP), 4, 18 

solarphysics, 4, 10, 12, 15, 18,58,60 

Solid Rocket Booster, 21-22 

Somalia relief effort, 33 

South Africa, 11, 63 

Soyuz-TM, see Russia 

SP-100 space reactor program, 5,29 

Space Conference of the Americas, 1 1,65 

Space Exploration Initiative, 5 

Spacehab module, 3, 12,70 

Space Industries, Inc., 70 

Spacelab D-2, 12, 19, 35 

Spacelab- J, 19 

Spacelab Life Sciences- 1, 18- 19 

Spacelab Life Sciences-2, 19 

Space Network, 35,36 

Space Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Program, 6, 30 

space physics, 10, 12, 14-17,26 

Space Radar Laboratory, 52 

Spaceshuttle, 1,2,3,10,11,12-13,18-22,35,52,57, 

Space Shuttle Main Engine, 2 1 

Space Station, 2, 10,20,27-28,31,63-64,65,69 

Space Technology Research Vehicle, 3 1 

Space Technical Working Group, 66 

Space Test Program Experimental Platform, 31 

58, 61,63,64,65 

130 
Space Tracking Agreement, 1 1,65 

Spain, 11,65 

Spartan-201, 10,12,15 

SPEAR-HI, 31 

Special Sensor Microwave/Imager (SSMA), 53,60 

spinoffs, 18-19,38,40,42,70 

SR-71 Aircraft Testbed program, 2,40-41 

SRI International, 9,59 

Stanford University, 17 

Starfire Optical Range, 36 

Stennis Space Center, 21 

Stirling Cooler, 32 

Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START), 63 

subsonic aircraft research, 2,39-40,42 

supernovae, 15, 16 

supersonic transport, see high speed civil transport 

Surface Traffic Automation System, 45 

Table Mountain Observatory, 36 

TALON SHIELD, 25 

Taurus, 3-4,23,24 

Technology Reinvestment Project, 3,7 1 

technology transfer, 42,43,69,70-7 1; see also spinoffs 

Telemedicine Demonstration Project (TDP), 19 

Terminal Air Traffic Control Automation, 45-46 

Terminal Area Surveillance System, 45 

Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR), 48 

tethered satellite systems, 10, 27 

thermionic space nuclear reactor systems, 29-30 

thermoelectric cells, 29 

TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder, 53,60 

Titan 11, 4 

Titan IV, 3,4, 13,23,27,34 

Titov, Vladimir, 63 

TOPEXPoseidon, 3,61,62 

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS), 3, 57- 

Toutatis (asteroid), 36 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS), 

Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System, 44 

Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) Earth 

turbine rotor system failure, 49-50 

58 

2, 12,35 

Probe, 61 

Ukraine, 62 

Ultra High Frequency Follow-on (UFO) satellites, 1, 

Ulysses, 29 

United Airlines, 47 

United Kingdom, 48,49 

13, 14,34 

United Kingdom Infrared Telescope, 18 

United Nations, 33 

United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), 8, 

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

United States Fish and Wildlife Service (DoI), 7,54 

United States Geological Survey (DoI), 6-7,17,18,54 

United States Information Agency, 11,72 

United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML- l), 20 

United States Microgravity Payload (USMP- l), 12,20 

United StatesRussia Space Launch Trade Agreement, 

United States Trade Representative (USTR), 64,68 

University of Alabama at Birmingham, 69 

University of Colorado, 60 

University of Genoa, 27 

University of Houston, 70 

University of Illinois, 9 

University of Maryland, 9,59 

University of New Hampshire, 53,60 

University of Texas, 19 

University of West Virginia, 3 1 

Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS), 57, 

Utah State University, 9,59, 60 

Utah Test and Training Range (UTTR), 67 

55-56 

9,56-57 

see Chernomyrdin or Gore 

58,59 

Vandenberg Air Force Base, 13, 14,25 

Venezuela, 72 

Venus, 1,6 

VerticaVShort Take-off and Landing (V/STOL), 3,43 

Very Large Array radio telescopes, 16 

Very Long Baseline Array radio telescopes, 16 

Viking Orbiter, 17 

Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer (VISSR), 

Voice of America (VoA), 11,72 

Voice Switching and Control System, 7,44 

Voyagers 1 and 2, 1, 14,28 

53,60 

weather forecasting, see meteorological . . . White Sands Missile Range (WSMR), 22 

Wilcox Corporation, 46 

wind tunnels, 37, 38,40 

Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 39 

X-30,37-38 

X-31A enhanced fighter, 38 

Yeltsin, President of Russia Boris, 64 

131