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UNITED STATES 

Aeronautics E. Space Activities 

1968 

THE EARTH FROM ATS-III 22,300 MILES IN SPACE 

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE COUNCIL 

WASHINGTON, D C 20IO2 

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents. U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.25 
PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE OF TRANSMITTAL 

TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES: 

This report summarizes a year of significant achievement in aeronautics and in spaceculminating in the epochal APOLLO 8 flight in December, in which three astronauts 

orbited the Moon ten times and returned safely to Earth. A courageous, pioneering 

exploration ! 

The outstanding success of the APOLLO 8 mission attracted world acclaim and 

greatly enhanced the prestige of the IJnited States as the leading space-faring nation. 

The capability of the astronauts and the integrity of their space equipment justified 

our highest hopes. 

The APOLLO 8 flight was preceded by the very successful 1 l-day orbit of the Earth 

in APOLLO 7-the first manned flight test of the APOLLO spacecraft. 

These great missions bring us nearer to reaching our national goal of landing men 

on the Moon in this decade. 

Our astronauts have now flown 18 manned space missions, during which they experienced 3,215 man hours in space flight. Together with the activities of the Soviet 

Union, this makes a total to date of 28 manned flights and 3,846 man hours in space. 

Through this investment we have obtained new products, services, and knowledge ; we 

have enhanced our national security; we have improved our international relations; 

and we have stimulated our educational system. 

Our Nation is richer and stronger because of our space effort. I recommend that 

America continue to pursue the challenge of space exploration. 

. 

THE WHITE HOUSE, 

January 1969. 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Chapter I-U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities-1968 Summary ____________________------- --- Chapter 11-National Aer6nautics and Space Council- _ __ _ -_ ___ - - - _ _- -- - - - - - - - -- - - - -- - - - -- - -- - 

1 

5 

The Vice President ______ 5, International Cooperation ______ 5, Aeronautics ______ 5, Comparison of US. 

and Soviet Space Programs _________ 5, New Goals Required _________ 6, Council Activities---------6 

8 

Manned Space Flight_-____8, Lunar and Planetary Programs- _____ 14, Space Science and Applications--_ _ __ 14, Advanced Research and Technology- - - _ - _ 1 7, Aeronautics- __ _ _ - 18, Chemical Propulsion ______ 20, Biotechnology and Human Research _____ _ 2 1, Space Vehicle Systems ______ 23, Electronics 

and Control ______ 23, Space Power and Electric Propulsion ______ 25, Nuclear Rocket Program __---- 27, 

Tracking and Data Acquisition___--_28, University Programs-_-__ - 30, International Affairs- _----30, 

Industry Affairs- __ __-3 1, Technology Utilization- _ _ _ _ -32, Relationships with Other Government 

Agencies ______ 33, NASA Safety Program ______ 34, Facilities Management------35 

36 

Space Development Activities______36, Space Ground Support__--__39, Aeronautics Development 

Activity-_____40, Supporting Research and Technology_-____43, Cooperation with Other Government 

Agencies--- _--46 

48 

Nuclear Rocket Propulsion______48, Space Electric Power______50, Space-Directed Advanced Technology Development_--___51, Space Nuclear Safety Activities___-__51, Space Isotopic Fuel Development______52, Satellite-Based Detection of Nuclear Explosions in Space and in the Atmosphere------52 

53 

5 5 

58 

Environmental Science Services Ad~inistration______58, ESSA Research Laboratories_--_--61, Coast 

and Geodetic Survey Operations_-____63, Weather Bureau Operations____-_64, Environmental Data 

Service ______ 65, National Bureau of Standards ______ 65, Applied Technology ______ 67, Maritime Administration ______ 67, Office of State Technical Services ______ 68 

Chapter 111-National Aeronautics and Space Administration- _ __ - _ _ _ - - _ __ - - - _ - _ - - - - - -- -- - - - - - 

Chapter IV-Department of Defense _______ ..................... - ____________________--- -- - 

Chapter V-Atomic Energy Commission _______ _ ____________ __ - __________ ____ ______ _________ 

Chapter VI-Department of State _____________ _________ ___ _________ ____________ _ _--__ -__- -- 

Chapter VII-National Science Foundation- _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ - _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ - _ _ - _ - - - - - _ _ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - 

Chapter VIII-Department of Commerce__- ______ __ __________ - ........................ ___- _ 

Chapter IX-National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council/National Academy of 

Engineering _ - _____ ___ _ __ _ __ ___ _ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ ___ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - __ _ _ _ _ _ _ - __ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ - _ __ ___ _ 69 

Space Science Board-----_69, Committee on Atmospheric Sciences----__71, Office of Scientific Personnel --____ 72, Division of Behavioral Sciences ______ 72, Division of Biology and Agriculture __-_-_ 72, 

Division of Earth Sciences------72, Division of Engineering__---_73, Committee on SST-Sonic 

Boom -___-_ 74, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board- _____ 74 

Chapter X-Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory _____________________-__-_-_______-____-_ 76 

Project Celescope ___-- -76, Satellite Tracking ______ 77, Meteoritics ______ 77, Mount Hopkins Observatory ______ 78, Atomic and Molecular Astrophysics ______ 78 

80 

Aviation Safety Research and Development____ -_80, Other R&D Programs Fostering Civil Aeronautics- - _ _ _ -84 

Chapter XII-Federal Communications Commission- - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ __ - __ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ __ - _ _ - __ _ __ _ - 86 

Regulatory Activities-_____86, Activities of the International Radio Consultative Committee 

(CCIR) ------86, Forthcoming ITU Conference on Radio Astronomy and Space Services-_--_-86, 

Space Techniques for the Maritime Mobile Service-____-87, Aeronautical Development_--___87 

Chapter XI-Department of Transportation- _ __ _ __ _ - _ _ _ _ _ __ - __ _ _ _ - _ _ _ __ _ _ __ _ - _ _ __ _ __ _ ___ __ _ 

V 
Chapter XIII-United States Information Agency _______ _____________________________________ 89 

Guidelines ______ 89, Treatment ______ 89 

The Space Treaty ______ 91, Defining Space ______ 91, Space Cooperation ______ 92, Verification and 

Inspection__----92, Use of Satellite Communication Systems To Reduce Risk of War------92 

93 

Appendix A-2-U.S. Spacecraft Record (Table); U.S.S.R. Spacecraft Successfully Launched------- 94 

Appendix A-~uccessful US. Launches-1968 __________________________________________-_- 95 

Appendix B-Major Space “Firsts” _____ .................... __________ ..................... 102 

Appendix GU.S. Applications Satellites-1958-1968 ________________________________________ 104 

Appendix D-History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights ______________________________ 107 

Appendix E-U.S. Space Launch Vehicles _______________________ __________________________ 108 

Appendix F-Nuclear Power Systems for Space Applications- - - - - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ __ _ - 109 

Appendix G-1Space Activities of the U.S. Government (New Obligational Authority)_________ 110 

Appendix G-2Space Activities of the U.S. Government (Expenditures)_ ______________________ 111 

Appendix G--pace Activities Budget; Aeronautics Budget- _ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ - _ _ __ _ - _ _ __ _ _____ _ __ _ 112 

Index .................................................................................. 113 

Chapter XIV-Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ______________________________________ 21 

Appendix A-1-U.S. Spacecraft Launch Record (Chart) _______________________________________ 

VI 
CHAPTER 

I 

U. S. AERONAUTICS AND 

SPACE ACTIVITIES 1968 

SUMMARY 

As 1968 came to an end, America moved dramatically 

near its national goal of landing men on the Moon 

in this decade. Three U.S. astronauts became the first 

humans to depart from the confines of Earth's gravitational sphere of influence and venture to the close 

vicinity of the nearest celestial body. 

Launched from Cape Kennedy on a SATURN V 

Earth orbit. This unmanned launch, using the SATURN IB vehicle, was the first test of the Lunar 

Module, in which two astronauts are expected to 

descend from the mother APOLLO spacecraft for the 

first lunar landing sometime during 1969. The results 

were successful enough so that it was decided that a 

second such test was unnecessary. 

vehicle on December 21, the APOLLO 8 crew took 

their spacecraft on man's first trip to the vicinity of 

the Moon. They orbited the Moon 10 times, coming 

within about 70 miles of its surface. Returning to 

Earth on December 27-147 hours after lift-off-they 

re-entered the atmosphere and splashed down in the 

Pacific Ocean target area. Taken aboard an aircraft 

carrier, Astronauts Borman, Lovell, and Anders were 

found to be in excellent health. 

The astronauts broadcast live television programs back 

to Earth while en route to the Moon, while in lunar 

orbit, and during their return to Earth. Those pioneering pictures were, in turn, given wide distribution 

throughout the world via communications satellites. 

The APOLLO 6 payload, which was launched at 

the Cape on April 4, was the second unmanned flight 

of the SATURN V/APOLLO system. The Command 

and Service Module re-entered from 400,000 feet, 

simulating the speed of a return from the Moon, and 

landed in good condition about 50 miles from its target 

point. 

In the next step, on October 11, the APOLLO 7 payload went into orbit from Cape Kennedy aboard a 

SATURN IB, taking its three-man crew on the first 

manned APOLLO mission. The flight lasted almost 

11 days and covered 4.5 million miles, with splashdown occurring on October 22 exactly in the planned 

Atlantic Ocean target area. Major features of the 

The great precision of the launching, the re-entry, and mission included live television transmission from 

all intervening events such as injection into lunar orbit space; production of drinking water as a by-product 

and departure from that orbit for Earth return prom- of fuel cells; and the largest number of inflight re-starts 

ised success for the entire lunar program. of a manned spacecraft propulsion system. The threeman flight, first for the United States, totaled 781 

man-hours in space, a new record. 

This great milestone in human achievement was the 

year's final step in a carefully planned succession of .. 

APOLLO missions. On January 22, NASA launched 

the APOLLO 5 payload from Cape Kennedy into 

A thorough study of the results of the highly successful 

APOLLO 7 flight, together with favorable assessments 

1 
2 SUMMARY 

of the status of the spacecraft and launch vehicle for 

the next flight, led to NASA’s decision to fly a lunarorbit and return mission with APOLLO 8. 

Earlier, space officials had obtained much new knowledge and confidence required to proceed with the flight 

program from the successes in the unmanned lunar exploration programs-RANGER, LUNAR ORBITER, 

and SURVEYOR. The first two of these projects were 

completed in earlier years; the last was concluded 

early in 1968, when the seventh and last SURVEYOR 

landed on the Moon. Launched from Cape Kennedy 

by an ATLAS-CENTAUR vehicle on January 7, 

SURVEYOR VI1 soft-landed at its planned site near 

Tycho Crater on January 9. In addition to returning 

more than 20,000 photographs, the spacecraft took 

part in a laser communications experiment, detecting 

a tiny laser beam directed to it from Earth. The experiment indicated that lasers could be used for space communications, and for accurately measuring great 

distances. 

NASA plans five APOLLO flights in 1969. APOLLO 

9, an Earth-orbital mission scheduled for the first quarter of the year, will be the first manned flight of the 

complete lunar vehicle-SATURN V launch vehicle, 

the Command and Service Modules, and the Lunar 

Module. Lunar landing is expected in late 1969. 

In a year during which the spotlight of space activity 

returned to the dramatic field of manned flight, there 

was also solid progress in unmanned satellite programs 

which are increasingly benefiting mankind through improvements in communications, weather prediction, 

navigation, and scientific investigations. 

One new INTELSAT I11 spacecraft was launched by 

NASA for the Communications Satellite Corporation, 

adding to the service provided for the international 

consortium Intelsat. ComSat spacecraft were utilized 

for live TV coverage of the Mexico City Olympics to 

Europe and Asia, as well as elsewhere in North America, and for similar coverage of the November 7 elections. The APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE (ATS) series of NASA spacecraft were also 

used in communications experiments. On the military 

side, the Department of Defense expanded its total 

of operating communications satellites and ground 

terminals. The ATS series, in synchronous orbit 

22,300 miles above the Earth, also demonstrated that it 

could be used to pinpoint the location of aircraft and 

ground vehicles, and to provide broad meteorologkal 

coverage of the globe. 

A milepost was reached in the short history of meteorological satellites in May, when the 1,000,OOOth 

TIROS-ESSA cloud-cover picture was transmitted by 

the ESSA 6 satellite, which had been launched by 

NASA in 1967 for the Environmental Science Services 

Administration. April 1 marked the eighth anniversary 

of the launch of TIROS 1, the first weather satellite to 

send back usable cloud pictures. Two new meteorological satellites-ESSA 7 and Owere launched during 1968. Still another use of an ATS spacecraft was 

proven when ESSA and NASA cooperated to use the 

ATS-I11 for taking photographs, from which films 

were prepared, of tornadoes and hurricanes. The same 

satellite was used to send weather data from the U.S. 

to Europe, Africa, and South America-a service which 

became semi-operational late in the year, and ATS-1 

continued to be used for transmissions to the Pacific. 

Dissemination of satellite weather photographs was 

greatly expanded during the year, both within the U.S. 

and abroad. 

The TRANSIT navigational satellite system, developed by the Navy and made available for civilian 

use in 1967, was made fully operational in 1968. 

On December 7, NASA orbited its second ORBITING 

the heaviest and most complex automated satellite ever 

launched by the U.S. The OAO-2, which carries 11 

telescopes, is returning pictures of stan that were 

previously impossible to study by optical means. 

Military space activity continued to progress, with development of the Air Force’s MANNED ORBITING 

LABORATORY (MOL) approaching a point of peak 

activity. Associate contractors began exchanging test 

assemblies of major system components; there were 

successful demonstration firings of the first-stage engine of the TITAN IIIM booster for MOL; preparations were made for static-testing of the remaining 

liquid engines and solid motors; and construction of 

the launch complex at Vandenberg AFB, California, 

neared completion. The MOL, which will enhance 

the Nation’s security, has no missions as a weapons 

system. 

For the second consecutive year, a major international 

accord involving space activity went into effect. 0x1 

ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY (OAO-2) , 
CHAPTER I 3 

December 3, the President announced the entry into 

force of the international Agreement providing for the 

rescue and return of astronauts, and the return of 

space objects from foreign soil. More than 75 nations 

have signed the Agreement. 

Despite the successes in the APOLLO program, the 

United States launch total in 1968 was substantially 

lower than in 1967, which in turn had represented a 

numerical drop from the two preceding years. The 

64 US. launches that were successfully conducted, 

however, reflected the growing sophistication and capability of the space effort, exemplified by the unprecedented APOLLO accomplishments. 

The Soviet Union, with 74 successful launches during the year, slightly exceeded its total of 67 successful 

payloads in 1967. On October 26, the SOYUZ 3 

spacecraft with a single cosmonaut aboard was sent on 

a four-day Earth-orbital mission marking the first Russian manned flight since the fatal SOYUZ 1 mission 

in April 1967. The SOYUZ 3 rendezvoused, but did 

not dock with the unmanned SOYUZ 2, which had 

been orbited on October 25. The other major highlight of the Soviet program in 1968 was the separate 

launching of three unmanned ZOND spacecraft. Two 

of these were recovered, after circumlunar flight, one 

in the Indian Ocean and the other on Soviet soil after 

an aerodynamic glide-skip re-entry over the ocean. 

Some primitive forms of life were aboard at least one 

of the circumlunar flights. 

Aeronautics activity in 1968 included the first test 

flights of the U.S. Air Force’s C-5A, the largest military cargo aircraft, meeting its June flight schedule. 

Three of the aircraft have now flown 31 flights for a 

total flying time of about 88 hours. 

On the civilian side of aeronautics, Government and 

airline experts reevaluated the design submitted for 

construction of two prototype Supersonic Transports 

(SST) during the year and decided that the variablesweep wing design was not the best choice for this 

commercial SST. The program was therefore delayed 

to allow the airframe contractor to make design 

changes, and in September a fixed-wing design was 

selected. SST engine development proceeded satisfactorily. It is now hoped that protoypte aircraft construction will begin in 1969. 

Advances were made in the effort to apply aeronautical 

technology to develop reusable spacecraft. NASA’s 

HL-10 lifting body research vehicle completed 12 successful glide flights, and a rocket engine was used for 

the first time in November to propel the vehicle to 

higher altitude and speed. 

Nuclear rocket and space power programs progressed 

on several fronts. There were power tests of the 

PHOEBUS-PA reactor; first tests of a cold-flow test 

engine, resembling a flight configuration, in a new 

test stand which partially simulates flight conditions; 

and first test firings of the PEWEE-1 fuel element testbed reactor. 

A summary list of major U.S. accomplishments in 

1968 includes : 

1. Four APOLLO missions, which steadily developed 

our lunar exploration capability, were climaxed at the 

end of the year by man’s first trip out of the sphere 

of his familiar gravitational field and into the orbit 

of the Moon, and a successful return. 

2. The final SURVEYOR mission completed the space 

program’s unmanned lunar exploration activity, returned photographs and other data, and was successfully used in an experiment in laser communications. 

3. The second ORBITING ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY (OAO-2) was successfully orbited 

with an unprecedented total of 11 telescopes, and began returning previously unobtainable data on the 

stars. 

4. The APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SAI‘ELLITES performed a variety of meteorological, navigation, and communications assignments. 

5. An INTELSAT I11 spacecraft was successfully 

launched by NASA for the Communications Satellite 

Corporation. 

6. The ESSA 7 and 8 satellites were launched to niaintain the operational weather satellite system established in 1966. ESSA 6, launched in 1967, transmitted 

the 1,000,000th TIROS-ESSA cloud-cover picture. 

7. ESSA and NASA cooperated in using the ATS-I11 

satellite to obtain closely timed pictures of tornadoes 

and hurricanes; films made from the pictures were 

used to study the development and life cycles of the 

storms. 
4 SUMMARY 

8. A special facsimile transmission was added to the 

established US. network to relay Automatic Picture 

Transmission (APT) photographs to Weather Bureau 

and military ground stations, greatly increasing dissemination and operational use of satellite data. Transmission of satellite and standard meteorological data 

from the U.S. to AFT stations in Europe, Asia, and 

South America via the ATS-I11 satellite started experimentally in July, and by October had become semioperational. Transmissions to the Pacific via ATS-I 

continued. 

9. NASA launched the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite 

(HEOS-I) into orbit for a study of interplanetary 

physics. It was the first foreign satellite to be launched 

by NASA on a reimbursable basis. 

10. The military’s MANNED ORBITING LABORATORY (MOL) program neared a peak of activity 

and construction of its launch complex approached 

completion. 

11. The Phase I Defense Satellite Communications 

System was enlarged to a constellation of 22 operating 

satellites and 39 surface terminals. 

12. The TRANSIT navigational satellite system grew 

to a four-satellite, fully operational system. 

13. The C-5A, world‘s largest military cargo aircraft, 

made its first flights. 

14. The nuclear rocket and space power programs 

progressed, with successful test firings of two types of 

reactors and a cold-flow.test engine closely approaching a flight configuration. 

15. In air traffic control and navigation, there was 

successful testing of a device to improve a controller’s 

ability to guide aircraft around heavy storms; virtual 

completion of a prototype all solid-state transmitter 

for the VOR navigational system, which will improve 

reliability and reduce costs; and testing of a system of 

area navigation which will permit more flexible and 

direct navigation on instruments. 

16. The international Agreement on rescue and return 

of astronauts, and return of space objects from foreign 

soil, took effect. More than 75 nations are signatories. 

17. The U.S. participated in a United Nations-sponored Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses 

of Outer Space, held in Vienna. 

18. Through 1968, 21 countries were taking part in 

cooperative, mutually funded space activities with the 

United States. In addition, scientists from eight 

countries were engaged in cooperative sounding rocket 

programs, and 52 countries had APT facilities to receive cloud-cover pictures directly from U.S. satellites. 

19. The United States launched a total of 61 spacecraft into Earth orbit, and three on escape trajectories. 
CHAPTER 

I1 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND 

SPACE COUNCIL 

Introduction 

The National Aeronautics and Space Council, established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 

1958, has a statutory responsibility for advising and 

assisting the President on policies, plans, and programs 

of the United States in aeronautical and space 

activities. During 1968, the Council carried out its 

responsibilities in a variety of fields whose scope was 

both national and international. Its work encompassed 

both civil and military aeropace projects. 

The Vice President 

The Vice President, by statute, is the Chairman of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Council. He exercised forceful leadership in the aeronautics-space field 

during the year under review. As a matter of policy and 

practice, he emphasized the importance of bringing 

the benefits of the space program into early practical 

realization for the well-being of mankind. In the 

course of his duties, the Vice President continued to 

acquaint himself at firsthand with both the problems 

and the progress of our national space effort. In addition to his continuing attention to the space program, the Vice President maintained particular interest in the pressing problems of aeronautics, specifically 

with regards to new aircraft, improved air safety, and 

lessening the noise and air pollution created by jet 

engines. He also vigorously supported the principle of 

continued U.S. participation in international exhibits, 

such as the Paris Air Show. 

programs with some 70 nations in space enterprises. 

The United States has taken a leading role in the development of international treaties and agreements, 

and in international arrangements for sharing advances 

in space communications and other beneficial applications, including weather forecasting and navigation. 

The United States has made concerted efforts to initiate new cooperative space arrangements in order to 

utilize space for the advancement of our foreign policy 

aims. 

Moreover, of major importance has been the initiative 

role and the follow-through participation of the United 

States in international treaties and agreements affecting national security in space and safety and rescue of 

astronauts. 

Aeronautics 

Early in the year, the Vice President, in a Council 

meeting, arranged for coordinated action by the Department of transportation, the Department of Defense, and NASA to analyze the relationship between 

the benefits that accrue to the Nation from aviation and 

the Nation’s level of aeronautical research and development. This action was in response to a recommendation by the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and 

Space Sciences that the Council undertake such a task. 

Because of its direct responsibility for the evolution of 

national transportation policy, the Department of 

Transportation was assigned leadership in the study. 

Progress reports were received and consultations undertaken during the year. 

International Cooperation Comparison of U.S. and Soviet Space 

The United States continued to make leading contribu- Programs 

tions to space technology, space accomplishment, and 

international peace-building through cooperation in 

space. In the latter category there are now cooperative 

Since the first satellite was launched some 11 years 

ago, the United States has, as of December 31, 1968, 

placed 606 spacecraft into Earth orbit or on escape 

5 
6 NASC 

missions, while the Soviet Union figure is 358 or 37% 

of the total effort. The United States has 3,215 manhours in space flight, compared with 631 for the 

U.S.S.R., or about 83% of the total manned flight 

hours. Of equal significance perhaps is the fact that 

the United States has made major technological 

advances in unmanned space activity, bringing direct 

benefits to mankind in meteorology, communications, 

navigation, and observation. Moreover, the United 

States leads in the dissemination of scientific information obtained from space investigations, launching of 

the world’s most powerful operational booster 

(SATURN V), the use of on-board nuclear power 

units, as well as in the number of spacecraft successfully launched. 

In making this comparative analysis, however, it is 

essential that we derive satisfaction but no complacency from our relative status. The U.S.S.R. effort 

is Vigorous and appears to be on a trend of increasing 

investment and increasing accomplishment. At existing rates, the Russians could overtake and possibly 

surpass the U.S. 

New Goals Required 

The years 1958-1968 have been filled with significant accomplishments in the space domain, and the 

decade ahead will present new challenges and new 

opportunities, none of which will be successfully dealt 

with if the Nation is complacent over its achievements 

of the past. The challenges of initiative have been well 

met; the determination to maintain the pace is to be 

tested in the coming years. 

Since the greatness of a nation depends to an important degree upon mastering and putting to use 

technological advances, new goals and new directions 

must be established in space to maximize the existing 

and potential benefits of this new national asset. A 

sound basis for determining that our Nation benefits 

from such activity may be seen in the advances which 

have taken place in communications, meteorology, 

navigation, and Earth resources observation, as well 

as the spinoffs from space research in the form of new 

products, new services, and novel managerial techniques. Beneficial beginnings have also been achieved 

in the application of space-proven systems analysis to 

urban problems and other non-space needs. 

Council Activities 

During 1968 the Council and its staff dealt with a 

variety of aerospace problems. A number of meetings 

were held to coordinate the exchange of interagency 

information and to evaluate fiscal year 1969 and fiscal 

year 1970 budget plans. Continued consideration was 

given to post-APOLLO space goals, foreign-affairs aspects of U.S. space programs and opportunities for expanded international cooperation in outer space, COordination of the U.S. presence in major international 

scientific and cultural events having an aerospace content, plans and prospects for natural resources survey 

satellites, policy aspects of communications satellite 

development, planning and safety aspects of nuclear 

rocket and space nuclear-power projects, aeronautical 

research funding, aeronautical safety, and reduction 

of airport noise. 

In brief, the Council directly and through its staff, 

engaged in a broad range of policy, coordinating, and 

informational activities. Among these were: 

a. Supervised and edited the President’s 

Annual Report to the Congress on Aeronautics and Space Activities for 1968. 

Submitted reports to the President and 

the Council Chairman on significant 

space and aeronautics activities and plans. 

Maintained a mutually informative relationship with both the members and their 

staffs of appropriate committees of the 

Congress on domestic and foreign aeronautics and space developments. 

Increased public understanding of the 

national space program through speeches, 

articles, correspondence, and other public 

contacts. 

Participated in analysis of, and made 

recommendations concerning, our national budgets for space and aeronautics. 

Coordinated for the President the policy 

decisions involved in launching nuclear 

power units in spacecraft. 

g. Helped to develop recommendations on 

the evolution of communications policy. 

h. Furnished briefing materials, including 

space photographs, for use in connection 

with visits to Washington of high-ranking 

officials of other nations. 

b. 

c. 

d. 

e. 

f. 
CHAPTER II 7 

i. Participated in the planning for aeronautical and space exhibits abroad, including the Paris Air Show which is 

scheduled for 1969. 

Examined the need for legislative changes 

affecting space and aeronautics. 

Maintained liaison with the technological 

and aerospace communities. 

Reviewed the status of space booster programs, both chemical and nuclear, and 

of meteorological, navigation, communication and applications technology satellite projects, including Earth resources 

survey satellites. 

m. Reviewed and maintained continuous 

liaison with the national aeronautics and 

j. 

k. 

1. 

space programs under the cognizance of 

the Department of Defense and the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

Visited space installations, examined facilities, and . engaged in interagency as 

well as Government-industry meetings 

and briefings on new developments in 

aeronautics, space technology, and space 

benefits. 

Maintained a current record of U.S. and 

Soviet space launches, developed comparisons between US. and U.S.S.R. space 

activities, and reviewed the space accomplishments and potentials of other nations. 

n. 

0. 
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND 

SPACE ADMINISTRATION 

CHAPTER 

I11 

Introduction 

In 1968, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration recorded a number of advances in its aeronautics and space programs. The results of the 

SURVEYOR program to obtain data on the Moon 

and its environment were particularly satisfying. 

After making APOLLO improvements prompted by 

the January 1967 fire at Cape Kennedy, the manned 

space flight program made significant advances toward 

the lunar landing goal announced in 1961. The four 

APOLLO launches during the year-APOLLO 5,6,7, 

and agave evidence that the anticipated lunar mission could be accomplished in 1969. The two manned 

missions (APOLLO 7, employing the SATURN IB 

launch vehicle, and APOLLO 8, using the SATURN 

V) showed that the hardware, the communication network, and the personnel were at the proper stage of 

readiness required to complete the APOLLO program. 

Space sciences and applications activities included the 

landing on the Moon of SURVEYOR VII-the last 

in this series of highly productive unmanned satellites, 

the flight qualification of the APOLLO Lunar Surface 

Experiments Package which the APOLLO astronauts 

will leave on the Moon, and the determination that 

it will be feasible for the astronauts to collect and 

bring back to Earth lunar soil samples. 

In addition, NASA orbited sophisticated APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITES capable of 

forecasting global weather, maintaining worldwide 

communications, locating vehicles on and above 

Earth’s surface, and assisting in studies of the space 

environment and solar phenomena. 

In advanced research and technology, investigations 

covered a wide range of current and future needs. 

Very satisfactory results were achieved in laser research, particularly in its application to space communication. Studies of jet aircraft noise showed 

8 

several ways of alleviating this problem. V/STOL 

efforts moved ahead with the start of tests of the XV5B fan-in-wing airplane and the assignment of the 

tilt-wing XC-142 to the Langley Research Center for 

further research. 

The XB-70 and the X-15 flight research programs 

continued, with the emphasis in the latter shifting 

to experiments for the Air Force. A space cabin life 

support system was successfully tested by simulation 

for a 60-day period during which four men lived and 

worked in a closed chamber. Lifting body research 

work progressed materially with the powered flight of 

the HGlO in November. 

The space power and electric propulsion program 

continued to make advances with both engine designs 

and performance concepts. An electric propulsion system was tested on the ATS-IV mission, even though 

the spacecraft failed to achieve its correct orbit. The 

35-KWe SNAP4 power conversion system was further 

tested, and the SNAP-27 generator reached the final 

stage of development. The technology was developed 

for an advanced solar cell array which would provide 

greater power while reducing hardware weight. 

In the joint NASA-AEC nuclear rocket program, 

NERVA engine work progressed with completion of 

flow tests on the first ground experimental engine 

(XECF) , hot tests on the 5,000-megawatt PHOEBUS-2A reactor, first power testing of the first PEWEE reactor, and positioning of the first “hot” ground 

experimental engine (XE) in the test stand for checkout. In addition, advances were made in component 

and stage technology. 

Manned Space Flight 

With the historic flight of APOLLO 8 to the Moon 

and back to Earth in the closing days of 1968, mankind entered a new era and the United States became 
CHAPTER 111 9 

a truly spacefaring nation. The 6-day lunar flight was 

completely successful, taking three APOLLO astronauts to within about 70 miles of the lunar surface 

during their 10 orbits. 

The epochal mission ended on December 27 with a 

precision splashdown in the Pacific Ocean, completing 

the journey begun from the Kennedy Space Center in 

Florida on December 21. The fight climaxed four 

APOLLO missions in a year of manned space flight 

progress, and demonstrated impressively the capability 

of U.S. crews and equipment to fly into space beyond 

the equilibrium point of Earth‘s gravitational pull. 

Meanwhile, preliminary steps were being made in the 

APOLLO Applications Program, which is intended 

to capitalize on the space flight capabilities this nation 

is developing in the APOLLO Program. 

Apollo Program--The pace of the APOLLO Program 

accelerated during 1968 as it moved into full operational status, moving closer to the planned lunar landing missions beginning in 1969. The program proceeded toward its objectives with four APOLLO 

flights-two unmanned tests in January and April 

and two manned missions in October and December. 

Following the APOLLO 5 and 6 unmanned tests of 

the spacecraft and launch vehicle, the APOLLO 7 

successfully tested the spacecraft in an Earth-orbital 

mission. Then APOLLO 8, the first manned launch 

with the SATURN V rocket, carried out man’s most 

far-reaching exploration as a preliminary to setting 

foot on lunar soil in 1969. 

APOLLO 5.-One of the key milestones in the APOLLO Program was achieved on January 22, with the 

successful flight of APOLLO 5. This unmanned mission was the first Earth-orbital flight of a Lunar 

Module, the vehicle designed to land two astronauts 

on the Moon. As a result of this test, every major piece 

of the APOLLO-SATURN space vehicle has now 

been successfully flight-tested and proven in space. 

The major objectives of the flight were to verify the 

operaiion of the descent and ascent propulsion systems, including restart and Lunar Module staging; 

evaluate Lunar Module structure; and evaluate launch 

performance. All these objectives were satisfactorily 

accomplished. 

The launch vehicle for this mission was a SATURN 

IB. It performed according to plan and placed the 

second stage and the Lunar Module into an orbit of 

120 by 88 nautical miles. 

Separation of the Lunar Module from the S-IVB 

stage was accomplished as planned, using the Lunar 

Module reaction control system. The planned mission 

sequence included two firings each of the Lunar Module descent and ascent propulsion systems. 

Overly conservative programming of the Lunar Module guidance computer caused early shutdown of the 

first descent propulsion system burn. The engine was 

cut off after 4 seconds of the planned 38-second duration. Data indicated that this premature shutdown resulted when the computer sensed that the thrust had 

not built up to the predesignated level. Indications are 

that there were no problems with the engine or with 

the computer itself. 

The premature cutoff of the burn resulted in flight 

controllers shifting to a previously planned alternate 

mission sequence. This provided for two firings of the 

descent engine, two firings of the ascent engine, and 

a separation of the two stages of the Lunar Module 

to simulate an aborted lunar landing, and was successfully carried out. 

As the first test flight of the complex and unique Lunar 

Module, incorporating new systems of propulsion as 

well as other characteristics that distinguish this vehicle (designed to operate only in space and on the lunar 

surface), the efficient performance of this module was 

a significant achievement. Both descent and ascent 

propulsion systems worked satisfactorily for this critical aspect of the lunar mission, wherein these engines must function properly in order to assure the 

return of the astronauts to the Command Module in 

lunar orbit, after the expedition to the Moon’s surface. 

APOLLO 6.-The second unmanned flight of the 

SATURN V was accomplished with this mission, 

which was launched on April 4. Additional and redundant tests which were first performed on the nearperfect APOLLO 4 mission were undertaken on this 

flight. 

Its primary objectives were to demonstrate the structure, thermal integrity, and compatibility of the launch 

vehicle and spacecraft; to confirm launch loads and 

dynamic characteristics ; to demonstrate stage separation ; to verify operation of the propulsion, guidance 

and control, and electrical systems; to evaluate per- 
10 NASA 

formance of the space vehicle emergency detection that the spacecraft successfully accomplished its 

system in a closed-loop configuration; and to demon- mission. 

strate mission support facilities and operations required 

for launch, mission conduct, and Command Module 

recovery. 

Anomalies on the APOLLO 6 mission were traced to 

three significant technical problems: 

The APOLLO 6 was launched from Kennedy Space 

Center on schedule on April 4. The first stage operated 

for the planned duration of 148 seconds. Separation 

of the booster and ignition of the second stage also took 

place as planned, and the second stage operated nearnormal for the first 264 seconds of a total programed 

time of 368 seconds. At the 264-second point, engines 

No. 2 and No. 3 shut down prematurely. However, the 

SATURN V vehicle not only maintained its stability, 

but the three remaining second-stage engines compensated by continuing to function until cutoff 426 seconds after ignition. The longer-than-planned burning 

time partially compensated for the loss of total thrust 

resulting from the premature shutdown of engines No. 

2 and No. 3. 

The second stage separated normally, followed by the 

third-stage ignition and operation for 170 seconds, 29 

seconds longer than programed, to offset the lower 

second-stage thrust. The third stage placed the 

APOLLO spacecraft into an Earth orbit with a perigee 

of 96 nautical miles (n.m.) and an apogee of 196 n.m. 

When attempts to restart the third-stage engine after 

two orbits proved unsuccessful, an alternate APOLLO 

mission plan was put into effect. The third stage was 

separated, and the spacecraft’s propulsion system responded successfully to ignition commands. It op 

erated for 7 minutes and 25 seconds, consuming most 

of its propellants to reach an apogee 12,000 n.m. above 

Earth. A second burn was not attempted. 

Although the spacecraft re-entered at a speed about 

4,000 feet-per-second below that planned, it nevertheless accomplished the intended test of the heat shield 

at lunar entry speed. It landed within 49 n.m. of the 

target point, and was brought aboard the recovery 

ship OKINAWA. 

It is important to note that APOLLO 6 was a safe 

mission from a crew safety standpoint, in spite of the 

abnormal engine performance conditions. 

In addition, although an alternate mission was selected 

because of the launch vehicle problems, data indicated 

( 1) The first technical problem involved the J-2 

engine carried on the second and on third stages of the 

SATURN V. The data analysis has tracked the source 

of the problem to the same cause in bcth stages-a 

leak, and then a rupture, in the propellant line; 

(2) The second technical problem was a “Pogo” effect, i.e., the amplitude of longitudinal oscillations, or 

v$brations, in the space vehicle which exceeded the design requirements for the spacecraft, during the latter 

part of the first stage burn; 

(3) The third technical problem was an anomalous 

condition concerning a sheet of metal that separated 

from the spacecraft-LM adapter. 

A course of action to correct these problems, and to 

demonstrate their correction, was quickly decided upon 

and successfully implemented. These actions included : 

(1 ) A fix to the 5-2 engine (which the SATURN IB 

also carries in its second stage) and a demonstration 

of the fix, prior to certifying the manned flight of 

APOLLO 7, using a SATURN IB launch vehicle; 

(2) a fix to the first-stage “Pogo” problem on the 

SATURN V, and (3) a fix to the SLA anomaly, prior 

to certification of a manned flight on the third SATURN V, in APOLLO 8. 

APOLLO 7.-The APOLLO 7 mission was one of 

the most successful manned space flights in the history 

of the U.S. space program. All primary mission objectives were completely accomplished. Every detailed 

test objective was accomplished, as well as three which 

were not originally planned. 

The SATURN launched a manned APOLLO spacecraft for the first time. 

This was also the first 1l.S. flight with a three-man 

crew in one spacecraft; the first flight in which the 

spacecraft used its own self-contained propulsion system for major maneuvers; the first flight using the 

advanced communications designed for deep space op 

erations; and the first exercise of the corresponding 

ground communications network. It was the first space 

test of the TV equipment, essential for the APOLLO 
CHAPTER 111 1.1 

Moon mission. Finally, a new on-board computer control system was used for the first time. 

the ground tests of the APOLLO 8 spacecraft, and review of the previous APOLLO flights, led to the determination that the SATURN V was thoroughly proven 

for manned flight and that the APOLLO Command 

and Service Module spacecraft was ready for flights 

into deep space. It was determined that taking the 

APOLLO 8 deep space flight would gain engineerThe APOLLO 7 space vehicle was launched from 

Launch Complex 34 at Cape Kennedy on October 11, 

within 3 minutes of the time and date established 10 

weeks before. All launch events occurred as planned. -- - 

The manual control test of the launch vehicle’s second stage (S-IVB) was completed as planned with the 

crew reporting excellent results. Separation of the 

occurred on schedule. Transposition of the CSM and 

simulated docking were accomplished, with the crew 

maneuvering the CSM to within 440-5 feet of the 

S-IVB. 

ing and operational information that would increase. 

the confidence for a manned lunar landing during 

1969. 

‘-IvB and the Command/Service (CSM) APOLLO 8.-As a followup to APOLLO 7, the 

APOLLO 8 mission demonstrated an even more flawless performance in man’s first flight to the Moon. All 

primary mission objectives were completely accomplished. Every detailed test objective was accomplished, 

On the second day, two burns of the service propulsion 

system (SPS) set up the rendezvous with the S-IVB, 

which was completed by braking the CSM to within 

approximately 70 feet of the S-IVB, which was then 

tumbling . 

On subsequent days, six additional burns of the SPS 

were performed, including the eighth and final burn, 

on the last revolution, to de-orbit the CSM. 

Following a nominal re-entry, the APOLLO 7 spacecraft splashed down in the Atlantic Ocean on October 22. Splashdown occurred about 8 miles north of the 

recovery carrier, the U.S.S. Essex. The crew was picked 

up by a recovery helicopter. 

Checkout of the spacecraft systems was a principal objective of the APOLLO 7 flight. Extensive operational 

checkouts of the environmental control, guidance and 

navigation, spacecraft electrical power, and service 

propulsion systems were accomplished to the extent 

possible in .Earth orbit. Crew performance, prime and 

backup spacecraft systems, and ground support facilities were evaluated throughout the mission. APOLLO 

7 accomplished 100% of the mission objectives. 

Engineering firsts included live television from space 

and drinking water produced as a byproduct of the 

fuel cells. 

The success of the mission paved the way for the decision to schedule APOLLO 8 as a lunar-orbit mission. 

This fateful determination was made only after a 

thorough assessment of the total risks involved and 

the total gains to be realized in this next step toward 

a manned lunar landing. Satisfactory results in all of 

as well as five which were not originally planned. The 

SATURN V space vehicle flew several systems and 

new configuration details for the first time, in addition 

to flying its first manned APOLLO Block I1 

spacecraft. 

For this first APOLLO flight to the lunar vicinity, the 

APOLLO mission operations team successfully coped 

with lunar launch opportunity and lunar launch window constraints in carrying out a perfect launch. 

APOLLO 8 provided man his first opportunity to 

personally view the far side of the Moon, to view the 

entire body from only 60 nautical miles away, to view 

the Earth from over 200,000 nautical miles away, and 

to enter Earth’s atmosphere through a restrictive lunar 

return corridor at lunar return velocity of 24,530 miles 

per hour. 

The APOLLO 8 space vehicle was launched from 

Launch Complex 39 at Kennedy Space Center at 7 : 5 1 

EST on December 21. Prelaunch operations and all 

launch events occurred as planned. The spacecraft and 

launch vehicle third stage were inserted into a circular 

parking orbit nearly 115 miles above Earth. 

After more than 2 hours and 50 minutes, the third 

stage engine was re-ignited for more than 5 minutes, 

increasing the spacecraft speed to 24,200 miles per hour 

to place the APOLLO on a translunar trajectory. The 

trajectory was one that would enable the spacecraft to 

swing around the Moon and return to Earth automatically if the lunar orbit insertion maneuver were 

not performed. Twenty minutes after the burn, the 

third stage was jettisoned in a course that would take 

it into solar orbit after passing beyond the Moon. 
12 NASA 

The first midcourse correction was made at 11 hours 

into the flight and was so accurate that two later 

scheduled correctional burns during translunar coast 

were cancelled as unnecessary. A fourth planned burn 

was performed about 8 hours before reaching the 

Moon. 

After more than 69 hours in flight, during which the 

space ship had passed from Earth’s gravity to lunar 

gravitational pull, the astronauts inserted the spacecraft into an elliptical lunar orbit with a propulsion system burn. A second burn established the orbit at about 

69 miles. 

The crewmen conducted many landmark sightings 

during the 20 hours the spacecraft was in lunar orbit. 

Extensive photography of the Moon was carried out 

with both still and moving picture cameras. Real-time 

TV pictures of the lunar surface and the Earth were 

transmitted at various times during the mission. The 

live transmission of voice and pictures by the astronauts, particularly during the lunar orbit phase, was 

a spectacular highlight. 

After 10 revolutions of the Moon, the transearth injection maneuver was performed with the spacecraft propulsion system so accurately that only one small midcourse correction was required. Two subsequent 

planned midcourse corrections were cancelled. Fifteen 

minutes before Earth entry, the Command Module and 

its crew separated from the Service Module. 

Traveling at 24,600 miles per hour, the spacecraft entered Earth‘s atmosphere over the Western Pacific at 

an altitude of 400,000 feet. Six days, two hours and 51 

minutes after liftoff the spacecraft splashed down, approximately 5,100 yards from the recovery ship, USS 

YORKTOWN. The crew was picked up by a recovery 

helicopter and was safe aboard the ship at 12 : 20 p.m. 

EST, December 27. 

Forthcoming Launches.-Five APOLLO flights are 

scheduled for 1969. APOLLO 9 will see the first 

manned flight of the complete lunar space vehicle, the 

SATURK V launch vehicle, the Command and Service Modules, and the Lunar Module. This Earthorbital flight is scheduled for the first quarter of 1969. 

Subsequent flights will continue the incremental testing, which is expected to lead to the lunar landing 

sometime in 1969. 

Hardware Development and Employment-SATURN 

IB.-Two SATURN IB’s (SA-204, SA-205) were 

launched during 1968, on APOLLO 5 and APOLLO 

7. Nine SATURN IB’s, including two for usein the 

APOLLO Applications Program, are still in test, 

manufacture, or in storage. 

503) were launched in 1968, on APOLLO 6 and 

APOLLO 8. Two SATURN V’s are at KSC, while 

10 are in manufacture, test, or checkout. 

Command and Service Module.-The Command and 

Service Module design was verified by the highly SUCcessful flight of APOLLO 7. 

Manufacturing of Command and Service Modules 

103 and 104 was completed. CSM-103 was delivered 

to Kennedy Space Center in August. Command and 

Service Modules 104 and 106 were delivered to KSC 

in October and November, respectively. The remaining 14 flight vehicles were in various stages of manufacture, test and checkout. 

Lunar Module.-During 1968 major milestones were 

accomplished in the Lunar Module (LM) program. 

As a result of the successful APOLLO 5 mission, NASA 

concluded that a second unmanned Lunar Module 

mission would not be required. 

Mandatory changes are being implemented for the 

remaining 11 Lunar Modules. The first manned flight 

of the LM is scheduled for APOLLO 9 in the first 

quarter of 1969. 

Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package.-Apollo 

Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP) efforts included testing the qualification model, fabricating the flight article, and testing it. Due to the 

time constraints during the first lunar expedition, its 

deployment has been scheduled for the second lunar 

landing. A simpler science package has been devised 

for the first landing. 

Facilities.--Construction was completed on a major 

new facility, the Lunar Sample Receiving Laboratory 

at the Manned Spacecraft Center, and the facility 

was activated during 1968. 

APOLLO Applications-The APOLLO Applications 

Program (AAP) was conceived to make optimum use 

of the manned space flight capability developed during GEMINI and APOLLO. The program takes adSATURN V.-TWO SATURN V’S (SA-502, SA- 
CHAPTER 111 13 

vantage of the space vehicles, facilities, and organizations as they are made available by the APOLLO 

Program. 

Because of budgetary restrictions, AAP initiated a 

“holding” action to bring into clear focus the entire 

-program. The concept of a flexible “Core Program” 

was developed and planning was under way around 

a “core” of a limited number of launches that can 

be expanded when funds becbme available. These include an Orbital Workshop mission, a resupply mission, a Lunar Module/APOLLO Telescope Mount 

(LM/ATM) mission, and a resupply for this mission. 

Long-duration Earth-orbital missions were planned for 

scientific, technological, medical, and human-factor 

purposes; and for solar astronomy studies. Experiments under consideration for AAP missions would 

study the useful application of space systems, meteorology, Earth resources, and communications. 

Progress was made during the year on the major AAP 

hardware contracted for, including the Orbital Workshop, the APOLLO Telescope Mount (ATM) , Multiple Docking Adapter, Airlock, and many of the 

experiments. 

Orbital Workshop Missions.-Development of the 

SATURN I Workshop Mission (AAP-l/AAP-2) was 

a major task during the year. This mission will use the 

empty hydrogen tank of the S-IVB stage (after its use 

as a launch-vehicle stage) as the nucleus of an embryonic space station. In orbit the Workshop consists 

of the modified stage plus two modules: an Airlock, 

and a Multiple Docking Adapter. 

The first Workshop Revisit Mission (AAP-3A) has 

been planned to use a single SATURN I’B launch of 

the modified three-man Command and Service Module, to rendezvous and dock with the SATURN I 

Workshop set up in the previous mission. 

Work also progressed in 1968 on the Solar Astronomy 

Mission (AAP-3lAAP-4). This mission will use the 

SATURN I Workshop as a base of operations for 

the manned APOLLO Telescope Mount ( ATM) solar 

observatory. 

The APOLLO Telescope Mount spacecraft is a derivative of the APOLLO Lunar Module. The descent 

stage is replaced by a structural rack which carries the 

solar astronomy instrument and other systems. 

Advanced Manned Missions-Intensive study continued during 1968 in major areas of Advanced 

Manned Missions, leading to such ultimate goals as 

manned permanent space stations, lunar bases, and 

low-cost space transportation systems. 

Space Stations.-The space station studies point to 

a multi-purpose, general-usage laboratory significantly 

more advanced than the SATURN I Workshop of 

the APOLLO Applications Program. The space station-laboratory would be used for a variety of disciplines including astronomy, Earth sciences and applications, industrial processes, physics, life sciences, and 

advanced technology. 

Basic concepts have included a space station designed 

for two or more years of operation, for a crew of nine 

persons. 

Low-Cost Transportation.-A low-cost transportation 

system development was studied in parallel with the 

the space station, emphasizing a more operationally 

efficient and cost-effective manned round-trip Earthorbital transportation system. Logistics systems for 

personnel rotation, expendables resupply, and experiments and experiment module delivery-which rep 

resent a major share of the manned Earth-orbiting 

space station program costs-were considered. 

Lunar Exploration.-The manned lunar exploration 

project studied in 1968, covering the effort following 

the APOLLO manned lunar landings, parallels the 

APOLLO Applications and Space Station Programs. 

The studies envisioned programs early in the 1970’s 

to make maximum utilization of APOLLO hardware, 

as with APOLLO Applications. Improved APOLLO 

systems and the addition of new systems were considered, to increase stay-times on the surface, improve 

astronaut mobility, and increase the range of traverses. 

The accomplishment of 14-day missions and the utilization of highly mobile flying units and rovers with 

ranges up to 6.2 miles was considered feasible in the 

first half of the 1970’s. Fourteen-day orbital survey mksions were studied, considering techniques of metric 

photography, radar, altimetry and tracking, high-resolution photography and spectroscopy. As with the 

APOLLO Program, return of lunar samples to Earth 

was seen as an essential part of lunar surface missions. 

Other APOLLO follow-on surface science would be 
14 NASA 

conducted with APOLLO ALSEP experimental equipment, later augmented by additional automated stations. 

Lunar and Planetary Programs 

SURVEYOR-On January 9 the last of the lunar 

soft-landers, SURVEYOR VII, landed just north of 

the crater Tycho on a rugged, rock-strewn ejecta 

blanket. This region of the Moon’s surface (probably 

not suitable for manned landings) was chosen because 

it is in the lunar highlands far from the mare basins 

of the equatorial belt previously scouted for potential 

APOLLO landing sites. The area is believed to be 

covered with debris from deep beneath the surface 

thrown out when this crater was formed. 

SURVEYOR VI1 transmitted over 20,000 pictures, 

performed three chemical analyses of each of three 

different samples, manipulated and tested the lunar 

soil, and provided other data. Detecting tiny one-watt 

laser beams projected from Earth, the spacecraft demonstrated that lasers could revolutionize communications in space, could measure considerable distances 

with great accuracy, and might have additional uses. 

MARINER-Two spacecraft of the MARINER class 

are scheduled to fly by Mars next year to investigate the 

Martian atmosphere and surface characteristics, and 

to increase scientists’ overall knowledge of the planet. 

One, launched in February, will pass the equatorial 

region in July; the other, launched in March, will pass 

a more southerly region in August so that it will be able 

to study the south polar cap and the surrounding 

region. 

Tests of the flight spacecraft have proceeded as 

planned without major problems arising, and mission 

analysis and design studies have shown that they can 

take up to 166 “far-encounter” photographs. Covering almost all of the Martian surface, these pictures 

would be better than the best ever taken from Earth. 

The studies have also helped the principal investigators for this mission plan the most efficient use of their 

scientific instruments at the time the MARINERS are 

close to the planet, and assisted them in determining 

when this would be. 

Following these two MARINER fly-by missions to 

Mars (as well as the MARINER Mars fly-by of 1964), 

two other MARINER spacecraft are scheduled to 

orbit the planet in 1971 for at least 90 days. They 

will measure the composition, density, pressure, and 

temperature of the Martian atmosphere, and transmit 

data on the composition of the planet’s surface, its 

temperature, and topography. About 70 percent of the 

surface of Mars will be covered in some way by the 

various experiments aboard the spacecraft. These will 

include television, an infrared radiometer, an infrared 

interferometer spectrometer, an ultraviolet spectrometer, and a cosmic-ray telescope, in addition to experiments in dual-frequency and S-band occulation, and 

celestial mechanics. 

Design of the spacecraft system and its subsystems was 

progressing from the conceptual to the detailed phase, 

and the two Mars orbiters may be launched by two 

ATLAS-CENTAUR vehicles during a 20-day period 

in May 197 1 to arrive at the planet in November. 

Also, two missions to orbit and land on Mars are 

planned for 1973 to provide further data on the 

planet’s atmosphere and surface, and to detect extraterrestrial life. 

Preliminary design studies of the spacecraft for these 

flights were completed, and scientists have proposed 

various experiments for them. 

Space Science and Applications 

Orbiting Observatories-NASA’s fifth ORBITING 

weighing 1,347 pounds, was launched on March 4 

into a highly elliptical orbit reaching halfway to the 

Moon. Its instruments measure the Van Allen radiation belt, the magnetopause, and beyond these regions 

to an altitude of 92,000 miles. Among the 24 experiments on board, designed to provide a coordinated 

survey of phenomena in space, are those to investigate 

solar flares and X-rays, primary cosmic rays, and 

Earth‘s upper atmosphere. 

Also, the second ORBITING ASTRONOMICAL 

OBSERVATORY (OAO-A2), weighing 4,000 

pounds and carrying over 900 pounds of instruments, 

was launched December 7. It resembled the OAO-1- 

successfully orbited in April 1966-which failed to 

return scientific data. The two experiments aboard 

OAO A-2 map the celestial sphere in the ultraviolet, 

determine the energy distributions of the stars in the 

GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY (OGO-V) , 
CHAPTER 111 0 15 

ultraviolet range, and determine the emission line 

intensities of diffuse nebulae in the same spectral band. 

Explorer and International Satellites-In addition, 

five EXPLORER satellites and two international satellites were orbited. 

NASA launched, in May, the international satellite 

IRIS or ESRO-11, designed and built by the European 

Space Research Organization. The spacecraft carried 

experiments in cosmic rays and solar X-rays from 

Great Britain, the Netherlands, and France. The 

Agency also launched, in October, the second international satellite ISIS-11, a cooperative project of 

Canada and the United States designed to further 

knowledge of ionospheric physics. The spacecraft continues the studies begun by the two Canadian topside 

sounders ALOUETTE I and I1 in 1962. 

EXPLORER XXXVII, built by the Naval Research 

Laboratory to continue its solar studies, was orbited 

by NASA in March. To continue geodetic studies of 

the surface of the Earth, EXPLORER XXXVI 

(GEOS-11) was launched in January. A third 

EXPLORER, INJUN V (EXPLORER XL), was 

designed by the State University of Iowa to continue 

its studies of Earth's radiation belt, its magnetic field, 

and energetic particles. EXPLORER XL and an air 

density satellite, EXPLORER XXXIX, were placed 

into a near polar orbit by one SCOUT launch vehicle 

in August. EXPLORER XXXIX uses radio tracking 

to study air density in the atmosphere. 

The orbiting of EXPLORER XXXVIII in July 

marked a substantial advance in developing instruments for radio astronomy in space. The spacecraft 

featured a new type of antenna system built like a 

crossed-)(, which allowed each arm to extend to 750 

feet, or an overall length of 1,500 feet. When each arm 

was played out to 455 feet (for a total of 910 feet) in 

July, extensive radio observations were made. In September, with its antennas extended to a total of 1,200 

feet, the spacecraft met the objectives of its mission 

by measuring the direction and intensity of radio 

signals from cosmic sources in the planned frequency 

range. The antennas were then extended to their full 

length in October. 

PIONEER-In their widely separated orbits about 

the Sun PIONEERS VI, VII, and VI11 continued 

to investigate the interplanetary medium and solar 

activity and their influence on Earth's environment. 

Data transmitted by these spacecraft (launched in 

1965, 1966, and 1967 and by PIONEER IX, launched 

November 8) formed the basis for daily reports to the 

Environmental Science Services Administration for 

studies and predictions of solar weather. The activity 

of the Sun affects not only long-range radio communications but the weather on Earth. 

Sounding Rockets and BallooneDuring the year 

almost 100 rockets were launched at altitudes between 

25 and 125 miles in studies of astronomy and space 

physics. The launchings were in the United States and 

in Canada, Norway, Brazil, and India. 

Also, about 50 high-altitude balloons, flying above 

95% of Earth's atmosphere, were able to carry heavier 

scientific instruments than the rockets (or satellites) 

for more comprehensive investigations of various 

phenomena in space. 

BIOSATELLITES-Scientists have completed their 

analyses of the results of the biological experiments recovered from the two-day flight of BIOSATELLITE 

I1 in September 1967. Additional ground control 

studies of the effects of vibration and acceleration on 

life forms of the same species as those orbited in this 

satellite confirmed that weightlessness and weightlessness combined with an onboard radiation source were 

primarily responsible for the changes observed in most 

of the organisms tested on the BIOSATELLITE. 

BIOSATELLITES D and F-to be put in 30-day orbits in 1969 and 1970-will carry highly instrumented 

pigtailed monkeys to investigate the effects of weightlessness on the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, and the general metabolism, and on performance and behavior. The flight spacecraft for these 

missions has undergone qualification tests and fully 

instrumented monkeys were tested for their month in 

space. Experiments were being developed and tested 

for the 21-day BIOSATELLITES C and E, which will 

involve studies of rats, plants, and human cells. 

APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITES-The cameras aboard APPLICATIONS 

TECHNOLOGY SATELLITES I and I11 (ATS-I 

and -111) supply unique meteorological cloud-cover 

pictures for research and operational use. Among the 

backup services which they provided to the Communications Satellite Corporation in 1968 were television 
16 NASA 

coverage of the Eucharistic Congress in Bogota, Columbia, the Olympic games, the World Series, and the 

launches of Project APOLLO. 

ATS-I, launched in December 1966 over the Pacific, 

and ATS-111, in November 1967 over the Atlantic, 

are in orbits 22,300 miles above the Earth. 

The launch vehicle for ATS-IV, launched in August of this year, failed to operate correctly. This spacecraft, still attached to the vehicle’s second stage, reentered Earth‘s atmosphere in October. 

Other APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITES to be orbited are ATS-E in 1969, ATS-F in 

1972, and ATS-G in 1973. 

Communications Satellites-ECHO I, the passive reflector balloon seen by millions since it was orbited 

on August 12, 1960, re-entered the atmosphere off the 

coast of Chile this May and burned up. 

Although its design life was only 18 months, the first 

commercial communications satellite-EARLY BIRD 

or INTELSAT-I, launched by NASA for ComSat in 

April 1965-was still operating. Three in the INTELSAT-I1 series, orbited during 1967, continued in commercial service, extending satellite coverage to over 

two-thirds d the world. Larger and more powerful 

than INTELSAT-I, they are designed to operate for 

three years. INTELSAT-I1 transmits telephone and 

telegraph messages, data facsimile, black and white or 

color TV, and supports Project APOLLO. 

In September and December NASA launched the first 

two of five INTELSAT-I11 satellites. The spacecraft 

in the September launch failed to achieve the planned 

onbit when its launch vehicle failed. The INTELSATI11 satellites are larger, with greater capacity than the 

INTELSAT-11, and are designed to operate for five 

years. 

ComSat has contracted for INTELSAT-IV satellites-an advanced version of INTELSAT-111. The 

first of these four INTELSAT-IV spacecraft is scheduled for a late 1970 launching. 

INTELSAT-IV will be a larger, more sophisticated 

satellite than the third INTELSAT with 5,000 to 

6,000 two-way voice circuits and greater operational 

flexibility than any of the INTELSATs launched to 

date. It will operate for seven years. NASA will provide ComSat with launch services for INTELSAT-IV 

similar to those provided for INTELSAT-I, -11, and 

-111. This 2,452-pound spacecraft (INTELSAT-I1 

weighed 357 pounds, INTELSAT-I11 640 pounds) 

will have to be launched by either a larger ATLASCENTAUR or a TITAN-AGENA. 

Also, in response to requests from the FCC and ComSat, NASA provided technical advice on stabilization 

systems for INTELSAT-IV and reviewed and commented on the specifications for this satellite. 

Navigation-Traffic Control Satellite*NASA used 

its Omega Position Location Experiment, OPLEflown on ATS-111 (and operating along with the 

Navy’s Omega position location system) -to come 

within two to five miles of locating an airplane in 

flight; within less than a mile of pinpointing a moving 

car; and within one to five miles of locating a ship. 

OPLE, 22,300 miles above Earth, also tracked a balloon used for meteorological research during its 200- 

mile, 10-hour flight. 

Meteorological Satellites-NIMBUS I1 (launched in 

May 1966) was still responding to commands and its 

TV cameras continued to transmit some pictures. 

NIMBUS B (NIMBUS 111) was planned to test instruments measuring the atmosphere’s vertical temperature profile. Its launching was unsuccessful when 

its launch vehicle failed. NIMBUS B-2 is scheduled 

to repeat this mission in the spring of 1969. Other 

launches include NIMBUS-D in 1970, NIMBUS-E 

in 1972, and NIMBUS-F in 1973. 

TIROS-M, representing the next generation of operational weather satellites, will replace the Improved 

TIROS Operational Satellites developed and 

launched by NASA for the Environmental Science 

Services Administration (ESSA) . To be launched in 

the second quarter of 1969, it will determine if one 

spacecraft with redundant systems can provide both 

global recorded and local direct-readout cloud-cover 

data day and night. Two spacecraft in the present 

TIROS operational Satellite (TOS) series are needed 

for this daytime capability only. 

NASA orbited two of these TOS spacecraft for ESSA 

in 1968. Both of them (ESSA 7 and 8) supplied global 

recorded data. ESSA 8 was launched because random 

failures in a redundant TV camera and a tape recorder within two weeks of launch left ESSA 7 without spare systems. ESSA 6 (launched in November 
CHAPTER 111 17 

1967) continued to provide daytime, direct local-readout cloud-cover data. Also, ESSA-11, -111, and -V still 

operated and were providing limited picture coverage. (ESSA-I1 and -111 were launched in 1966; 

ESSA-V in 1967.) 

Meteorological Sounding RocketsIn addition, 

NASA launched 47 research sounding rockets of 

the NIKE-CAJUN class to obtain data at altitudes 

between 20 and 60 miles and to develop experiments 

for providing new kinds of meteorological data. To 

supply meteorologicd data and develop reliable, less 

expensive techniques in making the routine measurements needed for aerospace operations and research, 

110 HASP or ARCASONDE rockets were launched. 

Earth Resources Survey Program-In cooperation 

with the Departments of Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, and Navy, NASA continued to investigate the 

possible use of space-acquired data in surveying the 

world's natural resources. In these studies two types 

of aircraft flew special cameras, infrared imagers, 

microwave radiometers, radar, and other remote sensors over a network of ground test sites providing geoscientists with Earth resources information. One of 

these supplied data from flights up to 15,000 feet; another from fights up to 30,000 feet. Seventeen flight 

missions were conducted over 63 test sites during 1968. 

NASA also will use an airplane loaned to it by the 

Air Force (the Air Weather Service) to test some of 

its remote sensors at altitudes above 40,000 feet. 

The potential of surveying Earth resources by means 

of satellites is under coordinated study. It is anticipated 

that increasing attention will be given to this technology for this purpose. 

Other Launch ExperienceDuring 1968 SCOUT 

orbited three EXPLORER satellites and two ESRO 

international spacecraft, carried out the Re-entry F 

and RAM C-B experiments, and launched a spacecraft for the Defense Department. 

THOR-DELTA launched two spacecraft of the EXPLORER class, PIONEER IX, two meteorological 

satellites for the Environmental Science Services Administration, and the HEOS I scientific satellite for 

the European Space Research Organization (ESRO) . 

AGENA orbited two spacecraft. OGO-V was launched 

by an ATLAS/AGENA using the first Improved ATLAS, SLV-3A. (This marked the completion of the 

phase-out of the ATLAS-AGENA with the transfer 

of the launch facilities to the Air Force.) 

THORAD-AGENA experienced its first failure on a 

NASA mission when one carrying the third NIMBUS 

spacecraft veered off course and was destroyed by the 

range safety officer. 

ATLAS-CENTAUR was used to launch SURVEYOR VII, the last of NASA's spacecraft to soft 

land on the Moon, and an ORBITING ASTROever, this vehicle failed in launching the APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE-D when the 

CENTAUR stage failed in its second burn restart, to 

prevent the spacecraft from achieving its planned 

orbit. 

NOMICAL OBSERVATORY (OAO A-2). HOWAdvanced Research and Technology 

BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH 

Fluid DynamicsIn sonic boom research, progress 

was made in understanding propagation of the PESSUE 

uniform atmosphere. Analytical techniques and a 

were developed, and simple, inexpensive prediction 

methods were being devised for testing against the 

more sophisticated computer programs. Theoretical 

studies of aircraft configurations with some lift dktributed toward the nose indicated that sonic boom 

could be reduced significantly without apparent penalty in cruise performance; the theoretical concepts 

were being evaluated in the wind tunnel. 

Geodetic Sate11ite4EoS-11 ( wave from an aircraft maneuvering through a nonbeing provided by Of its instnunents--Doppler and number of programs for predicting the boom 

was launched On January Data were 

optical beacons, laser detector, and range-range rate 

transponders. In addition, data were still being obtainod from the large passive balloon satellite. 

PAGEOS-I, orbited in June 1966. 

All of this information was being applied to the National Geodetic Satellite Program to set up a unified 

world geodetic reference system and define precisely 

Earth's gravitational field. 
18 NASA 

Research was started on the basic fluid dynamic mechanisms of noise generation in turbulent supersonic exhaust jets, and a preliminary theory for predicting noise 

was being devised. In studying the basic mechanisms 

of noise reduction it was found that a shroud-induced 

secondary-flow mixes with the supersonic exhaust so as 

to convert the flow to subsonic, thus reducing noise 

without a thrust penalty. The fluid dynamic details of 

the flow were being studied. 

The gas dynamic laser concept offers the possibility of 

obtaining high-power system output (megawatts rather 

than the kilowatts of more conventional lasers). Consequently, a new research program was established to 

investigate a number of such techniques, and a molecular laser concept and an electric arc expansion laser 

were proven experimentally. 

Applied Mathematic.Mathematica1 techdques developed for precise analysis of the motions of the Lunar 

Orbiters were used in the discovery of Mascons, very 

dense mass concentrations which apparently exist 

some 50 miles below the lunar surface. The location of 

the Mascons was indicated by variations from the 

expected circular orbits of the spacecraft. The 

gravity anomalies were plotted on a map of the Moon's 

surface and proved by statistical correlation analysis to 

correspond to locations of several of the large circular 

lunar seas. The latter may have been produced by collision with iron asteroids, now deeply buried beneath the 

surface, which would account for the densely concentrated subsurface masses. The same mathematical techniques should be applicable to the analysis of data 

collected by future planetary orbiters. 

Electrophysics-The discovery at the Electronics Research Center that the electrical output of certain semiconductors, such as gallium antimonide, was very 

sensitive to applied pressure led to the development of 

a minute (3/32-inch diameter by 1 /32-inch. height) 

transducer which transforms pressure into an electrical 

signal. Mounted in a cardiac catheter which was inserted into the left ventricle of the heart of an anesthetized dog, the transducer provided details of the 

variation of blood pressure during the heart pumping 

cycle. Additional research was under way to develop 

a completely self-contained transducer which will not 

require any external power supply. Such sensitive 

transducers can be used to measure small pressure variations in spacecraft as well as for medical diagnosis. 

Materials-A cobalt-tungsten-iron alloy was developed 

which maintains its magnetic properties and strength 

at temperatures in the 1200" to 1400" range. It 

will make possible lighter and more compact power 

generation equipment for spacecraft as well as more 

efficient electric generators and motors for use on 

Earth. 

Other materials work includes the development of a 

glass composition twice as stiff as most current industrial fiberglass composites. This development may provide a basis for a new family of glass fibers, the 

development of the Pyrrone polymers into resins for 

fiberglass laminates having better mechanical properties than those currently used, and also development of 

the Pyrrone polymers as foam materials having densities in the 30-40 lb. per-cubic-foot-range, high compressive strengths, and potential applications in aircraft 

structures and in spacecraft ablative nose cones. 

Aeronautics 

Aircraft Aerodynamics-Progress was made on methods of reducing the sonic boom generated by supersonic configurations and the shock-induced boundarylayer separation on wings at transonic speeds. 

Aircraft Structures-Preliminary analytical and experimental studies at Langley Research Center indicated that weight reductions of 25-50 percent may be 

achieved with aluminum or titanium structures reinforced by bonding high-strength boron or carbon 

filaments at selected locations. A program was initiated 

to develop and evaluate this information and to provide engineering data needed for the design phase. 

Air-Breathing Propulsion-Advanced inlet and exhaust nozzles previously tested in the design stage on 

small models in the wind tunnel were installed on one 

of two nacelles added to an F-106 aircraft and were 

flown at or near the speed of sound. The other nacelle, to be subjected to the same flight conditions, will 

be used as a standard reference. Purpose of the tests 

is to provide information on the interactions between 

the propulsion system and the air frame. 

Aircraft Operating Problems-In research on ways 

of modifying warm fog to improve visibility, theoretical 

studies and laboratory tests indicated that seeding with 

salt crystals of very small and carefully controlled size, 

was effective. In field tests, natural dense fogs were 
CHAPTER 111 19 

seeded with salt from an agricultural spray airplane 

flying just above the fog. Swaths over 200 yards wide 

were cut into a 300-foot-deep dense fog. Clearing 

occurred a few minutes after seeding and lasted for up 

to 20 minutes. 

Research efforts continued on methods of improving 

aircraft directional control and braking on wet and 

slush-covered runways. Various runway surface textures and materials as well as tire tread patterns were 

investigated in the laboratory. After laboratory tests 

indicated that transverse grooves cut into the runway 

surface can be effective, the NASA Wallops Station 

runway was resurfaced and grooved, and various aircraft were used as test vehicles. No degradation in aircraft braking and controllability occurred on landing 

or rollout on the grooved surface, even when wet or 

flooded. 

Aircraft Flight Dynamics-Flight tests with a specially-equipped variable-stability jet transport aircraft 

showed that a two-segment steep landing approach for 

noise-abatement could be flown with the same precision as a conventional straight-in approach without a 

significant increase in pilot workload. The improved 

systems incorporated in the test aircraft were evaluated 

by NASA, FAA, and airline pilots. The research indicated that a two-segment profile guidance system, a 

modified flight director, and an autothrottle, were the 

primary requirements for accomplishing the noise 

abatement approaches. Secondary requirements, which 

might be needed for some current jet transports having 

characteristics less desirable than those of the test aircraft, included a rate command control system, advanced cockpit displays, and direct lift control. 

Aircraft Noise Alleviation-Research on ways of 

modifying turbofan nacelles to minimize engine fancompressor noise indicated that it is technically feasible 

to reduce noise significantly near the approach path 

of jet aircraft. 

The program to develop a “quiet engine” for airplanes moved forward with the issuance of a request 

for proposals by NASA. The goal of the “quiet engine” program is to produce a turbofan demonstrator 

engine capable of operating at a noise level at least 

15 to 20 decibels below present engines powering fourengine commercial jet aircraft. 

Supersonic Transport-In the National Supersonic 

Transport Program, NASA supported the intensive 

configuration design-improvement program, particularly in studies related to the SCAT 15F design; in 

addition, the NASA wind tunnels at Ames and Langley were used extensively in a revised test p’~gram 

agreed upon between the FAA and the SST contractor. 

V/STOL Aircraft-The V/STOL Transition Research Tunnel at the Langley Research Center is approximately 50% complete anad is expected to be in 

operation by the latter part of 1969. The test section 

is designed to provide more accurate aerodynamic data 

on advanced V/STOL aircraft models by avoiding or 

reducing the tunnel-wall effects encountered by such 

models in conventional wind tunnels. 

The Ames Research Center began tests of the XV-5B 

fan-in-wing airplane. These tests, together with windtunnel-model tests of other lift-fan VTOL configurations will provide data required by designers of aircraft embodying this concept, which is considered one 

of the more promising for high-performance civil and 

military transport applications. 

Another VTOL concept-also considered potentially 

useful for transport applications-is the tilt wing, on 

which the NASA has conducted very extensive research 

since 1949. To continue this research, the XC-142, 

the largest non-helicopter VTOL aircraft built in this 

country, was assigned to the Langley Research Center for further evaluation of the tilt-wing concept 

specifically, and to investigate generally the landing 

operation of V/STOL transports, particularly in poor 

visibility. 

NASA-USAF XB-70 Flight Research ProgramThe XB-70 completed 13 flights in 1968 under 

NASA funding and management responsibility. The 

flights sought data on dynamic loads; st&fity, control, and handling qualities; engine-inlet matching; 

ground-based and airborne simulator validation; and 

general performance of large supersonic aircraft. 

In March the airplane was removed from flight status 

for several crew-escape system changes and the installation of research-related equipment for a modal control (elastic mode control) system designed to reduce 

the structural dynamic gust response of flexible airplanes flying in rough air, improve the “ride” qualities, 
20 NASA 

and extend the fatigue life of the aircraft. The system 

operated successfully when flight tests were resumed 

in June. The remainder of the flights in 1968 were devoted principally to acquiring data for the dynamic 

loads flight-test program. 

A new NASA-DOD Memorandum of Understanding 

executed in May calls for the continued use of the 

XB-70 aircraft until the currently planned program 

is completed or until available funds are depleted (approximately March 30,1969). 

X-15 Research Aircraf-In January, the NASAUSAF Board which investigated the X-15-3 accident 

of November 15, 1967, reported that, in its judgment, 

the accident was precipitated during the ballistic portion of the flight when the pilot allowed the airplane 

to deviate in heading and then flew the airplane to 

such an extreme attitude with respect to the flight 

path that there was a complete loss of control during 

the re-entry portion of the flight. The Board concluded 

that the pilot’s improper controlling of the aircraft was 

the result of some combination of display misinterpretation, distraction, and possibly vertigo. 

Although all of the most important NASA experiments 

in the X-15 flight program have been completed, it 

was decided to continue the program to obtain data 

required by the Air Force for three high-priority 

experiments. 

A total of 13 flights were made by 8 different pilots 

above 50 miles during the year, primarily for the Air 

Force experiments. X-15 aircraft completed a total of 

199 flights by the end of 1968, including 154 at Mach 

4 or greater, 109 at Mach 5 or above, and 4 at Mach 

numbers greater than 6. No speed or altitude maximums beyond those obtained earlier (4,520 miles per 

hour and 354,200 feet) were reached in 1968. 

Chemical P ropu Is io n 

Liquid Propulsion Systems-Propulsion research effort 

concentrated on demonstrating and testing improved 

concepts for spacecraft propulsion. A modified RGlO 

engine using fluorine and hydrogen was tested under 

simulated altitude conditions; all test objectives were 

met, and all engine components performed satisfactorily. A single engine accumulated over 1,000 seconds 

of firing time at various operating conditions, including one 300-second steady-state test at 15,800-1b.- 

thrust. The feasibility of applying fluorine-hydrogen to 

flight propulsion systems has been thoroughly demonstrated and this technology is now ready for applications to high energy missions to the far planets or to 

the Sun. 

Test work continued bn advanced high-performance 

engine technology for future launch vehicles. A 100- 

inch-diameter plug-nozzle thrust chamber, which 

burns liquid oxygen and hydrogen, was tested at sea 

level, and the annular combusion chamber will be 

tested at simulated high-altitude conditions to determine the flight performance characteristics of this 

design. A unique feature of the design-the aerodynamic plug centerbody formed by feeding exhaust gas 

into the base of the engine-makes it possible to design 

a much shorter upper stage; it is being considered in 

studies of advanced launch vehicles. 

The OF,-diborane propellant combination may be 

useful for small near-planet probes and soft-landing 

spacecraft because of its storability in space and highdensity impulse. Thrust chamber tests at an altitude 

test facility with FLOX-diborane determined the 

vacuum performance of this space-storable propellant 

combination in a realistic rocket chamber. Specific impulse values of 400 seconds were measured at combustion chamber pressures of 100 p.s.i.a. (FLOX was used 

to simulate the rather more expensive oxygendifluoride (OF,) oxidizer.) 

Work on less expensive methods of fabricating rocket 

equipment progressed. Liquid rocket components were 

fabricated by electrodeposition of nickel, thus eliminating the requirement for welding or machining intricate 

shapes and improving reliability. In research on destructive combustion-driven oscillations, progress was 

made in stabilizing small and medium-sized rocket engine combustion chambers with combinations of baffles and acoustic absorption devices. However, in studying occasional failures to achieve stability, it was found 

that the tuned absorbers greatly affect the acoustic 

resonances of the chamber to which they are attached, 

sometimes detuning the assembly so that the absorber 

is not effective. Therefore, alternative designs with 

improved acoustic qualities are being investigated. 

Solid Motor Progran-For the large solid motor 

project, technology improvements in propellant formulation, case materials, nozzle ablatives, and insulation 
CHAPTER 111 21 

were being investigated, to reduce the cost of components without sacrificing reliability. cable to many other nonconductive materials; the 

demonstration of the feasibility of several types of - 

During the last 260-inch motor test, pieces of propellant were ejected through the nozzle shortly before 

the end of burning. The ejection was caused by a lack 

of fusion between propellant batches and the motor 

wall during the 19 days required to pour the 300 

propellant batches into the motor. In a study of the 

problem, it was found that the propellant does not 

distribute itself as uniformly as had been predicted. 

Some propellant batches proved to be several days old 

before they reached the motor case wall, at which time 

they will not bond properly. Less-viscous propellants 

and improved processes for pouring the propellant into 

the motor case were being investigated. 

A motor-case steel which costs only one-third as much 

as the alloy used in previous chambers was successfully tested in a subscale three-foot-diameter model. 

It proved to be much less vulnerable to flaws formed 

during the welding process, surviving intentionally 

produced flaws several inches long and 80% of the 

way through the wall thickness without affecting structural performance. 

Nozzles made with new ablative materials and processes were successfully test-fired on several occasions. 

Although the nozzles tested had an 8-inch throat diameter, it is estimated that the new materials could 

reduce the finished nozzle ablative cost by from 30 to 

80%. Such a reduction would be significant, since 

ablative liners cost about a million dollars in a typical 

full-size 260-inch solid motor. The most successful 

materials will be tested on larger-size nozzles as soon as 

practicable. 

Other research in this area was concerned with the 

insulation system used in motors, which is applied 

‘‘wallpaper’’ fashion in multiple thicknesses of 0.1 inch, 

even where 3 to 5 inches of material is required. In an 

effort to replace this costly and time-consuming 

method, a contractor was hired to investigate the 

application of slurry materials which can be “poured” 

into place and smoothed with a trowel. Such a process, where applicable, could reduce costs (currently $10 

per pound) by 90%. 

Solid Propulsion Technology-Activities in this area 

included the finding that the microwave non-destructive testing technique, successfully used in detecting 

defects in large samples of solid propellant, is applistart-stop-restart solid-propellant motors ; the development of an analytical model to predict the entire ignition transient for a particular class of motors and the 

demonstration of its general validity; and further 

evaluation of a lithium/fluorine/hydn>gen tripropellant hybrid system. The effect of introducing hydrogen 

as a third propellant is to reduce the combustion temperature and increase the specific impulse. This propellant combination has a theoretical specific impulse 

of over 500 seconds among the highest obtainable from 

chemical reaction propulsion systems. 

Biotechnology and Human Research 

Vestibular Research-Sixteen anti-motion sickness 

drugs were tested singly and in combination in 500 

tests on 50 volunteer subjects. A combination of amphetamine and scopolamine was found to be far more 

effective than the popular anti-motion sickness drugs 

and should have widespread application in commercial and private transportation. 

Stress Endocrinology-A new technique for the maintenance of body fluid and electrolyte balance was 

developed in connection with studies of the stresses of 

aerospace flight and their effects on fluid and electrolyte balance. Changes in the amount and composition 

of urine, which are clues to fluid and salt loss through 

the kidney, are fed into a computer which calculates 

the corrective amounts of fluid and electrolyte needed. 

This information is then used to control replacement 

into the circulation through a motor-driven syringe. 

Since maintenance of proper fluid and electrolyte balance in burn victims is necessary to prevent shock, this 

method of automating its control should prove useful 

in their treatment. 

Bioinstrumentation-Bioinstmments developed by 

NASA centers have found widespread applications in 

Government agencies and elsewhere. The Federal 

Aviation Agency used spray-on electrode kits, recorders, 

and data-analysis equipment from Flight Research 

Center for monitoring the effects of job stresses on air 

traffic controllers. A private ambulance company employs the spray-on electrodes and related equipment to 

transmit electrocardiograms from ambulance to hospital where they are analyzed before the patient &VW. 

In addition, information on the spray-on electrode 
22 NASA 

technique was furnished to more than 200 domestic 

and foreign hospitals and laboratories. 

The Electronics Research Center tested a newly 

developed oculometer-an instrument which measures 

eye pupil size, blink rate, and direction of gaze without 

attachment to the subject. Its accuracy in measuring 

eye pointing direction is better than 0.5 degrees. The 

device should be useful in determining optimum layouts for cockpit instruments, in measuring mental 

alertness, in studying how children learn to read, and 

in gun and camera aiming systems, and mm/computer 

communications, as well as in other areas. 

Aircraft Noise and Sonic Boom-NASA is conducting 

laboratory studies and field surveys to obtain a better 

understanding of noise parameters as they affect people 

psychologically and physiologically. In 1967, acoustical 

and sociometric surveys of airport noise carried out in 

Chicago, Dallas, Denver, and Los Angeles involved interviews with over 3,500 people while related noise 

measurements were being taken. Three additional 

cities will be surveyed. The potential noise characteristics of future V/STOL aircraft were being evalulated by means of noise synthesis and simulation 

techniques developed for predicting the noise signatures of aircraft while still in the design stage. 

The synthesized noise is to be tested on subjects, and 

its effects compared to those of existing aircraft. In a 

study of reactions to sonic bqom, subjects were exposed 

to simulated outdoor sonic booms of different waveforms and intensity and judged their relative loudness and annoyance by using a paired comparison 

technique. It was found that judgments were unaffected by changes in sonic-boom duration and that 

slower boom rise-times resulted in decreases in subjective loudness and thus in annoyance. 

Life Support Systems-In a space cabin simulator life 

support system test completed in April, four men lived 

and worked for 60 days in a closed chamber. During 

5 1 days of the test their oxygen requirements were supplied from oxygen reclaimed from their expired carbon 

dioxide. When the oxygen recovery system malfunctioned, the crew restored it to full operation, and the 

run was completed as planned. During the period of 

“down time” oxygen was furnished from a stored sup 

ply. For 57% days two men drank only water regenerated from urine and cabin condensate, consuming over 

51 gallons of this water. The other two men drank 55 

gallons of distilled tap water. All of the water met the 

quality standards established by the National Academy 

of Sciences, its potability was acceptable, and no ill 

effects were noted in any of the subjects. 

Spacecraft Atmosphere Control-For physiological 

reasons, extended manned space flights will use a twe 

gas atmosphere (oxygen plus nitrogen or another inert 

gas). A mass spectrometer system for sensing and controlling a two-gas atmosphere was designed, fabricated, 

and tested. The reliability of the unit, which weighs 

only 6% pounds and uses less than 3% watts of power, 

was tested and proven in the 60-day, four-man, space 

cabin simulator test. The system continuously monitored the partial pressures of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon 

dioxide, and water vapor and controlled the oxygen 

and nitrogen concentrations with the desired accuracy. 

Its response rate was fast enough to keep within the 

desired range, and there was no performance degradation over the test period. 

Protective Systems-Significant improvements in the 

Ames Research Center hard spacesuit helped achieve 

several design goals: a weight of 55 pounds; improved 

mobility in the waist, torso, and pelvic sections; refined closure development; improved boot configuration and ankle joint articulations; shoulder width reduction to 24 inches; and operational pressures up to 

10 pounds per square inch. 

Locomotion and Restraint Aid-The Ames Research 

Center developed a locomotion and restraint aid 

(LARA) for possible use in large spacecraft. A torso 

harness and a track are connected through springs to 

hold an astronaut’s feet against the spacecraft structure and thus provide normal traction and center-ofgravity control. Tests in a neutral buoyancy tank 

showed that the LARA eliminates the need for cumbersome tethers, foot stirrups, and other work aids and 

enables the astronaut to walk, sit, stand, and work in 

a zero-gravity environment. 

Space Tools-Tests have shown that most conventional hand tools are unsatisfactory in a weightless 

environment since they require the user to exert a large 

torque, and any attempt to do this in space is likely 

to result in turning the man rather than the tool unless 

he is firmly anchored. Special tools and fasteners developed by NASA centers to overcome this problem 

include a quick-operating fastening device which requires only a small turning force (Ames), and a tool 
CHAPTER 111 23 

using an inertial method for tightening or loosening 

nuts and bolts (Marshall). To tighten a nut, a lightly 

restrained operator imparts a rotary motion to a 

weighted crossbar on the tool shaft; to loosen it, he 

sharply raps the end of the crossbar. 

to spacecraft. In addition, the PEGASUS spacecraft 

yielded useful data on radiation fields in space, spacecraft thermal control techniques, and rotational dynamics of satellites. 

Experiments to determine the meteoroid penetration 

resistance of simple double-sheet structures indicated 

Space Vehicle Systems that the effectiveness of the spacing between the sheets, 

Aerothermodynamics-The NASA HL-10 liftingbody research vehicle completed 12 successful glide 

flights following minor modifications to the vehicle 

to correct roll control deficiencies uncovered in its 

initial flight in December 1966. The program moved 

into a second phase when a rocket engine was used 

for the first time in November to propel the vehicle to 

a higher altitude and increased Mach number. The 

rocket engine was ignited and lifted the craft from 

35,000 feet to over 43,000 feet. During 184 seconds 

of engine burn the vehicle reached a top speed of 

610 m.p.h. 

Progress was made in research on a flexible wing 

designed for land recovery of manned spacecraft 

which can be stowed and deployed like a conventional 

parachute. Drop tests of a 4,000-square-foot wing with 

payloads of 5,000 pounds were successfully conducted 

under conditions simulating terminal descent of a 

large manned spacecraft such as APOLLO. Advances 

were also made in research on parachutes capable of 

decelerating and landing unmanned probes in the 

Martian atmosphere. Effort was concentrated on extending. parachute technology to higher Mach numbers and on investigating attached inflatable devices 

offering higher drag effciency and consequent greater 

landed payload weights. 

Structures-Laboratory tests of small models of a 

very large orbital radio telescope antenna (about 1,500 

meters in diameter) indicated that such a large flimsy 

structure should be practicable. Studies were also under way on deployment and control techniques and 

on experimental methods for demonstrating system 

feasibility. 

Environmental Factors-On August 29, the three 

PEGASUS satellites were switched off after each had 

operated in orbit for more than three years. During 

their operation, they recorded a total of 2,265 verified 

meteoroid penetrations, yielding the most significant 

data available at this time on the meteoroid hazard 

in increasing penetration resistance, increases with increasing velocity over the range of velocities possible 

in the laboratory. This effect is attributed to the relative 

increase in projectile and front-sheet melting and vilr 

porization that occurs as the impact velocity increases. 

However, the actual effectiveness of double-wall structures in preventing meteoroid penetration must be 

determined in the actual environment. To do this, improved pressure cell sensors were developed which will 

make it possible to obtain anchor-point data on such 

effectiveness by means of quite modest flight experiments. 

A new anode design, developed for solar simulator 

lamps, reduced lamp failure due to inadequate anode 

cooling. The new liquid-cooled anode has a carefully 

contoured coolant passage through its tip so that the 

coolant velocity is higher in the hottest region. The 

new lamp configuration was also tentatively adopted 

by DOD for use in 30-Kw lamps to be carried aboard 

helicopters for producing night illumination. 

Electronics and Control 

Fluidic Yaw Control SubsystewThe Langley Research Center evaluated and laboratory tested a 

fluidic yaw control subsystem, based on a design researched and developed at the Center. Preliminary 

data indicated that the desired performance can be 

achieved and plans were made to continue testing to 

obtain more data on reliability and to develop a closedloop system using a newly developed fluidic gyroscope. 

The objective of this research is to develop a low-cost, 

reliable, automatic control system for light general 

aviation aircraft. 

Brushless DC Motor-An early model of the DC 

brushless motor has been ground tested for over three 

years, recording over six billion shaft rotations; similar 

models, driving lubrication type experiments, have been 

space flight-tested. Test data indicated that the motors 

will provide high reliability and improved performance 
24 NASA 

as drive motors for gyro gimbals, solar array panels, 

and other applications. 

Scanning Electron Mirror Microscope-The Electronics Research Center developed and tested the prototype of a new instrument, the scanning electron 

mirror microscope (SEMM) for non-destructive study 

and examination of semiconductor devices. The mirror 

effect is achieved by establishing a voltage gradient 

between the electron beam and the test specimen which 

reflects the impinging electrons, thereby keeping them 

away from the surface of the device under test and 

preventing damage. The test results were satisfactory, 

and an operational model is being developed. 

Semiconductor Memory Device-A variable-threshold 

transistor was developed which can be used as a nonvolatile, high-density information storage element and 

requires no power to maintain the state of the system. 

The device is a modification of the field effect transistor. The new device can be interrogated repeatedly 

by small signals and restored to its original state by 

the application of a voltage pulse of equal magnitude 

but opposite polarity. It is compatible with large-scale 

integration technology and can substantially reduce 

the complexity of logic circuits in computer 

applications. 

Laser Research-An argon laser was used by Goddard 

Space Flight Center as a high-power signal to measure 

some of the effects of the atmosphere on narrow light 

beams projected out into space, information which is 

essential for work on laser communication. The laser 

signals were received by the GEOS I1 satellite and 

telemetered back to Earth for analysis. This experiment was the first successful laser communication with 

a satellite. 

Two ground stations using laser systems made contact 

with the SURVEYOR VI1 vehicle, on the surface of 

the Moon. The SURVEYOR TV camera photographed the Earth, and the pictures telemetered clearly 

indicated the locations of the two laser ground stations. 

This experiment, which demonstrated that a relatively 

low-power but very narrow laser beam can be precisely 

pointed to an object on the lunar surface, is a significant advance in research leading to the establishment 

of deep space laser communication. 

The first continuous-wave tunable laser was developed 

and operated under a NASA grant. It produces red 

light and operates on the parametric principle, producing an output which has the single color characteristic of normal lasers but can be tuned over a wide 

band. The tunable characteristic will be useful in laser 

communication systems and in laser analysis of the 

constituents of materials. 

RAM C-11-The RAM C-I1 re-entry communication 

flight experiment, conducted on August 22, sought 

diagnostic data on attenuation of radio signals 

(“blackout”) at re-entry velocities in the 25,000 feet 

per second regime. The test provided values of electron 

density in the flow field which will be compared with 

and used to improve the theoretical models. .This work 

will make it possible to predict radio blackout more 

accurately, and to develop techniques for alleviating 

the blackout problems experienced on returning spacecraft and planetary landers. 

Combustible Gas Detector-Ames Research Center 

developed a system which will readily detect minute 

quantities of combustible hydrocarbon gases. Using 

a small helium-neon laser, operating in the infrared at 

3.39 micrometers, and a solid-state detector, the system measures the absorption of the laser light at the 

vibration frequency of the coupled hydrogen and carbon atoms. Its sensitivity is such that it can be used to 

measure the absorption coefficients of gases such as 

methane, gasoline, alcohol, and acetone. The system 

has the advantage of remote detection, since the laser 

and the detector can be isolated from the combustible 

gases and can be used when large volumes are to be 

monitored. It is being evaluated for detecting fire and 

explosive hazards as well as seepage from natural gas 

lines. The principle may also be used in medical applications and industrial process control. 

Solar Radiation Measurement-The Jet Propulsion 

Laboratory (JPL) developed a highly accurate wideband radiometer for measuring real and simulated 

solar radiation. Because of its confirmed accuracy, the 

instrument is applicable as an absolute standard with 

less than 0.5 percent error throughout the visible and 

IR range of the spectrum. The device was used to Calibrate other radiometric instruments for solar simulator 

experiments, and it was flown on high-altitude aircraft 

at 40,000 feet to determine true solar radiation outside 

the major portion of Earth‘s absorbing atmosphere. 

The ability of this device to provide accurate data on 

solar energy should have application in research on the 

heat balance of spacecraft. 
CHAPTER 111 25 

X-ray Detection-In research on solar phenomena and 

solar flare prediction, it is necessary to measure lowenergy X-rays produced by the Sun. However, detectors for “soft” rays, such as proportional counters, are 

limited to wavelengths shorter than 2 nanometers 

(lO-Dm) by the opacity of the material used as entrance windows, which must be extremely thin. but 

able to withstand the difference beween the gas pressure in the counter and the ambient space environment. 

The Electronics Research Center developed a simple, 

low-cost method for making such windows which involves stretching inexpensive polypropylene sheets approximately 26 micrometers thick to a resultant thickness of only 1 micrometer. X-ray counters made with 

such window material withstood a pressure differential 

of nearly 1 atmosphere, permitted transmittance of 70 

percent of X-rays up to wavelengths of 11 nm, and 

made it possible to extend the detector measurement 

range to cover the soft X-ray region (.1-10 nm.) of the 

spectrum. 

Cockpit DisplaysIn a NASA-sponsored research 

project, it was found that a hologram and moving light 

source could be used to replace certain complex electronic navigational displays in aircraft and spacecraft. Other displays being developed use a cathode ray 

tube to portray a set of electronically generated converging straight lines which change position to simulate 

perspective in response to vehicle orientation. The researchers were able to achieve a similar effect from a 

single hologram transparency made of a point source 

of light recorded in two different positions. The hologram was made so that the reconstructed image consisted of two rows of points which appeared to recede 

behind the transparency in true three-dimensional perspective. By moving the reconstructing light source in 

coordination with vehicle motion, an illusion of change 

in perspective can be created to show required navigational corrections. 

Data Compression-Studies at Goddard Space Flight 

Center showed that telemetry channel capacity can be 

conserved by applying a mathematical technique, “bit 

plane encoding,” to on-board measurements of energetic particles by scientific spacecraft, thus “compressing” the data by a factor of 50 or more before 

transmission. When this technique is used, data 

samples, in the form of binary numbers, are arranged 

in a rectangular matrix, and the statistical properties 

of the matrix extracted by an on-board computer. 

Data compression and resultant saving in channel 

capacity is achieved by transmitting only the computed 

values which can be interpreted on the ground to give 

the required information. 

At JPL, investigators found that it was feasible to 

increase the amount of video information which can 

be transmitted from deep space by using a mathematical process (the Fourier transform) to compress television pictures a hundred-fold or more for transmission from planetary spacecraft to Earth. A digital 

computer breaks the picture down into its elementary 

frequency and phase components and selects for 

transmission only those which contribute most to picture quality, thus saving channel capacity. By reversing the process at the receiver, the picture can be 

reconstructed. 

Space Power and Electric Propulsion 

The Agency’s space power and electric propulsion 

programs continued to receive research and development emphasis during 1968. 

Electric Engine Systems-The SERT I1 (Space 

Electric Rocket Test) spacecraft, aimed at verifying 

long-term ion thruster performance in space, continued 

to progress toward a 1969 launch. 

In addition, during the past year, experimenters made 

the first attempt to use electric propulsion operationally 

in a NASA program. The ATS-IV satellite carried an 

operational resistojet system for East-West station-keeping along with an ion engine experiment. While the 

spacecraft failed to achieve synchronous orbit, it’ was 

possible to test both the operational and experimental 

systems. Telemetered results indicated that design performance was achieved. 

At the end of the year approximately 5,000 hours of 

a planned 8,000-hourY high-temperature resistojet endurance test had been completed. Such engines could 

be used in the manned space station as position control 

systems. 

Work also continued on the systems technology for 

solar-powered electric primary propulsion. Such systems offer potential cost and capability advantages for 

automated space missions and continued to appear 

feasible. 
26 NASA 

Nuclear Electric Power Generation-The major components of the 35 KWe SNAP-8 power conversion 

system were subjected to further testing. By year’s end, 

all three system pumps had exceeded 10,000 hours of 

demonstrated life. Development of the boiler and turbine, which had lagged in previous years because of 

technical problems, was progressing satisfactorily. 

Basic system technology testing of the “breadboarded” 

power conversion system, using a non-nuclear heat 

source, led to the demonstration, in principle, of the 

automated bootstrapped start-up typical space 

operation. 

The SNAP-19 isotope generator was launched on the 

NIMBUS B spacecraft on May 18, 1968. The mission 

was aborted because of a booster guidance malfunction. The SNAP units, however, were subsequently recovered and, to a considerable degree, demonstrated 

the safety of the device. Another SN‘4P-19 isotope 

generator is to be flown on a duplicate NIMBUS B 

spacecraft early in 1969. 

The SNAP-27 generator reached the final stage of 

development. It will be ready for use on APOLLO 

as a source of power for the APOLLO Lunar Surface 

Experiment Package (ALSEP) . Steps were being taken 

to adapt and evaluate SNAP-19 and SNAP-27 technologies for deep-space planetary science missions. 

The advanced nuclear electric power program continued to stress three energy conversion concepts for 

long-lived power in the kilowatt range and higher. 

In the potassium Rankine turbogenerator program, 

continuing progress was made in the development of 

basic and component technologies. As a specific example, new, higher-strength, liquid metal corrosionresistant refractory metal alloys were reported. 

The effort in the Brayton cycle turbogenerator program continued to emphasize development of the highperformance components and subsystems in the 2-10 

KWe power range. The single-shaft 5.5 KWe compact, 

rotating unit began undergoing preliminary tests. This 

unit consists of a turbine, alternator, and compressor 

mounted on the same shaft and rotating on gas bearings. Subsystem tests on the control, start-up and gas 

management system were being initiated, and a complete power package was being assembled for a system 

test early in 1969. 

In the thermionic conversion area, a number of significant events occurred. Four uranium fuels test programs began testing at the NASA Plum Brook Test 

Reactor. Important experimental data were obtained 

on the voltage breakdown characteristics of certain 

materials, fuels, and mechanisms. And a joint NASAAEC-Contractor team established reference reactor 

designs (at the 300-KW power level) for the three 

principal fast neutron spectrum thermionic reactor 

concepts. 

Solar Power Generation-A significant advance in 

the generation of electric power in space was realized 

with the recent completion of a four-year effort 

to achieve technology readiness of a large-area, 

lightweight, photovoltaic solar cell array. Up to 50 KW 

of electric power can now be generated at a weight 

cost of 50 lb/KW on board spacecraft that are subjected only to low-level acceleration after solar cell 

array deployment. Such space vehicles would include 

most unmanned planetary flyby spacecraft and many 

synchronous-altitude applications satellites. 

This new technological capability represents a roughly 

50-fold advance in power level over the highest used 

thus far in the nation’s space efforts. For many important uses such a capability would permit the power system weight to be reduced by a factor of 2 to 3, while 

still generating the required amount of electric power. 

Chemical Power Generation-A simulated planetary 

landing has shown that a battery can survive both sterilization temperatures and forces many times that of 

normal gravity. A 12-cell, silver-zinc battery, sterilized 

at 257” F for 24 hours, was dropped into the California desert aboard an experimental Mars lander. 

Moments after impact the battery began furnishing 

the power to extend a wind gauge and to operate a 

radio transmitter and a timer. 

The combination of reinforced electrodes, heat-resistant separator, and high-strength plastic case proved 

that batteries can be built to withstand unusual heat 

and shock. The present product is marginal, however, 

and needs improvement before it can be used with 

confidence for such a difficult mission. 

In another area of effort, an experimental power control unit successfully withstood a typical sterilization 

cycle (125” C for 72 hours) and underwent drop testing equivalent to 2,500 g’s. Subsequent laboratory tests 

disclosed no degradation in power control unit performance. 
CHAPTER 111 27 

Nuclear Rocket Program 

The nuclear rocket program is a joint endeaver of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration and 

Atomic Energy Commission. The program’s objective 

is to develop a 75,000-pound-thrust engine for space 

mission application. This engine, identified as NERVA 

(Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application) , will 

have a specific impulse of about 825 seconds, the capability for multiple restarts in space, and a very high reliability. It has been determined that an engine of this 

size could perform a large number of the advanced 

missions currently being considered in NASA planning. Engine development is being accomplished using a base of technology which took 13 years of extensive analytical and experimental research to acquire. 

This work, still in progress, will end with the testing 

of the XE ground-experimental engine. 

Apart from the NERVA effort, the nuclear rocket 

program includes supporting and advanced technology 

activities to advance non-reactor component technology and stage technology. The objective in each of 

these areas is to advance the technology pertinent to 

nuclear rocketry beyond the initial performance objectives established for NERVA. 

The past year was an active one in the nuclear rocket 

program. A major milestone was achieved with the 

completion of cold-flow tests on the first groundexperimental engine (XECF) in Engine Test Stand 

No. 1. At Test Cell “C,” hot tests were completed on 

the most powerful reactor ever tested in the programthe PHOEBUS-2A reactor. Significant advances were 

made in fuel-element technology as demonstrated in 

laboratory tests. The first PEWEE reactor, a reducedsize reactor designed to serve as a test bed for verifying 

the results of fuel-element tests conducted in the 

laboratory, was moved to Test Cell “C” and powertested. The first “hot” ground-experimental engine 

(XE’I was installed in Engine Test Stand No. 1 for 

checkpoint prior to power-testing. All of these events 

and activities were directed toward establishing a firm 

base of technology for the development of the 

NERVA engine. 

Engine Test Stand No. l-Engine Test Stand No. 1 

is designed to permit the testing of nuclear rocket engines in a nozzle-down altitude and in tandem (directly 

underneath) with the propellant tank placed as it 

would be arranged in a flight stage. The hydrogen gas 

from the engine nozzle is carried away by means of 

an exhaust duct. A shielded engine test compartment 

surrounds the engine and provides, in conjunction with 

the exhaust duct, a means for reducing the pressure 

around the engine to simulate certain aspects of operation in space. Steam ejectors pumping into the duct 

create the space environment. The front of the duct 

is closed to prevent the back flow of hydrogen into the 

duct vault area. 

A heavy schedule of activity was carried out during 

the year at Engine Test Stand No. 1 in preparation for 

hot tests of the XE ground-experimental engine. 

In April 1968, a series of experiments was run in the 

stand using the cold-flow ground-experimental engine 

(XECF) to investigate the initial start characteristics 

of the engine and to provide a training period for the 

test crew. These experiments revealed several minor 

problems, such as oscillations in the steam-ejector inlet 

line to the duct, and excessive vibrations of the front, 

duct-vault closure wall. The engine system and test 

stand operated as planned, and the test results provided the basis for proceeding .with final preparations 

for the conduct of “hot” engine experiments. Later, 

the XECF was removed and re-installed with remotehandling equipment, demonstrating the capability to 

remotely remove and reinstall the engine in the stand. 

Following the XECF test program, a series of experiments was conducted, with the aid of an engine simulator, to checkout the operation of the test stand emergency-cool-down system. This system provides an alternate means for cooling down the engine reactor in the 

event the flow of propellant is cutoff through the 

engine propellant feed system. Though some initial 

problems were encountered during the experiments 

with some of the lines and valves, all test objectives 

were met and good data were obtained. 

After the checkout of the emergency cool-down system, 

work continued at ETS-1 in preparation for the XE 

“hot” tests. Remaining to be accomplished were: the 

completion of modifications to permit the remote removal of the exhaust duct following the XE test program, reinforcement of the front duct closure wall, installation of an improved steam-ejector inlet line, and 

final checkout and audit of the engine and test stand 

control systems. 

Non-Nuclear Component Technology-One of the 

major events reported last year was the introduction 
28 NASA 

of the PEWEE reactor into the supporting and advanced technology portion of the nuclear rocket program. The reactor came into being as a result of studies 

conducted at Los Alamos to arrive at a more economical approach to test promising advanced fuel materials 

and design concepts. PEWEE is now a reality, and the 

first test article, the PEWEE-I, was moved to Test 

Cell “C” for checkout and power tests. 

While the PEWEE reactor work was being accomplished, studies were initiated at Test Cell “C” to define 

the facility modifications that would be required to 

test a PEWEE reactor. These studies indicated that it 

would be desirable to go to a more efficient feed system 

design to cut down on liquid hydrogen losses. 

Examination of the existing Mk 25 turbopump design 

revealed that by reducing the blade height of the 

pump and modifying a few other components, e.g., 

the bearings and balance piston, the same basic hardware could be used to provide the 50 pounds-persecond of liquid hydrogen required for PEWEE reactor 

testing. Using the Mk 25 turbopump without these 

modifications would mean .that more than 40 percent 

of the pump flow would have to be bypassed and 

burned. The cost savings that would be realized more 

than justified the changes. As a result of these analyses, 

two sets of turbopump hardware were modified this 

year to meet PEWEE test needs. 

In the area of controls, the Lewis Research Center 

reported on the developmet of integrated fluidic control circuits, an extension of technology of wide-ranging usefulness. Integrated electronic circuits have been 

in use for some time now and have opened a whole 

new field of microelectronics and high-density packaging. Through the use of integrated circuits, equipment of low size, weight and power consumption can 

be manufactured to the most rigid standards and 

specifications. 

In a nuclear-powered stage, however, the radiation 

environment makes it almost impossible to use electrical and electronic equipment in many areas. Fluidic 

equipment on the other hand can be made relatively 

insensitive to such environments. The extension of 

fluidic technology provided by Lewis, therefore, is a 

much welcomed advance. 

Nuclear Stage Technology-Of major interest in the 

development of nuclear-powered stages is the effect 

of nuclear radiation on materials, including the liquid 

hydrogen propellant. Good data are now available on 

the effects of radiation on metallic and organic materials. Very little is known, however, about the effects 

of radiation heating on liquid hydrogen, and this will 

be of fundamental importance in determining propellant boil off losses, tank pressure level and the fluid 

properties of the hydrogen entering the engine pump. 

An experimental 5,000-gallon liquid hydrogen tank 

and supporting equipment is being designed and 

fabricated for the purpose of verification of analytical 

predictions of nuclear heating of liquid hydrogen. 

Continued supporting research is being conducted in 

the area of long-term cryogenic storage. Work also is 

underway to develop a means for the reliquification of 

approximately 3 pounds-per-hour of hydrogen vapor. 

This quantity is representative of the amounts boiled 

off from a well-insulated stage during long-term flights 

in space. 

Tracking and Data Acquisition 

NASA’s Tracking and Data Acquisition program continued to support the missions of this agency and other 

agencies and certain foreign governments. Such missions included APOLLO 7, APOLLO 8, SURVEYOR 

PLORER, and the ORBITING ASTRONOMICAL 

OBSERVATORY-OAO-A2. Even while providing 

this operational support, the network facilities and 

equipment were modified and augmented to meet the 

requirements of approved future missions. 

Manned Space Flight Network-All of the Manned 

Space Flight Network facilities required to support the 

APOLLO lunar landing became operational during 

the year. The Network land facilities, specifically configured for APOLLO support, consist of eleven 30- 

foot antenna stations and three stations equipped with 

85-foot antennas. In addition, four instrumentation 

ships and eight instrumentation aircraft provide coverage over the broad ocean areas. 

The Network started a busy year of flight activity with 

its support of the APOLLO 5 mission (January 22). 

The new network facilities provided excellent support, simultaneously, to both the LM spacecraft and 

the S-IVB stage of the SATURN IB launch vehicle. 

VII, PIONEER IX, RADIO ASTRONOMY EX- 
CHAPTER 111 29 

The Network also performed flawlessly during its support of APOLLO 6, launched April 4. For this mission, 

seven of the eight instrumentation aircraft were deployed. As preplanned, the two aircraft in the Pacific 

Ocean area successfully acquired the spacecraft during 

terminal re-entry and tracked it to splashdown. 

Next, the Network provided excellent support to the 

first manned APOLLO flight, APOLLO 7, launched 

October 11. First-time requirements, such as real-time 

television reception from the astronauts in orbit, were 

handled in an almost routine manner. To meet the 

television requirement, NASA installed specialized 

equipment (scan converters) at two of the network 

stations: Corpus Christi, Tex., and Merritt Island 

(Cape Kennedy), Fla. For similar coverage of APOLLO lunar missions, the Agency installed these units at 

the Goldstone, Calif., and Madrid, Spain, stations. 

The Network's successful support of the four APOLLO missions in 1968 resulted in large measure from 

the experience gained during numerous mission simulations conducted between flight missions. These realistic simulations, assuring constant operational readiness of both facilities and personnel, were enhanced 

by the use of a Test and Training Satellite (TETR) . In addition to the mission simulations involving realtime operations with the Mission Control Center at 

Houston, the TETR spacecraft provided a tracking 

target for checkout of individual stations. The first 

such satellite, TETR-I, was successfully launched in 

December 1967; it re-entered Earth's atmosphere on 

April 26, 1968. A second spacecraft, TETR-11, was 

launched piggyback aboard the vehicle which placed 

PIONEER IX in its trajectory around the Sun. 

TETR-I1 participation in the Network checkout contributed to the successful support of the APOLLO 8 

mission. 

The APOLLO 8 flight demonstrated the network's 

capabilities for support of a manned lunar landing. 

Voice communications were excellent; tracking and 

trajectory determination accuracies were well within 

requirements ; telemetry provided all data required 

for control center assessment of launch vehicle, spacecraft, and astronaut functioning; and the network received and relayed the first manned flight television 

sequences from near the Moon with better quality 

than those of APOLLO 7. 

Deep Space Network-During the year, the Deep 

Space Network supported the final flight of NASA's 

unmanned lunar programs. While it will furnish sup 

port to the lunar phases of APOLLO, in the future 

it will support planetary and interplanetary flight 

programs. 

The final unmanned lunar flight, SURVEYOR VII, 

was launched on January 7, and received continuous 

coverage by the Deep Space Network until it successfully soft-landed on the Moon on January 9. The network's last contact with the spacecraft occurred on 

February 20. During the period of coverage, the tracking stations received over 2 1,000 television pictures 

taken from the lunar surface. 

The network continued to handle a substantial workload in 1968, with PIONEER IX (launched successfully on November 8) added to the on-going PIONEER VI, VII, and VI11 missions. The PIONEER 

spacecraft, originally planned for a useful lifetime of 

6 months, have exceeded all design expectations, and 

their lifetimes are now estimated at 5 years. 

While it was providing this mission support, the network was also being modified and augmented to meet 

the dual MARINER '69 mission requirements. New 

multitelemetry equipment was being installed at the 

network stations. Although specifically constructed for 

MARINER '69, this equipment was designed with 

sufficient flexibility to accommodate, with only a minimum of changes, other spacecraft which may evolve 

after 1970. 

In June, two Deep Space Network Stations at Goldstone, Calif., successfully tracked the Asteroid Icarus 

as it passed within 4 million miles of Earth (June 14). 

A standard-size 85-foot-diameter antenna, with a 

powerful 450-kilowatt transmitter, transmitted radio 

waves to the Asteroid, and the giant 210-foot antenna 

received the radio wave echoes some 42 seconds later. 

Studies of the signals received have improved our 

knowledge of the Asteroid's physical characteristics and 

its rotation rate. Preliminary analysis of the data indicated that Icarus has a radius of about one-fourth 

mile and rotates once every 2Vz hours. 

Satellite Network-The Satellite Network continued 

to support about 40 satellites. This network serves both 

NASA's scientific and applications satellites and a wide 

variety of space projects conducted by other Govern- 
30 NASA 

ment agencies and by private industry (the Cobmunications Satellite Corporation) . In addition, most 

of the NASA tracking and data acquisition support 

to international programs is provided through its 

facilities. 

Among the major flight projects successfully launched 

during 1968 and supported by the network were OGOV, EXPLORER 38, and OAO-A2. During the 

EXPLORER 38 (RADIO ASTRONOMY EXPLORER) mission, the network contributed significantly to a major technological achievement by 

NASA. The satellite’s antennas were extended to their 

maximum length of 750 feet each, resulting in a tip-totip measurement of 1,500 feet-about five times longer 

than any object previously placed in space. Extension 

of the antennas was controlled by a series of radio 

signals orginated at the control center, Greenbelt, Md., 

and transmitted to the satellite via the network tracking stations. 

In addition to meeting the planned support requirements of a flight mission, such as RAE, the Network 

is often called upon to provide emergency or extraordinary support. An example occurred during the 

ATS-4 mission. Because the launch vehicle malfunctioned, the spacecraft was placed into a highly elliptical 

orbit rather than a planned synchronous orbit. A series 

of delicate spacecraft maneuvedirected by commands transmitted via the Network-was necessary to 

reduce the spin rate of the spacecraft. The commands 

were successful and the spin rate decreased, thereby 

permitting some spacecraft experiments to be conducted and data acquired. Without the command 

capability of the network, these valuable data would 

have been unobtainable. 

The network was also supporting OAO-A2, launched 

December 7. This complex scientific satellite required 

unprecedented support for real-time command and 

control coverage. The network fully met all support 

requirements and continues to receive valuable astronomical data. 

University Programs 

These programs, which comprise all NASA-sponsored 

research projects in educational institutions, include 

two main parts: (1) Project-oriented grants and respecial training, research, and facilities. The Office of 

University Affairs maintains overall policy level supervision. The program, which is designed to enable the 

universities to participate fully in the aerospace effort, 

emphasizes high-quality research which benefits 

NASA and at the same time strengthens the colleges 

and universities. 

In 1968, project-oriented research was funded at the 

$101-million level. Of some 1,400 active projects with 

universities, 30 percent were started in this year. The 

step funding technique was used to achieve more predictable long-term support patterns and to even out 

funding fluctuations related to variations in NASA’s 

annual budgets. As a result, research funds were used 

more efficiently and output was increased. 

During the year, the content and nature of the Sustaining University Program were modified to meet the 

changing conditions of the space program and a reduced budget. Support of the program (set at $45.1 

million in 1965) was reduced to $10 million in 1968, 

necessitating a cut in the predoctoral training program from 1,300 new starts in 1966 to only 45 in 1968. 

No new funds were earmarked for the construction of 

facilities on university campuses in 1968, and the research program ($13 million in 1966) was reduced to 

approximately $6 million in 1968. As a consequence, 

practically all participating universities received reduced support, a few were dropped from the program, and additional schools will have to be dropped 

in the coming year. 

International A’ffairs 

The number of countries participating in cooperative, 

mutually funded projects with NASA increased to 

2 1 in 1968, as agreements were completed with Mexico 

and Switzerland. New agreements were reached with 

Brazil, Canada, France, Germany, India, Norway, 

Spain, and Sweden. 

The Agency further diversified its international cooperative projects, signing agreements with the Brazilian National Commission for Space Research 

(CNAE) and the Mexican National Commission of 

Outer Space (CNEE) . These accords provide for COoperation in developing, testing, and using Earth resources sensors in aircraft, with emphasis on applying - 

search contracts; (2) sustaining university support for such techniques to the specific economic problems of 
CHAPTER 111 31 

Brazil and Mexico. An agreement was also made with 

Mexico for the use of APT equipment loaned by 

NASA to supply cloud pictures to Mexican government agencies and to coordinate APT data with other 

meteorological information from conventional sources. 

Programs such as these are responsive to the frequently expressed desires of the President and the 

Congress that ways be explored to apply space research and technology to the problems of developing 

countries. 

In December, NASA and the German Ministry for 

Scientific Research agreed to a cooperative project to 

release a barium-ion cloud at an altitude of about 

20,000 miles. As the cloud dissipates along the Earth's 

mapetic lines of force, it will be photographed to 

permit the measurement of magnetic and electric 

fields, to simulate the action of the solar wind on an 

ionized comet trail, and to provide basic new data 

on behavior of an ion cloud in a collisionless plasma. 

Meanwhile, earlier projects came to fruition. During 

the year, NASA launched three satellites built and 

funded by the European Space Research Organization 

(ESRO) . ESRO-11, designed for the integrated study 

of cosmic rays and solar radiation, was launched in 

May. ESRO-I, launched in October, continued to 

study high-latitude energetic particles and their effects 

on the ionosphere. On December 5, NASA also 

launched the ESRO Highly Eccentric Orbit Satellite 

(HEOS-I) , an interplanetary physics research spacecraft, in an elliptical orbit carrying it more than 120,- 

000 miles from Earth. HEOS-I was the first foreign 

satellite NASA has launched on a reimbursable basis. 

Foreign experiments flown on NASA spacecraft increased to 11 with the launching of ORBITING GEOPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY V, which carried one 

Yrench, two British, and one Dutch experiment. 

Sounding rocket experiments were launched in cooperation with Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, 

Norway, Spain, and Sweden. New sounding rocket 

cooperative agreements were made with all of these 

countries except Argentina. 

Cooperation in aeronautics involved Canada, France, 

Germany, and the United Kingdom on four separate 

projects involving V/STOL aircraft. Through this 

shared-cost work, NASA benefitted from highly advanced foreign developments in this field. 

Foreign investigators selected to analyze the lunar surface material to be brought back by the Apollo astronauts increased from 29 to 35. Two new countries 

represented in this program are Australia and Belgium. 

Forty-four experiments on the lunar surface samples 

proposed by these investigators have been approved. 

The Inter-American Experimental Meteorological 

Network (EXAMETNET) , a joint venture by NASA 

with Argentina and Brazil, continued active. Small 

meteorological rocket launchings at Wallops Island 

were coordinated with launchings in Argentina and 

Brazil. 

The Administrator of NASA served as Chairman of 

the U.S. Delegation to the United Nations Conference 

on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

held in Vienna, Austria, in August. The U.S. Technical presentation, which NASA arranged at the request of the Department of State, featured 49 papers 

and lectures addressed specifically to the two themes 

of the Conference: the practical benefits of space activities, and the opportunities for international cooperation-both with special reference to the needs 

of developing countries. 

On May 3, an agreement was concluded with the 

United Kingdom to establish and operate a tracking 

station on Grand Bahama Island to support project 

APOLLO. The existing agreement with the United 

Kingdom for the operation of the tracking station in 

Bermuda was broadened on January 17 to include support of non-experimental space projects of a peaceful 

and scientific character. 

Brazil, Ethiopia, Mauritius, and Thailand agreed to 

the temporary stationing of geodetic satellite observation camera teams on their territory as part of the 

National Geodetic Satellite Program. 

An agreement was concluded with Mauritius on September 3, for the building of a parking apron at Plaisance Airfield, Mauritius, to accommodate the operation of APOLLO/Range Instrumentation Aircraft 

(A/RIA) . 

Industry Affairs 

NASA continued its efforts to improve its contracting 

practices, to improve the management of Government 

property, to reduce costs, to improve its labor relations, 
32 NASA 

and to strengthen its reliability and quality-assurance 

activities. 

While the number of man-days lost resulting from 

negotiations were substantial, management actions deDevelopment of Contracting Guide-NASA, in close 

cooperation with the Department of Defense and 

other Government agencies, developed new training 

instructions and operating guidelines. These cover incentive contracting aspects of the procurement process 

from procurement planning through source selection, 

cost analysis, negotiation, and contract administration. 

While there is a significant difference between the 

defense procurement mission and the space program, 

there are many similarities in the research and development contracting situations. The procurement regulations of NASA and DOD have much in common. 

In addition, both agencies use many of the same industrial Contractors. Thus, NASA’s actions to develop 

common guidelines wherever possible will assist both 

industry and Government contracting offices. 

Government Property Management-NASA continued its efforts to improve the effectiveness of its 

property administration during the year. New property 

management procedures now included in NASA contracts were helping the contractors to develop better 

and tighter controls for Government property. This 

subject was given major emphasis by the NASA Headquarters Procurement Management Survey teams and 

by other specialized teams during their visits and 

reviews conducted at NASA installations. 

Cost Reduction-During 1968, the NASA Cost Reduction Program pmduced savings of $320 million. 

During a period of increasing austerity, the progress 

and general acceptance of the basic concepts of 

planned verifiable economies reflect the positive attitude of NASA employees and contractors toward the 

program. The NASA in-house program produced cost 

reductions of $150 million, with an added contribution of $1 70 million from voluntary participation by 

38 major contractors. At the end of its fifth year of 

operation this program has produced measurable accumulated savings of $1.8 billion. 

Labor Relations-The number of man-days lost because of strikes increased from 4,791 in 1967 to slightly 

over 10,000 in 1968. This increase resulted primarily 

from the large number of negotiations of labor contracts in the space and construction industry which impacted directly on the Center support contractors. 

veloped in advance of negotiations virtually eliminated 

any impact on NASA programs. When the 7,200 mandays lost as a result of negotiations are deducted from 

the year’s total of 10,000, the remaining loss is less than 

the comparable figure for 1967. 

Reliability and Quality Assurance Office-NASA 

completed a comprehensive evaluation of the Reliability and Quality Assurance activities at all of its field 

installations. These reviews focused on organizational 

and management problems and resulted in a number of 

improvements in the conduct of the NASA Reliability 

and Quality Assurance Program. The Agency was making plans to initiate a new series of evaluations of the 

Reliability and Quality Assurance operations which 

will focus on hardware effectiveness. 

Technology Utilization 

Through its Technology Utilization Program, NASA 

continued its efforts to increase the return on the national investment in aerospace research and development by encouraging additional uses of the knowledge gained. 

This Agency also continued to prepare and distribute 

Tech Brief announcements and Special Publications at 

a high rate. It received more than 16,000 individual requests for Tech Brief backup material, and more than 

9,500 requests for general information regarding products and services of the Technology Utilization 

Program. 

During the year, the Lawrence Radiation Laboratories 

(LRL) of the Atomic Energy Commission began reporting through the NASA announcement system innovations derived from its research endeavours. LRL 

thus joined Argonne National Laboratories and Sandia 

Corporation as AEC contractor installations participating in the NASA-AEC Tech Brief announcement 

program. 

As evidence that the NASA-sponsored experimental 

Regional Dissemination Centers (RDC’s) form a 

unique bridge among the governmental, academic, and 

industrial communities, Indiana University and the 

University of Pittsburgh, hosts of two of the older 

RDC’s, decided to continue operations after NASA 
CHAPTER 111 33 

financial support ends. Such support is expected to 

end in early 1969. 

NASA sponsored several conferences on technology 

utilization in cooperation with the Small Business AdTwo other Regional Dissemination Centers-at Midwest Research Institute in Kansas City, Mo., and at 

Wayne State University in Detroit, Mich.-completed 

the NASA-sponsored phase of their experiments during 1968. Each was also'making plans to continue aerospace technology dissemination and transfer activities. 

Oklahoma State University, under contract to NASA, 

was preparing educational monographs based on 

NASA R&D reports. Such reports are to be disseminated on a trial basis to professors of upper class and 

graduate engineering courses. Two hundred and fortyeight professors at 106 universities requested these 

monographs for review and classroom use. The decision to have such monographs developed was based on 

evaluation reports received from professors who have 

used similar devices in their classrooms and ovenvhelmingly favor them. 

Late in 1967 NASA contracted with the Denver Research Institute (DRI) to conduct studies that might 

improve the eff eciveness of NASA's technology transfer programs by providing data on the uses made of 

the technology. Continued analytical efforts by DRI 

should contribute to a further understanding of the 

factors affecting technology transfer. 

NASA continued to work with the Office of State 

Technical Services (OSTS) , U.S. Department of Commerce. One RDC director was designated as responsible for the State Technical Services Program in New 

Mexico. OSTS asked another director to help develop 

such a program for Indiana. 

Three Biomedical Application Teams worked with 18 

medical schools and medical research institutes to help 

identify and solve technical problems inhibiting the 

progress of medical research. More than 60 technology 

transfers were effected by matching identified problems 

with information from NASA. 

The Biomedical Application Team approach was also 

being applied to problems in the public sector. One 

team, under contract to NASA, was working with the 

Law Enforcement Assistance Administration to help 

solve problems in police communications in mediumsized cities. Another was working with the Bureau of 

Reclamation, helping to solve problems related to 

weather modification. 

ministration and the Atomic Energy Commission. The 

Office of State Technical Serivces of the Department 

of Commerce, the Science Information Exchange of 

the Smithsonian Institution, and the Library of Congress National Referral Center for Science and Technology participated in the conferences. Audiences were 

composed primarily of senior officials from medium 

and small-sized nonaerospace industrial organizations. 

The NASA-sponsored Computer Software and Management Information Center (COSMIC) at the University of Georgia continues to gain acceptance from 

the industrial, education, and business communities 

as an outlet for NASA-developed computer programs. 

Approximately 400 computer programs are listed in 

the COSMIC catalogue. Many more are being evaluated by the university. The Department of Defense 

and NASA reached an interagency agreement, under 

which DOD research and development installations 

will furnish computer program listings, card decks, run 

instructions, and associated software to COSMIC for 

evaluation as to their commercial utility and possible 

inclusion in the COSMIC inventory. 

Relationships With Other Government 

Agencies 

Early in the year, NASA's Office of Defense Affairs 

was redesignated the Office of DOD and Interagency 

Affairs. In the process, this office's assigned functions 

were broadened. 

One of the coordinating mechanisms between NASA 

and the Department of Defense is the Aeronautics and 

Astronautics Coordinating Board (AACB) and its 

panels covering aeronautics, launch vehicles, manned 

space flight, supporting space research and technology, 

space-flight ground environment and unmanned 

spacecraft. 

During the year, the AACB reviewed the proposed 

facilities construction programs for fiscal year 1969. 

It also reviewed the large ground test facilities needed 

to carry out foreseeable aeronautical programs in the 

next 10-15 years. In addition, it initiated launch vehicle studies to determine the future needs, and established a policy concerning the criteria that would ap- 
34 NASA 

ply to biological in-flight experiments being considered 

for the manned space flight program. 

In other areas of effort the AACB studied the DOD 

and NASA funding patterns with respect to universities; reviewed the instrumentation aircraft and ship 

requirements in support of the APOLLO Program 

and DOD programs; and initiated a review of certain 

DOD and NASA activities where cost reductions could 

be achieved. 

During the year, the number of military detailees assigned to NASA was reduced to about 300. Approximately 10 NASA employees were assigned to DOD 

organizations. 

Policy coordination and high-level exchange of plans 

and proposals took place through the National Aeronautics and Space Council, of which the Administrator 

of NASA is a member. 

NASA developed informal relationships with the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) 

to consider areas of mutual interest involving the role 

communications satellite technology might play in advancing educational and cultural objectives (instructional TV in schools, public TV, and medical education for practicing physicians). 

NASA continued to work with the Department of 

Transportation on matters involving aeronautical research. In addition, the two agencies continwd to explore matters concerning development of navigation 

satellites and related space technology that might apply 

to certain transportation problems. 

NASA advised the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) on some of the technical aspects of communications satellite systems, including launch vehicle 

capability and costs. It also participated actively in 

the work of the President’s Task Force on Communications Policy, with particular emphasis on the issues 

involving the use of the elecromagnetic spectrum, a 

domestic satellite system, and the deveolpment of communications technology. 

NASA Safety Program 

NASA took additional action to develop a more effective system of identifying hazards and providing controls appropriate to the complexity of its programs and 

the sophistication of its technologies. Since the 

APOLLO accident, the agency has substantially 

strengthened its safety organization, developed new 

safety concepts and data, and established better means 

of disseminating guidance. 

NASA’s Safety Program is based on identifying hazards, eliminating or controlling them as much as possible, and defining the remaining risk. Risk evaluation 

is to be an intrinsic part of basic decision-making. The 

same management elements charged with program SUCcess are responsible for achieving adequate safety. 

Safety staff personnel are to establish guidelines, provide consultation, and check performance to assureadequacy of safety efforts. In addition, the agency 

increased its control of contract safety matters and took 

measures to make certain that the hazardous aspects 

of contractor activities are identified. 

The Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel.-This panel, 

advisory to the Administrator, initially concentrated 

its efforts on APOLLO technical management and system safety activities. Reviews were held at the Manned 

Space Flight Centers and at the APOLLO principal 

contractors’ plants. A permanent Executive Secretary 

staff supports this activity. Actions taken to strengthen 

the functional management of safety during the year 

included, among others, having a new NASA Director 

of Safety and appointing a Headquarters Installation 

Safety Officer. 

APOLLO Safety.-Efforts resulting directly from the 

APOLLO 204 accident continued into 1968. They included follow-up on Command Module design changes, 

procedural changes, and the incorporation of additional safety features at the launch complex. Additionally, substantial efforts were put forth in all manned 

space flight activities in emphasizing safety across-theboard with special attention to system safety. Scheduled 

safety evaluations are now routine. 

One of the agws safety motivational efforts is the 

Manned Space Flight Awareness Program, which rewards exceptional individual contributions to safety. 

Additionally, a Zero-Defectssn-Delivery Program successfully persuaded 20 air-freight carriers to provide 

special care to NASA space-hardware shipments. 

Study contracts were awarded in the area of space 

rescue aspects of the Advanced APOLLO Applications Program. 

Protection of Property.-Fire prevention and protection received a great deal of attention, with emphasis 
CHAPTER 111 35 

on the risk assessment and adequacy of staff skills. 

Particular attention was given to collections of both 

valuable and one-of-a-kind property items. Considerconduct of safety research where gaps in safety technical data are identified. 

able work was done to assure protection of the component parts and to protect locations of the tracking Facilities Management - 

and data-acquisition networks supporting AFQLLO. 

Identification of Hazards.-NASA established an 

agency-wide Hazards Identification Committee. This 

committee was active in the areas of identifying and 

classifying known hazards of NASA operations. This 

group will be instrumental in instituting an appropriate 

system to make certain that pertinent data is adequately collected, classified, and disseminated. 

NASA significantly strengthened its facilities management program by integrating various Headquarters 

facilities elements into a single Office of Facilities. The 

new office provides direct support to the Program 

Directors in developing and maintaining NASA's inhouse and contractor-held industrial plant capability. 

It is also responsible for the full range of management 

activities necessary for the planning, acquisition, development, use, and disposal of facilities. 

Safety Standards.-Agency-wide safety standards do 

not exist, although generally accepted standards are 

used by the field installations. A NASA Safety Standards Committee, with agency-wide representation, was 

established to advise on external and internal standards 

suitable for agency adoption. Among the many standards under consideration are those on lasers, electromagnetic radiation, and pesticides. 

Major new facilities that became operational during 

the year include a Flight Simulator for Advanced 

Aircraft at the Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, 

Calif. ; a Propulsion Component Evaluation Facility 

at the Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio; a 

Space Power Facility and a Spacecraft Propulsion Research Facility at Lewis Research Center's Plum Brook 

Station, Sandusky, Ohio; a Flight Crew Training - - 

Aerospace Safety Research Data Institute (ASRDI) .- 

This institute was initiated as an effort of the Lewis 

Research Center and as an intrinsic part of the NASA 

Safety Program. The ASRDI will provide a bank of 

interpreted safety technical data and will support the 

Facility, an Atmospheric Re-entry Material and Structures Evaluation Facility, and a Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, 

Tex.; and an AEROBEE 350 Launch Complex at the 

White Sands Test Facility, Las Cruces, N. Mex. 
DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE CHAPTER 

IV 

I n t roduct ion 

Three major actions and events highlighted Department of Defense space and aeronautical activity during 

1968: ( 1) Enlargement of the Phase I Defense Satellite Communications System to a constellation of 22 

operating satellites and 39 surface terminals; (2) 

Growth of the TRANSIT navigational satellite system 

to a four-satellite, fully operational system; and (3) 

First flights of the C-5A, the world’s largest military 

cargo aircraft. 

Space Development Activities 

Manned Orbiting Laboratory-Development of the 

Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) continued to 

progress during the year with the program approaching 

its peak of activity. 

The flow of structural test assemblies of major system 

components between associate contractors began, and 

procurement of various subsystem components continued. Demonstration firings of the first-stage engine 

of the TITAN IIIM booster engine were concluded 

successfully, and preparations were made for static 

test firings of the booster’s second-stage liquid-fuel 

engine and the seven-segment solid rocket motors. Construction of the MOL launch complex at Vandenberg 

Air Force Base, California, neared completion and 

preparations were made for the installation of associated ground equipment. 

Fourteen Aerospace Research Pilots continued training 

for the 30-day MOL missions, during which they will 

conduct defense-oriented experiments involving very 

complex equipment. The flight program will advance 

both manned and unmanned space technology and 

ascertain the full extent of man’s utility in space for 

defense purposes. 

The close working relationship between NASA and 

DOD continued to provide an exchange of technology, 

hardware and experience valuable to both the 

APOLLO and the MOL programs. 

Titan I11 Space Booster-The TIT.4N I11 Program 

continued in the flight test phase, with two TITAN 

IIIC launches occurring during the year. The first 

launch, in June, successfully carried eight initial Defense Communications Satellites into orbit; the second, 

in September, placed three Office of Aerospace Research satellites and one experimental communication 

satellite into various orbits. 

The R&D flight test program has been extremely successful. A total of 58 useful payloads have been carried on nine of the TITAN IIIC developmental launch 

vehicles to date. 

The R&D goals of the TITAN IIIC development 

program have been essentially ‘accomplished, although 

two R&D vehicles remain to be flown. TITAN I11 

configurations are being produced both with and without the large solid motors attached, thus making it possible to handle a wide variety of military payloads. The 

TITAN I11 configurations have demonstrated high reliability, and there is a great degree of commonality 

between versions. 

DOD Satellite Communications-The DOD program 

for satellite communications consists of the Long Distance Point-to-Point System and the Tactical Satellite 

Communications Program. 

Long Distance Point-to-Point System-This system 

meets the Government’s unique needs for satellite communications. It consists of the SYNCOM, Defense 

Satellite Communications System (DSCS) , and International Cooperative Efforts. 

SYNCOM-The SYNCOM satellites, developed and 

orbited by NASA originally for R&D purposes, have 

provided DOD Earth terminals with an interim means 

for passing operational traffic in the Pacific area. Dur36 
CHAPTER IV 37 

ing 1968, as the greater capabilities of the DSCS became increasingly available, use of the SYNCOM 

satellites by DOD decreased. SYNCOM I1 is no longer 

scheduled for use because of technical difficulties ; however, SYNCOM I11 is in regular use. Shipborne terminals have been activated aboard the USS ANAPOLIS and USS ARLINGTON and use SYNCOM I11 

to operate with a ground terminal at Guam to provide 

an operational system for the Navy. 

Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) - 

The Initial Defense Communications Satellite Project 

(IDCSP) was declared operational in 1967, and since 

that time has been designated Phase I of the Defense 

Satellite Communications System. The Phase I space 

subsystem deployment was completed in June 1968, 

when eight additional satellites were successfully orbited by a TITAN IIIC launch vehicle. Of the total of 

26 Phase I satellites placed in orbit, 22 are currently 

being scheduled for operational use. The initial ground 

terminal procurement of 29 terminals has also been 

completed, with terminals deployed to New Jersey, 

Maryland, Colorado, California and Alaska, as well 

as Hawaii, Guam and other overseas bases. Additionally, three terminals have been leased from industry 

and deployed overseas. Seven shipborne terminals are 

being modernized for installation on Fleet flagships and 

the USS WRIGHT. 

This Phase I system has proved a most useful addition to command and control communications capability. It has permitted the re-routing and continuation of vital communications during two separate - 

cable breaks in the Western Pacific, and it has provided a new capability not previously possible-the 

rapid transmission of high-quality photographs directly 

from Vietnam to the United States. 

In June 1968, it was decided to proceed with Phase 

I1 of the DSCS. Under current Phase I1 concepts, 

several new satellites will be placed in synchronous 

equatorial orbit by early 197 1. They are to be equipped 

with “Earth coverage” antennas which direct most of 

their radiated power towards the Earth so as to uniformly cover that portion of the globe visible to the 

satellite. In addition, there will be steerable narrowbeam antennas capable of concentrating a portion of 

the satellite’s power on an area of the Earth’s surface 

one to two thousand miles in diameter. 

Each new satellite will be able to provide hundreds 

of voice channels over the portion of the Earth visible 

to it‘and additional hundreds of channels within the 

narrow beam areas. The Phase 11 Earth subsystem will 

utilize to the maximum the terminals acquired during 

Phase I by modifying them to Phase I1 specifications. 

Additional terminals will be procured and certain new 

types of terminals will be developed to meet special 

requirements. With the new satellites and increased 

number of Earth terminals, the Phase I1 system will 

greatly increase the number of satellite channels available for unique Government needs. It will provide 

greater communication capabilities into and within 

theaters of operations much more quickly and effectively than do conventional communications 

techniques. 

International Cooperative Efforts-Under the provision of an earlier Memorandum of Understanding, 

the Department is procuring two synchronous “SKYNET” satellites for the United Kingdom as an 

augmentation of the United States Phase I system. The 

first SKYNET satellite is scheduled for launch in mid1969. Tests using Phase I satellites were conducted in 

which simultaneous operation of two United States 

and two United Kingdom Earth terminals demonstrated the feasibility of simultaneous but independent 

use of one satellite. In addition, there were exploratory talks with the United Kingdom of possible operational use of the Phase I1 system by that nation. 

Cooperative effort with NATO for the establishment 

of NATO’s preliminary satellite communications system continued during 1968. Use of Phase I satellites 

was provided to NATO for tests between two Earth 

terminals purchased from a U.S. firm by NATO. Also 

during 1968, procurement actions by NATO resulted 

in the Department contracting with a U.S. commercial source for a SKYNET-type satellilte for NATO use 

beginning in late 1969. 

Support of Canadian R&D satellite communications 

tests continued with the preparation of plans for additional tests in early 1969. 

Tactical Satellite Communications Program (TACSATC0M)-This is a joint Service Program which 

has made substantial progress during the past year. 

Building on the earlier work of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Lincoln Laboratory experimental 

satellite series, the Services in 1968 continued test- 
38 DOD 

ing of the fifth satellite (LES-5), launched in July the feasibility of using satellites for reliable naval tac1967 into a near-synchronous equatorial orbit with a tical communications and to develop operational 

slow eastward drift. New communications techniques procedures and doctrine. All practical operational ap 

have been tested, using experimental terminals in- plications are being explored with a view toward 

stalled in airplanes, ships and trucks; and joint tests enhancing open-sea communications reliability. 

were conducted with selected NATO countries. Aircraft, ships and ground terminals have acquired valuable data through the exchange of error-free teletype 

messages, without interruption, over transoceanic and 

transcontinental distances. A larger and more advanced satellite (LES-6) was successfully orbited on 

September 26, 1968. This satellite is now in stationary 

synchronous orbit, and the Services have initiated an 

extensive test program to explore further the uses 

and techniques for tactical communications. 

A larger, more complex satellite (TACSAT I) is 

now scheduled for launch in early 1969. This satellite 

will be tested, in conjunction with a limited number of 

communications terminals installed in tactical vehicles, 

operational aircraft and combat ships, to provide the 

basis for the development of a truly operational tactical satellite communication system within the next few 

years. 

The Air Force has had the responsibility for developing and launching the experimental satellites for the 

TACSATCOM Program and has developed appropriate aircraft terminals. Extensive testing of these 

terminals has proceeded, in coordination with the 

other Services. 

The Army has built and is testing several types of 

ground terminals-jeep, shelter and van installationsunder varied environmental conditions and in simulated tactical situations to demonstrate the operational 

feasibility of using spacecraft repeaters for tactical 

communications needs. An advanced portion of the 

Army program involves two families of terminal configurations, similar except for frequency bands. These 

terminals are being developed on a concept of modular 

construction and commonality of basic equipments to 

guarantee interoperability betwen terminal types. The 

terminals have been developed in man-pack, teampack, jeep-mounted, shelter installations, airborne and 

seaborne configurations. Tests will be initiated in early 

1969, with the launch of the TACSATCOM I satellite. 

Using similar techniques, the Navy is extensively testing 

terminals aboard ship, on naval aircraft, with other 

Services and in supporting laboratories to demonstrate 

The military Services are conducting a cooperative 

TACSATCOM testing program involving nine NATO 

participants-Belgium, Canada, Federal Republic of 

Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, SHAPE 

Technical Centre, United Kingdom and United States. 

The NATO countries joined with the United States 

in the test program, using terminals built in their own 

countries or purchased in the United States. 

Spaceborne Nuclear Detection (VELA) -The purpose of the VELA Satellite Program is to develop a 

satellite capability to detect nuclear explosions from the 

Earth’s surface to deep space. It is a joint research and 

development program of the Department of Defense 

and the Atomic Energy Commission. 

Launches of two satellites each have occurred in 1963, 

19M, 1965, and 1967; another launch is scheduled for 

1969. The AEC-furnished payload for detecting nuclear radiation, electromagnetic pulse signals, optical 

radiation from the fireball, and natural space background will incorporate improvements to previous 

designs . 

The on-orbit spacecraft have continued to perform 

well. In addition to the function of monitoring for 

nuclear test ban treaty violations, the spacecraft are 

supplying a wealth of natural radiation background 

data which are used by NASA, the Environmental 

Science Services Administration (ESSA) , and DOD. 

Geodetic Satellites-Effort in the DOD geodetic 

satellite program during 1968 included observations of 

LITES, SECOR, and other satellites. The GEOS-B, 

which carries a SECOR transponder, an optical 

beacon, a Doppler transmitter, and a rangejrange rate 

transponder in addition to laser reflectors and a CBand beacons, was launched by NASA in January 

1968. The geodetic satellites will continue to provide 

more precise information about the Earth’s size, shape, 

mass, and gravitational field, in addition to determining geodetic positions for features on the Earth’s 

surface. 

GEOS-B, PAGEOS, NAVY NAVIGATION SATEL- 
CHAPTER IV 39 

The Army Corps of Engineers continued the SECOR 

Geodetic Satellite Program, providing a global control 

net around the equatorial area and geodetic positions 

for range tracking instrumentation. Observations made 

in 1968 resulted in the extension of the SECOR network to the Indian Ocean area. It is expected that the 

network will be completed when the last link, at 

Hawaii, is closed during 1969. A second major program 

managed by the Army, and accomplished by the Army 

and the Coast and Geodetic Survey, is the PAGEOS 

Primary Geometric Network. This program will establish a world-wide geometric net and constitutes the 

primary contribution to the Naional Geodetic Satellite 

Program. Observations have been accomplished from 

33 of the 45 stations, and are schedded to be completed 

by the end of Fiscal Year 1970. 

The Navy Doppler Network (TRANET) observed 

several satellites during 1968, including the NAVY 

NAVIGATION (TRANSIT) SATELLITES, 

GEOS-A, and GEOS-B. Thirteen permanent stations 

and five mobile vans were in operation. These data 

are used to improve the model of the Earth's gravity 

field and provide center-of-mass positions for specific 

locations as required. The program has now resulted 

in the determination of harmonic coefficients of the 

gravity model through the 12th degree and order, and 

selected higher terms. (Prior to the use of satellites, the 

gravity model was known only through the second 

degree and order.) In addition, the positions of 19 new 

sites were determined this past year. 

The Air Force PC-1000 camera systems continue to 

operate in South America to provide a satellite densification network in support of mapping and charting 

efforts in that area. 

Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT) -The 

TRANSIT System, operated by the United States 

Navy, achieved the operational four-satellite constellation in March, when a new commercially built 

satellite joined the three laboratory-built satellites 

launched in 1967. The TRANSIT System was 

officially declared fully operational to the Fleet in 

October. 

Following the Vice President's announcement of the 

release of the TRANSIT System for commercial use 

in 1967, two companies have developed shipboard receivers for sale to interested US. parties. 

Space Ground Support 

DOD National Ranges-The principal Department of 

Defense National Ranges which provide ground (and 

airborne) support for space activities are: ( 1) Air 

Force Eastern Test Range (ETR), (2) Air Force 

Western Test Range (WTR) , (3) Air Force Satellite 

Control Facility (SCF), (4) Navy Pacific Missile 

Range (PMR) , and (5) Army White Sands Missile 

Range (WSMR). All provide range support to all 

Government users whose programs are uniquely suitable for implementation at a particular range or 

ranges. All are currently in the process of conversion 

of telemetry systems to operation in the Ultra High 

Frequency (UHF) band. At PMR and WSMR, space 

activity amounts to approximately 4% of the total 

range effort. Activity at the major space support ranges 

follows : 

Eastern Test Range-During the past year the Eastern 

Test Range has been emphasizing development and 

improvement of its mobile data-gathering fleet. These 

are aircraft and ships which can be strategically located throughout the world to gather data for various 

ballistic and space programs when land-based instrumentation is not adequate or available. 

Eight APOLLO Range Instrumented Aircraft became 

operational in 1968 and successfully supported various DOD programs and the manned APOLLO program. Four additional telemetry aircraft will become 

operational in 1969. A modification program to improve the support capability of the Advanced Range 

Instrumentation Ships has also been initiated. 

Western Test Range-Five instrumented ships developed for the support of the APOLLO program became operational in the spring of 1968. These ships 

are operated by the Air Force in support of NASA. 

A precision tracking radar, an FPQ-6, became operational at the Western Test Range's Pillar Pt., Calif., 

tracking site in June 1968. This radar will improve 

the capability for accurate flight trajectory measurements of ballistic missiles launched from Vandenberg 

Air Force Base, Calif. 

Bikini Atoll, which'was under the control of the Western Test Range, was recently returned to the Trust 

Territories of the Pacific. The AEC has declared that 

this location is now habitable. 
40 DOD 

Satellite Control Facility-Major effort has been continued toward overall upgrading of Satellite Control 

Facility capabilities established in previous years. Conof the continuing work is in the areas of weapons 

clearances, static and fatigue testing and full-flight 

envelope clearance. 

struction began on a new addition to the Satellite 

Test Center at Sunnyvale, Calif. This will provide 14 

new Mission Control complexes and house the Advanced Data System (ADS) and the Expanded Communications Electronics System (EXCELS). The 

Space Ground Link Subsystem (SGLS) was installed 

at three tracking stations and successfully supported 

the first satellite flown with this new equipment in 

October 1968. Installation of SGLS is continuing at 

the remainder of the tracking stations. The new Guam 

station is nearing .completion and will become operational in early 1969. This modernization will provide 

a flexible, responsive satellite control network for 

existing and future DOD space programs. 

Space Detection and Tracking-Air Force SPACETRACK and Navy SPASUR form the North American Air Defense Command’s Space Detection and 

Tracking System (SPADATS) . A new AN/FPS-85 

phased array radar became operational in 1968. Located at Eglin Air Force Base, Fla., it will significantly 

improve the SPADATS capability to detect, track, 

identify and catalog all man-made objects in space. 

Aeronautics Develop men t Activity 

G5A Heavy Logistics Transport Aircraft-The 

C-5A, the world’s largest military cargo aircraft, made 

its first flight and commenced Category I testing bn 

schedule, in June 1968. Since that time three aircraft 

have flown 31 flights, for a total flying time of approximately 88 hours. Delivery dates on the next three aircraft have slipped slightly, but deliveries are expected 

to be back on schedule in May 1969. The C-5 engine 

(TF-39) has completed the 150-hour endurance test 

of the Formal Qualification Test (FQT) . It is estimated that the FQT will be completed in May 1969. 

F-1 11 Aircraft-The F-1 1 1 A program has been in the 

process of transition from development to in-fleet status 

during the past year. Nearly 90 aircraft have been 

delivered to the Tactical Air Command. The Contractor’s Category I test effort at Ft. Worth, Tex., 

Eglin AFB, Fla., and Edwards AFB, Calif., is continuing in those areas which normally proceed throughout production delivery. The Air Force Category I1 

program at Edwards AFB also continues. The bulk 

The F-1 1 1D model which incorporates the advanced 

avionics package is, of course, still in the development 

stage, with first deliveries not scheduled until the latter 

part of 1969. The emphasis is almost completely on 

the avionics system, since development and testing of 

the aircraft itself has been largely accomplished in the 

F-1 11A program. 

The success of the accelerated service test program 

which was initiated in June 1967 at Nellis AFB, Nev., 

resulted in a decision to deploy six F-111A’s to SEA 

for a 6-month operational evaluation. This deployment took place on March 15, 1968, with the first 

stop at Guam, 5,770 nautical miles from Nellis. The 

unit landed at Takhli on March 17 and flew its 

initial combat mission 8 days later. The combat missions flown demonstrated a high capability for penetration and promise bombing accuracies during night 

and inclement weather unequalled by our other tactical systems. 

Although the F-111 losses in 1968 were highly publicized and were the cause of concerted investigative 

efforts by the Air Force, it should be noted that the 

safety record of the F-1 1 1 exceeds other century-series 

aircraft at an equivalent point in time and is equalled 

only by the F-4. 

The fatigue test program has revealed the need for 

a modification to the wing cany-through structure. 

This modification will be installed in retrofit for aircraft already assembled in production or in-fleet. 

Delivery of the first F-1 1 1C aircraft to the Australians 

took place in September 1968. Delivery of the remaining aircraft will be made after modification of the 

wing carry-through structure. 

On August 31, 1968, the first strategic bomber version 

of the F-111 was delivered to the Air Force. Designated the FB-111A, the aircraft was accepted and 

flown to Edwards AFB, where scheduled flight test 

will be completed. Later, bombers will be delivered to 

Carswell AFB, Tex., for build-up of the Combat Crew 

Training Wing. 

Tactical Air Command is in the process of equipping 

the tactical wing at Nellis AFB. Crews are also flying 
CHAPTER IV 41 

the F-1 11A in the Combat Crew Training Wing at 

the same location. 

additional sonobuoys, and will carry a larger weapon 

load. Its sensors will include a new radar, sonobuoys, 

Advanced Tactical Fighter-The Navy released a 

Request for Proposal (RFP) to industry in June 1968 

which describes a two-place, twin-engine, advanced 

fighter aircraft, the F-14A. The F-14A will be a new 

airframe utilizing the TF30-Pl2 engine and AWG-9/ 

PHOENIX missile control system which will be modified to be compatible with SPARROW, SIDEWINDER, and guns as well as PHOENIX. In addition to its Fleet Air Defense capability, the F-14A will 

have capabilities generally superior to those of the 

F-4 in other fighter roles in the early 1970’s. Advancedtechnology engines and avionics are under development for installation in the F-14A airframe to produce a modification with significant improvement in 

performance, to counter the threat of the late 1970’s 

and early 1980’s. 

The Air Force has initiated Contract Definition for 

an advanced air-superiority weapon system to be operational in the mid-1970’s. This aircraft, the F-15, is 

designed to provide the necessary maneuverability and 

performance for air-to-air combat to maintain air superiority. It will replace the F-4 in the air-superiority 

role and assist in balancing the overall tactical force 

capabilities .in the 1975-1980 period. Although emphasis has been placed on optimizing the F-15 for 

air superiority, it will also have a substantial visual airto-ground capability for augmenting and fulfilling tactical requirements when air supremacy has been 

achieved. 

A-7 Development-The Navy A-7A has proven its 

versatility, flexibility and increased ordnance-carrying 

capability in combat, numerous squadrons having seen 

action. The A-7D/E Air Force/Navy joint development program is progressing on schedule. Incorporation of the TF-41 engine in all the Air Force A-7D 

aircraft and the Navy A-7E (following production 

number 67) is expected to improve performance 

magnetic detection devices, and cameras. The highly 

integrated avionics system will be designed around a 

central digital computer of advanced design, enabling 

the crew to process and interpret the large amount of 

information received from the sensors. 

VS(X) development is proceeding on schedule. In 

April 1968 a contract was awarded to develop the 

TF-34, a high by-pass turbofan engine designed specifically for the VS (X) . Five major aircraft manufacturers submitted proposals in April 1968 to conduct 

Contract Definition for the aircraft. Two companies 

were selected in August for this Contract Definition; 

they submitted firm development and production proposals in December. 

Helicopter Development 

AH-56A (CHEYENNE)-The AH-56A is the first 

helicopter developed as an integrated aerial weapons 

system. Ten prototype aircraft have been fabricated 

and delivered to the Army. It is designed to be the 

fastest, most lethal and least vulnerable helicopter in 

the 1970-80 timeframe. Since the first flight occurred 

September 21, 1967, the contractor has conducted an 

intensive ground and flight test program, Test results 

to date indicate that performance specifications will 

be met. On January 8, 1968, the Army exercised a production option to procure 375 CHEYENNE’S over a 

four-year period. 

AH-IG (HUEYC0BRA)-The Army developed and 

procured the AH-IG in 1966 in response to an urgent 

requirement of the Vietnam field commander for an 

improved armed helicopter. The AH-IG carries 

machine guns, rockets and a grenade launcher. Deployment of the aircraft to Vietnam began in August 

1967. The AH-IG serves as the Army’s interim armed 

helicopter pending the production and deployment 

of the AH-56A. 

significantly. V/STOL Development 

Carrier-Based ASW Aircraft-The VS (X) is to be a 

new carrier-based Anti-Submarine Warfare ( ASW) 

aircraft to replace the present S-2E Tracker. The 

VS(X) will have vastly improved speed and range 

as compared with present carrier-based ASW aircraft. 

It will have a four-man crew capable of monitoring 

CX-86The Canadian Government is procuring three. 

(2x434, formerly designated CL-84, test aircraft for 

military operational suitability testing beginning in 

calendar year 1969. US. DOD personnel will assist 

in and monitor these tests by providing advice, limited 

equipment, and one part-time engineer. 
42 DOD 

X-22-The X-22 ducted-propeller research aircraft is 

being used, under Navy management, as a variablestability research aircraft. A Military Performance 

Evaluation (MPE) utilizing the variable-stability system is scheduled for March 1969. 

Light Intratheater Transport-The Light Intratheater Transport (LIT) is being programmed for the 

mid-1970’s to replace the C-7’s/C-l23’s and augment 

the C-130E’s. The new transport will be able to operate 

in the forward area to support Army combat units and 

will have adequate payload capacity to distribute cargo 

that has been offloaded from C-5 and C-141 aircraft. 

The program is in the final steps of the concept formulation phase, which is evaluating V/STOL (vertical/ 

short takeoff or landing) and STOL (short takeoff or 

landing) concepts. Results of these evaluations will 

provide the basis for design selection. 

AC-130 Gunship II-The side-firing AC-130 Gunships were developed for night and limited all-weather operation to support interdiction and close air-support missions in a semi-permissive environment. They 

are configured with four 20mm Gatling guns and four 

7.62mm miniguns, night-attack sensors for improved 

target detection and accurate gun laying. Modification 

of these aircraft is currently in progress. 

Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft-During 1968 

the Air Force continued studies and advanced development of critical components in order to amplify 

and verify the design and characteristics of an advanced strategic bomber with sufficient range and 

flexibility to enable it to meet both nuclear and conventional weapons delivery requirements. 

The Air Force has an approved program that will involve a competitive design phase for systems, avionics 

and propulsion contractors. This effort will be directed 

toward reducing development lead time ; over a twoyear period it will define the details of the system to 

provide more accurate configuration and cost estimates. 

No commitment to build a vehicle will be made until 

the two-year effort and the projected threat are 

evaluated. 

National Clear Air Turbulence Program-The Department of Defense has been assigned responsibility 

for that portion of the National Clear Air Turbulence 

Program concerned with observations, measurements, 

special reconnaissance, and development of devices to 

detect turbulence ahead of an aircraft in flight. This, 

in turn, was assigned to the Department of the Air 

Force. 

A detailed management and development plan has 

been prepared by the Department of the Air Force to 

initiate the DOD portion of the plan in Fiscal Year 

1970. The Air Force is also actively coordinating its 

activity with that of the Department of Commerce. 

Tropic Moon III-Tropic Moon I11 is a program to 

modify 16 €3-57 aircraft to a self-contained night-attack 

configuration. These aircraft will contain an array of 

electronic sensors fully integrated with the weapon 

delivery system to provide for improved target detection and accurate weapon delivery in darkness. Because of their relatively high speed potential and 

munitions-dispensing versatility, the aircraft will 

primarily be employed against interdiction targets in 

medium-to-high threat areas. 

Shed Light-Shed Light is a grouping of U.S. Air 

Force programs which will provide increased night operational capability to our tactical forces as rapidly as 

possible. It involves approximately 60 primary and 

supporting development projects. These are interrelated to provide an effective mix of weapon systems to 

strike a variety of targets in various threat environments. Both self-contained and hunter/killer system 

concepts have been explored. 

Significant progress has been made over the past 30 

months in developing night-attack sensors and in integrating them with existing aircraft. Several equipments have been employed and evaluated in combat or 

are in the process of being developed with testing to be 

conducted in Southeast Asia. These include Low-Light 

Television equipment mounted on B-57 and A-1E 

aircraft; Side-Looking Infrared and Forward-Looking Radar with Moving Target Indicator installed on 

AC-130 Gunships; night observation devices on AC130 and Forward Air Control (FAC) aircraft; and 

battlefield illumination and airborne real-time reconnaissance systems in RC-130 aircraft. 

More sophisticated and advanced sensor packages for 

several different types of aircraft will be placed in 

operation in the near future. These will include improved electronic sensors and sensor integration with 

improved information displays, data processing and 

transmission systems, navigation and weapon delivery 

systems. 
CHAPTER IV 43 

Unconventional Airborne Platforms-The Advanced 

Research Projects Agency ( ARPA) has given special 

attention to relatively invulnerable targets appearing 

with more regularity in Vietnam. Included among 

these are heavy artillery, trucks, mortars, and rockets. 

An examination of the characteristics of unconventional platforms, such as balloons, airships, and extremely small aircraft, indicates that these may offer 

unique capabilities in locating and destroying hard 

targets. 

In the SILENT JOE I1 program, ARPA is evaluating the potential utility of airships as platforms for 

conduct of special operations in support of killing hard 

targets and defense of military installations. During 

the current, preliminary, phase of the program, an 

airship is being tested and various airship designs are 

being studied together with various payloads. A lowrisk development program is being initiated to develop 

airship and payload systems for special missions in 

Southeast Asia. 

Supporting Research and Technology 

Over-the-Horizon ( OTH) Radar-Radars developed 

during and after World War I1 to detect and track 

aircraft have had limited ranges. This limitation was 

due to the geometry of the detection environment 

(line-of-sight) and the operating frequency selected. 

The Department of Defense has now developed OTH 

radars, utilizing ionospheric refraction of radar energy, 

which have demonstrated a capability to detect aircraft (and missiles) below the line-of-sight horizon. 

The OTH techniques have demonstrated radar detection ranges of several thousand miles. Laboratory and 

field evaluations are continuing, to determine the desirability and feasability of applying this technique to 

improve the capability to detect and track aircraft as 

well as to enhance missile early-warning capabilities. 

Spacecraft Technology and Advanced Re-entry Tests 

(START)-The Air Force's current efforts in developing technology for maneuverable re-entry spacecraft are concentrated in two major areas. These are 

the PILOT (X-24A) program and advanced spacecraft studies. The X-24A testing will be limited due to 

the reduced likelihood that this technology will be 

applied directly to future military systems. The advanced studies will seek to channel exploratory development effort toward future military needs. Advanced 

spacecraft configurations will be considered in conjunction with both available and advanced launch 

vehicle concepts. 

Advanced Space Power Technology-The Air Force 

program has continued to identify various advanced 

concepts for improving the power-to-weight ratio of 

electrical power systems essential for space missions 

in the 1970's and beyond. 

In 1968, advanced development of a Large Retractable 

Solar Cell Array was initiated to demonstrate the capability and reliability of lightweight, flexible solar cell 

arrays. Current plans provide for a flight demonstration 

of this array in Fiscal Year 1971. Successful demonstration of this technology will enable a 50% reduction in 

weight and an 80% reduction in volume over current 

solar cell array configurations in the 500-watt to 20- 

kilowatt power range. 

Radiation-Cooled Fuel Cell High Load Test-The Air 

Force has completed in-house the high load testing of 

a radiation-cooled fuel cell module developed under a 

contract with industry. The fuel cell was subjected to 

a high-power load profile (90-minute cycle) to determine its overload capabilities under conditions representative of several potential user requirements. The 

module was operated in a thermal-vacuum bell jar 

chamber through an environmental temperature range 

from 20' F to 100' F. Power produced by the fuel cell 

ranged from approximately 56 to 385 watts (130 watts 

average). The average power represented a 30% increase, or overload, over contract design and performance requirements of 100 watts. 

Cobalt40 Thermionic Generator-The Air Force has 

recently established the feasibility of using Cobalt40 

isotope as a high-temperature thermal energy source 

of thermionic energy conversion for space and ground 

power. This achievement is expected to be a step 

forward in high-temperature thermal energy source 

technology for static-energy conversion devices (both 

thermionic and thermoelectric generators) . Availability 

of such a heat source has been an objective for several 

years, and its absence has been a deterrent to full 

exploitation of thermionic generators. 

Although Cobalt40 isotope was available in large 

quantities at relatively low cost, it had not been considered a suitable energy source for space electrical 
44 DOD 

power generators. It was generally accepted that the 

shielding required to reduce its very intense gamma 

perimental satellite. It may lead to low-cost, simple 

equipment for ships, aircraft, and other users. 

radiation to safe working levels would be prohibitive 

in size and weight. However, this intense gamma radiation can be turned into an asset by using a new 

generator design approach in which the gamma radiation shielding weight is not critically degrading. 

Turbojet Engines-The Air Force has achieved technological advances in turbojet engines. This year two 

new engines were flown on their maiden flights with 

very good results, one new engine has started development, and demonstrator engines - continue to be tested 

DOD Gravity Experiment (DODGE)-The DODGE for use in new aerospace weapon systems. 

satellite, launched in 1967, is the first satellite to use 

three-axis gravity-gradient stabilization at nearsynchronous altitude. Many experiments have been 

conducted, including extending and retracting the 10 

long booms, tumbling the satellite, studying boom 

bending due to solar heating, and determining the 

effects of solar pressure. Operation within the limits 

of +-2" in roll and pitch and 5"-7" in yaw was demonstrated in 1968. Evidence indicates that it will be 

desirable to couple a single-axis gravity-gradient boom 

system with a small moment-of-inertia flywheel for 

the optimum semipassive stabilization at this great 

altitude. 

SOLRAWolar Radiation Monitoring Satellite Program-The objective of the SOLRAD Program is to 

perform continuous monitoring of solar X-ray and 

ultraviolet emission to provide indices of solar activity 

upon which a system of ionospheric disturbance forecasting can be based. 

The SOLRAD IX satellite, launched March 5, 

1968, provides data which are reduced and encoded 

in a standard format and delivered to the AGIWARN 

and SOFNET networks within 15 minutes of reception. From analyses of these data, warnings of increased solar activity are sent to the Communications 

Commands. 

Navigation by Satellite-The Naval Research Laboratory is developing a new satellite navigation concept 

called Timation, which can be used for providing continuous navigational fixes from low-altitude or synchronous satellites. In the Timation experiment a satellite contains a stable oscillator controlling its transmissions. On a ship the navigator compares the satellite's transmissions with his own oscillator. If both oscillators are suitably synchronized, he can determine 

his range from the satellite. Knowing the satellite's 

position, he can use celestial-navigation techniques to 

determine the ship's position. The concept has been 

proven feasible in tests conducted in 1968 with an exThe TF-41 and the TF-39 turbofan jet engines both 

had excellent test flights in the A-7D and C-5A, respectively. The Air Force also began development of 

demonstrator engines for the F-15 air-superiority 

aircraft, while advanced development work continued 

in support of potential VTOL systems and the advanced manned strategic aircraft (AMSA) . 

Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator ( ATEGG) - 

This program provides a means to demonstrate new 

component design concepts in an engine environment. 

The objective is to provide new engine component 

technology which can be used, in future aerospace 

systems, with low risk and minimum development 

time. Four contractors are participating in the 

program. 

These contractors are developing turbine-engine gasgenerator cores which push the threshold of technology 

on all fronts, placing emphasis on thermal efficiency 

and thrust-to-weight ratio. Significant increases in 

technology are possible, in a minimum of time and 

with modest funding, through the demonstrator engine 

approach. 

Turbo Shaft Engine Project-The Army is conducting 

a development program in which each of two contractors will build and test a 1,500-shaft horsepower 

(SHP) demonstrator engine to demonstrate advanced 

gas turbine engine technology. Goals are engines that 

will have 40% lower weight and 25% lower 

fuel consumption than current engines of comparable 

power, while also providing higher reliability and improved maintenance features. The program is now 

half completed, and the preliminary indication is that 

the objectives can be attained. 

Aircraft Propulsion Subsystem Integration ( APSI) - 

The Aircraft Propulsion Subsystem Integration Program is an Air Force project to develop air inlet, engine and exhaust nozzle design criteria which may be 

used to assure compatibility between airframe and pro- 
CHAPTER IV 45 

pulsion systems of future gas turbine-powered aircraft. These criteria will permit the selection of that 

combination of airframe, inlet, engine and exhaust 

nozzle which will tend to minimize future propulsion 

system losses throughout the aerospace vehicle’s flight 

envelope. 

Industry contractors of this program have been busy 

over the past year developing coordinated tests and 

studies to solve the problem of aircraft propulsion 

compatibility. The work completed thus far indicates 

that high payoffs in performance gains are possible. 

The program has ramifications that extend to added 

performance in all aerospace vehicles, both military and 

civilian. Aircraft will benefit through improved inlet 

systems engine performance and reduced nozzle drag, 

particularly in the supersonic regime of flight. 

VTOL Integrated Flight Control Systems (VIFCS) - 

The objective is to evolve handling-qualities criteria, 

control power requirements, displays and aerodynamic 

prediction techniques to support the development of 

future operational V/STOL aircraft. The primary research flight-test vehicle is a modified XV-4A aircraft, designated the XV-4BJ which uses a jet directlift configuration. The two-place XV-4B aircraft has a 

total of six 5-85-19 jet engines. Two are used as lift/ 

cruise engines and are mounted in nacelles on either 

side of the fuselage. The other four are used as lift engines and are mounted vertically in the center of the 

fuselage. 

The XV-4B completed all its conventional-mode test 

objectives in two flights. The first vertical take-off and 

landing flight will occur in the near future. 

Load Alleviation and Mode Stabilization (LAMS)- 

The flight-test phase of the Load Alleviation and 

Mode Stabilization (LAMS) Program was completed 

in May 1968. The objective of the two-and-a-half- 

-year Advanced Development effort was to demonstrate advanced flight control techniques which 

would alleviate gust loads and control structural 

oscillations. 

A heavily instrumented B-52E aircraft was modified 

to use the system in flight tests. Aircraft response data 

in turbulent flight conditions were obtained for different aircraft control system configurations, including an unaugmented system and the LAMS system. 

Indications are that the LAMS reduces significantly 

the fatigue damage rates incurred in gust turbulence. 

Airborne Warning and Control System (AWACS)- 

The AWACS is being developed to provide the Aerospace Defense Command with a survivable warning 

and control environment for air-defense interceptors, 

and the Tactical Air Command with command, control and communications for quick-reaction global deployment with the Composite Air Strike Force (CASF) 

to any limited-war area. 

The AWACS will be self-contained in a subsonic, 

cargo, jet aircraft. The aircraft will contain a surveillance radar capable of detecting and tracking lowflying aircraft, a mixture of long- and short-range 

communications, data processing, and displays. It will 

carry a crew of about 30-40 personnel. 

Advanced Composite Materials Application-A fullscale horizontal stabilizer for the F-111 has been 

made using a boron-plastic composite skin. It weighs 

25% less than the tail with aluminum skin. A set 

of these tails will be flight-tested early in 1969. 

Boron-plastic composites have also been applied to 

several secondary structures. Upper and lower wing 

panels and an aft main landing gear door for the 

F-1 1 1 aircraft have been successfully fabricated and 

tested. An A4 outer wing fence, T-38 landing gear 

door, and an F-4 rudder have also been fabricated 

and tested. All components have been flight-tested, 

and some have over 100 hours of flight time. No damage to any of the components has occurred during the 

flight-test program. 

Work is currently under way on wing and fuselage 

development and on jet engine components. The technology has also been developed for the application of 

boron-plastic composites to helicopter aft main rotor 

blades (CH-47 aircraft) and C-5A wing slats and 

F-X wings. An eventual weight savings of about 50% 

is expected. 

Space Experiments Support Program-The Air Force 

Space Experiments Support Program (SESP) combines different Department of Defense space flight 

experiments on single launch vehicles and insures that 

launch vehicle capacity i3 fully utilized. 

Related to this effort is an Aerospace Research Support 

Program, which now utilizes SESP boost capacity for 
46 DOD 

research and environmental satellites. In the overall 

program during 1968, a total of three launches successfully orbited eight satellites containing 26 experiments. 

Under the Quadripartite Military Technical Cooperation Program, we have recently invited the United 

Kingdom, Canada and Australia to fly experiments 

aboard our Space Experiments Support Program. 

Other cooperative efforts are already under way in 

the military communications satellite area. 

Systems Survivability-The Air Force has continued 

to develop its program to assure the survivability of its 

weapons systems in the hostile environments of both 

nuclear and non-nuclear conflicts. As an adjunct of 

this program, it is preparing satellites to withstand not 

only the natural environments of space but also the 

harsher environments arising from nuclear weapon 

detonations. Efforts are continuing to assure continued 

operation of satellite systems during atmospheric 

nuclear testing, should it be resumed, or in wartime. 

Cooperation With Other Government 

Agenies 

Coordination and .cooperation continues with other 

Government activities, particularly the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Included 

are frequent informal discussions at all levels of the 

respective agencies, scheduled meetings of formal coordinating panels and boards and direct support to 

NASA. 

National Aeronautics and Space Council-Policy coordinated and high-level exchanges of plans and proposals take place through this organization, of which 

the Secretary of Defense is a member. 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

(AACB)-During the calendar year, four AACB 

meetings were held in which information was exchanged, and space and aeronautics programs were 

coordinated. Emphasis was placed on conducting joint 

studies in manned space flight, space networks and 

ranges, environmental monitoring, propulsion, and a 

number of other areas of common DOD/NASA activity. These studies are directed not just at avoiding 

duplication and assuring full coordination, but at possible savings through reductions and consolidations. 

DOD Support of NASA-DOD support of NASA 

totaled more than $225 million during Fiscal Year 

1968. The major items of support include operation of 

the National Ranges, which provide support to both 

manned and unmanned spacecraft launches. Two 

hundred ninety-one military personnel are assigned to 

NASA (186 Air Force, 20 Navy, 83 Army, 2 Marine 

Corps). Examples of the more than 400 support activities follow : 

ARMYConstruction Support-The Corps of Engineers supported NASA by providing real estate acquisition and 

land management services, and design and construction of facilities at the John F. Kennedy Space Center, 

the Mississippi Test Facility, and the Electronics Research Center. 

Lunar and Planetary Actiuities-The Army Map Service assisted NASA by producing large-scale maps, photomaps, and landmark graphics from LUNAR 

ORBITER photography for use in the APOLLO 

program and various scientific studies. Construction of 

a 1 : 2,000-scale lunar landing site relief model, for use 

in astronaut training, was begun. Studies to improve 

the lunar geodetic control network were continued. A 

series of Mars maps was produced for use in planning 

the MARINER 69 Flyby. 

Aerospace Feeding Systems-The United States Army 

Natick Laboratories continued to develop new and 

improved aerospace food products for NASA and 

the United States Air Force which were made available for use in simulated tests and flight qualifications. 

About 30 candidate flight foods have been improved 

and crush protection increased. Menus for APOLLO 

flights were planned according to the astronaut’s individual selectibns from available flight-qualified foods. 

NAVYAPOLLO-The Navy continued to provide the recovery fleet and other support forces to assist the 

APOLLO program. 

Medical Projects-The Naval Aerospace Medical Institute, Pensacola, Florida, provided facilities and personnel to assist NASA in the study of space-related 

medical phenomena. Also, technical research and inspection services were furnished in the NASA acquisition of astronaut seats for the Zero-G test facility. 
CHAPTER IV. 47 

AIR FORCETest Range Support-Approximately 25% of the total 

United States Air Force support provided NASA during the first six months of this year was devoted to testrange support of spaceflight and recovery operations. 

A significant portion of these costs was for the 

APOLLO Range Ships, which will provide communications and data support for that program. Other types 

of test-range support include range instrumentation, 

data acquisition, transmission, processing and reduction, calibration and repair of precision measurement 

equipment, industrial support, launch-complex control 

and support operations, and facilities engineering on 

the Air Force Eastern and Western Test Ranges. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center (support for 

the SATURN booster) : 

a. Altitude testing of the 5-2 engine continued, 

with the objective of identifying the effects on the 

engine-start transient of anticipated thermal environmental conditions imposed on the engine components. 

A base recirculation study was conducted to 

determine the instrumentation techniques and methods 

for measuring velocity pressure and density in base flow 

fields around a SATURN rocket cluster model. 

b. 

c. SATURN protuberance testing was conducted 

using variable-height, generalized protuberance shapes 

on the SATURN S-IVB full-scale panel model. Static 

and dynamic pressures and boundary-layer parameters 

were measured. 

Propellants-The Air Force has continued to supply 

support for NASA's requirements in propellants and 

pressurants. Under this arrangement, the Air Force 

Logistics Command serves as the single manager for 

propellants and pressurants when it is considered in 

the best interest of the Government. 
ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION 

I nt rod uctio n 

In 1968 substantial progress was made in the joint 

AEC/NL4S.4 nuclear rocket program. Highlights for 

the year included (a) the completion of two highpower tests on the PHOEBUS-2A reactor; the major 

test, at powers up to 4,200 megawatts, provided data 

on the nuclear and thermal characteristics of high 

power-density-reactors; a second test (with peak power 

at 3,700 megawatts) furnished data on the control of 

nuclear rocket reactors; (b) the completion of a series 

of tests on the XECF engine (a cold-flow test engine) 

to investigate the performance of a nuclear rocket engine under conditions partially simulating flight; (c) 

the initiation of power tests on the “hot” groundexperimental engine (XE) in ETS-1, and (d) the successful testing of the PEWEE-1 test-bed reactor at Test 

Cell “C”. Significant progress also was made in the 

extension of fuel-element technology. The activities 

cited are directed specifically toward establishing a 

base of technology for the development of a 75,000- 

pound-thrust NERVA engine. 

During the year, the AEC continued to produce technology required for development of a family of longlived space reactor power systems in the 10 kilowatt to 

the megawatt range, and to develop and test nuclear 

radioisotope electric power units for space use. Highlight events included: (a) testing of the flight-configured ground-prototype version of the zirconium hydride 

nuclear reactor, the S8DR, which will be capable of 

serving as a heat source for space power systems up to 

100 electrical killowatts; (b) completion and delivery, 

for integrated system testing, of five SNAP-27 isotopic 

space electric power generators, to be used on 

APOLLO landings as part of the APOLLO Lunar 

Surface Experiment Packages (ALSEP) ; (c) launch 

failure of the NIMBUS B satellite carrying a SNAP-19 

isotopic generator, followed by recovery from the ocean 

off California of the isotope fuel of the generator (a re48 

CHAPTER 

v 

peat NIMBUS is being readied for launch in the first 

half of 1969, and a new SNAP-19 unit has been delivered to NASA for integration into the spacecraft) ; 

(d) start of development of a 20-watt plutonium-238 

fueled generator for a NAVY NAVIGATION 

SATELLITE. 

By the year’s end, substantial progress had been 

made in space-directed advanced technology development. The program to develop a basic advanced reactor concept, the in-core thermionic reactor, is continuing. Another advanced concept, the liquid metalcooled space reactor, is presently being phased out. 

Nuclear Rocket Propu Is ion 

During 1968, preliminary planning in preparation for 

the development of the 75,000-pound thrust engine 

was completed, and a development schedule was defined which indicated preliminary flight tests based 

on current NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application) and PHOEBUS reactor technology could be accomplished in seven to eight years. 

(Budgetary constraints in Fiscal Year 1968 forced a 

reassessment of the future space program, and a reexamination of the goals of the nuclear rocket program. These reviews led to the decision to reduce the 

NERVA thrust level from the 200,000 pounds originally proposed to 75,000 pounds. The 75,000-poundthrust engine is not the best choice for manned planetary exploration, but it is quite suitable for a wide 

range of other missions for which nuclear rockets are 

being considered. The lower-thrust engine will use 

hardware of the size used in the technology program 

and test facilities basically available. Development 

costs, therefore, will be less than those of the 200,000- 

pound-thrust engine, particularly over the next several 

years.) In addition, work proceeded on the preliminary design of the NERVA reactor and critical engine hardware, i.e., the nozzle and nozzle hot-bleed 
CHAPTER V 49 

port, reactor pressure vessel and turbopump. Work 

also was initiated on the preliminary design of modifications required to test the NERVA engine in Engine 

Test Stand No. 1, at full power and under simulated 

flight conditions. 

Reactor and Engine System Technology ActivitiesThe PHOEBUS-2A reactor tests were originally 

planned to demonstrate high-power reactor performance for direct application in the 200,000-poundthrust NERVA engine. When the NERVA engine 

thrust was reduced to 75,000 pounds, the demonstration of high-power reactor operation became of secondary importance, and the PHOEBUS-2A became 

a tool for obtaining data on reactor design concepts 

being considered for use in the NERVA flight reactor 

and on a new method of reactor control based on using 

the liquid-hydrogen propellant flowing through the 

reactor core to regulate the fission process. PHOEBUS-2A test results follow : 

(a) In the major experiment of the PHOEBUS-2A test program, the reactor was operated 

for a total test time of approximately 32 minutes, 12 minutes of which was at a power level 

above 4,000 MW. A peak power of 4,200 MW 

was achieved. Good data, applicable to the 

NERVA flight reactor, were obtained zbout the 

control of high power-density nuclear rocket 

reactors. 

(b) In a subsequent test, the PHOEBUS-2A 

was restarted to conduct a series of experiments 

at low and intermediate power levels. The reactor was operated over a wide range of power 

levels up to about 3,700 MW and for a total test 

time of approximately 30 minutes. The experiments gave additional data on the nuclear and 

thermal characteristics of high power-density 

reactors. These data will be very useful in the 

development of the NERVA flight reactor. 

Fuel Element Materials Research-Significant work 

also was conducted to improve the performance and 

duration capability of nuclear rocket reactor fuel 

elements. 

The initial duration objective for nuclear rocket fuel 

elements was achieved in December 1967, with the 

demonstration of 60 minutes of full power (approximately 1,100 megawatts) with the NRX-A6 reactor. 

During 1968, laboratory tests of improved fuel elements 

provided test durations of more than 100 minutes. 

These tests were conducted under conditions far more 

severe than thoie existing during operation of the 

NRX-A6 reactor. Fuel element materials research has 

now shifted toward cyclic testing at higher power densities and temperatures. 

In the laboratory programs for improving fuel elements performance, electrically heated corrosion furnaces are used for corrosion testing. The results of these 

performance tests must be checked periodically through 

full-scale reactor tests. Investigations hme indicated 

that a smaller-sized test reactor, requiring a smaller 

number of fuel elements, would be more economical. 

As a result, the fabrication of two such reactors, the 

PEWEE-1 and PEWEE-2, was initiated. 

During 1968, Test Cell “C” was modified to meet 

the requirements for PEWEE reactor testing and the 

PEWEE-1 reactor was moved to the ce!l for checkout 

prior to power testing in December. Tcst cell modifications consisted primarily of the addition of a new 

liquid-hydrogen turbopump and minor changes to various lines and valves to accommodate PEWEE flow 

requirements. 

The PEWEE fuel element test reactor was designed 

by Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory to provide an 

economical means of evaluating the performance of 

fuel elements in the nuclear rocket program. PEWEE 

reactors are smaller than their NERVA and PHOEBUS counterparts and, therefore, can be built and 

tested in less time and at lower cost. Design of the 

first PEWEE reactor, PEWEE-1, lbegan in May 1967. 

Eighteen months later, on December 4, 1968, power 

testing of PEWEE-1 was completed, in a successful 

program to develop and evaluate the design. Significant 

power operation totaled about 90 minutes, 40 minutes 

of which were at the design power of 514 megawatts 

and a hydrogen temperature of 4,600”R. The reactor 

was also subjected to four thermal cycles in achieving 

the total operating time. The test of PEWEE-1 also 

provided data on the performance of advanced experimental fuel elements under the highest temperature 

and power density conditions ever achieved in the 

nuclear rocket (or any other reactor) program. 

XECF Ground-Experimental Engine Tests-The 

XECF engine tests were the first of a series of experiments planned to investigate the performance of a 
50 AEC . 

nuclear rocket engine under conditions partially simulating flight. The test also was the first to be conducted 

in Engine Test Stand No. 1, the new down-firing 

test stand, and to utilize the XE ground-experimental 

engine, an engine closely approaching that of a flight 

configuration. No fissionable material was included 

in the XECF reactor core; for this reason, no thermal 

energy was generated during the tests. 

The XECF cold-flow test program was initiated in 

1968. The two major test objectives were to verify 

that ETS-1 was ready for, “hot,” i.e., nuclear, engine 

testing and to investigate engine startup in the test 

stand under simulated altitude conditions. Other objectives included the checking of enginelstand operating procedures and the investigation of engine 

malfunctions under simulated altitude conditions. The 

engine system and test facility operated as planned, 

and the test results provided the basis for proceeding 

with the “hot” tests of the XE engine. 

As was to be anticipated, the XECF test series revealed 

a number of design and operational problems. Most 

of these have been corrected; correction of those remaining is expected to be completecl in time to support 

the start of XE engine tests. 

The final experiments of the engine system technology 

portion of the nuclear rocket program will be the 

“hot” tests of the XE engine. Assembly of the engine 

was completed in the fall of 1968. Full-power engine 

tests are scheduled for the first half of 1969. 

Space Electric Power 

Space Reactor Power Systems 

Zirconium Hydride Reactors. Testing of the flightconfigured ground-prototype uranium-zirconium hydride reactor SNAP-8 Developmental Reactor 

(S8DR), started in 1968. This reactor is based on 

technology successfully demonstrated in the SNAP10A program in 1965 and further investigated in the 

SNAP-8 Experimental Reactor (S8ER). The test program includes demonstrations of restart capability and 

continuous operation for at least 10,000 hours at design 

conditions of 1,300” F outlet temperature and 600 

thermal kilowatts. Reactors of this type can be mated 

with thermoelectric converters or mercury Rankine 

cycle power machinery to produce electric power in 

space up to about 100 electrical kilowatts. 

A reference power system using the zirconium hydride 

reactor and the “compact” thermoelectric converter 

was studied during 1968 with the objective of defining 

subsystem and component development needs and 

mission integration requirements. This system offers 

an essentially static powerplant of high reliability for 

use in the mid-1970’s at power levels in the range of 

15-30 kilowatts. A joint AECINASA study was made 

on the possible use of this system for the orbital workshop-type missions. System studies and development 

of component technology for reactor systems of this 

type will continue in 1969. 

Space Radioisotope Power Systems 

SNAP-3. The isotopic power concept new being used 

in space systems is a radioisotopic thermoelectric generator (RTG) , fueled with plutonium-238. This concept has been in active use since the first SNAP-3 

power system was launched aboard a navigational 

satellite in 1961. On June 29, 1968, the SNAP-3 unit 

completed its seventh year of operation in space. It 

has already operated two years beyond its five-year 

design life, and is still in operation. 

SNAP-19 Isotope Generators. On May 18, 1968, 

the NASA THORAD-AGENA-D vehicle, which was 

to carry the NIMBUS-B weather satellite and SNAP19 isotope generators into orbit, was destroyed because 

of a guidance system malfunction. Search and detection operations for the two SNAP-19 plutonium-238 

fueled capsules succeeded in finding the submerged 

satellite ; the two fueled capsules have been recovered 

and returned to Mound Laboratory for examination 

and return of the fuel to inventory. 

Because of the importance of the NIMBUS-B weather 

satellite mission, NASA has reprogrammed a NIMBUS-IS2 mission, again using the SNAP-19 isotope 

generators. The delivery of the SNAP-19 flight SYStem to NASA was completed in December 1968, with 

a launch scheduled for the spring of 1969. 

SNAP-27 Isotopic Generator. The SNAP-27, being 

developed by the AEC for NASA, is also fueled with 

Pu-238 and is designed to provide at least 50 watts of 

conditioned power. The SNAP-27 units will provide all 

the power for APOLLO Lunar Surface Experiments 

Packages (ALSEP) to be placed on the Moon by astro- 
CHAPTER V 51 

nauts during APOLLO missions. These experiments 

are to provide information for a period of one year after 

the astronauts return to Earth. 

SNAP-29 Isotopic Generator. The SNAP-29 generator is planned to be fueled with polonium-2 10, to provide hundreds of watts of electrical power for three 

months. Thermoelectric conversion subsystems, heat 

transfer units using heat pipes, and fabrication and 

test of the heat-source components are under development. A ground demonstration of a prototype flight 

system is planned for Fiscal Year 1970. 

Navigation Satellite Generator. Design and development of an isotopic generator for the Navy's improved 

navigation satellite was started. This generator, using 

plutonium-238 fuel, is being designed to produce at 

least 20 electrical watts at a weight of less than 20 

pounds. 

Space-Directed Advanced Technology 

Development 

Advanced Space Reactor Concepts-Advanced space 

reactors are being developed for high-performance, 

long-endurance space power needs envisioned for the 

1980's and beyond. Electrical outputs in the power 

range of hundreds-to-thousands of kilowatts are being 

considered. 

During 1968, the AEC conducted technology development of two basic advanced reactor concepts, the incore thermionic reactor and the liquid metal-cooled 

reactor. In 1968 the in-core thermionic program continued to emphasize the development of fueled thermionic converters capable of long-endurance operation at 

emitter temperatures above 3,000" F. Several prototype converters were operated in-pile for over 1,000 

hours. 

Continuation of the liquid metal-cooled space reactor 

program beyond 1968 was not authorized by Congress 

and the project is now essentially phased out. Further 

plans for this concept have not yet been defined. 

Space Power Conversion Technology-SiGe. Hightemperature ( 1,800° F) silicon-germanium (SiGe) 

thermoelectric modules were fabricated. These are typical of the conversion devices being considered for advanced space radioisotope power concepts. Long-term 

life tests (over 35,000 hours) of silicon-germanium 

modules under both air and vacuum conditions are indicating extremely stable performance. .4n electrically 

heated generator, representative of the state of the art, 

in performance tests at 990" C produced 27 watts of 

power at a measured efficiency of 5.8%. Optimized materials now under development should improve that 

performance significantly. 

High-Temperature Radioisotope Capsule. A capsule 

that can contain Pu-238 fuel forms at 2,000" F for 

more than five years is being developed. It utilizes a 

refractory metal structural shell and a noble metal 

oxidation-protection shell. Fabrication techniques for 

the capsule have been demonstrated, and short-term 

creep tests have been completed. 

Compact Converter. Metal-encapsulated, void-free 

compact thermoelectric converters have shown excellent improvement in long-term performance and efficiency during 1968. Materials interaction that had 

previously led to long-term performance degradation 

in the 1,000" F temperature regime has been eliminated by use of inert materials. Progress in this program has led to the investigation of a multikilowatt 

reactor-compact converter system for NASA application. Direct loading of isotope fuels into the compact 

converter and heat pipe-isotope-compact converter 

concepts are being investigated. Use with high powerdensity fuels such as curium, polonium, and cobalt-60 

appears promising. 

ISOTEC. Two nominal 30-watt electrically heated 

ISOTEC generators have been tested during 1968, 

performing essentially as expected from earlier data. 

These generators use lead-telluride thermoelements 

bonded into a sandwich panel which rejects waste heat 

directly to space from its outer surface. 

Space Nuclear Safety Activities 

Work is continuing on the evaluation of the recovered 

capsule materials and fuel of the SNAP-19 generators 

to determine the actual behavior of this system in an 

alien environment. 

The safety evaluation of the SNAP-27 system, to be 

used on the APOLLO Lunar Surface Experiments 

Package (ALSEP) is continuing. 

Programs to evaluate the safety aspects of several new 

fuel forms have been initiated and are continuing. 
52 AEC 

Work is progressing on several search, detection, and 

recovery techniques which it is hoped will become 

operational in the very near future. 

Space Isotopic Fuel Development 

Polonium 210-Polonium 210 is being developed as a 

heat source for 90-150 day missions that demand high 

specific power (thermal power per unit volume or 

weight) and a minimum of shielding. Rare earthpolonium compounds now being studied offer improved stability over the pure metal for short missions 

(several months). This effort is focused on a program 

to develop and provide a Po-210 fuel form for the 

SNAP-29 unit. 

Curium 244-Curium 244 has the attractive combination of a reasonably high thermal specific power, a 

relatively long operational life, and the availability 

of a thermally and chemically stable compound. However, the neutron radiation of Cu-244 does require 

more shield weight than other alpha fuels under development, such as Pu-238 and Po-210. 

During 1968, efforts were continued to characterize 

this fuel as to chemical, physical, radiation, and other 

properties. Capsule closure sealing methods and designs are under investigation. 

Plutonium 238-During 1968, there was continued 

development of the oxide of plutonium-238 (87.5 

years half-life) for use in radioisotope power units. 

Development of the process for production of plutonium dioxide microspheres was one of the items of 

research. Desirable properties of this material are relative chemical and biological inertness; high melting 

temperature; thermal, chemical, and radiation stability; and ease of handling. A pilot plant of a new 

microsphere production process known as Sol-gel was 

demonstrated and installed. Checkout is proceeding, 

and the pilot plant is expected to be operational in 

1969. Using the oxide fuel form, heat sources were 

fabricated for several generator systems and for 

evaluation in the fuel technology programs. 

During 1968, the DART I1 (Decomposed Ammonia 

Radioisotope Thruster), a propulsion device for positioning a spacecraft in space, was designed, fueled, 

and demonstrated successfully in a simulated space 

environment. 

To meet the requirements of more efficient and demanding conversion systems, studies of new fuel forms, 

materials, and methods of containment compatible 

with the required increased temperatures have been 

initiated. 

Satellite-Based Detection Of Nuclear 

Explosions In Space And In The 

Atmosphere 

The AEC-instrumented VELA Satellite Program continues with the preparation for the fifth launch in 

1969 in the planned series of five launches. Four successful launches have placed eight VELA nuclear-test 

detection satellites into near-circular co-planar orbits 

of about 65,000 nautical miles radius. The newest pair, 

placed in orbit with 180' phase separation by a TITAN 

IIIC booster in April 1967, have an attitude control 

system to keep one axis oriented toward the Earth, as 

will the fifth pair, soon to be launched. Earth-orienting 

the satellites has made it possible to expand the original space surveillance capability to include atmospheric test detection. Sophisticated optical and 

electromagnetic pulse detection techniques are now included. The fifth pair of satellites will contain major 

advances in most areas of instrumentation, in keeping 

with the goals of this program. 

The new scientific data collected by the VELA satellites in the course of performing their test-ban monitoring functions have been of great importance to the 

scientific community in interpreting solar-terrestrial relationships. Since July 1964, when the second satellite 

pair was launched, the VELA satellites have provided 

what is probably the most detailed information available on the solar wind-characteristics and the state of 

Earth's bow shock, magnetosheath, and magnetospheric tail. 
I n t roduc tion 

The Department of State in 1968 continued its efforts 

to foster international cooperation in the peaceful uses 

of outer space and foreign support for various aspects 

of the U.S. national space program. It played an active 

role in responding to inquiries from abroad (particularly from Western Europe, where future plans for 

participation in space programs were under review) 

about US. policies affecting cooperation or assistance. 

The Department also maintained close consultation 

with other US. agencies concerning further possibilities for future cooperative undertakings in space science and applications with other countries, such as the 

surveying of Earth resources from satellites. 

Among the principal international developments during 1968, noted below, were the entry into force of the 

Astronaut Rescue and Return Agreement, convening 

of a United Nations Conference on Outer Space, and 

further growth of the INTELSAT global commercial 

communications satellite system. 

Astronaut Agreement-The Agreement on the Rescue 

of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts, and the Return of Objects Launched Into Outer Space, was 

signed by the Secretary of State at a ceremony held on 

.4pril 22, 1968, in Washington. Signing ceremonies 

were held on the same date in London and MOSCOW, 

the other depositary capitals. More than 75 nations 

have signed. The Senate advised and consented to 

US. ratification by a vote of 66-0 on October 8, 1968. 

an December 3, the President announced that the 

Agreement had gone into force. 

Activities Within the United Nations-The United 

Nations sponsored a Conference on the Exploration 

and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, which was held in 

Vienna August 14-27. The purpose of the conference 

was to identify and describe, primarily for the benefit 

of developing countries, the practical applications of 

space technology. Seventy-eight countries and 13 specialized agencies and international organizations participated in the conference. American scientists, government officials and industry representatives delivered 

49 scientific papers and evening lectures, about onefourth of the total number of papers presented. 

At its 1968 session in Geneva, the United Nations 

Outer Space Committee’s Legal Subcommittee continued negotiations of a convention on liability for damage 

done by objects launched into outer space. Several issues proved insurmountable obstacles to completion of 

the draft at the Legal Subcommittee session, making 

it unlikely that the United Nations would meet the 

deadline it had set for itself, the 23d General Assembly. The Legal Subcommittee held another brief discussion of the question of defining ‘(outer space” and 

questions relating to various uses of outer space, notably direct broadcast satellites. 

When the parent U.N. Outer Space Committee met in 

October, it again discussed direct broadcast satellites 

and decided to establish a Working Group to study first 

the technical aspects and then the political, legal, and 

other implications of the subject. 

Earth Resources Survey Program-An agreement was 

concluded in September with the Government of Brazil, confirming arrangement between NASA and the 

Brazilian space commission for a cooperative research 

program in remote sensing for Earth resources surveys. 

A principal purpose of the program is to develop techniques and systems for acquiring, interpreting and 

utilizing Earth resources data from aircraft. The Department of Agriculture, the Geological Survey and 

the Navy Oceanographic Office are participating with 

NASA in carrying out US. responsibilities under the 

agreement. 

An agreement for a similar program with Mexico was 

concluded in December. 

53 
54 STATE 

Tracking Networks-The facilities abroad that are 

part of NASA's global tracking network were mainother support units at appropriate locations around 

the globe. 

tained during 1968 under bilateral agreements previously concluded with the countries concerned. These 

facilities consist of stations supporting the manned 

space flight program, a tracking and telemetry network 

for scientific satellites, and deep-space antennae at 

four locations around the world. Also, an agreement 

with the United Kingdom concerning the establishCooperation With Department of Defense-The Department of State continued to work closely with the 

Department of Defense during 1968 on international 

aspects of space-related programs of particular interest 

to DOD, such as the Initial Defense Communications 

Satellite Program (IDCSP) . 

ment of a tracking facility on the Island of Grand 

Bahama entered into force in May. An extension of 

the agreement with the Malagasy Republic was effected 

by an exchange of notes in December 1967. 

In September, an agreement was concluded with 

Mauritius which permits deployment to that island of 

aircraft specially equipped to conduct airborne monitoring of certain aspects of APOLLO missions. 

Communications Via Satellites-Membership in the 

International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium (INTELSAT) , the global commercial communications satellite system, grew to 63 during the year 

with the addition of three new countries. Several others 

are expected to join in the coming months. The nations now represented in INTELSAT account for a 

major portion of the world's total international telecommunications traffic. 

The ESRO (European Space Research Organization) 

satellite telemetry and command station-established 

near Fairbanks, Alaska, under the terms of an agreement concluded in November, 1966-became operational in 1968. 

An agreement was concluded with Japan in September 

providing for the establishment and operation in Okinawa of a Japanese-satellite tracking station. 

Contingency Recovery of Astronauts-As in the case 

of each of the manned GEMINI flights, the Department of State and its overseas posts maintained a state 

of alert throughout the APOLLO 7 and 8 flights, to 

support NASA and DOD in case of an emergency 

recovery requiring such support. A Task Force was 

organized so as to enable the Department, in the event 

of an unintended landing or other emergency, to call 

immediately upon the appropriate posts abroad to arrange through the respective host governments for such 

assistance as might be indicated by the nature of the 

emergency. Similar arrangements will be made for all 

manned APOLLO flights. 

Before each manned space flight mission, the Department through our embassies abroad also facilitates 

the positioning of Air Force Search and Rescue and 

INTELSAT's global capabilities were enhanced in 

1968 by an increase in the number of ground stations 

in the various member countries from 15 to 22. Many 

others are under construction. There are 14 stations 

in the Atlantic area and 8 in the Pacific region. This 

total is growing steadily and should reach 45 to 50 

by 1970. 

The first of a third generation of higher-capacity communications satellites was successfully launched in December. Other launches will follow as soon as possible, 

since additional capacity is urgently required. 

A still more advanced generation of satellites, the 

fourth, was authorized by INTELSAT's governing 

body in October. The first of these space vehicles is 

scheduled for launch in 1971. 

During 1968, the Government, together with the Communications Satellite Corporation (the U.S. entity in 

INTELSAT) , continued preparations for a 1969 international conference which is to develop permanent 

arrangements for INTELSAT. The original 1964 

agreements establishing interim arrangements for INTELSAT call for convening a conference in 1969 to 

formulate definitive arrangements. 
NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION CHAPTER 

VI1 

Introduction 

This year as in the past, the contributions made by the 

National Science Foundation to the Nation's space 

effort consisted for the most part of support given to 

basic research projects at colleges and universities, to 

national programs, and to national research centers 

throughout the country. Facilities such as radio teleE. 0. Hulbert Center for Space Research at the Naval 

Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C.-NSF supported several university staff members, who proposed 

astronomical research programs using rockets and 

satellites, to work with the staff and facilities of the 

Center. In addition, it supported theoretical interpretation and analysis of data. 

- 

scopes and scientific balloons are also provided by NSF 

for scientific research related to outer space. 

The Kitt Peak National Observatory (Arizona)- 

The following reflecting telescopes continued in full 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory (West Virginia) -The facilities of the National Radio Astronomy 

Observatory, at Green Bank, W. Va., were used by 141 

visitors from 46 different institutions during the year. 

Spectral-line work continued to ,be a very active area 

of research; in fact, a previously undiscovered line at 

6.3-centimeter wavelength was detected by visitors 

using the 140-ft.-diameter radio telescope. The new 

line arises from an energy level transition in an excited 

state of the OH molecule. 

- - operation for research in astronomy by visitors and staff 

members : two 16-inch photometric telescopes, two 

36-inch photometric and spectroscopic instruments, a 

50-inch remotely controlled telescope which is programmed for photometric work, and an 84-inch general-purpose reflector ; also, a long-focus solar telescope 

of 63-inch aperture, the world's largest. In addition, a program of rocket astronomy is conducted for 

staff and visitors. Work was started during the year 

on a new 150-inch reflecting telescope as a major addition to the observatory equipment. The telescope is . -. 

In collaboration with other observatories in this coun- scheduled for completion in 1972. 

try and abroad, very long base-line interferometry experiments have been conducted. Experiments using the 

140-ft. radio telescope and a smaller telescope in 

Sweden have measured components of an intense radio 

source and have found them to be as small as 0.002 

seconds of arc in diameter. 

Visitors using the 300-ft.-diameter transit telescope 

discovered a new pulsar source, and there is a possible 

identification of two others. The pulsars are the newly 

discovered radio sources which pulsate in intensity 

with periods from a fraction of a second up to two 

seconds, depending on the source observed. They pulsate at an extremely uniform rate. 

The three-element interferometer at Green Bank was 

in much demand by vistors, and a visitor program was 

commenced with the 36-ft. millimeter wave antenna 

at Kitt Peak. 

Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory (Chile) - 

Five telescopes were in operation during the year for 

visitor and staff observing programs: two 16-inch telescopes used mainly for photometric work, 36-inch and 

60-inch telescopes which had both photometric and 

spectroscopic capability, also a 24-inch Schmidt-type 

wide-angle camera on long-term loan from the University of Michigan. Contracts were let for the optics 

and mounting and also the dome structure for the 

150-inch reflecting telescope which is being built under 

joint support of the NSF and the Ford Foundation. 

Completion of this Southern Hemisphere telescope is 

expected in 1973. Significant savings in cost have resulted because of the simultaneous construction of the 

two 150-inch telescopes for Kitt Peak and Cerro Tololo. 

National Center for Atmospheric Research (Colorado)-Several studies of the Sun and interplanetary 

55 
56 NSF 

medium received continued attention during Fiscal 

Year 1968 at the High-Altitude Observatory of NCAR. 

These analyses are devoted towards an increased understanding of the solar photosphere, solar chromosphere, solar corona, and solar activity as well as of 

the solar wind and its interaction with the Earth's 

magnetosphere. Among the advances of the year were: 

1. The successful observation of the brightness of 

the Sun in the far-infrared (wavelength 50- 

300~). These measures allow the temperature 

at the coolest part of the solar atmosphere to be 

established and have a direct bearing on our 

further understanding of the structure of the 

solar atmosphere. 

2. The successful operation of a dense-plasma focus machine to produce temperatures of up to 

300 million degrees absolute. This machine 

places at the disposal of our research staff 

plasma of a temperature equal to or in excess 

of those found in the most excited regions of 

the solar corona. 

3. A successful theoretical model of the flow of 

the solar wind through the magnetic fields penetrating the solar corona. The model is zble to 

reproduce many of the characteristics of the 

structure of the solar coronal streamers, which 

have been observed at edipses for centuries. 

Solar-Terrestrial Program-The primary objective of 

the Solar-Terrestrial Program is the study of the interaction between solar behavior and terrestrial phenomena. The Program supports over 70 research 

programs in this aspect of space-related sciences. The 

following research received emphasis during FY 1968 : 

vations of auroral X-rays and luminosity at the 

foot of the magnetic field line on which the 

geosynchronous satellite ATS-1 is located. 

Engineering-The Engineering Division supports a 

number of research programs related to aeronautics 

and space activities. An example of some engineering 

research is the work being carried on at the University 

of California. With the assistance of NSF research 

grants, a group at the University of California, Berkeley, has developed a rarefied gas facility of extraordinary flexibiility and capacity. This facility was planned 

with several objectives in view. It is designed to extend 

the range of current rarefied gas dynamics investigations to lower-density ranges while preserving previous 

mass flow capability at test-section pressures of 70 to 

80 microns. New investigations will be implemented in 

areas of nearly-free-molecule flows, dilute plasmas, and 

collision processes. Additionally, it is designed to provide a suitable environment for free molecule testing 

and for the study of molecule interactions at the surface of the gas phase. Numerous studies are under 

way on supersonic flow, turbulence, flow of ionized 

gases and wave dynamics. 

Another study on low-density flows is under way at 

Princeton University. A unique new testing facility 

was designed, built and put into operation with an 

NSF Engineering Division grant. This facility for lowdensity, hypersonic, gas dynamic research uses a 

graphite heater and nitrogen as a test gas. Using a 

liquid nitrogen-cooled conical nozzle and a test section 

12 inches in diameter, Mach numbers of 15 to 22 can 

be developed with uniform test cores 1 to 4 inches in 

diameter and 6 to 10 inches long. Satisfactory operation has been obtained for stagnation pressures from 

30 to 350 psi at stagnation temperatures from 1,500 

to 2,300' K. Studies have been made on flows around 

flat plates and cones with leading-edge dimensions of 

less than 0.00 1 inches. Detailed pressure distributions 

and flow-field studies were measured, using special 

probes developed during the studies. 

1. The generation and characteristics of solar 

flares and their effects on terrestrial magnetic 

storms and anomalous radio communications; 

2. The structure of the interplanetary medium as 

revealed by the modulation of cosmic rays received at the ground; 

3. The development of models for Earth's magnetosphere, radiation belts and plasma flow US. Antarctic Research Program-The US. space 

from theoretical studies based on surface and effort has several ties with Antarctica. Data on the 

satellite measurements; ionosphere and magnetosphere which are obtainable 

4. The coupling mechanisms between the mag- only in the high latitudes, owing to the configuration 

netosphere and the atmosphere. Most investi- of the Earth's magnetic field, axe obtained through 

gations of the aurora contributed to the study. use of a 21-mile-long antenna, Satellite readout staFor instance, the Foundation supported obser- tions, and cosmic ray monitors. Satellites are also 
CHAPTER VI1 57 

monitored for the space programs of several agencies 

and countries to help determine the shape of the geoid, 

refine orbital Paths, acquire gravity data, and establish geodetic ties. 

Antarctic environmental factors provide useful parallels to those hypothesized for extraterrestrial bodies. 

NASA, with the cooperation of Foundation grantees 

performing research in the ice-free areas, tests hardware and techniques being developed for space exploration, such as life-detecting samplers and lunar 

drills. Logistical aspects of the conduct of a research 

program in a remote and hostile environment have led 

to a close study of the U.S. programs in Antarctica 

by several NASA groups. 
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE CHAPTER 

VI11 

Introduction 

The Department of Commerce has four major organizational units engaged in activities that contribute to 

the National Space Program. Three science and technology bureaus contribute directly : the Environmental 

Science Services Administration, the National Bureau 

of Standards, and the Office of State Technical Services. The fourth bureau, the U.S. Patent Office, contributes indirectly through the issuance of patents on 

inventions with space applications. 

Environmental Science Services 

Administration 

The Environmental Science Services Administration 

fulfills the Department's responsibility to describe, understand, and predict the state of the atmosphere, the 

oceans and the space environment, and the size and 

shape of the Earth. ESSA has five major subunits which 

contribute either directly or indirectly to space technology: the National Environmental Satellite Center, 

the Weather Bureau, the Coast and Geodetic Survey, 

the ESSA Research Laboratories, and the Environmental Data Service. 

Highlights of 1968-Two Environmental Survey 

Satellites-ESS.4 7 and 8-were launched during 1968 

to maintain the operational weather satellite system established in February 1966. April 1 marked the eighth 

anniversary of the launch of TIROS I, the first weather 

satellite to send back useable cloud pictures. The onemillionth satellite picture was received on May 27, 

1968. 

With the cooperation of NASIZ experimenters, ESSA 

used the ATS-I11 satellite to obtain closely timed pictures of both tornadoes and hurricanes. Films made 

from these pictures, taken every 15 minutes during periods of maximum lighting, were used to study details 

58 

of the development and life cycles of these storms. 

Equipment has been designed to permit timely acquisition of these pictures for operational use. 

The satellite-interrogated ocean buoy program was advanced by the successful test of a prototype moored in 

14,500 feet of water at 35" N. 48' W. in the North Atlantic. After remaining on station successfully for 4 

months, the mast broke during an unusually severe 

storm and the buoy was recovered. The test demonstrated the stability of the buoy and the durability of 

the mooring, which remained intact. 

A special facsimile transmission was added to an established US. network to relay Automatic Picture Transmission photographs from receiving stations to 23 

Weather Bureau and 28 military stations on the network. This relay of APT photos has greatly increased 

dissemination and operational use of satellite data. 

The Weather Facsimile Experiment transmission of 

satellite and standard meteorological data from the 

United States to APT stations in Europe, Africa, and 

South America via the ATS I11 satellite started experimentally in July, and by October had become semioperational. WEFAX transmissions to the Pacific via 

ATS-I continued during 1968. Response from recipients is enthusiastic. 

Meteorological Satellite-The National Operational 

Meteorological Satellite System (NOMSS) was likewise maintained during 1968 by the launch of ESSA 

7 and 8. These satellitzs furnished worldwide pictorial 

coverage of the Earth and its cloud systems daily, except in areas of polar night. 

The ESSA series of satellites partially fulfills one of 

the main objectives of the NOMSS-daily observation 

of global weather conditions-but does not permit 

nighttime observations of cloud systems or temperature 

patterns. TIROS-M, the: operational prototype of the 

ITOS (Improved TIROS Operational Satellite) sys- 
CHAPTER Vlll 59 

tem satellites, will add a nighttime cloud surveillance 

and day-and-night temperature mapping capability by 

means of a scanning radiometer. This spacecraft also 

will combine the functions now performed separately 

by two ESSA satellites, with a consequent saving in 

costs because fewer launches will b? required each 

year. The launch of the TIROS-M spacecraft, planned 

for the middle of Calendar Year 1969, will be followed 

by the launch of ITOS operational spacecraft starting 

late in 1969. 

Operations of the ESSA Satellites-ESSA satellites 

orbit the Earth in about 114 minutes (tt average altitudes of 760 nautical miles. 

One type of ESSA satellite is equippzd with two Advanced Vidicon Camera System (AVCS) units, each 

of which is capable of maintaining global cloud-cover 

surveillance. One camera is used operationally; the 

second is held in reserve, thus materially increasing the 

useful lifetime of the satellites. Thc pictures from 

AVCS-equipped satellites are transmitted to ground 

stations in Alaska and Virginia, relayed to a central 

processing unit at Suitland, Md., processed, and made 

available to the United States and international meteorological community. 

Equipment for the other type of ESSA satellite is also 

redundant; each of the two Automatic Picture Transmission (AFT) cameras can take and immediately 

transmit pictures of the area beneath the satellite to 

simply equipped ground stations within a 2,000-mile 

range of the spacecraft. The APT pictures furnish 

local forecasters with a fresh (3%-minute-old) view 

of the cloud patterns over or adjacent to the local area; 

these are used widely by U.S. meteorological agencies. 

Meteorologists in many countries have become accustomed to using APT pictures for operational forecasting. Thus the APT-equipped satellites have become an 

integral part of the World Weather Watch, an international meteorological observation system now under 

development. Mosaics covering the United States and 

adjacent areas are prepared daily from APT pictures 

received at Suitland. Copies are distributed to local 

and national news services, and are used daily by many 

newspapers and television stations in the United States. 

NIMBUS II-APT pictures from the NIMBUS II 

R. & D. satellite were used operationally until the system ceased functioning near the beginning of April 

1968, more than 22 month after launch. 

Applications Technology Satellites-APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITES ( ATS-I 

and ATS-111, launched respectively on Dec. 6, 1966, 

and Nov. 5,1967, by NASA) have successfully demonstrated the potential of a geostationary satellite for 

environmental observation. Both satellites contain spinscan cloud cameras which can take pictures approximately once every 20 minutes. ATS-I photographs the 

Pacific basin and ATS-111 photographs the Atlantic. 

The ATS-I11 camera was designed for color photography, using three separate color channels. The system 

worked well for several months, but subsequent malfunction of the red channel has reduced ATS-111 to 

essentially black-and-white photography. Details on 

the uses of these cameras and the transponders aboard 

these satellites are given elsewhere. 

Computer-Processed Cloud Mosaics-Cloud photographs are processed routinely by computer for operational use; the pictures are digitized, rectified, and fit 

into global mosaics for routine transmission via facsimile to all U.S. Weather Stations. Some have been 

transmitted experimentally (and successfully) to APT 

stations in Europe, Asia, Australia, the Pacific Ocean 

area, and North and South America by means of 

transmitters on board the ATS satellites. Special mosaics of the tropics are sent to the National Hurricane 

and the Tropical Analysis Centers in Miami during 

the hurricane season. The mosaics are also printed in 

catalogues of cloud photography to make the information accessible to research scientists. 

Operational Applications of Satellite data-Routine 

and reliable receipt of data from both types of ESSA 

spacecraft has resulted in widespread usage of satellite 

information in daily operations both in the United 

States and abroad. Data available are those centrally 

processed in the United States, and the pictures received locally from the satellites equipped with Automatic Picture Transmission cameras. APT photographs 

are used operationally for analyses, local and area forecasts, and for briefing pilots on weather conditions over 

long transocean routes. 

Satellite photography is particularly useful for tracking 

weather systems across the vast areas of Earth where 

conventional observations are lacking. The most spectacular use is in the discovery and tracking of tropical 

storms, typhoons, and hurricanes wherever they may 

occur. During 1968, 33 of these storms had been seen 
60 COMM 

by the satellites, and advisories had been sent to foreign countries and U.S. installations worldwide. A 

method devised for estimating maximum winds in these 

tropical storms from characteristics seeil in the satelitte 

pictures has been used successfully for several years. 

Tracking of storms in middle and high altitudes has 

resulted in improved advisory service to coastal areas 

and to shipping on the high seas. 

Winds in the 30,00040,000-foot levels, as estimated 

from ESSA photographs are used routinely in computer 

analyses, and are transmitted daily to users worldwide. 

These experimental winds provide information over 

tropical and subtropical areas that are almost completely devoid of conventional upper-level wind 

information. 

Research and development programs of the National 

Environmental Satellite Center-In 1968 work continued on a number of long-term projects, and was 

initiated on several new projects. The research included 

studies to increase basic understanding of atmospheric 

processes, the objectives of which are to improve 

weather analysis and forecasting; the development of 

new instrumentation for measuring environmental data 

from satellites; and the development of new methods 

and procedures for using satellite data in daily operations. Among the more than 50 investigations under 

way, the following are of particdar interest: 

a. A number of instruments are being designed 

to obtain measurements of the vertical structure 

of the atmosphere. The Satellite Infrared Spectrometer (SIRS), developed by NESC and funded 

by NASA, is to be tested on NIMBUS B2, scheduled for launch by the middle of 1969. The Infrared Temperature Profile Radiometer, an adaptation of SIRS, is under development for testing 

on NIMBUS E. This instrument has a spatial 

scanning capability to permit operation over 

partly cloudy skies. 

b. Procedures for obtaining the extent and depth 

of snow fields from satellite pictures are being 

investigated. An operational guide for mapping 

the extent of snow cover was developed under an 

NESC contract in 1968. Large-scalc mapping of 

snow cover and sea ice by means of satellite pictures is being done experimentally. 

c. Procedures developed for making time-lapse 

motion picture film from ATS-I and ATS-I11 

photographs have enabled research meteorologists to study details of tornado and hurricane development. The ATS pictures, available at either 

15-, 24- or 30-minute intervals, provide views of 

these storm systems heretofore unavailable. A major research effort is being directed toward devising more efficient and timely methods for the 

extraction of multilevel wind information from 

the ATS spin-scan cloud camera pictures and 

films. 

d. Digitized daily records of cloud data axe being 

used to supply various products such as average 5- 

day, monthly, and seasonal cloud charts, and 

brightness charts. Films of the daily digitized 

charts show broad-scale motions in both the tropics 

and mid-latitudes, and show climatic regimes in a 

graphic fashion. These charts and films are proving useful for heat-balance studies, radiation 

studies, ice mapping, and long-period variations 

in large-scale weather features; they also show 

promise of being useful for developing improved 

global cloud climatologies. 

e. Plans are under way for intensive investigations 

of the Ocean surface, the interactions between the 

sea and the atmosphere, and the temperature 

structure of the ocean by means of satellite sensors. The state of sea surface is being estimated by 

analysis of reflection of the Sun seen in satellite 

pictures; analyses such as these will yield estimates of surface wind speeds in remote areas. 

Temperature fields and ocean currents will be 

mapped and the information used in meteorological and oceanographic investigations. 

International Cooperation-The continued worldwide 

availability of Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) 

pictures and the experimental semi-operational transmission of satellite data through the Weather Facsimile 

Experiment (WEFAX) on the ATS satellites has 

helped to maintain the image of the United States as 

an unstinting sharer of scientific results in space programs. At the end of 1968, 52 foreign countries reported 108 APT stations in operation. Application of 

satellite products was discussed and demonstrated daily 

by United States participants at the International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Space in Vienna. Current and planned satellite products were also discussed 

at the International Cloud Physics Conference in To- 
CHAPTER Vlll 61 

ronto and at the International Union of Geodesy and facility is a center for a net of stations used to detect the 

Geophysics-World Meteorological Organization precipitation of solar protons into the high atmos- 

(IUGG-WMO) meetings in Bergen, Norway, during phere in the Arctic region. 

August 1968. US. participants furnished major contributions to the WMO satellite meteorology workshop held in Melbourne, Australia, during November 

and December 1968. The National Environmental 

Satellite Center provided training and study facilities 

for WMO, NATO, and AID fellows from China, 

Solar X-ray data are obtained on a timely basis from 

the SOLAR RADIATION SATELLITE, SOLRAD 

9, for use in making disturbance forecasts. Data are 

obtained with the cooperation of the Naval Research 

Laboratories. 

Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, the Philippines, In cooperation with Canadian scientists, SKUA 

Switzerland, and Thailand, and briefings for many rockets intrumented to monitor radiation in the 

other foreign scientists during 1968. 1.27 x millimeter wave length range, are used to 

Washington-Moscow Data Exchange-Pursuant to 

the 1962 bilateral agreement between the United 

States and the U.S.S.R., exchange of satellite data continued over the Washington-Moscow data link during 

1968. The U.S.S.R. furnished data from their COSMOS 184, launched in 1967, and COSMOS 206 and 

226, launched in 1968. The United States furnished 

satellite photographs and nephanalyses (cloud maps) 

based on ESSA 3, 5, and 7 data; these products are 

used in daily analysis operations at the World Weather 

Center, Moscow. Traffic from Moscow includes satellite photographs, nephanalyses, and radiation analyses. 

ESSA Research Laboratories 

The ESSA Research Laboratories, with main offices in 

Boulder, Colo., and a number of Laboratories in field 

stations elsewhere, conduct research and provide services in support of the broad ESSA mission requirements. Activities include a number of scientic disciplines : oceanography, Earth sciences, geomagnetism, 

tropospheric and ionospheric and magnetospheric 

physics. Programs include tropospheric radio and optical wave propagation, ionospheric radio propagation, 

monitoring and forecasting solar activity and its effects 

in Earth's vicinity, and research on solar radiation interactions with the magnetosphere. 

The ERL Space Disturbance Laboratory monitors and 

predicts fluctuations and disturbances in Earth's space 

environment associated with solar activity. Research 

activities support these services and increase understanding of the manner in which solar particles affect 

Earth's environment. 

A facility at Anchorage; Alaska, is now operational as 

part of the Space Disturbance Forecasting Center. This 

obtain measurements of the diurnal variations and 

height profiles of molecular oxygen in the excited state. 

Several successful flights have been made from Fort 

Churchill, Canada, and data obtained are being analyzed. These results are important in understanding 

the electron balance of the lower ionosphere. 

Auroral zone absorption events observed from the 

Earth's surface are compared with energetic particle 

observations obtained by NASA satellites while passing through the tail of the Earth's magnetosphere at 

about 17 Earth radii. These comparisons indicate that 

the particle source producing the absorption is relatively close to the Earth. 

A preliminary study has established the feasibility of 

providing forecasts of solar activity for the APOLLO 

Applications Program-Astronomical Telescope Mount 

(AAP-ATM) program. The aims of this program are 

to supply to the ATM astronauts forecasts of the probabilities of occurrence and probable location of solar 

flares so that high-resolution instruments can be 

activated and properly oriented to obtain measurements. The Space Disturbance Forecasting Center will 

also collect and disseminate solar data for use during 

postflight analyses of data obtained in the ATM 

program. 

The ERL Aeronomy Laboratory conducts research on 

the ionosphere and the magnetosphere. The Laboratory operates, in cooperation with Peruvian scientists, 

a facility using radio techniques based on the scattering 

of radio waves by electrons to obtain measurements of 

the high ionospheric region. Recently, the technique 

has been used to measure electric fields in the high 

ionosphere, measurements previously obtained at great 

expense and for short time periods only, by rockets. The 

current method is based on monitoring the vertical 
62 COMM 

electron drift in the ionosphere and makes possible 

continuous studies from a ground facility. This station 

also makes measurements of ionospheric parameters, 

such as electron and neutral temperatures. In some 

cases, comparisons between these measurements and 

those obtained by satellites show significant discrepancies. Since other evidence indicates that the scatter 

results obtained from the ground are accurate, the uncertainties may be associated with the satellite 

measurements. 

Ultraviolet data from the NRL SOLRAD satellites 

are monitored during periods.of atmospheric occultation and analyzed to obtain oxygen density in the vicinity of 62 miles. The results show that summer densities 

are about 1.5 larger than winter densities. 

Theoretical studies were undertaken which successfully explain the ionospheric resonances observed by 

satellite radio sounders. This theoretical development, 

which involves echoes from the plasma in the near 

field of the antenna, explains certain aspects of these 

resonances, which have been difficult to explain by 

previous theory. 

Part of the Aeronomy Laboratory rocket program is 

conducted in cooperation with the rocket program of 

the Space Disturbances Laboratory. The rockets are 

instrumented to obtain the electron density in the 

ionosphere by means of radio signals transmitted from 

the rocket using Faraday rotation techniques. 

A method for obtaining atomic oxygen measurements 

by using thin films of silver has been developed for use 

on rockets. These thin films, exposed to the atmosphere 

during the rocket’s flight, produce silver oxide, thereby 

changing the electrical resistance. The data thus obtained yield atomic oxygen profiles. 

Data obtained from the ALOUETTE I and I1 topside sounders and the earlier EXPLORER XX are 

analyzed to determine the effects of magnetic storms 

on ionospheric electron density. A new method developed this year provides electron density and temperature profiles from topside sounder data more precisely 

than in the past. 

Further theoretical developments on the effects of 

electric charge on satellite probes have increased accuracies of data from these probes. This theory takes 

into account effects such as secondary emission produced by photons and the contamination in the emission from energetic particles. 

Magnetic storms and subvisual optical emissions, 

known as red arcs, are studied by comparing simultaneous data from several satellite electron-density 

measurements with ground-based optical experiments. 

These analyses show that the electron density within 

the arc is less than that outside the arc. These studies 

are expected to lead to an explanation of the red arc 

and other ionospheric effects. 

The Tropospheric Telecommunications Laboratory 

conducts studies to develop and improve communications by means of satellites. The operational use of 

satellites for air traffic control is under consideration 

to help alleviate overcrowding of radio frequency bands 

currently in use. One objective is to define interference 

protection ratios required to maintain adequate intelligibility over communications circuits. Air traffic control transmissions are simulated, using conventional circuits under varying conditions. Both subjective and 

objective evaluations of the transmissions are made. 

Communications and telemetry with satellites sometimes suffer interference by scatter of signals from 

other communications links which are precipitated 

into the satellite acquisition systems. A program to 

analyze this problem has been undertaken ; computations have been made of precipitation scatter, relating 

levels of received power to probability of occurrence. 

Electromagnetic wave devices used for tracking objects 

in space and for measuring geodetic distances and angles have accuracies which are limited by the timespace variation of radio or optical refraction. Measurements of refraction effects taken in Colorado and in 

Hawaii are being used to study the correlation of 

range and angular position errors with refractive-index data obtained from a variety of sensing elements. 

These studies will improve accuracy in geodetic measurements and missile tracking. 

Another approach to this problem is being studied by 

the Wave Propagation Laboratory. This laboratory 

has used radiometers to measure the emissivities of atmospheric water in its various forms at several frequencies in the millimeter wave region. The measurements were made together with periodic meteorological 

observations and observations by the Tropospheric 

Telecommunications Laboratories of radio phase path. 
CHAPTER Vlll 63 

Since the accuracy of radar tracking of missiles, satellites, and other objects is limited by these effects, comparative analysis of the various observations may yield 

a new method, employing radiometry, to improve 

tracking accuracy. The data will also be analyzed to 

establish the effects of atmospheric water on satellite 

remote sensing in the millimeter wave region. 

Satellite photographs are used by the Atlantic Oceanographic Laboratories in the study of low-level convective cloud patterns in the eastern Caribbean and 

western tropical Atlantic Ocean. These patterns will 

be related to observations of temperature, pressure, 

wind and other meteorological parameters obtained 

during the Barbados experiments. Ocean thermal data 

obtained by the ESSA research vessels in the vicinity 

of the Gulf Stream will be correlated with high-resolution infrared radiation data from NIMBUS 11. 

The Air Resources Laboratory has established microphone networks for measurements of sonic booms from 

supersonic aircraft. These measurements will be correlated with meteorological data and with aircraft flight 

configurations. 

Coast And Geodetic Survey Operations 

The Coast and Geodetic Survey uses satellites operationally in geodesy and precise navigation; is engaged 

in studies to determine the feasibility of using satellite 

techniques in performing its assigned tasks; and supports space facilities and activities indirectly through 

its seismic and geomagnetic activities. 

Geometric Satellite Triangulation-The Coast and 

Geodetic Survey’s Geodetic Research Laboratory devoted most of its 1968 activity to support the worldwide 

Geometric Satellite Triangulation Program being conducted under a cooperative agreement between the 

Department of Commerce and the Department of 

Defense. The Laboratory provided technical and scientific support in the areas of data acquisition, laboratory 

measurements of field records, data reduction procedures and data analysis. 

Preliminary results obtained at 25 stations of the worldwide network and from about 350 events indicate that 

the eventual goal of an accuracy of about k20 feet in 

latitude and longitude and 33 feet in height at each 

station is feasible. 

Satellite triangulation computer programs have been 

revised to provide improved statistical analysis, to eliminate inconsistencies in the raw data, IO incorporate 

range data and to handle fully correlated observations. 

The BC-4 camera data, totalling about 150,000 individual directions, have been sent to the NASA Geodetic Data Library. Aggregated reduced directions have 

been provided to the Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory. 

A series of studies on the need for additional scale 

measurements in the worldwide network resulted in 

the conclusion that five such measurements are 

desirable. 

The long-range and high-precision short-range orbitprediction computer programs for balloon satellites 

were improved and refined by introducing a flexible 

gravitational model into the former and a theoretical 

model to account for solar radiation pressure into the 

latter. Resonance theory was applied to PAGEOS geodetic satellite orbit to extract numerical values for 

resonant gravitational harmonics. 

A project is under way for determining the high-frequency variations of Earth’s gravitational field by 

applying a surface density layer instead of spherical harmonics. This will bypass the problem of convergence 

in the latter mathematical representation. 

The Satellite Triangulation Division continued data 

acquisition providing technical supervision for 15 geodetic camera units throughout the world. Eight systems are operated by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, 

four by the Army Map Service, and one, owned by 

West Germany, is operated jointly with the Coast 

and Geodetic Survey. The Survey also operates one 

system with the United Kingdom and another with 

South Africa. Thirty-four of the 43 pIoposed stations 

have been or are presently occupied. 

Time Transfer Tests-The Satellite Triangulation Division together with the National Bureau of Standards 

and NASA continued tests on transferring time via 

LITES, ATS I and 111, to isolated stations in various 

parts of the world. Accuracies of +2 niicroseconds are 

now being achieved. This method is now used to transfer time to Tristan da Cunha, South Georgia, and 

Villa Dolores, Argentina. 

NASA’s APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATEL- 
64 COMM 

A Time Recovery Receiver has been developed to check 2. The variation of propellant type, mode of 

and establish precise time on five isolated Antarctic failure, or propellant weight did not produce a 

stations. Since the range of ATS satellites is not suffi- statistically significant TNT equivalence for the 

cient to reach the Antarctic, U.S. Navy TRANSIT sat- tests monitored. 

ellites must be used. The result is an accuracy of 50 3. There were sufficient data to establish a microseconds. statistical rate of decay of the acoustic signal 

Earth Resources Program-In connection with through the distance range of 2,000 to 10,000 feet. 

NASA’s Geodetic-Cartographic sub-program, studies 

continued on the application of space technology to 

the Earth Resources Program. Emphasis was placed 

on the definition of and the specifications for a photogrametric space system for the establishment of geodetic control and determination of the geometric shape 

of Earth‘s Ocean surfaces. The photogrammetric system 

consists of two wide-angle mapping cameras, two panoramic cameras, two stellar cameras and a laser or 

radar altimeter, all in a single rigid package or mount. 

The C. & G.S. contracted with NASA to be responsible for aircraft flight tests of a camera-laser package 

for the evaluation of a NASA-developed laser altimeter which is nearing completion. 

Activities in Support of the Tsunami Warning System-Continued efforts are being made to improve 

the operation of the Coast and Geodetic Survey’s 

Tsunami Warning System through faster communications and data telemetry. An experiment is planned 

for 1969 in which sea-level data will be transmitted via 

the NASA ATS-I11 satellite from an underwater platform near Andros Island, in the Bahamas, to NASA’s 

Goddard Space Flight Center. 

Seismological Activities-The Coast and Geodetic 

Survey’s Seismology Division has done a series of 

seismic measurements from propellant explosions to 

assess potential damage from rockets during launch 

operations. A report on the results of monitoring 12 

intentional explosions of rocket propellants has been 

submitted to NASA’s Advanced Studies Office at the 

Kennedy Space Center. 

The conclusions of this study are : 

1. For rocket detonations, the TNT equivalence 

determined by seismic techniques in the far field 

(beyond 1,000 feet) area ranged from a low 0.2% 

for 25,000 pounds of a mixture of liquid oxygen 

and liquid hydrogen confined by missile failure, 

to 22% for a solid-propellant explosion with a 

charge equivalent to 7,000 pounds of TNT. 

While there was sufficient evidence to indicate a TNT 

equivalence of liquid propellants approaching lo%, it 

was pointed out that there is no assurance that the 

conditions for maximum efficiency of the propellant 

explosion were actually met. Therefore, it may be possible to have a rocket detonation with an efficiency 

greater than 10%. 

Among the recommendations included in this report 

was a call for continuance of the seismic monitoring 

pmgram in the areas of potential damage during the 

launch of larger missiles. 

Geomagnetism-ESSA’s Fredericksburg Geomagnetic 

Center continued to make calibration and test facilities and services available to NASA as a contribution 

toward the development of space instrumentation. A 

19th century Swiss-made theodolite, having a large, 

calibrated circle of very high quality, was renovated 

and modified by the Center for use in accurately aligning space sensors. 

All magnetic survey data collected from world-wide 

sources were screened and evaluated by C. & G.S. 

These data were used in a continuing, cooperative effort to improve knowledge and understanding of the 

characteristics and behavior of Earth’s magnetic field. 

These studies proceed through the development of 

accurate mathematical models of the magnetic field 

from surface levels to satellite altitudes. 

C. & G.S. personnel assisted the World Magnetic Survey Board of the International Union of Geodesy and 

Geophysics in preparing for an international Symposium, to be held in Washington, on “Description of the 

Earth‘s Magnetic Field.” 

Weather Bureau Operations 

The rapid gains made in 1967 by the Weather Bureau 

in participation in the space program have been consolidated during 1968. Experiments are continuing in 

data relay, with plans to include test collection of data 
CHAPTER Vlll 65 

from ships at sea. Implementation of specific programs for increased operational utilization of satellite 

data has been intensified, notably in tropical storm 

forecasting. The Bureau is also providing greater support to various satellite programs both directly and 

indirectly. 

Experiment With ATS-1 Satellite-Experiments in 

data collection and relay of river stage and rainfall 

measurements are being continued by the Weather 

Bureau’s Office of Hydrology using NASA’s ATS-1 

yeostationary satellite. Operational experience accwnulated from this erperirnent will furnish a basis for 

effective planning of future systems. 

Experiment With ATS3 Satellite-The Weather Bureau is providing support for the ATS WEFAX 

(Weather Facsimile) experiment by having JFK-New 

York, Miami, New Orleans, and San Juan receive the 

WEFAX transmissions and submit evaluations of these 

to National Environmental Satellite Center. 

Snow Surveying-Under a contract effort, an “Operational Guide for Mapping Snow Cover from Satellite Photographs” has been developed for the plains 

areas of the United States. Work is now progressing 

on developing techniques for mapping snow cover in 

the mountain States of the West. TIROS and ESSA 

photographs of the snow cover in the western States are 

being used in experimental support of the Weather 

Bureau’s River and Flood Forecasting Service. 

Sensor Study-A sensor evaluation study is being made 

under contract to ascertain what satellite sensors hold 

the most promise of providing useful data in meeting 

problems confronting the Weather Bureau’s hydrologic 

mission. Results of this study will be used as input to 

planning the applications of space-derived data to 

hydrology. 

Digitized Cloud Mosaics-The operational program 

for facsimile transmission of digitalized mosaics has 

been expanded to provide information not only to the 

50 States and Puerto Rico but also to the US. Air 

Force and Navy to fulfill their special requirements. 

Automatic Picture Transmission ( APT)-Early in 

1968 the Weather Bureau began the transmission of 

raw APT signals interspersed with conventional meteorological charts on a central facsimile network. The 

APT data are acquired by NESC at Wallops Island, 

Va., the Weather Bureau at San Francisco, and the 

Air Force at Kunia, Hawaii, and are relayed through 

Honolulu to San Francisco by cable. 

Meteorological Support-The Space Operations Support Division of the Weather Bureau continued to 

furnish meteorological services to NASA in support 

of the manned spaceflight program, including the forecasting of weather and sea conditions for the APOLLO 

7 and APOLLO 8 flights. This division furnishes a 

continuous weather observing and forecasting service 

in support of activity at Cape Kennedy, supplies specialized forecasts and meteorological support for test 

and development activities at NASA’s Manned Spacecraft Center and Mississippi Test Facility, and develops special studies on weather and climate conditions ’affecting both space and aeronautical activities 

of NASA. 

The Environmental Data Service 

The Environmental Data Service, a major subunit of 

ESSA, archives satellite data after they have been 

used operationally. Both raw and processed data are 

placed in the archives of the National Weather Records Center (NWRC), which provides retrieval services for research scientists. Since satellite data are used 

most frequently in conjunction with other meteorological data, NWRC serves as a convenient one-stop outlet for the users. Government and private-sector 

scientists, universities, and industry can purchase, at 

cost, copies of the data in film, picture, or magnetic 

tape form. Data catalogs are published to provide 

customers a means to identify the particular items 

desired. Over 2,800 reels of data were furnished to 

users in 1968. 

National Bureau Of Standards 

The National Bureau of Standards, through the development and improvement of a system of precise 

and consistent measurement, provides technological 

support for a number of national programs including 

those in space and aeronautics. 

The NBS activities pertinent to these efforts fall into 

three broad categories : 

Basic Measurement and Standards-Work in this area 

is centered on the development of a complete and 

consistent system of physical measurements. Special 
66 COMM 

emphasis is placed on those required by the advanced 

technologies used in aeronautics and space activities, 

since in these areas far greater accuracies than those 

needed for general use are often mandatory. In addition, the often unique character of these new technologies makes demands on the measurement system 

necessitating research and development in heretofore 

unexplored areas of ‘basic science and technology. 

Materials Measurement and Standards-An entirely 

new series of demands has been created for new and 

improved materials capable of performing efficiently 

in space. Highly pure and well-characterized materials are needed. Standard Reference Materials developed at NBS under this activity provide a unifying 

base for the measurement technology needed for creating, manufacturing and distributing a wide variety 

of products vital to the space effort. Analysis, particularly failure analysis, of materials that have been exposed to the aerospace environments is also part of 

this activity. 

Technological Measurement and Standards-Concerns of this area are technological or “engineering” 

measurement and standards which deal with products, 

commodities, devices, processes and systems. Principles of good measurement, rather well defined in the 

science area, are applied to the determination of the 

performance of working systems. As the complexity 

and technical sophistication of systems increase, particularly in the U.S. space program, it is increasingly 

important and difficult to define and measure those 

characteristics of a system which best describe its performance. Major efforts are being made to meet these 

needs. 

Items of particular interest in each of these three major areas are listed below. 

1. Basic standards : 

a. Clock synchronization via satellite and Moonbounce radar. 

b. Communications “blackout” during re-entry. 

c. Destructive vibrations in space vehicles. 

d. Fatigue cracks in airframe fasteners. 

e. Radiation detectors in space vehicles. 

f. Laser power and energy. 

g. Lens deterioration in space. 

h. Field pattern of large radar antennas. 

i. Noise in communications devices. 

j. Missile-warhead detection. 

2. Materials research: 

a. 

b. 

C. 

d. 

e. 

f. 

g* 

Liquid rocket fuel. 

NASA corrosion problem analysis. 

Thermodynamic properties of chemical 

compounds. 

Reaction heat measurements on light element 

fluorides. 

Thermal degradation of polymers. 

Physical chemistry of planetary atmospheres. 

Electron beam electrolysis. 

3. Standard Reference Materials. Standard Reference Materials ( SRM’s) are well-characterized materials that can be used to calibrate a measurement S~Stem or to produce scientific data that can be readily 

referred to a common base. The SRM’s discussed below are typical of the many samples produced at NBS, 

and sold at cost for use in a wide variety of space and 

aeronautical work. 

0 Two high-purity platinum SRM’s and two gold 

SRM’s were recently certified for composition. These 

standards calibrate instruments necessary to measure 

trace elements in such components as transistors and 

other solid-state devices used in space applications. 

0 A wide range of metallo-organic SRM’s have been 

developed and made available for testing the ’wear 

of modern jet engines, and predicting failure rates. 

Metallo-organic standards are used in the air transportation industry to detect engine failures before 

they occur. Eight standards recently certified contain metals found in the analysis of engine oils. 

Three oxygen and air SRM’s were recently certified. 

They calibrate gas measuring instruments for determining the concentration of oxygen in air, and 

have applications in measuring content in space 

capsule environments, aircraft cabins, and other enclosures related to space travel. 
CHAPTER Vlll 67 

The determination of the thickness of metals plated 

onto various substrates is important in both the aircraft and space industries. Four new gold-on-nickel 

thickness standards were issued to permit precise 

hanced to the highest degree. NBS conducts a program 

with NMA, other agencies, and industry, for selecting, 

developing, evaluating and publicizing methods of 

measurement which permit improved process control. 

measurements for the thickness of metal coatings. 

Gold is often plated on electrical components to 

provide stability and resistance to oxidation and 

corrosion. In many space and aeronautical applications, metal and non-metal surfaces are plated with 

metals to enhance performance and durability. 

Applied Technology 

Techniques for Man-Comjmter Systems. The Bureau is assisting the NASA Electronics Research Center 

in the development of techniques for man-computer 

systems for future space programs. Emphasis is on 

graphically oriented time-sharing systems-the use of 

multiple display terminals with computer systems. 

Tape Recording Systems for Space Vehicles. Magnetic tape recorders are one of the crucial links in 

relaying data from the space laboratory or observatory. 

Premature failure of these recorders is often traced 

to tape systems or their components. To avoid such 

failures NBS has designed and built equipment for 

performance tests of tapes. This equipment simulates 

in-service conditions and measures changes in electrical 

and surface characteristics of sample tapes. 

Telemetering Transducer Evaluations. NBS carries 

out a project jointly supported by NASA and other 

agencies for developing methods of evaluating the 

performance of telemetering transducers. This contributes to the reliability of information received in the 

testing of vehicles. 

Performance of High-Temperature Thermocouples. 

In the development of advanced propulsion systems 

for aircraft, the high-temperature conditions that exist 

in engines during testing are critically important. NBS 

is investigating the performance of high-temperature 

thermocouples used to improve the accuracy of measurements made during tests. 

Methods of Measuring Semiconductor Materials, 

Process Control, and Devices. Semiconductor devices 

play a key role in all phases of the performance of 

vehicle, satellite and other systems developed by 

NASA. It is essential that the performance, interchangeability, and reliability of these devices be enDevelopment of Space Radiation Detectors. NBS has 

continued its program for the fabrication and testing 

of solid-state nuclear radiation detectors used in space 

exploration. The detectors, not elsewhere available, 

are used to measure the exposure of satellites to highenergy radiation during flight. 

Dissemination of Space Data. The NBS Clearinghouse 

for Federal Scientific and Technical Information is the 

Government focal point for public dissemination of 

R&D reports related to space sciences and technology. It distributes NASA publications and unclassified materials related to space or aeronautics produced 

by other Federal agencies. 

Night-Flying Helicopters. Special electroluminescent 

lights, unaffected by the severe vibrational environment, have been developed to permit nighttime formation flying of military helicopters. Studies are now 

under way to determine the feasibility of extending the 

use of these lights to high-performance aircraft. 

Maritime Administration 

Maritime Mobile VHF Satellite Communications Test 

Program 

In 1968, the Maritime .4dministration cooperated with 

the NASA APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE (ATS) Program office in a test of long-distance ship-to-shore communications via an ATS satellite. Communications terminals were the SS SANI’A 

LUCIA and the NASA ATS ground stations at Rosman, North Carolina, and Mojave, California. 

The objective was to investigate the feasibility of using 

a simple, low-cost, shipboard-transceiver communications unit for voice and various data rates. The tests 

investigated multipath fading, signal strength, and data 

error. Major emphasis was placed on securing information for leaders in the communications and maritime industries and the Government on the trade-off 

considerations and work necessary in implementing a 

service satellite communications relay system for maritime uses. Another objective was to assist in developing 

a U.S. position on maritime satellite communications 

for use in international discussions, and in meetings of 
68 COMM 

the State Department with other nations of the International Marine Consultative Office of the United 

Nations and World Advisory Radio Conference. 

The first test trip was from New York via the Panama 

Canal to Valparaiso, Chile, and return during February and March. The second trip over the same route 

was made in May and June. A public demonstration 

of satellite-relayed communications between Baltimore, 

Md., and the SS SANTA LUCIA as it was approaching Valparaiso was conducted on Maritime Day, 

May 22. 

The test results were generally very good. Attempted 

resolutions of navigation line-of-position were not definitive and the results indicated that modifications 

are required in the testing methods. Public announcements of the tests have resulted in early scheduling of 

international meetings to further resolve radio treaty 

matters dealing with maritime communications via 

satellite. 

Office Of State Technical Services 

During 1968, the Department of Commerce’s Office of 

State Technical Services (OSTS) continued to cooperate with NASA’s Technology Utilization Division 

to make more effective non-Federal application of the 

advanced technology developed through Federally supported research and development. This cooperation 

was formalized through a working agreement established in August 1966. The program involves joint 

participation in national conferences on information 

dissemination and technology transfer, and a continuing joint review of program planning for the most 

effective application of information made available 

through the NASA Regional Dissemination Services 

and the Technical Reports by the State Technical 

Services Program. The OSTS makes a continuous effort to relate unique technical needs of local industry 

with NASA’s advanced technology. 
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING 

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 

Introduction 

The National Academy of Sciences is a private organization of scientists and engineers that serves upon 

request as an official advisor to the Federal Government. These advisory services are carried out largely 

by the National Research Council, which was established by the Academy to act as an operating agency. 

Within the Research Council, guidance in matters 

relating to the national space program is provided 

primarily by the Space Science Board, but the counsel 

of other units is also made available where aeronautical 

or space activities relate to their fields of specialization. 

Among those called upon during 1968 were the Divisions of Behavioral Sciences, Biology and Agriculture, 

Earth Sciences, and Engineering; the Committees on 

Atmospheric Sciences and on the SST-Sonic Boom; 

and the Office of Scientific Personnel. 

The National Academy of Engineering was established 

in December 1964. It is independent and autonomous 

in its organization and in the election of its members, 

and shares in the responsibility given the National 

Academy of Sciences under its Congressional Act of 

Incorporation to advise the Federal Government, upon 

request, in all areas of science and engineering. The 

aeronautics and space advisory activities of the National Academy of Engineering are carried out by the 

Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board. 

Space Science Board 

The Space Science Board is a consultative group which, 

in addition to its responsitbilities to the Federal Government, furthers space research generally by encouraging 

discussion of scientific advances and research opportunities. Internationally, the Board represents the U.S. 

scientific commun,ity on the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of the International Council of 

Scientific Unions. 

During the past year, the Space Science Board and its 

specialized committees and panels carried on a series 

of studies and programs d>irected toward providing 

guidance on the problems, opportunities, and implications of space research. The Board itself met four 

times during the period to discuss outstanding matters 

in space research with NASA management and senior 

staff of the National Science Foundation, National 

Aeronautics and Space Council, President’s Science 

Advisory Committee, and other interested agencies. As 

is customary, sessions were scheduled to take into 

account critical times in budget planning and formulation; thus the Board’s views have been available to 

program planners for consideration. Special attention 

was given to formulating programs and priorities for 

exploration of the planets by ground-based and space 

techniques and for study of the near-Earth environment, over the next decade or so. Other studies in 

progress or completed include the role of sounding 

rockets in scientific research; the requirements for a 

large space telescope for astronomical investigations ; 

air and water standards, atmosphere regeneration, 

and waste management in manned space flight; and 

evaluation of possibly harmful side effects of proposed 

space experiments. 

Special Studies on the Planets and the Near-Earth 

Environment-A study on planetary exploration was 

convened by the Board during June 1968 to recommend scientific priorities for investigations of the planets in the light of new information and current budgetary constraints. Twenty-two scientists representing 

all interested disciplines participated. The report of 

the study, Planetary Exploration, 1968-1975 (July 

1968), recommends that the planetary exploration program be presented in terms of the contributions it can 

make to a wide range of scientific disciplines, and that 

a substantially increased fraction of the total NASA 

budget be devoted to unmanned planetary exploration. It recommends that NASA initiate a program of 

69 
70 NAS 

small spacecraft to orbit Venus and Mars at every 

planetary opportunity and to make exploratory missions to other targets, notably Jupiter and Mercury. 

A series of missions to Mars stressing biological objectives, including an orbiter in 1971 and a Mariner-type 

orbiter and lander in 1973, is recommended. Other 

recommendations include continuing reassessment of 

sterilization requirements for Venus and Mars landers, 

and support of ground-based studies, in particular the 

funding of a major new planetary radar observatory. 

’ 

Earlier studies on space research conducted by the 

Board have underlined the importance of groundbased planetary astronomy to complement and support 

planetary exploration with space vehicles. Planetary 

Astronomy: An Appraisal of Ground-Based Opportunities (NAS Pub. 1688, 1968) presents the results 

of a 2-year study by a panel of the Board. It evaluates 

the current state of knowledge in planetary astronomy; 

indicates fields of ground-based astronomy likely to 

be particularly productive in the future; assesses and 

compares investigative techniques now in use or under 

development ; and makes specific recommendations on 

requirements for personnel, personnel training, and 

new or improved facilities. 

A study on the physics of the near-Earth environment 

was held at Woods Hole, Mass., in August 1968 with 

the participation of some 45 scientists. The purpose of 

the study was similar to that of the planetary exploration study in June: to recommend programs and priorities for investigation of the Earth’s neutral and 

ionized atmsophere, magnetosphere, and effects of and 

interactions with solar and cosmic radiations and magnetic fields. The study report, Physics o/ the Earth in 

Space: A Program of Research, 1968-2975 (October 

1968), defines a program of satellite, space-probe, and 

sounding-rocket missions for a concerted attack on 

specific questions related to fundamental physical 

mechanisms of the Sun-Earth system, in contrast with 

the exploratory surveys that characterized the past 

decade. The recommended program, which requires 

a level of support close to that of the past 6 years, places 

particular emphasis on coordinated investigations and 

on the development and utilization of new experimental techniques such as variable-orbit and clustered 

satellites. The importance of organizing a major observational effort during the period of low solar activity in 1974-1975 is also stressed. 

Lunar Science Institute-The establishment of a 

Lunar Science Institute adjacent to the Manned 

Spacecraft Center, Houston, was announced by the 

President on March 1, 1968. It was further announced 

that the National Academy of Sciences had agreed to 

help establish the LSI and initially to operate the facility. The Institute will provide a university atmosphere for scientists wishing to have access to the unique 

facilities of the Lunar Receiving Laboratory, where 

lunar samples returned by the astronauts will be taken. 

Close working relationships will be developed between 

the MSC and the staff and guest workers at the LSI. A 

specialized library, lunar photographs, office and working space, and conference facilities are planned. LSI 

is conceived as a broadly based institution, providing 

an institutional base for scientists interested in lunar 

research to work with the MSC scientists. 

Contamination and Interference Studies-In response 

to a request from NASA, the Board’s Committee on 

Potential Contamination and Interference from Space 

Experiments evaluated selected space experiments in 

terms of their likelihood of producing adverse environmental effects or interfering with other experiments. The list of experiments was derived by NASA’s 

Office of Space Science and Applications from an internal review of all its projects. The experiments fell 

in four general categories : electromagnetic radiation, 

energetic elementary particles, ion clouds, and 

contamination. 

The Committee’s report, “Evaluation of Possible Adverse Effects of Proposed Experiments,” was issued 

July 1, 1968. No adverse effects are anticipated from 

the energetic particle or ALSEP experiments. The 

Committee expressed its concern that experiments in 

regions of the electromagnetic spectrum adjacent to 

bands reserved for radio astronomy be carefully controlled. The Committee was also concerned about the 

SNAP-19 nuclear isotopic system and other radioisotope thermonuclear generator packages and asked 

to be kept informed on a case-by-case basis of proposed 

experiments of this type. No evidence is seen that ion 

cloud experiments produce harmful effects, but the 

Committee suggests that the entire question of possible 

adverse effects of chemical releases needs further study. 

In response to a request to the Board by the Advanced 

Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense, the Committee is evaluating the proposed re- 
CHAPTER IX 71 

lease of relatively large quantities of barium in the 

upper atmosphere, from the standpoint of atmospheric 

contamination or interference with other geophysical 

activities. 

Symposium on BIOSATELLITE I1 Results-At the 

request of NASA the Board sponsored a symposium to 

report to the scientific community preliminary results of 

the thirteen experiments aboard BIOSATELLITE 11. 

The symposium was held at the Academy, February 23- 

24, 1968; some 200 scientists attended. Papers presented 

are published in the June 1968 issue of Bioscience and 

the chairman’s summary appears in the July 1968 

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 

Physiology in the Space Environment-The potential 

effects on the cardiovascular system of stresses associated with long-term manned space flights have been 

studied by an ad hoc group of the Board’s Life 

Sciences Committee. Their report, Physiology in the 

Space Environment, I : Circulation (NAS Pub. 1485A, 

1968) concludes that currently available biomedical information is not sufficient to meet operational requiremeats for development and execution of three-year 

manned space flights. Methods recommended to secure the necessary level of knowledge include a 

systematic program of ground-based and in-flight 

experimentation, improved instrumentation, and the 

utilization of biomedical systems analysis. 

The Panel on Air Standards for Manned Space Flight 

has collected data on over 200 possible contaminants 

which, in its opinion, might constitute hazards on longterm manned missions and has recommended, where 

possible, long-term exposure limits. An industry-NASAAcademy review of the panel’s report, “Atmospheric 

Contaminants in Spacecraft” (June 1968), was held 

to examine the effects of the standards on equipment 

design. 

International Activities-The Eleventh Plenary of 

COSPAR was held in Tokyo, May 8-21, 1968. In 

conjunction with the meeting, there was a special session on stratospheric circulation, as well as three major 

symposia : Solar Flares, Biological Effects of Radiation 

in Space, and Small Rocket Instrumentation. As is customary, the Space Science Board, through its Committee on International Relations, organized United 

States participation in the COSPAR meeting. The 

Committee also reviewed U.S. contributed papers and 

prepared the annual report and 1,500-reference bibliography on US. space research during 1967: United 

States Space Science Program: Report to COSPAR. 

Another international function carried out under the 

aegis of the Board is the World Data Center A subcenter for rockets and satellites. The subcenter collects and exchanges results of research conducted with 

spacecraft and sounding rockets; these data are made 

available to interested persons on request. Six-month 

catalogs of accessions are issued; announcements of 

satellite launchings and monthly reports of sounding 

rocket firings are distributed internationally. In accordance with the organizational patterns that have 

evolved for other subcenters of WDC-A-that they be 

located within the establishments conducting extensive research in the relevant disciplines-the Academy 

and NASA have discussed the feasibility of transferring WDC-A:R/S operations to the (NASA) Goddard Space Flight Center’s Space Science Data Center. 

Broad policy matters would continue under the responsibility of the Academy’s Data Center Coordination 

Office. 

Committee On Atmospheric Sciences 

The NAS Committee on Atmospheric Sciences examines the current status in the atmospheric sciences 

and undertakes reviews and studies in specialized or 

new areas for which particular needs or a potential for 

rapid progress are emerging. Scientific fields that have 

received special attention by the Committee are interaction between the oceans and the atmosphere, atmospheric ozone, experimental atmospheric measurement techniques, problems in small- and large-scale 

weather modification, and the numerical modelling of 

the global general circulation. A result of the latter 

study has led to national and international planning 

for a Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) , and the establishment of a US. Committee for GARP. 

The Committee is presently completing a one-year 

study on the status and potential of a number of remote probing techniques. 

U.S. Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research 

Program-The Committee, established in March 1968, 

serves as the principal focus for the US. scientific and 

technological communities in the planning and development of US. participation in GARP. The objective 

of the program is to increase our understanding of the 

global general circulation of the atmosphere; its ulti- 
72 NAS 

mate aim is to develop the physical and mathematical 

basis for extended prediction. The USC-GARP has 

identified several scientific problem areas as crucial to 

this aim, and notes that engineering and technological 

developments in atmospheric sensing and processing 

are equally important to the attainment of the scientific goals. An observational system utilizing a large 

variety of surface-, air-, and space-based platforms, 

will be necessary to define the entire atmosphere below 

18.6 mi. This is an essential step in understanding the 

dynamics and thermodynamics of major atmospheric 

processes over the land and ocean areas of the world. 

Office Of Scientific Personnel 

The NAS-NRC Office of Scientific Personnel administers for NASA the NASA International University Fellowships in Space Science and the NASA Postdoctoral and Senior Postdoctoral Resident Research 

Associateships. The fellowships are open to foreign 

graduate students and postdoctoral scientists who are 

sponsored by their national or regional space agency, 

research council, or ministry of education. Fellowship 

appointments for study or research at one of the 33 participating US. universities are for twelve months, with 

possibility of renewal for a second year. From the start 

of the fellowship program in 1961, to December 31, 

1968, there have been 2 12 fellows from 19 countries, at 

28 U.S. universities. During 1968 there were 77 fellows (62 graduate and 15 postdoctoral) from 13 countries at 23 universities in the United States. These 

fellowships are cooperatively financed by NASA and 

the foreign sponsoring agency. 

The associateships, financed by NASA, are open to 

United States or foreign investigators of unusual ability, for research in areas of science having to do with 

space exploration. Eight NASA centers now participate 

in the program, which was initiated in 1959, and about 

475 scientists from 37 countries have held appointments. Appointments are for one year, with the possibility of renewal. During 1968 appointments for approximately 190 man-years were made, about half of 

these being renewal appointments. 

In addition to administering these programs, the Office of Scientific Personnel arranged for three space 

scientists from U.S. universities to attend and present 

lectures at the Latin American School for Space Research in January-February 1968 at Bariloche, Argentina. The program was cosponsored by the Argentine 

National Commission for Space Research. 

Division of Behavioral Sciences 

Committee on Hearing, Bioacoustics, and Biomechanics (CHABA)-A new Committee working 

group on aircraft collision avoidance was formed in 

1968 to study two questions: whether the supersonic 

transport will require warning lights during the supersonic portion of its flight, and the problem of anticollision devices for general aviation aircraft. 

Committee on Vision-During 1968, the Committee’s 

working group on space simulation conducted on-site 

evaluations of 10 NASA-supported projects on vision 

research. NASA has also asked for Committee suggestions to aid in formulating the agency’s long-range 

vision research plans. 

Division of Biology and Agriculture 

The Committee on Remote Sensing for Agricultural 

Purposes has nearly completed a monograph on this 

subject that will present the present status of aerial 

sensing, including techniques and equipment. The report will be illustrated with color plates showing the 

potential application of the art. The usefulness of such 

remote sensing for rapid and accurate inventory of agricultural and natural resources, and in estimating current levels of productivity, is discussed. Publication by 

the Academy is expected by mid-1969. 

Division of Earth Sciences 

N,S-NAE Committee Advisory to ESSA-The NASNAE Committee Advisory to the Environmental Science Services Administration reviews and advises on 

ESSA programs; among them, weather modification 

and data handling for weather and oceanographic 

needs are directly related to ESSA satellite programs. 

Committee on Space Programs for Earth Observation-The Committee advises on remote sensing activities of the U.S. Geological Survey. The USGS acts 

as coordinator of the Department of Interior’s Earth 

Resources Observation Satellite ( EROS) program, 

and carries on in-house and external contract studies 

which are reviewed by the Advisory Committee. Subcommittees have been established in five discipline 
CHAPTER IX 73 

areas : geography; cartography; geology and mineral 

resources; hydrology and water resources; and oceanography and marine resources. Principal interest during the year focused on applications to be derived from 

two recommended systems : a long-life satellite with 

advanced TV cameras providing repetitive observation 

of the Earth’s surface, for the purpose of assessing 

Earth’s resources; and a short-life satellite providing 

one-time observation of the Earth’s surface with a 

physical film-recovery system, for the purpose of control extension and map compilation. 

Committee on Remote Sensing of Environment-The 

Committee is concerned with evaluating the status and 

research potential of sensor technology, including its 

space applications, and with providing guidance for a 

strong national program in this field. Its Subcommittee 

on Security Classification Review has explored security 

restrictions to facilitate the utilization of sensory techniques for tasks requiring unclassified equipment and 

data. The Subcommittee suggests that civiilian scientific consultants be utilized to help resolve classification issues so that more rapid civilian application of 

advanced remote sensing techniques may be assured. 

Division Of Engineering 

Summer Study on Space Applications-Now nearing 

completion, the final report of the Summer Study on 

Space Applications conducted under the auspices of 

NRC’s Division of Engineering will be issued early in 

1969 and will reflect the work of participants in the 

Study’s two summer sessions at Woods Hole during 

1967 and 1968. Made at the request of NASA, the 

Study obtained the recommentations of highly qualified scientists and engineers on the nature and scope of 

the research and development program needed to provide the technology required to exploit the applications of Earth-oriented satellites. 

There were some 60 active participants at the July 1968 

session, during which two new technical panels-on 

points-to-point conimunications and on systems for remote sensing information and distribution-met ; 

and the work of earlier technical panels in the fields of 

forestry, agriculture, geography, geology, hydrology, 

meteorolo,gy, oceanography, sensors and data systems, 

point-to-point communications, broadcasting, navigation and traffic control, and geodesy and cartography 

was reviewed and modified in the light of recent progress. The central review committee revised its interim report, issued in early 1968, and made major 

rceommendations relating to research and development, funding, organization, communications, and 

progL’ain emphasis. A presentation on the work of the 

Study was made July 31 to representatives of NASA 

and such Federal user agencies as the Departments of 

Agriculture, Commerce, Housing and Urban Development, Interior, State, and Transportation. A series of 

seminars on special aspects of the program was also 

held on August 1,2, and 3. 

Materials Advisory Board-The Materials Advisory 

Board provides advisory services for the AcademiesResearch Council in the field of engineering materials 

and material processes, responding to requests from 

the Government and the national private sector. A 

large part of its effort over the past ten years has been 

concerned with the problems of materials for aerospace. Two major problem areas are (1) the extremely 

high temperatures encountered in power plants and 

re-entry surfaces, and (2) materials of highest ratio 

of strength-to-density and stiffness-to-density. 

Following are typical examples of MAB studies, completed in 1968 or under way, which bear directly on 

aerospace. Report MAB-231, “Long Range Aerospace Manufacturing Development,” describes techniques and methods that will have to be developed 

to fabricate structures with the aerospace materials 

predicted for the 1975-85 period. Ceramic Processing 

(NAS Pub. 1576) charts research and development 

necessary for production of improved ceramics for high 

temperature and other applications. Report MAB243, “Infrared Transmitting Materials,” explores the 

feasibility of producing melt-formed glasses to transmit in the 8-1 4 micron range under elevated temperature conditions. Report MAE206M( 7), “Metalworking Processes and Equipment,” provides recommendations to stimulate progress toward the advances in 

metalworking that are needed to utilize the new, dXicult-to-work materials such as titanium and refractory 

alloys,. Report MAB-236, “Structural Design with 

Fibrous Composites,” defines the design problems unique to these new materials in aerospace applications. 

A study, requested by NASA, is nearing completion 

on coatings for the high temperature oxidation protection of superalloys, refractory metals, and graphite; 

another study is being initiated on the attack of high 
74 NAS 

strength superalloys by sulfur-containing gases in 

turbines (above 1800” F) . A 2-year study, requested 

by the Air Force, is now concluding on improved techniques for systematic and optimal selection of materials for specific applications and for definition of the 

materials test data necessary for screening, selection, or 

design. A high-priority study of methods for hardenings of materials for re-entry vehicles has been under 

way since July 1968 and will be reported in 1969. 

Committee on SST-Sonic Boom 

During 1968, the Committee’s Research Subcommittee 

completed and published its “Report on Generation 

and Propagation of Sonic Boom.” Although the Subcommittee did not rule out the possibility that future 

commercial supersonic aircraft designs may yield 

significant reductions in sonic boom intensities, it did 

conclude that the most realistic prospect for reducing 

the boom from commercial SST’s lies in the area of 

successive small reductions brought about by refinements in conventional aircraft design, better understanding of boom theory, and improvements in propulsive efficiency and operating procedures. The Subcommittee singled out five areas requiring additional work : 

Theoretical and analytical studies of shock wave propagation through turbulent layers of the atmosphere, 

effcts on the boom of different types of natural and 

man-made topography, effects of aircraft acceleration 

and maneuver on shock wave generation and propagation, aircraft design studies to minimize sonic ‘boom 

effects, and statistical compilations of lboom over-pressure and impulse type data. 

A “Report on Physical Effects of the Sonic Boom” was 

issued by the Suibcommittee on Physical Effects. The 

Subcommittee called for immediate development of 

facilities in which damage-susceptible materials and 

components could be exposed to simulated sonic booms 

in order to.develop much needed statistics on probabilities of damage to normal building materials and structures. The Subcommittee also called for further work 

on boom propagation theory and analysis as a basis 

for determining how assembled buildings are likely 

to react to such phenomena as the air and ground 

pressure waves produced by wind gusts and natural 

and man-made microseismic disturbances. 

The Subcommittee on Human Response, in its “Report on Human Response to the Sonic Boom,” has 

. 

concluded that “While physiological studies to date 

indicate little cause for concern, a review of field studies 

of the psychological impact of the sonic boom shows 

a growing consensus that is discouraging for the use 

of the current version of the commercial supersonic 

transport over populated areas at speeds at which it 

will be generating a sonic boom.” Nevertheless, “there 

is little likelihood that residents of our major metropolitan centers will hear a sonic boom generated by 

the currently proposed version of the commercial 

supersonic transport arriving at or departing from 

commercial airports, such as those serving intercontinental flights in the vicinity of our large metropolitan centers.” Since the Subcommittee expressed 

“cautious optimism in its belief that in the future it 

may be possible to design and build a commercial SST 

that will, when flying supersonically, generate a boom 

of acceptable characteristics,” recommendations were 

made for research that would provide the aircraft 

designer with human-response type design criteria 

essential to his future work. Such recommendations 

include a continuation of laboratory studies of the annoying properties of the boom, and of studies of both 

individual and community reactions to both varied 

levels of the boom and repeated booms over a period 

of time, “if and when scheduled supersonic military 

flight training programs provide opportunities.” 

Aeronautics and Space Engineering 

Board 

The National Academy of Engineering established the 

ASEB in May 1967 for the primary purpose of applying the expertise of the national engineering community to significant policy and program issues of concern 

to NASA and other Federal agencies in the field of 

aeronautics and space engineering. The Board will 

recommend to the Government the priorities that it 

believes should be assigned to engkeering objectives, 

propose ways to bring engineering talents more effectively to bear on aerospace problems of national importance, and suggest methods to improve engineering education in the aerospace field. 

The Board completed its first major study on 

August 13, 1968, with publication of its report on 

“Civil Aviation Research and Development: An ASsessment of Federal Government Involvement.” The 

report recommends over 100 actions aimed at helping 
CHAPTER IX 75 

to solve the major problems hindering the growth of 

civil aviation. The recommendations range from general consideration of Government agency relationships 

and responsibilities to specific actions for increased 

aeronautical research and development. 

As a related activity, on July 30-31, 1968, the Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board arranged a joint 

Army-NAS-NAE conference on helicopter and 

V/STOL noise generation and suppression. The conference was requested and supported by the U.S. Army 

Research Office, Durham, N.C., and involved selected 

representatives from industry, Government, and universities. Major problems of aircraft noise reduction 

were discussed, and actions were recommended for 

deriving a better understanding of the noise generation mechanism in rotor aircraft and of the factors 

determining noise detectability and annoyance. A report of the conference was published in November. 
SMITHSONIAN ASTROPHYSICAL 

OBSERV AT0 RY 

Introduction 

Among activities of the Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory (SAO) this year were the following: 

a. Completion and launch of Celescope on OAOA-2, and initial data acquisition by the 

experiment. 

b. Participation in the National Geodetic Satellite Program, including observations of GEOS 

2 flashes. 

c. Cooperation with satellite-tracking programs 

in France, Great Britain, the U.S.S.R., Greece, 

Switzerland, and Australia. 

d. Installation of three observing instruments at 

SAO’s new Mt. Hopkins Observatory near 

Tucson, Arizona. 

e. Establishment of a new research program in 

atomic and molecular astrophysics. 

f. Analysis of four years of photographic meteor 

observations, leading to several possibilities that 

challenge earlier assumptions. 

Project Celescope 

NASA’s second ORBITING ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATORY, OAO-A-2, containing the Smithsonian’s Celescope experiment as well as an experiment 

of the University of Wisconsin, was launched on 

December 7, 1968. 

The Celescope experiment consists of four telescopic 

television photometers. Its purpose is to map the sky 

in four ultraviolet color bands. OAO spacecraft subsystems provide power, command, and data-handling 

capability, and control the pointing of the Celescope 

experiment. The OAO is controlled by a complex 

ground system consisting of a centrally located comCHAPTER 

x 

puter facility and a worldwide tracking and dataacquisition network. 

All spacecraft subsystems are operating excellently and 

in the manner required for conducting the Celescope 

observing program. The Celescope checkout period, 

Dec. 14-17, was devoted primarily to determining the 

observational limits required to provide safe and accurate data acquisition. During this period, scientifically valuable data were obtained on one star field in 

Draco, containing two B stars and seven A stars, and in 

two star fields in Lyra, each containing about 15 stars 

of types A and B. During this checkout period it was 

determined that observations cannot be safely made 

when the sun shines on the OAO. In course of this 

checkout, Celescope Camera No. 2 received some 

damage in the form of false stars, as a result of overexposure during daylight. 

From Dec. 18 to 24, the University of Wisconsin had 

control of the OAO for scientific data acquisition. On 

December 25, SA0 began control of the satellite. Highquality data were obtained on 10 to 30 stars in five 

star fields during real-time operations from the Rosman, N.C., STADAN station. SA0 then began operating from overseas STADAN stations, using the OAO 

command memory to allow data acquisition when the 

satellite was in the dark. It was discovered that this 

mode of operation led to charge buildup in Camera 

No. 2, resulting in some additional damage. Control 

of the OAO was temporarily transferred back to the 

University of Wisconsin pending detailed analysis of 

the damage mechanism. At present, it is believed that 

the damage mechanism applies only to Camera No. 2, 

which is of a different design from the other cameras, 

and that it can be controlled by restricting operations 

to real-time dark. 

The Celescope experiment has demonstrated its ability 

to fulfill its scientific objectives; it has already obtained exciting new data on the ultraviolet brightness 

76 
CHAPTER X 77 

of stars of types B, A, G, and K; it is obtaining interesting data regarding Lyman-alpha radiation in Earth’s 

outer atmosphere. The damage to Camera 2 has slowed 

down the speed at which data can be acquired, but 

not compromised the scientific program. 

and theoretical interest. Animal guidance systems, for 

example, are of theoretical interest as a biological process and have potential relevance to man’s physical 

problems of navigation. The biology staff of the Smithsonian Institution and scientists of the Observatory 

have determined the means by which a Doppler sysSate I I i te Tr ac ki ng 

Operations-The Observatory has strengthened its 

worldwide network of astrophysical observing stations 

by collecating laser systems with three of its 12 BakerNunn cameras. These stations, which are situated in 

11 countries, are augmented by more than 150 Moonwatch stations in 24 countries. The network provides 

satellite launch and tracking support for national space 

programs and furnishes data for scientific research, 

particularly atmospheric physics and geodesy. 

SA0 is participating vigorously in the National Geodetic Satellite Program. This year the network made 

more than 2,500 photographic observations of GEOS 

2 flashes. The observatory also has various agreements 

by which it receives photographic data from many nations, including France, Great Britain, Switzerland, 

and the U.S.S.R. 

Laser systems at SA0 sites at Mount Hopkins, Ariz.; 

Maui, Hawaii ; and Dionysos, Greece, participated in 

an international program with the French Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, the Greek National Technical University, the Australian Weapons Research 

Establishment, and NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center. The resultant precise range information on 

five retroreflector satellites supplements eight files of 

intensive observation by the SA0 Baker-Nunn cameras. 

These optical and laser observations, as well as data 

from several other tracking stations, form the base for 

the 1968 Standard Earth, now in preparation. 

After providing on-site training to Argentine nationals, 

SA0 turned over the Villa Dolores K-50 camera station to the Observatory’s cooperating agency, the Comision Nacional de Investigaciones Espaciales, for 

continued geodetic work. 

One of the more interesting applications of satellites 

could be their use to track wild animals. This technique 

would lead to new knowledge concerning animal navigation, migratory behavior, and territoriality. An understanding of these phenomena is of both practical 

tem would allow an animal carrying a one-half-pound 

packaEe to be tracked anywhere in the world. 

Upper Atmospheric Studies-The density variations of 

the upper atmosphere during the intense magnetic 

storms of May 1967 have been studied by -analyzing 

the drag of six satellites with perigee heights between 

210 and 621 mi., deduced from positions obtained by 

the precise reduction of Baker-Nunn photographs. The 

study has confirmed that the density variations can be 

explained by an increase of the atmospheric temperature during the magnetic storm; the dissipation of the 

additional energy that causes the temperature increase 

must occur in the lower thermosphere, at a height close 

to that where most of the extreme-ultraviolet radiation 

is absorbed. 

Much work has been done to construct plausible 

models of the variable structure of the upper atmosphere above 56 mi. Several shortcomings have been 

found in the past 2 years in the models currently in 

use throughout the world. The new models are intended to eliminate the defects. Satisfactory results 

have been obtained with a set of empirical static models 

in which the temperature at 56 mi. varies in phase with 

the exospheric temperature, with a range equal to 2.5 

percent of the latter. Purely theoretical models of the 

diurnal variation are being developed in parallel, to 

gain insight into the dynamics of the upper atmosphere. 

All these models are based to a great extent on the 

results of satellite-drag analysis; 8 to 10 satellites are 

constantly tracked by the Baker-Nunn cameras to provide the raw material for these studies. Observations 

now cover a complete sunspot cycle, i.e., the full range 

of upper-atmosphere temperature. 

Meteoritics 

SA0 has a broad research program in meteoritics, 

which includes the analysis of observations of meteors, 

as well as laboratory studies of meteorites and other 

meteoric material. These investigations contribute to 

our understanding of the origin and composition of 

the solar system and have a direct practical application 
78 SA0 

in providing information on the hazards of meteoroid 

collision with manned spacecraft. 

The meteor radar system at Havana, Ill., has been improved by calibrations of antenna patterns and other 

electronic equipment. These calibrations will permit a 

quantitative measure of the ionization of a meteor, 

and thus of its magnitude. 

Located near Urbana, Ill., a newly developed system 

utilizing image-orthicon television will make observations of the light of faint meteors simultaneously with 

the meteor radar system. 

Analysis of 4 years of photographic meteor observations 

by the Prairie Network has led to several possibilities that challenge earlier assumptions. The mass 

flux of large meteoroids entering the Earth's atmosphere is one or two orders of magnitude larger than 

expected. From present best estimates of the relation 

between the luminosity and the mass of these bodies, 

their average density is 0.4 g/cm8, while the average 

value for meteoritic stone is 3.5. Also, the terminal 

masses of these bodies are very small, suggesting a nearcatastrophic ablation in the atmosphere. Finally, the 

rate of meteorite fall may not exceed 0.1 per year of 

bodies 1 kg or larger. These conclusions support the 

possibility that most meteoric bodies, regardless of size, 

are low-density, fragile objects of cometary origin. Unanswered are basic questions concerning the source, 

frequency distribution, and ablation processes of 

meteorites. 

Mesosiderites, the smallest, most obscure class of meteorites, and one generally ignored, are now being closely 

studied. If they represent a form of primitive matter, 

they are of special interest because they have nearly 

the right mass density and the right potassium and uranium contents to represent samples of the primitive 

material from which the Earth was formed. Present 

research is concentrated on their mineralogy and 

metallurgy. 

Mineralogical investigation of dust samples of Greenland ice 100 to 250 years old showed no extraterrestrial 

materials, while that of samples from ice 50 to 100 

years old did. These results suggest that the influx of 

extraterrestrial material is mostly sporadic rather than 

continuous and that large proportions of measurable 

cosmic dust fall in discrete events that may not have 

worldwide effects. Specifically, the younger samples 

from Greenland ice may contain material from the 

Tunguska explosion in Siberia in 1908. 

The Mount Hopkins Observatory in 

Relation to the Space Program 

The new Mt. Hopkins Observatory of SA0 is situated 

35 miles south of Tucson, in the Coronado National 

Forest. At altitudes above 7,000 ft, the site enjoys superior seeing and sky transparency in both the visible 

and the infrared. 

Three instruments are already operating on a 7,600-ft 

ridge. One is the unique 33-foot-diameter optical reflector used for gamma-ray astronomy. Very high-energy 

gamma rays interact with the atmosphere to produce 

flashes of light detectable on the Earth. They occur in 

the form of very faint, extremely short-lived light pulses 

seen only in the direction of an arriving gamma ray. 

SA0 constructed the optical reflector to count such 

light pulses and to establish whether certain suspected 

celestial sources, e.g., supernova remnants, radio galaxies, and the recently discovered pulsars, do in fact radiate gamma rays. 

The second instrument is a prototype laser, which is 

being evaluated and improved with a view toward deployment of such lasers at other stations of the SA0 

satellite-tracking network. The laser measures to 

within a meter the distances to satellites thousands of 

miles away. Its pointing.mount is accurate enough to 

acquire satellites when they are in the Earth's shadow 

and are consequently invisible. In fact, the laser can be 

used to illuminate a dark satellite sufficiently to permit it to be photographed against a star background. 

The third instrument is a Baker-Nunn camera, with 

associated equipment, moved from Las Cruces, N. 

Mex., to this new site. 

A fourth major instrument, a 60411. reflecting telescope, is being constructed for installation in 1969. It 

will be used to obtain high-resolution spectra of stars, 

nebulas, and planets. The last observations will be used 

for improved determinations of the physical and chemical properties of the planetary atmospheres. 

Atomic and Molecular Astrophysics 

Recognizing the growing importance of studies of 

planetary atmospheres, SA0 has established a research program in atomic and molecular astrophysics. 
CHAPTER X 79 

The temperatures of the electrons and positive ions in 

the ionosphere of a planet are important physical parameters. They result from a balance between various 

heating and cooling processes. The dominant cooling 

process in the upper atmosphere of the planet was identified and then embodied in a new theoretical description of the thermal balance. A new nocturnal heating 

process has also been identified. 

Completion of the analysis of the absorption of sunlight by carbon dioxide in the Martian atmosphere 

showed that its density is, at most, 1% that of Earth's 

and that carbon dioxide must be the main constituent, 

being at least 60% of the total, and more likely nearly 

100%. A search has begun for emission of light by 

oxygen atoms in the Cytherian upper atmosphere, 

which should give us a clue to the puzzle of the absence 

of any appreciable amount of oxygen on Venus. These 

observations should be continued in 1969 when Venus 

comes close to Earth. 
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION 

Introduction 

The Department of Transportation engages in 

aeronautical research and development through one of 

its major components, the Federal Aviation Administration. This work supports the mission of insuring 

safe and efficient use of the Nation’s airspace by both 

civil and military aircraft, and the broader, more general mandate to foster civil aeronautics and air commerce. Civil aviation has grown rapidly in recent years, 

and concurrently new problems have been posed and 

old ones aggravated. This situation calls for continued progress now and in the future, particularly in 

research and development. 

Aviation Safety Research and 

Development 

In-Flight Safety-Notable progress was made in 1968 

toward reduction or elimination of the following inflight hazards : 

a. Fire. Three items stand out: ( 1) Duplication 

of turbine fire from combustion-chamber failure, 

or “combustor burn-through,” was achieved by 

FAA during the year, under controlled test-stand 

conditions. The resultant improved understanding of the engineering considerations involved is 

enabling the agency to evaluate various means of 

preventing or protecting against this most severe 

type of fire. (2) FAA disseminated to industry 

and to other Government agencies the test results 

from two full-scale fire-test programs completed 

in 1967. The results were achieved with a podmounted turbofan engine in configurations simulating those of new-generation jumbo jets as well 

as those of current in-service aircraft. (3) FAA 

was, at the end of 1968, nearing completion of a 

comprehensive handbook on use of gas analyzers 

for ascertaining the adequacy of aircraft fire80 

extinguishing systems. In this area, only recently 

entered by industry, FAA has had almost exclusive experience. 

b. Midair collision. FAA continued the efforts 

of prior years, in cooperation with industry, to 

achieve an operationally and economically sound 

means of reducing this hazard, both inside and 

outside the United States. Efforts are directed toward: (1) standardization of aircraft exterior 

marking and lighting; (2) development of simple 

pilot-warning instruments ( PWI’s) ; and (3) development of a sophisticated collision-avoidance 

system (CAS) . Among FAA’s raponsibilities are 

formulation of the technical requirements, including civil-military compatibility, that a CAS must 

meet for US. operations, and coordination (in 

cooperation with the State Department) of U.S. 

with foreign efforts in this area of research to 

assure international acceptance of a common 

CAS. Progress in 1968 included: (1) Manufacturers developing CAS equipment for airline and 

FAA evaluation reached the fabrication stage; 

(2) FAA negotiated with the Air Transport Association (ATA) to define FAA‘s role in initial 

flight-testing of CAS equipment; (3) FAA completed negotiations for contractual effort in the 

computer-simulation field aimed at enhancing 

for users the benefits from simultaneous operation 

of collision-avoidance and air-traffic-control systems; and (4) it also completed negotiations for 

contractual study of a) ways to make aircraft 

easier to see and b) areas suitable for use of pilotwarning instruments. 

c. Weather. There are four notable items. (1) 

With data analysis completed in early 1968, the 

year saw the publication of results from tests 

(ended in 1967) in which morc than 100 jet 

pilots from the airlines, industry, and the mili- 
CHAPTER XI 81 

tary services “flew” under varied but closely controlled conditions of severe turbulence in the U.S. 

Navy’s Johnsville (Pa.) centriiuge simulation 

facility. While showing current turbulence penetration techniques to be adequate, the test results 

demonstrated the potential of an instrumentation 

system for achieving smoother and safer penetrations. Flight-testing of this instrumentation system 

is scheduled for 1969. (2) The year saw satisfactory completion of design and testing of a 

digital weather-outline generator, a device which 

removes the undesirable weather clutter from the 

air traffic controller’s radarscope and replaces it 

with clear outlines of storm areas. This feature, 

included in FAA’s general modernization program, eventually will improve controllers’ capability to guide airplanes around heavy storm areas. 

(3) In mid-1968, FAA signed a contract aimed at 

repairing the relative lack of engineering-quality 

data, in scheduled air carrier operations, on occurrences such as encounters with turbulence. 

(This lack is in contrast with the abundance of 

data on performance and handling characteristics of airplanes as flown by engineering pilots 

during test and certification programs.) The contract calls for instrumenting three jet transports 

with recording systems capable ol providing the 

kind of data desired. By the end of 1968, installation of one of the three systems had been completed. The other two will be installed in 1969. 

and data-taking will continue until mid-1970. (4) 

Efforts continued toward development of devices 

for detecting and avoiding clear-air turbulence 

(CAT), a hazard more often encountered at the 

higher altitudes flown by jets than at the lower 

flight levels. The device nearest to operational 

practicality is an infrared remote-air sensor. It 

depends on correlation between remote-air temperatures, which it measures, and the presence 

of CAT. Under current scheduling, preparation 

of a technical standard for this device is about 

two years away. 

d. Aircraft wake turbulence. Vortexes in the wake 

of large aircraft in flight can be hazards to following aircraft. In 1968, FAA continued a program begun in 1967 to develop solutions to this 

problem. The search for solutions will follow 

determination of (1) the characteristics of the 

vortex field flow behind the airplzne generating 

it, and (2) effects of the vortex on encountering 

aircraft. Progress in 1968 included (1) completion of negotiations to procure a three-tower sensing and recording system, and (2) the conducting 

of tests that confirmed feasibility of the sensing and 

recording system, provided a basis for realistic 

programming of future effort, served FAA needs 

in litigation resulting from alleged wake-turbulence incidents, and provided documentation for 

consideration by the International Civil Aviation 

Organization’s Special Planning Group in assessing wake turbulence in relation to aircraft separation criteria for North Atlantic operations. 

e. Propeller failure. At year’s end, FAA was flighttesting the prototype of a device-a propellerblade-vibration recording system-that may fill 

the existing need for better evaluation of propellers for general-aviation airplanes. In the past several years, there have been some 100 failures of 

such propellers, all unpredictable by present 

standards of evalution. 

f. Sabotage. Though several promising methods 

of detecting concealed explosives in passenger 

luggage have been tested by FAA since 1960, 

no practical and economically feasible method 

has been developed ; the search continues, however, in close coordination with other Government agencies and the air trarispoi t industry. In 

1968, there were two notable steps. (1) The contractor delivered for evaluation by FAA’s National Aviation Facilities Experimental Center, at 

Atlantic City, an engineering model of a “chemosensor’’ device for detecting explosive vapors; the 

evaluation will be completed by mid-1969. (2) 

FAA initiated a project to explore the feasibility 

of a detection system based on analysis of neutron 

activation. 

g. Hijacking. An effort was launched in 1968 to 

develop a practical and economically feasible 

method of detecting concealed weapons on airline passengers before they board the aircraft. The 

effort will coninue until a satisfactory method is 

achieved. 

h. SST emergency cockpit temperatures. FAA 

completed in 1968 a program begun the previous 

year to determine the tolerable upper cockpit temperature during cooling emergencies in supersonic 
82 DOT 

transports. Profiles of performance degradation 

at high temperatures were prepared for the tentative SST airworthiness standards. 

i. Any of foregoing. Efforts are under way to 

develop a method of recording the display on 

air traffic controllers’ radarscopes, to make it 

possible to review the display at any time in case 

of an accident or other incident. During 1968, 

several types of recorders were evaluated, and it 

was determined that radar video could be shown 

on a helical scan recorder at a reasonable price. 

Completion of procurement arrangements for, 

and the fabrication and delivery of, a prototype 

are expected to take about two years. 

Postcrash Safety-FAA continued in 1968 various 

R&D efforts aimed at increasing the likelihood of occupants surviving aircraft crashes. Notable progress was 

made in programs concerned with: 

a. Cabin interior materials. Data from testing of 

such materials in earlier years, combined with 

results from similar testing by aircraft and 

aircraft-material manufacturers, supported an 

amendment to the Federal Aviation Regulations, 

effective in late 1967, imposing new standards of 

fire resistance for materials used in aircraft cabin 

interiors. Continuing such testing in 1968, FAA 

placed specific emphasis on smoke and toxicity 

hazards. 

b. Safety fuels. In 1964, FAA began developing 

thickened fuels as a way to reduce the fire hazard 

following a survivable aircraft accident; in 1968, 

this effort progressed to the completion of detailed 

jet engine fuel-nozzle and combustor-component 

laboratory tests. A jet engine was successfully 

started and operated on a new gelled fuel exhibiting promising safety characteristics. Compatibility of this fuel and of an emulsified fuel 

with jet engine fuel systems is being tested to 

identify problem areas and develop solutions. 

These tests are expected to show system modifications that may be necessary before flight test of 

safety fuels, currently scheduled for 1971. 

c. Protective hood for passengers. In 1968, continuing work begun two years earlier, FAA devised 

an improved sealed hood for use of passengers 

surviving an aircraft crash followed by fire; the 

hood is designed to protect eyes and lungs against 

smoke or fire damage during the time required to 

evacuate the aircraft. Final tests were begun to 

perfect operational details. 

d. Emergency evacuation. In June 1968, FAA 

completed a year-long study aimed at developing 

new concepts for emergency evacuation of transport aircraft following survivable accidents. The 

study describes and theoretically evaluates 51 such 

concepts, which will undoubtedly be used in the 

development of future aircraft. 

Airport Safety-FAA continued various programs 

during 1968 to prevent aircraft accidents at or in the 

vicinity of airports, or to minimize the consequences 

of such accidents. Notable efforts were concerned with: 

a. Runway grooving. Continuing work of previous years, this program aims at improving aircraft braking traction on wet or slush-covered 

pavements; it is conducted in cooperation with 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Department of Defense, and foreign 

organizations. Progress in 1968 included (1) completion of design criteria for optimum grooving 

pattern, from testing of 18 groove patterns cut in 

taxiways at several airports, and (2) the grooving 

of a runway at Chicago’s Midway Airport (runways had previously been grooved at Washington 

National, Kansas City Municipal, and John F. 

Kennedy International Airports) . 

b. Airports surface detection equipment (ASDE) . This equipment is designed to provide controllers 

with a radar display of airport ground traffic when 

direct viewing is impeded, as by darkness or 

weather. The usefulness of early models was 

limited because, to eliminate outside light and 

reflections, the controller had to view the display 

under a hood. In 1968, FAA completed data collection for evaluating performance of a recently 

developed bright-display model, usable without 

a hood, in operation at Chicago’s OHare Airport traffic control tower. The prospect is for a 

favorable report and a resultant national program to improve operational ASDE’s. 

c. Jet transport aircraft landing characteristics. 

In line with its continuing responsibility for monitoring routine air carrier operations to determine 
CHAPTER XI 83 

areas where regulatory or procedural improvements are needed, FAA began in 1967 a program 

to photograph and analyze operational performance of civil jet transports during approach and 

landing. The data-taking phase of the program, 

carried out at six different jet airports, was completed in 1968. Data reduction and analysis will 

continue into 1969, to be followed by issuance of 

the final report. Program results will be used as the 

basis for re-establishing certification performance 

criteria for transport aircraft. 

d. Engine protection from bird ingestion. The 

sucking of birds through jet-engine intakes is an 

occasional hazard, especially in the vicinity of 

airports. In 1968, FAA test-flew an FAA aircraft 

equipped with a promising engine-inlet protective 

device resulting from a contract negotiated in 

1967. 

General-Notable R&D projects not mentioned above 

to promote aviation safety included the following: 

a. Objective private-pilot flight test. FAA continued in 1968 work begun in 1967 to develop 

an objective certification flight test for private 

pilots. The present test, in use for more than 35 

years, may, despite numerous modifications, be 

outmoded; in any case, its administration is straining the resources of FAA’s field offices. What is 

wanted from the test under developments is reliable identification of competent pilots at minimum 

inconvenicence, delay, and expense to both the applicant and the Government. Progress in 1968 included completion of the first phase of development-the study and profiling of the private-pilot 

population-and the start of the second phasedevelopment of the test itself-which is expected 

to be completed in 1969. 

b. Integrated VFR-IFR pilot-training. The purpose of this program, begun in 1967 and completed in 1968, was to develop and experiment 

with a curriculum combining the teaching of flying under visual flight rules (VFR) with flying 

under instrument flight rules (IFR) . The results 

included the first objective evidence that this 

method of giving pilots the greater resourcefulness of IFR capability is advantageous, and therefore promotes aviation safety. 

c. Pilot-training with angle-of-attack instrument. 

Completed in 1968, this program was part of the 

broad objective to find new means and procedures for reducing the number of general-aviation 

accidents, particularly those (often fatal) resulting from stalls. The program showed that use of 

the angle-of-attack instrument in training student 

pilots produced superiority in certain flying skills 

as compared with training not including the 

instrument. 

d. Analysis of airframe and landing-gear strength. 

FAA completed in 1968 a comprehensive study 

of loads imposed on the airframe of an aircraft 

by maneuvers involved in taxiing, thus providing 

data needed for developing improved structural 

design criteria. A companion study provided information useful for designing more efficient 

landing-gear systems; it gathered data on fatigue 

and fracture toughness of steel having a tensile 

strength of 300,000 pounds per square inch, a 

prime material for transport landing-gear 

structures. 

e. More crash-resistant Right-data recorders. 

FAA began a two-year effort in June 1968 to improve the crash survivability of magnetic tape or 

other recording materials used in aircraft flightdata recorders and cockpit voice recorders. Information from such recorders is of vital 

importance to FAA and the National Transportation Safety Board in the investigation of aircraft 

accidents. 

f. Underwater location beacon. During the year, 

FAA completed evaluation of, and issued a final 

report on, an acoustic underwater location beacon. 

This device can be attached to flight-data or cockpit voice recorders carried in aircraft, and holds 

promise for locating specific parts of such recorder 

equipment following the crash of an aircraft in 

water. 

g. Safer civilian sport parachuting. The recent 

increase in accidents among civilians undergoing 

training in “skydiving,” or parachuting for sport, 

prompted FAA in 1968 to start development of 

a device for remote control of the studcnt jumper’s 

reserve parachute. This safety device, to be operated by the parachute jump instructor, is expected to be completed by mid-1969. 
84 DOT 

Other R&D Programs Fostering Civil 

Aeronautics 

Air Traffic Control 

a. Advanced radar traffic control system (ARTS 

I1 and 111). ARTS I1 (originally referred to as 

DAIR, for direct altitude and identity readout) 

is a joint enterprise of FAA and the Department 

of Defense, under a 1967 civil-military contract 

calling for development and production of a 

prototype. Intended for use at civil airports and 

Air Force and Navy installations of low air-traffic 

density, it will show aircraft altitude and identity 

on controllers’ radarscopes in numerals only; it 

is designed, however, to be expandable to the 

capability of presenting additional or more complex information, using letters as well as numerals (alphanumerics). In 1968, the ARTS I1 

equipment, after demonstration at the contractor’s plant, was deiivered to FAA’s National 

Aviation Facilities Experimental Center, at Atlantic City, for joint FAA-DOD test and evaluation. ARTS I11 is the current designation of 

equipment originally referred to by the term 

TRACON (terminal radar approach control) 

and an alphabetic letter to indicate degree of 

sophistication. For use at medium-density terminals, ARTS I11 presents flight data to the controller in alphanumeric form. At the end of 1968, 

it was ready to enter the production phase. 

b. STOL and VTOL air traffic. Through dynamic simulation studies at FAA’s National Aeronautics Facilities Experimental Center, new 

procedures were developed to permit mixing of 

the growing STOL (short takeoff and landing) 

and VTOL (vertical takeoff and landing) air 

traffic with standard air traffic, especially in the 

controlled airspace areas in the vicinity of airports. 

c. Satellite-supported air traffic control system. 

FAA continued, with others, efforts of the previous year aimed at use of satellites to improve highfrequency communications for aircraft flying over 

oceanic and sparsely populated areas. Analysis of 

APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITE test data from flights over the Pacific and 

Alaska indicated the feasibility of very-highfrequency communication via satellites. 

Navigation and Navigational Aids 

a. All-solid-state VOR tiansmitter. The VOR 

(very-high-frequency omnidirectional r a d i o 

range) is the key navigational aid for aircraft flying en route between airports. During 1968, a 

contractor virtually completed development of a 

prototype of an all-solid-state VOR transmitter. 

The new transmitter, when available for operational use instead of the current vacuum-tube 

type, will provide more reliable service-and at 

the same time reduce maintenance costs by saving 

personnel time and obviating costly tube 

replacements. 

b. Improved Doppler VOR monitor. In 1968, 

FAA satisfactorily tested and completed production specifications for an improved Doppler VOR 

monitor. The new monitor is expected to bring 

maintenance time and effort for Doppler VOR’s, 

now considered excessive, into line with maintenance experience with standard VOR’s. (The 

Doppler VOR is a modification of the standard 

VOR adapting it to sites otherwise unusable because of terrain or other unfavorable factors.) 

c. Area navigation. Present instrument-weather 

air traffic moves basically along fixed airways in 

line with one of the radials from a VOR. Because 

this tends to cause airway congestion and is not 

necessarily the shortest distance between an aircraft’s departure point and destination, a more 

flexible, off-airway type of navigation is desirable. 

In 1968, such a system, employing pictorial displays and course-line computers, underwent joint 

FAA/airline-industry operational testing in the 

Washington-New York-Boston airspace. At year’s 

end, definition of flight and control procedures, a 

prerequisite to operational implementation of the 

system, was under way. 

d. All-weather landing system. Work of previous 

years continued on the three technical components 

of an all-weather landing capability for aircraft: 

( 1 ) electronic ground-based guidance, (2) airborne equipment, and (3) approved lighting. The 

objective is to integrate these components so that, 

while the pilot remains the decision-maker, the 

automatic landing capability is at his disposal under Category 111 weather conditions (zero-zero 

visibility in the final step of the category). Prog- 
CHAPTER XI 85 

ress in 1968 included: ( 1) partial testing of the 

Category I11 guidance system, after installation at 

the National Aviation Facilities Experimental 

Center, (2) completion of tests of an automatic 

landing system developed for the C-141 (the Air 

Force’s Lockheed-built aircargo transport, FAAcertificated for commercial version in 1965) and 

start of testing of a similar system developed for 

the civil transport four-engine jet CV-880, 

and (3) testing of lighting systems and recommendation that they be reconfigured. 

Supersonic Transport Development Program-During January 1968, the Government and the airlines 

conducted an evaluation of the design submitted for 

construction of two prototype aircraft. 

As a result of this evaluation, it was determined that 

the variable-sweep-wing design was deficient in range 

and payload and thus would not provide an adequate 

technical foundation for a commercial supersonic 

transport for airline use. Therefore, the program was 

delayed approximately one year to permit the airframe 

contractors to undertake further design work to make 

technical changes. 

That effort proceeded on schedule, and in September 

a fixed-wing design was selected. The remainder of the 

year was spent in further developing that design for 

evaluation by the Government and the airlines with 

the aim of beginning prototype construction in 1969. 

The SST engine development program proceeded 

satisfactorily. 
FEDERAL COMM U MICATIONS CHAPTER 

COMMISSION XI1 

Introduction 

Three more countries joined the International Telecommunications Satellite Consortium in 1968, and, as 

of December 31, 1968, 63 countries were members 

of the Consortium. Additional Earth terminal stations 

became operational, bringing that total from 16 to 22, 

and others were planned or under construction in 

Europe, Africa, South America and Asia. Additional 

satellites with larger capacity than those presently in 

orbit are expected to be launched in 1969. 

Regulatory Activities 

The Communications Satellite Corporation (ComSat) 

was granted authority to participate in the testing and 

launching of the first satellite of the INTELSAT I11 

series of communication satellites. The Commission 

also granted ComSat authority to participate in 

the construction of four new satellites to be owned 

by the International Telecommunications Satellite 

Consortium. 

The first of the three INTELSAT IV series of satellites 

is planned for launch into synchronous orbit in the first 

quarter of 197 1 and will provide increased capacity 

for the global communications systems. 

The new satellite will be designed to carry in excess 

of 5,000 two-way voice grade circuits or a combination 

of different kinds of communication transmission. The 

life expectancy of each INTELSAT IV satellite is 

about seven years. 

The Commission has under consideration comments 

filed by various companies, associations or individuals 

in the Commission’s Notice of Inquiry into the possible 

use of communication satellites for domestic purposes. 

Activities of the International Radio 

Consultative Com mittee (CCIR) 

An international Interim Meeting of Study Group IV 

(Space Systems and Radio Astronomy) of the CCIR 

(International Radio Consultative Committee) was 

convened in October, 1968, at Geneva. This Committee (encompassing 14 such Study Groups) serves as 

advisor to the International Telecommunication 

Union (ITU) on technical matters involving the use 

of radio. For the Study Group IV meeting, the FCC 

provided the spokesman for the US. Delegation, who 

also served as International Chairman of Working 

Group In, dealing with sharing problems for the 

communication satellite service. Developments of major interest included: (a) A new study program concerned with efficient utilization of the geostationary 

orbit and the formation of an International Working 

Party to deal with this subject; (b) the formation of 

a new Working Group IVD on “communications between space and maritime or aeronautical stations”; 

and (c) the future use of frequencies above 10 GHz 

by the space services. Also, there was considerable interest in the broadcasting-satellite service and a technical report on the subject was revised substantially. 

Forthcoming ITU Conference on Radio 

Astronomy and Space Services 

The Commission has been in frequent consultation 

with the Office of Telecommunications Management 

to prepare for the forthcoming ITU (International 

Telecommunication Union) World Administrative 

Radio Conference on matters pertaining to radio astronomy and space services. The ITU Administrative 

Council, in May 1968, adopted a Resolution calling 

for such a conference in late 1970 or early 1971, and 

set forth a tentative agenda for comments. In response 

to the Resolution, the FCC issued a Notice of Inquiry 

86 
CHAPTER XI1 87 

(Docket 18294) in August 1968, which dealt with 

(a) the conference agenda, and (b) the possible reallocation of spectrum space above 10 GHz to provide 

additional frequency bands for rfie communicationsatellite service, based on joint studies with the Office 

of Telecommunications Management (OTM) . A 

Second Notice of Inquiry in this docket which was 

released in October 1968, concentrated on matters 

relating to the conference agenda, and set forth new 

concepts with respect to the future role of the ITU 

in regulatory matters pertaining to the space services. 

It is expected that further Notices of Inquiry will be 

issued, as the conference prepartory work progresses, 

so as to permit development of the Preliminary Views 

of the United States regarding the conference for distribution abroad in January, 1969. 

Space Techniques for the Maritime 

Mobile Service 

The Commission, working with the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) 

Sub-committee on Radiocommunications, the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) , the 

Radio Technical Commission for Marine Services 

(RTCM) , industry and other Government agencies, 

is studying the potential value of adapting satellite 

relay techniques to the communications requirements 

of the maritime mobile service. 

The RTCM, an organization in which Government 

and industry cooperate in studies of existing and proposed systems of maritime communications, established 

a Special Committee SC-57 “Maritime Mobile Satellite Communications” to investigate the possibilities of 

utilizing satellites for marine communications and 

navigation. A test program was developed which was 

subsequently adopted by the Maritime Administration 

as a basis for tests conducted durinq early 1968 in 

which VHF communications were relayed via NASA‘s 

ATS-1 and 3 satellites between U.S. ground terminals 

and the SS SANTA LUCIA enroute from Port Newark, N.J. through the Panama Canal to Valparaiso, 

Chile, and return. These tests together with those performed during 1967 through 1968, by the U.S. Coast 

Guard from the cutters USCGC KLAMATH, STATEN ISLAND, GLACIER, and CASCO have demonstrated the feasibility of communicating With ships 

at sea via satellite. 

The ITU World Administrative (Maritime) Radio 

Conference, Geneva, September-November 1967 

adopted Recommendation No. MAR 3 relating to the 

utilization of space communication techniques in the 

maritime mobile service. The recommendation invited 

administrations, IMCO and the CCIR, respectively, to 

undertake a study of maritime operational requirements for a safety and navigation radiocommunications system via satellite and the technical aspects of 

such systems. 

Commission staff representatives participated in the 

preparation of guidance material for and served on 

the US. Delegation to the Fourth Session of the 

IMCO Sub-committee on Radiocommunications, 

London, April 1968, and the Interim Meeting of 

CCIR Study Groups IV-C and D, Geneva, September-October 1968, which considered inter alia maritime radiocommunications via satellite. The IMCO 

Sub-Oommittee developed a questionnaire which is 

being circulated to participating member governments 

to develop information necessary for the determination of the operational requirements and technical 

aspects of maritime communications via satellite. Such 

information will be used in the national and international planning on this subject. 

The World Administrative Radio Conference 

(WARC) of the ITU, scheduled for late 1970 or early 

197 1, is expected to give consideration to maritime 

communication needs using satellite techniques. The 

ITU Radio Regulations (Paragraphs 273A and 352B, 

EARC for Space, Geneva, 1963) presently contain 

authority for the aeronautical mobile service to use 

space communication techniques, whereas no provisions exist for the maritime mobile service. 

Aeronautical Development 

The Commission, in discharging its statutory responsibilities with respect to non-Government uses of radio 

for aviation, prescribes the manner and conditions under which frequencies may be assigned for aeronautical 

telecommunications. In addition, the Commission assigns frequencies to aircraft radio stations, aeronautical 

enroute, radionavigation, aeronautical advisory, and 

other stations comprising the aviation radio services. 

Commission staff representatives have continued working nationally with other Government agencies and the 
88 . FCC 

aviation industry, and internationally with the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and the 

International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) , towards development of system parameters and the 

application of space radiocommunication techniques to 

help satisfy the communication and navigation requirements of domestic and international civil 

aviation. 

The air transport industry, under the authorization oi 

the Commission, continued tests which were begun 

in 1966 to access the relative merits of AM versus FM 

modulation techniques and normal power versus substantially higher power aboard aircraft as elements between an aeronautical station and aircraft stations via 

satellites. The Commission staff continued study of the 

results of those tests as well as the results of other 

studies in order to determine the most suitable technique to be used in aeronautical satellite systems. 

The Commission staff representatives have participated in the preparation of material to be used as 

guidance material for the use of US. representatives 

to international conferences including the CCIR and 

the ICAO. Members of the staff served on the U.S. 

Delegation to the CCIR Interim Meeting, Geneva, 

September-October 1968 which treated inter alia 

aeronautical satellites. The staff is preparing documentation for the forthcoming ITU Space WARC scheduled to convene in late 1970 or early 1971. 

The Commission authorized Aeronautical Radio, Inc., 

and various scheduled airlines to participate in tests 

using NASA’s APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY 

SATELLITES (ATS) . Tests using the ATS satellites 

are continuing. Satisfactory communications were exchanged, relayed via satellite, over both the Atlantic 

and the Pacific between ground terminals and aircraft. Continued testing and analysis of the results is 

in progress. 
CHAPTER 

XI11 

UNITED STATES 

INFORM AT ION AGENCY 

Introduction 

U.S. exploits in space captured headlines around the 

world in 1968. Telling that story abroad with words, 

pictures, and exhibits was the U.S. Information 

Agency. 

More than 2 million viewers in 11 countries saw USIAprovided exhibits about the U.S. space program during the year. The Voice of America produced more 

than 1,200 features on space and space science which 

were carried on 6,126 different broadcasts in as many 

as 36 languages. Backed by USIA-produced pamphlets, 

books, films, and dai’ly output of the Wireless Files, 

America’s achievements in space were publicized more 

heavily than in any preceding year. 

G uidelin es 

’ USIA used the following as guidelines for treatment of 

space news : 

a. The U.S. seeks to develop all phases of space 

technology--manned and instrumented exploration, space science, and space applications-to 

produce benefits for man, not just to land a man 

on the Moon. 

b. Through cooperation with other nations in 

developing space for peaceful uses, the United 

States is dedicated to peace in space through 

measures for rule of law and arms control. 

c. The United States conducts its civilian space 

program in an open manner. 

d. Crew safety is given major attention in all 

U.S. manned space flight operations. 

e. The U.S. space effort is a means of acquiring 

new information to put space to work for man; 

space technology and its range and innovations 

are being adapted to advance the industrial arts 

and seek practical applications. 

Treatment 

Apollo Program-Voice of America’s on-the-scene 

coverage of the launch and recovery of APOLLO 7 

and APOLLO 8 was carried in many languages to 

both sides of the Iron Curtain. Motion pictures and 

TV productions depicting the achievement were disseminated abroad to more than 100 countries where 

USIA maintains posts. 

Magazines, pamphlets, and the Wireless Files were 

used to focus world attention on the significance of the 

achievements . 

U.S. space exhibits were featured at the Cultural Festival in Mexico City (October 19-November 30) at 

the 1968 Olympic Games. Viewers pronounced the 

exhibit as “far and away the best’’ there. 

Other Achievements-USIA also publicized abroad 

such successful U.S. space achievements as SURVEYOR 7, the Earth environmental satellite EXPLORER 38, and the ORBITING GEOPHYSICAL 

OBSERVATORY. The cooperative efforts being expended by Free World nations in the peaceful use of 

outer space were emphasized. The solar studies satellite PIONEER, now in orbit around the Sun, was given 

wide play through all Agency media, as was the practical application of ATS-3 in carrying the Olympics 

and live coverage of the APOLLO 7 and 8 launches. 

Press and Publications-The Agency’s Press Service 

coverage of U.S. space activities began in 1968 with a 

review of the program during its first 10 years, and 

ended with intensive reporting on the APOLLO 

flights. Pamphlets included “The International Role 

of U.S. Weather Satellites” and “Above and Beyond: 

The United States’ Space Program.’’ 

89 
90 USIA 

America Illustrated for Russia carried four features 

and one shorter item in special positions. In production 

at year’s end was a five-page layout on “Our First Day 

on the Moon-What Will It Be Like?” Topic for 

Africa carried five features with one in the planning 

stage. 

Three packets: “America in Space-The First 10 

Years,” “APOLLO 7, First Manned Flight for America’s Moonship,” and “APOLLO 8, Three Astronauts 

Aim for the Moon,” were completed and disseminated. 

The Wireless Files carried thousands of words almost 

daily on virtually every phase of America’s space program. Black-and-white and color newsphotos were 

sent to every post for placement in the press or display 

on television or in exhibits. 

Assistance was provided to more than 80 foreign journalists covering the manned APOLLO launches at 

Cape Kennedy. 

Radio-Special on-the-spot broadcasts enabled the 

Voice of America to provide language coverage to the 

world on the APOLLO launches. Features on other 

aspects of the space program also were broadcast via 

VOA facilities. 

Like the special space documentary, “The Years of 

Apollo,” a considerable number of VOA’s extensive 

space programs received double play-first on Voice 

broadcasts and later through placement on local radio 

stations around the world. 

Not only does VOA package its space programs for 

replay locally, but it also creates additional radio series 

on science for initial use by foreign stations. For example, more than 100 programs on space are offered 

in the Latin American Division’s Capsula Cientifica 

series-currently broadcast by an estimated 250 radio 

stations. 

VOA broadcasts of space flights are estimated to reach 

more than a third of a billion radio listeners throughout the world-seven times the number reached during an average news week. Current statistics are unavailable, but UNESCO estimated that 300 million 

persons heard VOA broadcast John Glenn’s flight in 

1962. Since then, addition of powerful transmitting 

complexes such as those in Greenville, N.C., Monrovia, 

Liberia, and Bangkok, Thailand, have enabled VOA 

to reach still greater audiences. For example, the 1965 

GEMINI broadcasts carried by our GreenviIle transmitters reached an estimated 100 million listeners in 

Latin America alone. 

Motion Pictures and Television-USIA’s Motion Picture and Television Section not only produced a wide 

variety of special films on the space program using its 

own facilities, but it successfully garnered the output 

of many other government and private agencies and 

helped disseminate the footage abroad. Highlighting 

its production was a 15-minute animated color film 

on the meaning of the space program to the manon-the-street. It was titled “And, Of Course You.” 

“APOLLO 7 the Second Decade,” a 27-minute film, 

was released worldwide about 75 hours after splashdown. It was distributed to 115 countries and translated into Spanish, French, Portuguese, and Arabic. 

Exhibits-In addition to the successful Mexico City 

exhibit, USIA staged a touring space show in Ecuador, where viewers included all five of the governors 

of the provinces visited, and all seven of the mayors 

of the cities in which the exhibit was shown, plus leading officials of each city and province. Afghanistan’s 

royal family were among many who saw the US. 

Space Exploration Exhibit in Kabul. Greece and Togo 

also were successful space exhibit locations. 

Information Centers-Nearly three dozen books on 

space and space science were suggested to posts in 1968, 

and five books and 23 other publications were automatically distributed to USIA libraries abroad. 

Six books on space were translated into six languages 

for distribution to USIA posts around the world. 

A 52-slide series was produced to illustrate a special 

packet containing three lectures on aspects of America’s space program. 
ARMS CONTROL AND 

DISARMAMENT AGENCY 

Introduction 

The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency continues 

to have a strong interest in space programs, both national and international, and expects to be closely 

involved with many of them for the foreseeable future. The Agency maintains an active research effort 

in this area, participates in preparing U.S. positions 

on international space issues, and joins with other 

agencies on several space committees and panels. 

ACDA believes there is an urgent requirement that 

space be reserved for peaceful purposes and therefore 

participated in the negotiation of the Outer Space 

Treaty, supported the follow-on Astronaut Assistance 

and Return Agreement, and is interested in the current negotiations on a liability convention. These 

measures reinforce the concept of a rule of law in space 

and the cooperative international nature of space 

activities . 

Space programs meet many of ACDA’s objectives 

through providing exciting and prestigious peaceful 

outlets for national ambitions, through focusing national energies on peaceful uses of space rather than 

weapons programs, and through nurturing international cooperation and stimulating healthy competition. These programs can and have increased the 

stature and the effectiveness of international organizations, particularly those within the United Nations 

structure, and so have materially improved the machinery for dealing with arms control issues or problems on a world-wide basis. 

The Space Treaty 

The Outer Space Treaty has become one of the several important arms control achievements of our era, 

along with the Antarctic Treaty, the Limited Nuclear 

‘Test Ban Treaty, and the recently negotiated NonProliferation Treaty. 

CHAPTER 

XIV 

ACDA has been concerned, along with other agencies, 

in the necessary follow-on actions related to the infant 

Outer Space Treaty. Among these have been the 

Astronaut Assistance and Return Agreement, the current negotiations on a liability convention, and actions 

such as the preparation of instructions for U.S. overseas posts to ensure that the provisions of Outer Space 

Treaty are uniformly complied with. 

Since this Treaty came into force there have been 

no indications that any nation has vdlfully or inadvertently violated any of its provisions. Nevertheless, 

there have been questions about a Soviet test program 

involving a possible fractional orbital bombardment 

system (FOBS) . It is clear, however, that a FOBS violates neither the spirit nor the letter of Article IV of 

the Space Treaty, which declares: “States parties to 

the Treaty undertake not to place in orbit around the 

Earth any objects carrying nuclear weapons or any 

other kinds of weapons of mass destruction, install 

such weapons on celestial bodies or station such weapons in outer space in any other manner.” An FOBS 

is a land-based (not a space-based) system, essentially 

similar to an ICBM. It does not pose a continuing 

threat of bombardment from outer space against nations. In any event, it is deployment of stationing of 

iluclear weapons in space which is prohibited by the 

treaty and there is no prohibition, actual or implied, 

against research or development of a space weapons 

systems by any nation. Moreover, there is no evidence 

that any FOBS has carried a nuclear warhead. 

Defining Space 

The problem of defining outer space, in part spotlighted by the Outer Space Treaty, has been recently 

examined in such forums as the U.N. Scientific and 

Technical Subcommittee, where it was found that 

there are no satisfactory physical criteria on which to 

base a definition of space or to locate its boundaries. 

91 
92 ACDA 

The U.S. position has been that it is premature to 

establish a definition, that further experience in space 

operations is essential before a satisfactory solution can 

be found. Although no practical difficulties have yet 

arisen over the absence of a space definition, ACDA 

continues to be involved in developments on this issue 

in light of its importance to various verification concepts of concern to the Agency. 

Space Cooperation 

ACDA has supported such efforts as the European 

Launcher Development Organization, has generally 

encouraged multinational cooperative space activities 

and currently, along with other U.S. agencies, is studying the merits and drawbacks of an international space 

agency. The Agency also joins other U.S. organizations in studying the feasibility of satellite Earth resource survey programs. 

Verification and Inspection 

ACDA has maintained a research pmgram aimed at 

improving both technological and organization capabilities for verifying arms control agreements through 

potential space surveillance systems. Current efforts 

center on remote sensing technolog], but ACDA is 

also studying such future concepts as a possible U.N. 

arms control satellite inspection system. 

Use of Satellite Communication Systems to Reduce Risk of War 

ACDA’s research into methods to reduce the risk of 

war resulting from accident or miscalculation has included an investigation of the potential application of 

satellite communication techniques in this role. The 

existing “hot line” between Washington and MOSCOW, 

based on more conventional means of communication, 

has already demonstrated the usefulness of rapid and 

private means of communication between heads of 

state. Through the development of satellite communication capabilities, the “hot line” concept may eventually be extended on a worldwide basis. 
I 

I 

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94 APPENDIX A-2 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

Earth orbit 

Success Failure 

Year 

Earth escape 

Success Failure 

1957 ........... 0 1 

1958. .......... 5 8 

1959. .......... 9 9 

1960 ........... 16 12 

1961 ........... 35 12 

1962 ........... 54 12 

1963 ........... 60 11 

0 0 

0 4 

1 2 

1 2 

0 '2 

4 1 

0 0 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure 

Year 

1964 ........... 69 8 4 0 

1965 ........... 94 8 3 0 

1966. .......... 95 12 5 '1 

1967 ........... 77 4 10 0 

1968 ........... 61 3 3 0 

Total.. ... 575 100 31 12 

NOTES 

The criterion of success or failure used is the attainment of This tabulation includes spacecraft from cooperating 

Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than a judgment of mission countries which were launched by US. launch vehicles. success. 1 These Earth escape failures did attain Earth orbit and 

therefore are included in the Earth-orbit success totals. 

U.S.S.R. Spacecraft Successfully Launched 

Year. ......................... '57 '58 '59 '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 '66 '67 '68 Total 

Spacecraft. .................... 2 1 3 3 7 21 18 38 73 51 67 74 358 

Notes: U.S.S.R. tabulation combines successfully launched 

Earth-orbit and Earth-escape spacecraft. In the total of 357 

are included 21 spacecraft launched on Earth-escape missions, 

12 spacecraft intended for escape missions but attaining only 

Earth orbit, and 23 spacecraft used as launching platforms in 

low parking orbits for higher-orbit missions or Earth escape. 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful US. Launches-1968 

Launch date (GMT) 

Spacecraft name COSPAR designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (in 

Period 

(minutes)- 

Inclination to 

Equator 

(degrees) 

statute miles+ Remarks 

Jan. 7 

SURVEYOR VI1 

1A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Jan. 11 

GEOS I1 

2A 

Thor-Delta 

Jan. 17 

DEFENSE 

4A 

Thor-Agena D 

Jan. 18 

DEFENSE 

5A 

Titan IIIB 

Jan. 22 

APOLLO 5 

7A 

Saturn IB 

Jan. 24. 

DEFENSE 

8A 

Thor-Agena D 

Jan. 24 

DEFENSE 

8B 

Thor-Agena D 

Mar. 2 

DEFENSE 

12A 

scout 

Objective: Soft-land on Moon near crater TYCHO 

on “ejecta” blanket lurain; obtain post-landing 

TV pictures of lunar surface; operate Alpha 

Scatter experiment to determine chemical characteristics of soil; and dig into soil with surface 

sampler tool. 

Spacecraft : Triangular three-legged frame 1 Or high, 

and 14’ between legs; solar cell paver supply. 

Landing weight: 639 Ibs. 

Objective: To establish one world datum and to 

adjust all local datums to the common center-of- mass of the Earth, providing geodetic control 

station to f 10 meters relative to a center-of- mass coordinate system. 

Spacecraft: Eight-sided truncated pyramid 48“ 

wide and 32” high with extendable 60’ gravitygradient stabilization boom with magnetically 

anchored eddy current damper on end of boom; 

three independent solar cell power supplies. 

Weight: 460 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To verify opeation of the Lunar Module 

(LM) .descent and ascent propulsion systems, 

including restart; to evaluate the Lunar Module 

staging; and to evaluate the S-IVB and Instrument Unit (IU) orbital performance. 

Spacecraft: The Lunar Module is made up of two 

stages: the descent stage, which carries the LM 

from lunar orbit to landing, and the ascent stage, 

which lifts the LM from the surface to the ren- dezvous with the CommHnd and Service Modules 

in lunar orbit. Battery power supply. Weight: 

31,700 Ibs. fully fueled. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To provide a navigation satellite capabilitv. 

Spacedraft : Not announced. 

Soft-landed SURVEYOR VI1 successfully softlanded on the Moon in its designated target area, transmitted 

over 20,000 excellent photos, and 

successfully accomplished the 

Alpha Scatter and soil digging 

experiment. 

on moon. 

978 Excellent geodetic data was ob671 tained. Soacecraft is still DTO112. 2 viding us<ful data. 

105.8 

335 

285 

94.5 

75. 1 

254 

77 

89. 8 

111.4 

138 

107 

89. 9 

31. 6 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed Feb. 4, 1968. 

Flight verified descent and ascent 

stages propulsion system, including restart and throttle operations. Also evaluated Lucar 

Module staging and S-IVB/IU 

orbital performance. 

269 Decayed Feb. 27, 1968. 

112 

90. 6 

81.5 

338 Still in orbit. 

294 

94.9 . ~. 

81.7 

71 1 Still in orbit. 

640 

106.9 

89. 9 

95 
96 

Mar. 4 

OGO-V 

14A 

Atlas-Agena D 

Mar. 5 

EXPLORER 

XXXVII 

APPENDIX A-3 

Objective : To acquire correlative scientific data 

in the magnetic fields, energetic particles, and 

plasma disciplineg from a stabilized platform as apogee sweeps from the forward leading quadrant of the magnetosphere into the geomagnetic 

tail, with data being obtained both in the interplanetary medium and within large sections of 

the magnetosphere. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular box 67“ long, 32” wide, 

and 31” deep. Active 3-axis and spin stabilization; solar cell power supply. Weight: 1,347 lbs. 

Objective : To monitor into the ascending portion 

of the solar cycle the Sun’s energetic X-ray 

emissions: measure the time history of X-ray 

(SOLRAD IX) emission intensity and spectral quality of solar 

17A flare emissions; correlate these measurements 

scout with those of optical and radio ground-based 

observatories; and provide real-time solar data 

to interested participants. 

Spacecraft : Twe!ve-sided cylinder, 30” diameter 

and 27” high; spin stabilization; solar cell power 

supply. Weight: 195 lbs. 

Mar. 13 

DEFENSE 

18A 

Titan IIIB 

Mar. 14 

DEFENSE 

20A 

Thor-Agena D 

Mar. 14 

DEFENSE 

2OB 

Thor-Agena D 

Apr. 4 

APOLLO 6 

25A 

Saturn V 

Apr. 6 

26A 

Atlas 

OV 1-13 

Apr. 6 

26B 

Atlas 

OV 1-14 

Apr. 17 

DEFENSE 

31A 

Titan I11 B 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To demonstrate structural and thermal 

integrity and compatibility of the launch vehicle 

and spacecraft and to confirm launch loads and 

dynamic characteristics ; to demonstrate separation of S-I1 from S-IC and S-IVB from S-11; 

to evaluate performance of the space vehicle; and 

to demonstrate support facilities and operations. 

Spacecraft: Payload consisted of S-IVB stage, 

Instrument Unit, Command and Service module, 

Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter, and a Lunar 

Module Test Article. Total weight at insertion 

into orbit: 265,050 lbs. 

Objectives: To determine flexibility of cadmium 

sulfide solar cells in a space environment and to measure proton/electron energy spectra and 

angular distribution of electrons. 

Spacecraft: Cylinder 30” by 27” diameter. Weight: 

290 lbs. 

Objective : To obtain high-resolution measurements 

of proton/electron flux, spectra, decay and time 

variations. 

Spacecraft: Cylinder 30” by 27” diameter. Weight: 

300 lbs. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

91, 188 

3,744 

31 

Spacecraft is operating normally 

181 and providing significant data. 

549 Spacecraft is operating normally 

31 7 and providing significant data. 

98. 7 

59.4 

260 

82 

89. 9 

99. 9 

242 

1 ~.. I4 

90.2 

83.0 

326 

299 

94.6 

83. 1 

223 

107 

89. 8 

31. 6 

Decayed Mar. 24, 1968. 

Decayed Apr. IO, 1968. 

Still in orbit. 

Two of the five second stage engines 

shut down prematurely; third 

stage restart ignition sequence 

failed. In spite of these anomalies, a successful mission was flown, 

leading to the perfect Apollo 7 

flight. 

5, 789 Still in orbit. 

3443 

199.5 

100.5 

6, 173 Still in orbit. 

348 

207.8 

100.0 

262 Decayed April 29, 1968. 

79 

891 9 

111.4 
APPENDIX A-3 97 

May 1 

DEFENSE 

39A 

Thor-Agena D 

May 16 

ESRO-I1 

41A 

scout 

May 23 

DEFENSE 

42A 

Thor-Burner I1 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To investigate X-ray radiation emitted 

by the Sun, to reach a better understanding of 

the Sun itself and to correlate X-ray flux changes 

with heating and ionization of the ionosphere; 

to investigate corpuscular radiation of the Sun, 

particles trapped in the magnetic field of Earth, 

and cosmic ray particles; and to investigate the 

electron component of primary cosmic radiation. 

Spacecraft: Twelve-sided cylinder, 33.5“ high and 

30” in diameter. Solar cell power supply. 

Weight: 153 lbs. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

June 5 

DEFENSE and technology. 

47A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIIB 

June 13 Objective To extend an interim defense com- IDCSP 19, 20, 21, 22, munication satellite’system. 

23, 24, 25, and 26 Spacecraft: Symmetrical 24 face polyhedron, 

50A, B, C, D, E, F, 36” diameter by 32’’ high; spin-stabilized; 40 

G, and H watt solar cell power supply; low channel 

Titan IIIC capacity; X-band. Weight: Each spacecraft 

100 lbs. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

June 20 

DEFENSE ~~ 

52A 

Thor-Agena D 

June 20 

DEFENSE 

52B 

Thor-Agena D 

lulv 4 

~XPLORER 

XXXVIII 

(RAE-A) 

55A 

Thor-Delta 

July 11 

59A 

Atlas 

OV 1-15 

July 11 

59B 

OV 1-16 

Atlas 

AUP. 6 

DEFENSE 

63A 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To Monitor low-frequency radio signals 

in space from sources including the Milky Way, 

the Sun, Jupiter, and Earth’s environment. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical structure 31 ” high and 

36” in diameter with 4 extendable X-shaped 

750’ antennas, gravity-gradient stabilization. 

Weight: 607 lbs. 

Objective: To measure density of the atmosphere 

from 160 to 500 Km and its variations with 

position and time. 

Spacecraft: Cylinder 30” by 27” diameter. Weight: 

300 lbs. 

Objective: To measure density of the atmosphere 

Spacecraft: High-density ball (“Cannon Ball”) 

from 65 to 110 nm. 

with omnidirectional accelerometer. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

176 Decayed May 15, 1968. 

115 

88. 6 

83. 1 

673 

204 providing useful data 

Six of the seven experiments are 

98.9 

97. 2 

561 Still in orbit. 

509 

102.1 

98. 9 

262 Decayed June 17, 1968. 

85 

89. 9 

110.5 

21,027 to 

21,401 

20,954 to 

20.976 

Spacecraft are operating in a 

near-synchronous constellation 

along with 18 earlier spacecraft 

previously launched. 

1,335.’5 to 

1, 350. 6 

00.1 

251 Decayed July 16, 1968. 

113 

90. 3 

85.0 

322 Still in orbit. 

273 

94. 1 

85. 1 

3,652 The spacecraft is operating 

3,639 normally and has provided 

224. 4 significant data. 

59. 2 

1,032 Decayed Nov. 6, 1968. 

94 

103.0 

89. 8 

286 Decayed Aug. 19, 1968. 

82 

90.4 

89. 8 

24. 769 Still in orbit. 

19,685 

1,436.0 

Atlas-Agena 9.9 
98 

Aug. 6 

DEFENSE 

64A 

Titan IIIB 

Aug. 7 

DEFENSE 

65A 

Thor- Agena 

Aug. 8 

EXPLORER 

XXXIX 

66A 

APPENDIX A-3 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To extend measurements of latitudinal, 

seasonal, and solar cycle variations in the upperair density. 

Spacecraft: A 12-foot diameter, inflatable sphere, 

constructed of a 4-pl laminate consisting of 

alternating layers of mil aluminum foil and 

polyethylene-terephtholate plastic film; battery 

and solar cell power supply; no stabilization. 

Weight: 20.5 lbs. 

Aug. 11 

ATS-4 

68A 

Atlas-Centaur 

Aug. 8 Obiective: To make direct measurement of the 

EXPLORER XL 

(INJUN 

EXPLORER) 

66B 

iownflux of charged particles into the atmosphere; to study geomagnetically trapped charged 

particles with emphasis on their spectra, spatial 

distribution, and time variations; and to study the 

very-low-frequency radio emissions in the ionosphere. 

Spacecraft: Hexagonal cylinder 29” high and 30” 

diameter; magnetic stabilization; solar cell power 

supply. Weight: 153 Ibs. 

Objective: To conduct a carefully instrumented 

gravity-gradient orientation experiment directed 

toward providing basic design information and, 

thus, to determine the feasibility and usefulness 

of gravity gradient as a means of stabilizing 

synchronous-orbit applications satellites in the 

presence oi perturbing effects generated within 

the satellite or caused by environment. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 6 high and 4’8“ in diameter with extendable boom measuring 25‘ 

across; gravity-gradient and active stabilization; 

solar cell power supply. Weight: 860 lbs. 

. 

Aug. 16 Objective: To operate two Advanced Videcon 

TOS-E/ESSA-VI1 Camera Systems in a Sun-synchronous orbit, 

69 A crossing the equator between 2:35 and 2:55 p.m. 

Thor-Delta daily, to obtain daily global cloud photos and a flat plate radiometer to measure the heat balance 

of the atmosphere. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 37” diameter by 35” high; 

spin stabilized; solar cell power supply. Weight: 

145 Ibs. 

DEFENSE 

74A 

Titan IIIB 

Sept. 18 

DEFENSE 

78A 

Thor-Agena D 

Sent. 18 DEFENSE 

78B 

Thor-Agena D 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

266 Decayed Aug. 16, 1968. 

88 

90.5 

109.5 

161 Decayed Aug. 17, 1968. 

100 

88. 7 

82. 1 

1,548 Spacecraft performed normally. 

425 

117.9 

80. 6 

1,573 Spacecraft is operating normally 

424 and providing significant scientific 

118. 3 data. 

80. 6 

405 Failure of the Centaur stage to 

139 ignite for a second burn prevented 

93. 3 achievement of the transfer orbit 

29.0 prior to injection into synchronous 

orbit. No useful data obtained. 

918 

885 

114.9 data. 

101.7 

All systems are functioning normally, 

and ESSA is obtaining excellent 

200 Decayed Sept. 25, 1968. 

89 

89. 1 

106.0 

243 Decayed Oct. 8, 1968. 

111 

90. 1 

83. 0 

318 Still in orbit. 

312 

94.7 

83. 2 
APPENDIX A-3 99 

Sept. 26 

OV 2-5 

81A 

Titan IIIC 

Sept. 26 

ov 5-2 

818 

Titan IIIC 

Sept. 26 

ov 5-4 

81C 

Titan IIIC 

Sept. 26 

LE= 

81D 

Titan IIIC 

Oct. 3 

ESRO I-A 

84A 

scout 

Oct. 5 

DEFENSE 

86A 

Thor-Agena D 

Oct. 11 

APOLLO 7 

89A 

Saturn IB 

Oct. 23 

DEFENSE 

92A 

Thor-Burner 11 

Nov. 3 

DEFENSE 

98A 

Thor-Agena D 

Nov. 6 

DEFENSE 

99A 

Titan IIIB 

Objective: To investigate radiation at synchronous 

altitude. 

Spacecraft: Near-cubic 23” by 23” by 24”. Weight: 

250 lbs. 

Objective: To investigate radiation in the Van 

Spacecraft: Octahedron. Weight: 21.5 lbs. 

Allen belt. 

Objective: To measure transfer of heat in liquid 

Spacecraft: Weight: 28.4 lbs. 

Freon in a zero-G environment. 

Objective: To provide test data on an expanded 

UHF tactical communications satellite operating 

with various types of aircraft/ship/ground ter- .. ._ 

minals. 

Spacecraft: Cylinder 534‘ by 4’ diameter; spin 

stabilized; geo-stationary. Weight: 360 lbs. 

Objective: To perform an integrated study of the 

high-latitude ionosphere, including particle ex- periments, auroral photometry, and ionospheric 

experiments. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 30” diameter and 39” high 

with sensor booms extendinp tip-to-tiD 95.6’’ and 

60” height. Passive magnegc stabiliation; solar 

cell power supply. Weight: 189 lbs. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To verify proper operation of the 

Command and Service Module (CSM) systems 

and operational capabilities of the CSM, crew, 

and manned space flight network support facilities 

in an Earth-orbital environment. To qualify heat 

shield; to determine Environmental Control 

System radiator performance and coating degradation; to perform transposition and simulated 

docking; and to evaluate CSM active rendezvous 

activities. 

Spacecraft: Payload consisted of Command Module 

and Service Module; active stabilization; three 

3 1 -cell Bacon-type hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells 

plus battery power supply. Total weight at injection into initial orbit: 69,345 Ibs. Weight of CSM 

at injection: 32,557 Ibs. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

22, 232 Still in orbit. 

21,827 

1,418. 1 

22,236 Still in orbit. 

115 

630.8 

26. 4 

22, 225 Still in orbit. 

22,220 

1, 435. 8 

3. 0 

22,236 Still in orbit. 

22,233 

1, 435. 9 

2. 9 

932 

I7 1 

94 

The spacecraft is functioning normally and providing significant 

102. 6 data. 

316 

300 

94. 5 

74.9 

177 

138 

89. 6 

31. 6 

Still in orbit. 

Crew consisted of Walter M. Schirra, 

Commander; Don F. Eisele, 

Command Module pilot; and 

Walter Cunningham, Lunar 

Module pilot. All primary and 

secondary objectives of the flight 

successfully accomplished. Length 

of flight: 260 hours, 8 minutes, 15 

seconds. Service Propulsion System restarts: 8. 

529 Still in orbit. 

497 

101.3 

99.0 

177 Decayed Nov. 23, 1968. 

108 

88. 8 

82. 1 

249 Decayed Nov. 20, 1968. 

90 

89. 8 

106.0 
100 APPENDIX A-3 

Nov. 8 

PIONEER IX 

lOOA 

Thor-Delta 

Nov. 8 

TTS 

lOOB 

Thor-Delta 

Dec. 4 

DEFENSE 

108A 

Titan IIIB 

Dec. 5 

HEOS-A 

109A 

Thor-Delta (ESRO 

procured) 

Dec. 10 

OAO-2 

11OA 

Atlas-Centaur 

Dec. 12 

DEFENSE 

112A 

Thor-Agena D 

Dec. 12 

DEFENSE 

112B 

Thor-Agena D 

Dec. 15 

114A 

Thor-Delta 

TOS-F/ESSA VI11 

Dec. 19 

INTELSAT I11 

116A 

Thor-Delta 

Objective: To obtain solar plasma, magnetic field, 

and cosmic-ray measurements in the region of 

space which is inward toward the Sun from the 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical structure 37” diameter 

and 35” high; active stabilization; solar cell 

power supply. Weight: 147 lbs. 

.99AU 

.75AU 

The spacecraft is functioning normally and is returning significant 

297.55 days scientific data. 

orbital path of Earth. .09 

Objective: To provide a pre-mission checkout for 

manned space flight network stations; to provide 

training of MSFN ground system crews; to provide routine mission simulations; and to develop 

and verify acquisition and hand-over techniques. 

Spacecraft: Octahedral shape, approximately 14” 

on a side; passive magnetic stabilization; solar 

cell power supply. Weight: 40 Ibs. 

584 The spacecraft is functioning 

231 normally. 

97. 9 

33 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not annoqnced. 89. 3 

106.2 

454 Decayed Dec. 12, 1968. 

and technology. 94 

Objective: To investigate interplanetary magnetic 138,841 Spacecraft is functioning normally 

fields, and study solar and cosmic-ray particles 

outside the magnetosphere during a period of 

maximum solar activity. 28. 3O 

Spacecraft: ESRO developed, designed, and con- structed ; cylindrical shape 48.6” diameter and 

27.3” high; spin stabilized; solar cell power 

supply. Weight: 240 lbs. 

263 and is providing significant 

6, 749 scientific data. 

Objective: To make precise astronomical observations from above Earth’s atmosphere of stars, 

planets, nebulae, galaxies, and the interplanetary 

and inteistellar matter in the regions of their 

electromagnetic radiation spectrum that do not 

penetrate Ea~th’s atmosphere, Le., ultraviolet, 

X-ray and gamma ray. 

Spacecraft: Octagonal body 10’ high and 7’ wide 

with 2 external solar panels and other appendages; active stabilization; solar cell power supply; 

Weight: 4,400 lbs. 

486 Spacecraft is functioning normally, 

479 

350 

and significant scientific data is 

100.4 being received. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 88. 6 

81.0 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques 916 Still in orbit. 

and technology. 862 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 114.4 

80. 3 

Objective: To operate 2 Automatic Picture 907 All systems are functioninq normally 

88 1 and ESSA and other APT ground 

114. 7 station operators are receiving 

148 Decayed Dec. 28, 1968. 

and technology. 109 

Transmission (APT) camera systems in a Sunsynchronous orbit crossing the equator between 

08:40 and 09:OO a.m. daily 102O excellent pictures. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 42” diameter and 23” high; 

spin stabilized; solar cell power supply. Weight: 

286 Ibs. 

Objective: To provide equivalent of 1,200 2-way 

voice circuits or 4 color TV channels to carry 

communications traffic between North America, 

Europe, South America, and Africa. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 56’’ diameter and 78’’ high; 

spin-stabliized ; solar cell power supply. Weight : 

303 lbs. 

22, 255 The spacecraft has been positioned 

22,241 on the equator in synchronous 

1,436 orbit at 31° West longitude . 775O near the eastern tip of Brazil. 
APPENDIX A-3 101 

Dec. 21 

APOLLO 8 

118A 

Saturn V 

Objective: To verify crew, space vehicle, and 

mission support facilities on a manned lunar 

orbit flight plan ; to demonstrate performance of 

nominal and selected backup Lunar Orbit 

Rendezvous mission activities, including translunar injection, Command and Service Module 

navigation, communications, and midcourse cor- rections, and Command and Service Module 

consumables assessment and passive thermal 

control. 

Spacecraft: Payload consisted of Command Module and Service Module; active stabilization, 3 

3 l-cell Bacon-type hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells 

plus battery power supply Total weight at 

injection into lunar orbit: 46,444 lbs. 

lunar orbit 

70. 1 

69. 7 

119. 0 

12. 33' 

Crew consisted of Frank Borman, 

Commander; James A. Lovell, 

Jr., Command Pilot; and 

William A. Anders, Lunar 

Module Pilot. The flight com- pleted 10 lunar orbits and 

successfully returned to Earth 

and was recovered in the 

Pacific Ocean on Dec. 27, 1968. 

Total flight time: 147 hours, 41 

seconds. 
APPENDIX B 

EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE COUNCIL 

WASHINGTON 

December 31, 1968 

Major United States And Soviet ‘Firsts’ 

One of the indexes used to compare the space programs of the United States and the 

Soviet Union are the “firsts” achieved by each nation. Since it measures the quantity 

but not the quality of achievement, such compilation can be misleading. However, 

when broken down into meaningful areas, it can help in judging emphasis and even 

relative progress if coupled with other evidence. 

Regardless of whether a “first” gives either country a significant lead in a particular 

area of space technology, the fact of being first is significant in the formation of public 

opinion. In fact, regardless of actual technological competence, the relative position 

of the United States and the U.S.S.R. in space is often judged by the “firsts” achieved 

by each. 

A list of all of the “firsts” scored by each side would be long and meaningless. An 

effort has been made to select those actions or accomplishments which seemed to be 

of major importance, bearing in mind that because of the closed nature of some space 

activities, the list of major “firsts” may be incomplete. 

This list is divided into five broad categories of space interest. It is not a comparison 

of space competences but rather a cataloging based upon the timing of events. 

102 
Major Space ‘Firsts’ 

United States 

Event Satellite Launch 

date 

Science 

Van Allen radiation belts .... Explorer I ............ Earth shape measured ....... Vanguard I ........... Orbiting solar observatory ... OS0 I ............... Data from Venus ........... Mariner I1 ........... Geodetic satellite ........... Anna IB .............. Lunar close-up pictures ...... Ranger VI1 ........... Mars pictures .............. Mariner IV ........... Pegasus I ............. Lunar orbit pictures ........ Orbiter I ............. Lunar trenching ........... Surveyor I11 .......... Color picture of full Earth DODGE .............. 

Lunar soil chemical analysis .. Surveyor V ........... Point-stabilized Orbiting OAO-2 .............. 

Live lunar TV broadcast ... Apollo 8 ............. 

Micrometeorite satellite ..... 

face . 

Astro-Observatory . 

2/ 1/58 

311 7/58 

3/ 7/62 

8/27/62 

1013 1/62 

7/28/64 

1 1/28/64 

2/16/65 

8/10/66 

411 7/67 

7/ 1/67 

9/ 8/67 

1211 0168 

12/21/68 

ripplicationr 

Active communications ...... Score ................ 12/18/58 

TV pictures from space ...... Explorer VI .......... 8/ 7/59 

Weather satellite ........... Tiros I ............... Navigation satellite ......... Transit IB ............ 4/13/60 

Missile detection ........... Midas I1 ............. Passive communications ..... Echo I ............... 8/12/60 

Nuclear explosion detection .. Vela Hotel ............ 1011 7/63 

Manned viewing of lunar ... Apollo 8 ............. 12/21/68 

4/ 1/60 

5/24/60 

far side 

Bio and Manned Flight 

Manned orbital maneuver ... Gemini 111 ........... 3/23/65 

Manned space rendezvous ... Gemini VI, VI1 ....... 121 4/65 

Manned docking ........... Gemini VIII-Agena .... 3/16/66 

Manned lunar orbit ....... Apollo 8 ............. 12/21/68 

Mannedlunarreturn re-entry Apollo 8 ............. 12/21/68 

Manned Earth escape ...... Apollo 8 ............. 12/21/68 

Space jlight and Propulsion 

Multiple spacecraft payload .. Transit/Solrad ......... 6/22/60 

Payload recovery ........... Discoverer XI11 ....... 8/10/60 

Synchronous satellite ........ Syncom I1 ............ 7/26/63 

Hydrogen rocket orbited ..... Centaur I1 ............ ill27163 

Lunar lift-off ............... Surveyor VI .......... 1 I/ 7/67 

Lunar-velocity re-entry ...... Apollo I .............. 1 I/ 9/67 

Constant deceleration re-entry Apollo 8 ............ 12/21/68 

Controlled extravehicular Gemini IV ............ 6/ 3/65 

activity . 

Docked spacecraft maneuver . Gemini X-Agena ...... 7/18/66 

Auxiliary Pornn Systems 

Solar cells ................. Vanguard I ........... 3/17/58 

Isotope power .............. Transit IVA .......... 6/29/61 

Fuel cell .................. Gemini V ............ 8/21/65 

Nuclear reactor in orbit ..... Snapshot I ............ 4/ 3/65 

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics 

Event Satellite Launch 

date 

Sciencs 

Orbiting geophysical lab .... Sputnik 111 ......... 5/15/58 

Farside lunar picture ....... Luna I11 ........... IO/ 4/59 

Cosmic ray measurements ... Proton 1 ............ 7/16/65 

Lunar surface pictures ...... Luna IX ........... 1 /3 1 /66 

Lunar surface bearing test ... Luna x111 ......... 12/21/66 

Venus atmospheric probe ... Venera IV .......... 6/12/67 

Applications 

Bio and Manned Flight 

Biosatellite ................ Sputnik I1 .......... Recovery, orbited animals ... Sputnik V .......... Recovery, orbited man ..... Vostok 1 ............ Multi-manned spacecraft .... Voskhod 1 .......... Extravehicular activity ..... Voskhod 11 ......... 

Recovery, circumlunar live Zond V ............ animals . 

-- 

Space Flight and Propulsion 

Space flight ............... Earth escape spacecraft ..... Lunar impact ............. Orbital platform launch .... Venus flyby., ............. 

Mars flyby ................ 

Lunar soft landing ......... 

Lunar orbiter ............. Automatic docking ......... 

Venus impact ............ 

Sputnik I., ......... 

Sputnik V .......... 

Luna 1 ............. Luna I1 ............ 

Venera 1 ........... Mars 1 ............. Venera I11 ......... Luna IX .......... Luna X ............ Cosmos 1861188 ..... 

Recovery. lunar payload .... Zond V ............ 

111 3/57 

8/19/60 

4/12/61 

1 O/ 12/64 

3/18/65 

9/2 1/68 

IO/ 4/57 

I/ 2/59 

9/12/59 

2/12/61 

2/12/61 

111 1/62 

11/16/65 

1 /3 1/66 

313 1/66 

29/67 

912 1/68 

1012 7- 

Auxiliary Power Systems 

Battery power ............. Sputnik 1 ........... lo/ 4/57 

103 
104 APPENDIX C 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1958-1 968 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Dec. 18, 1958 

Aug. 12, 1960 

Oct. 4, 1960 

Dec. 12. 1961 

June 2, ’1 962 

July 10, 1962 

Dec. 13, 1962 

Feb. 14, 1963 

May 7, 1963 

July 26,1963 

Jan. 21, 1964 

Jan. 25,1964 

Aug. 19, 1964 

Mar. 9, 1965 

Apr. 6, 1965 

Dec. 21, 1965 

June 16,1966 

Oct. 26, 1966 

Jan. 11, 1967 

Jan. 18,1967 

Mar. 22, 1967 

July 1,1967 

July 1, 1967 

Sept. 27,1967 

June 13, 1968 

Sept. 26, 1968 

Dec. 18, 1968 

score 

Echo I 

Courier 1B 

Oscar I 

Oscar I1 

Telstar I 

Relay I 

Syncom I 

Telstar I1 

Syncom I1 

Relay I1 

Echo I1 

Syncom I11 

Oscar 111 

Intelsat I (Early 

Bud) 

Oscar IV 

IDCSP 1-7 

Intelsat 11-F 1 

Intelsat 11-F2 

IDCSP 8-15 

Intelsat 11-F3 

IDCSP 16-18 

LES 5 

Intelsat 11-F4 

IDSCS 19-26 

LES 6 

Intelsat 111 

Atlas B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Agena B 

nor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena D 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIC 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIC 

TAD 

Titan IIIC 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIC 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta 

First comsat, carried taped messages. 

100-foot balloon served as first passive comsat, relayed voice and 

First active-repeater comsat. 

First amateur radio “ham” satellite. 

Industry-furnished spacecraft in near-Earth orbit. 

Active-repeater comsat. 

Succesnfully injected into near-synchronous orbit but com- munication system failed at orbital injection. 

First successful synchronous orbit active-repeater comsat. After 

experimental phase, used operationally by DOD. 

135foot balloon, passive comsat, first joint use by U.S. and 

U.S.S.R. 

Synchronous-orbit comsat; after experimental phase, used 

operationally by DOD. 

First Intelsat (ComSat Corp.) spacecraft, 240 two-way voice 

circuits ; commercial transatlantic communication service 

initiated June 28, 1965. 

Initial Defense Communication Satellites Program. Activerepeater spacecraft in near-synchronous orbit, randomFirst in Intelsat I1 series spacecraft; 240 two-way voice circuits or one color TV channel. Orbit achieved not adequate for 

commercial operation. 

Transpacific commercial communication service initiated 

Positioned to carry transatlantic commercial communication 

Tactical military communication tests with aircraft, ships, and 

Positioned to carry commercial transpacific communication 

TV signals. 

spaced. 

Jan. 11, 1967. 

trdEC. 

mobile land stations from near-synchronous orbit. 

traffic. 

Continued military tactical communications experiments. 

First in Intelsat 111 series of spacecraft. 1,200 two-way voice 

circuits or four color TV channels. Positioned over Atlantic 

to carry trdEc between North America, South America, 

Africa, and Europe. Entered commercial service on Dec. 24, 

1968. 
APPENDIX C 105 

NAVIGATION 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Apr. 13, 1960 Transit 1B Tha-Able Star First navigation satellite. Used Doppler frequency shift for 

position determination. me 22, 1960 Transit 2A Thor-Able Star 

eb. 21, 1961 Transit 3B Thor-Able Star 

June 29, 1961 Transit 4A Thor-Able Star 

Nov. 15, 1961 Transit 4B Thor-Able Star 

Dec. 18, 1962 Transit 5A scout Operational prototype, power failed during first day. 

June 15, 1963 NavSat scout Used gravity-gradient stabilization system. 

Sept. 28, 1963 NavSat Thor-Able Star Used first nuclear SNAP-SA as primary power supply. 

Dec. 5, 1963 NavSat Thor-Able Star 

Oct. 6, 1964 NavSat Thor-Able Star 

Dec. 13, 1964 NavSat Thor-Able Star 

June 24, 1965 NavSat Thor-Able Star 

Aug. 13, 1965 NavSat Thor-Able Star 

Dec. 22, 1965 NavSat scout 

Jan. 28, 1966 NavSat scout 

Mar. 25, 1966 NavSat scout 

May 19, 1966 NavSat scout 

Aug. 18, 1966 NavSat scout 

Apr. 13, 1967 NavSat scout 

May 18, 1967 NavSat scout 

Sept. 25, 1967 NavSat scout 

Mar. 1, 1968 NavSat scout 

Used the first spacecraft nuclear SNAP-3 as a secondary power 

-4 

supply. 

June 4, 1964 NavSat scout 

Apr. 1, 1960 

Nov. 23, 1960 

July 12, 1961 

Feb. 8, 1962 

June 19, 1962 

Sept. 18, 1962 

June 19, 1963 

Dec. 21, 1963 

Aug. 28, 1964 

Feb. 28, 1966 

May 15, 1966 

Oct. 2, 1966 

Dec. 6, 1966 

Jan. 26, 1967 

Apr. 20, 1967 

Nov. 5, 1967 

Nov. 10, 1967 

Aug. 16, 1968 

Dec. 15, 1968 

WEATHER 0BSER.VATION 

- 

Tiros I Thor Able First weather satellite providing cloudsover photography. 

Tuos I1 Tha-Delta 

Tiros 111 Thor-Delta 

Tiros IV nor-Delta 

Tiros V Tha-Delta 

Tucw VI Thor-Delta 

Tiros VI1 Thor-Delta 

Tiros VI11 Thor-Delta First weather satellite designed to transmit continuously local 

cloud conditions to ground stations equipped with APT 

receivers. 

Carried Advanced Videcon Camera System, APT, and a highresolution infrared radiometer for night pictures. 

Nimbus I 

Tuos IX Thor-Delta First weather satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit. 

Tiros X Thor-Delta 

ESSA I Thor-Delta 

Thor-Agena B 

First operational weather satellite; carried two wide-angle TV camera svstems. 

ESSA I1 

Nimbus 11 Thor-Agena B 

ESSA 111 Thor-Delta Odd-numbered ESSA spacecraft carry two Advanced Videcon 

Thor-Delta Complemer&ed ESSA I with two wide-angle APT cameras. 

Camera Systems. Even-numbered spacecraft carry two Automatic Picture Transmission camera systems. 

ATS-1 Atlas-Agena D Provided continuous black-and-white cloud-cover pictures from 

ESSA IV 

ESSA V 

ATS-3 

a synchronous orbit, using a Soumi camera system. 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Agena D Provided Continuous color cloud-cover pictures from a synchronous orbit. usine " three Soumi camera svstems. 

ESSA VI Thor-Delta 

ESSA VI1 Thor-Delta 

ESSA VI11 Thor-Delta 
106 APPENDIX C 

GEODESY 

Date Name Launch vehicle Remarks 

Oct. 31, 1962 Anna 1B Thor-Able Star Used three independent measuring techniques: Doppler freJan. 11,1964 Secor I Thor-Agena D Uses radio triangulation and trilateration. 

Oct. 10, 1964 Beacon-Explorer Scout Conducted reflecting-light geodetic measurements. 

Mar. 9, 1965 Secor I11 Thor-Agena D 

Mar. 11, 1965 Secor I1 Thor-Able Star 

Apr. 3, 1965 Secor IV Atlas-Agena D 

Apr. 29, 1965 Beacon-Explorer Scout 

Nov. 6, 1965 GEOS-I Explorer Thor-Delta 

June 9, 1966 Secor VI Atlas-Agena D 

June 23, 1966 Page- I Thor-Agena D 

Aug. 19, 1966 &cor VI1 Atlas-Agena D 

Oct. 5, 1966 Secor VI11 Atlas-Agena D 

June 29, 1967 Secor IX Thor-Burner I1 

Jan. 11,1968 GEOS I1 Thor-Delta 

quency shift, flashing lights, and radio triangulation. 

XXII 

XXVII 

Aug. 10, 1965 SecorV scout 

XXIX 

Spacecrafti s a 1Wfoot-diameter balloon used as a photographic 

target to make geodetic measurements. 

DEFENSE SUPPORT 

Date Number of 

Spacecraft 

Launch vehicle used Remarks 

Apr. 13, 1959 to 10 

Dec. 31, 1968. 31 

106 

4 

5 

6 

4 

12 

67 

17 

3 

Thor-Agena A This list does not include communications, navigation, or geodetic 

Thor-Agena B 

Thor-Agena D 

Thor-Able Star 

Thor-Altair 

Thor-Burner I1 

Atlas-Agena A 

Atlas-Agena B 

Atlas-Agena D 

Titan IIIBAgena D 

Titan IIIC 

satellites specifically identified above in the application categories. 
APPENDIX D 107 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Total manned spacecraft hours.. ....... 1,434 556 

Total man-hours in space. ............ 3,215 631 

Total extravehicular activity.. ......... 12 hrs. 10 mins. 

Rendezvous ......................... 12 2 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Manned space dockings.. ............. 7 0 

Manned flights. 18 10 

Multi-manned flights. ................ 12 2 

Maneuverable spacecraft. 12 1 ............. 

..................... 

Vostok 1 

MercuryMercuryRedstone 3 

Redstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Atlas 6 

Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

MercuryAtlas 8 

Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

MercuryMerCUVMercuryVoskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

Soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soy- 3 

Apollo 8 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 6, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Dec. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3, 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11, 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan N. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovsky 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, 2d 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, JI. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgi Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

1 hr. 48 mins. 

15 mins. 

16 mins. 

25 hrs. 18 mins. 

4 hrs. 55 mins. 

4 hrs. 56 mins. 

94 hrs. 22 mins. 

70 hrs. 57 mins. 

9 hrs. 13 mins. 

34 hrs. 20 mins. 

119 hrs. 6 mins. 

70 hrs. 50 mins. 

24 hrs. 17 mins. 

26 hrs. 2 mins. 

4 hrs. 53 mins. 

97 hrs. 56 mins. 

190 hrs. 55 mins. 

330 hrs. 36 mins. 

25 hrs. 51 mins. 

10 hrs. 41 mins. 

72 hrs. 21 mins. 

70 hrs. 47 mins. 

71 hrs. 17 mins. 

94 hrs. 35 mins. 

26 hrs. 40 mins. 

260 hrs. 8 mins. 

94 hrs. 51 mins. 

147 hrs. 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after 

landing. 

First flight exceeding 24 hrs. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 250 mi. from target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4) 

Came within 3.1 mi. of Vostok 3. 

Landed 5 mi. from target. 

First long U.S. flight. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6) 

First woman in space; within 5 mi. 

of Vostok 5 

First 3-man crew. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual 

2 1 -minute extravehicular activity 

Longest-duration manned flight to 

Longest-duration manned flight. 

Rendezvous within 1 foot of Gemini 

7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 with Agena 

target rocket). 

Extravehicular activity; rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 

with Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

First initial-orbit rendezvous; first 

tethered flight; highest Earthorbit altitude (853 miles). 

Longest extravehicular activity 

(Aldrin, 5 hours 37 minutes). 

Cosmonaut killed in re-entry 

10 minutes) 

maneuvers in orbit. 

(White). 

date. 

accident. 

First U.S. three-man mission. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of Moon; first 

manned departure from Earth's 

sphere of influence; highest speed ever attained in manned flight. 

U.S. U.S.S.R. I U.S. U.S.S.R. 
108 APPENDIX E 

United States Space Launch Vehicles 

~~~~ 

Thrust Height Payload (pounds) 

(in thou- Max. less 

pounds) (feet) craft orbit Escape launch Vehicle Stages Propellant sands of dia. space- 300 NM First 

(feet) 

Scout.. ............ 1. Algol (IIB) ....... 2. castor 11.. ...... 3. Antares 11.. ..... 4. Altair I11 or FW4. 

Thrust-augmented 

Thor Delta. 

Thrust-augmented 

Thorad-Delta. 

Thrust-augmented 

Thorad-Agena. 

Atlas-Agena.. .... 

Titan IIIB-Agena. 

Titan IIIC ...... 

... 

1. 

2. 

3. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

1. 

2. 

. 1. 

2. 

. 1. 

2. 

3. 

. 1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Atlas-Centaur.. ..... 1. 

2. 

Uprated Saturn I. ... 1. 

2. 

SaturnV.. ......... 1. 

2. 

3. 

Thor (SLV-2A) 

three TX 33-52.. . Delta (DSV-3). .. F WAD. ......... 

Thor (SLV-2J) 

three TX 354-5.. . Delta (DSV-3). .. FW-4D. ......... 

Thor (SLV-2H) 

three TX 354-5. .. Agena ........... 

Atlas booster and 

sustainer (SLV3A). 

Agena ........... 

Two LR-87. ..... LR-9 1 ........... Agena ........... 

Two 5-segment 

120" diameter. 

Two LR-87.. .... LR-9 1 ........... Transtage. ....... 

Atlas booster and 

sustainer. 

Centaur (Two 

RL-IO). 

Plus 

Plus 

plus. 

Solid ............. 100.9 3.3 64.4 

Solid ............. 60.7 

Solid ............. 20.9 

Solid ............. 5.9 

LOX/RP. ........ 172 11 90 

Solid ............. 2 54 

IRFNANDMH.. . 7.5 

Solid ............. 5.9 

LOX/RP.. ....... 3 170 11 105 

Solid ............. 2 52 

IRFNA/UDMH.. . 7.8 

Solid ............. 5.9 

LOX/RP.. ....... 170 11 80 

Solid.. ........... 2 52 

IRFNANDMH.. . 16 

LOX/RP.. ....... 450 10 100 

IRFNA/UDMH.. . 16 

NaO4/Aeroaine.. .. 440 10 112 

NaO4/Aerozine. ... 100 

IRFNA/UDMH.. . 16 

Solid.. ........... 2,400 10x30 110 

NoO4/Aerozine.. .. 440 

N,O1/Aeroeine. ... 100 

NaO4/Aerozine. ... 16 

LOX/RP.. ....... 450 10 100 

LOX/LH ......... 30 

320 

1,200 

1, 

2,900 . . 

7,500 

8, OOo 

23, OOO 

9, 100 

50 1 1965 (60) 

250 1966 (60) 

590 1968 (60) 

....... 1966 (60) 

1,430 1968 (60) 

1,550 1966 

5,200 1965 

2,700 1967 (62) 

S-IB (Eight H-1). LOX/RP ......... 1,600 21.6 142 40,W@ ......... 1966 

S-IVB (One 5-2). LOX/LH.. ....... 200 105 NM 

S-IC (Five F-1). . LOX/RP.. ....... 7,570 33 4 281 285,000@ 101,500 1967 

S-IVB (One 5-2). LOX/LH.. ....... 225 

S-I1 (Five 5-2). .. LOX/LH.. ....... 1, 125 105 NM 

NOTES: Definitive data are difficult to compile. Payload 

capacity data vary according to the place and direction of 

launch as well as intended orbital altitude. Vehicles still under 

development may fall short of or exceed their projected capacities, both in payload and in engine thrust. First stage thrust 

shown is sea level value. Modifications of existing vehicles 

have already raised their performance, and future modifications may be expected in several cases. In general, these data 

apply to the latest versions now under development. 1 The date of first launch applies to this latest modification 

with a date in parentheses for the earlier version. 2 Each. 

3 Plus. 

4 363 feet, including Apollo modules and Launch Escape 

System. 

Propellant abbreviations used are as follows : Liquid Oxygen 

and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP; Solid propellant com- bining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid; 

Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical 

Dimethylhydrazine-IRFNA/UDMH ; Nitrogen Tetroxide and 

Aerozine-N204/Aerozine; Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen-LOX/LH. 

Values marked.. ...... .are either zero or not pertinent 

for the vehicle. 
APPENDIX F 109 

Nuclear Power Systems for Space Applications 

ElmDesignation trical Design Application Fuel 

Power life 

(warn) 

Status 

SNAP-3 2.7 5yem 

SNAP-SA 

. SNAP-11 

SNAP-1 9 

25 

25 

30 

SNAP-27 50 

SNAP-29 500 

Isotope-Brayton 5,500 

System. 

Navigation Satellite 20 

Generator. 

SNAP 1OA 500 

Reactor-Thermo- 1-100 kw 

electric or Mercury 

Rankine. 

5 years 

90 days 

1 year 

1 year 

90-1 20 days 

5 years with 

replacement of 

components. 

5 years 

1 year 

1-5 years 

Navigation satellites (DOD) Plutonium-238 

Navigation satellites (DOD) Plutonium-238 

Moon Probe (NASA) Curium-242 

NIMBUS B weather Plutonium-238 

satellite (NASA) 

Apollo Lunar Surface Plutonium-238 

Manned and unmanned Polonium-2 10 

Experiment (ALSEP) 

(NASA) 

space applications (DOD 

and NASA) 

Manned stations, lunar Plutonium-238 

base (DOD and NASA) 

Navigation Satellites Plutonium-238 

Unmanned missions Zirconium hyManned and unmanned Zirconium hyPOD) 

dride reactor. 

mission dride reactor. 

Units launched in June and 

November, 1961. June 

unit still operating in 

orbit, but quantitative 

performance data not 

available. 

Units launched in September and December, 1963, are still operating, but at a lower power level. 

Third satellite failed to 

orbit in April, 1964. 

First fueling of a generator 

with Curium-242 accom- plished in July, 1966. In 

October fueled unit com- pleted 90-day test under 

simulated conditions. 

Generator not used; 

since no 90-day lunar 

missions approved. 

Nimbus B launch aborted; 

Pu-238 fuel recovered 

from offshore waters. 

Replacement unit 

delivered for use in 

Nimbus B-2. 

Five complete power units 

delivered for ALSEP 

integrated system tests. 

Detailed design and subcomponents development 

initiated. Fueled systems 

scheduled for ground test 

during 1969-70 period. 

AEC will develop isotope source for joint AECNASA system ground 

test in early 1970’s. 

Development program 

initiated. 

Tested in orbit in 1965. 

Subsystem Technology 

under development. 
110 APPENDIX G-1 

Space Activities of the United States Government 

HISTORICAL SUMMARY AND 1970 BUDGET RECOMMENDATIONS JANUARY 1969-N~~ OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY 

[In millions of dollars] 

NASA Department Total 

of Defense AEC Commerce Interior Agriculture NSF space 

Total Space' 

1955.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.9 56. 9 3.0 .................................................. 59. 9 . . . . . . . , 72.7 72. 7 30.3 7.0 .................................. 7.3 117.3 . . . . . . . . 78.2 78. 2 71. 0 21. 3 ... ..... 8. 4 178.9 

1958 ................ 117.3 117.3 205.6 21.3 .................................. 3.3 347.5 

305.4 235.4 489.5 34.3 .......................................... 759.2 

523.6 461.5 560.9 43.3 . . . . . . . . ... . 1 1,065.8 

1961. .... .... ...... . 964.0 926.0 813.9 67.7 . , . _. . . . ................. .6 1,808.2 

1,824. 9 1, 796. 8 1,298. 2 147. 8 50.7 ..__............__..._ 1.3 3,294.8 

3, 673.0 3,626. 0 1, 549. 9 213. 9 43.2 ...................... 1.5 5,434.5 

5,099. 7 5,046. 3 1, 599. 3 210. 0 2.8 ...................... 3.0 6,861.4 

5, 249. 7 5, 167. 6 1, 573. 9 228. 6 12.2 ...................... 3.2 6,985.5 

5, 174. 9 5, 094. 5 1, 688. 8 186. 8 26. 5 4. 1 ............ 3.2 7,003.9 

1967. .. . . .. .... . . . . . 4,967.6 4,862.2 1,663.6 183.6 29. 3 3.0 ............ 2.8 6,744.5 

4, 588. 8 4,452. 5 1, 921. 8 145. 1 28. 1 2.0 0. 5 3. 2 6, 553. 2 

1970 budtret: .. ---- 

1969. ........ ... 3,994.9 3,844.8 2,082.5 117.2 20. 2 2. 2 . 7 3. 3 6,070. 9 

1970. .. ......... 3,760.5 3,599.0 2,218.7 105.5 9. 7 6.0 3. 6 3. 7 5, 946. 2 

1 Excludes amounts for aircraft technoloev in 1959 and NOTE : Details mav not add to totals because of roundine. 

succeeding years. Amounts for NASA-NACA aircraft and 

space activities not separately identifiable prior to 1959. Source: Bureau oi the Budget. 

- 

U.S. SPACE BUDGET - NEW OBLIGATIONAL AUTHORITY BILLIONS OF DOLLARS 

8. 0 

1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 19170 

REQUEST 

JAN. 1969 

NASC STAFF 
APPENDIX 6-2 111 

Space Activities of the United States Government 

HISTORICAL SUMMARY AND 1970 BUDGET RECOMMENDATIONS, JANUARY 13, 1969-EXF'ENDITURES 

[In millions of dollars] 

NASA Department Total 

of Defense AEC Commerce Interior Agriculture NSF space 

Total Space 1 

1955. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.8 73. 8 ....................... 75. 3 

71. 1 16.5 6.3 .................................. 6.2 100.1 

76. 1 47. 5 19. 2 ... ..... 7.3 150. 1 

1958.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89.2 89. 2 ............. 4.0 248.9 

145.6 58. 8 341.0 32.6 .................................. 1.5 433.9 

401.0 329.2 . . 888.4 . . . . 744. 3 693.6 710.0 64.3 . .. . 1,257.0 1,225.9 1,028.8 130.0 .9 2,386.6 . . . . 2,552.3 2,516.8 1,367.5 181.0 1. 1 4,078. 6 

1964. ...... ......... 4, 171.0 4, 131.3 1,563.5 220. 1 2. 6 5, 929. 8 . . . 5,092.9 5,035.0 1,591.8 232.2 

1966.. . . . . . . . , . ., . . . 5,933.0 5,857.9 1,637.4 188. 3 

1967.. . .. . . . . .. .. . . . 5,425. 7 5,336. 7 1,673. 1 183.6 

4, 723. 7 4, 595. 3 1,890. 2 146. 5 29. 0 2. 0 0. 5 3. 2 6,666. 7 

1969.. . . . . . , . . . . 4,249.7 4,097.5 2,095.0 117.0 27. 4 2. 2 . 7 3. 2 6, 343.0 

1970 3, 950. 0 3, 791. 3 2, 175.0 107. 7 32. 3 3. 0 3. 5 3. 5 6, 116. 3 

1 Excludes amounts for aircraft technology in 1959 and 

succeeding years. Amounts for NASA-NACA aircraft and 

space activities not separately identifiable prior to 1959. 

NOTE: Details may not add to totals because of rounding. 

Source: Bureau of the Budget. 

NASC STAFF 

REQUEST 

JAN. 196 
112 APPENDIX 6-3 

Space Activities Budget 

1970 BUDOET DOCUMENT, JAN. 13, 1969 

[In millions of dollars] 

~~~ 

New obligational authority Expenditures 

1968 1969 1970 1968 1969 1970 

actual est. est. actual est. est. 

Federal space programs: 

NASA 1 ................... Department of Defense ............. Atomic Energy Commission ........... 

Department of Commerce ............ Department of Interior ............. Department of Agriculture ........... National Science Foundation .......... 

Total .................. NASA: 

Manned space flight .............. Scientific investigations ............. Space applications ............... Space technology ............... Aircraft technology ............... Supporting operations ............. 

Adjustments to NOA basis ........... 

Total ................. 

4,452. 5 

1, 921. 8 

145. 1 

28. 1 

2. 0 

0. 5 

3. 2 

6, 553. 2 

. 3, 154. 9 

. 511.0 

. 130.5 

. 379.8 

. 136.3 

. 327.4 

. -51.1 

3,844.8 

2, 082. 5 

117.2 

20. 2 

2. 2 

0. 7 

3. 3 

6,070. 9 

3, 599. 0 4, 595. 3 4, 097. 5 3, 791. 3 

2,218.7 1,890.2 2,095.0 2,175.0 

105.5 146.5 117.0 107.7 

9. 7 29. 0 27. 4 32. 3 

6.0 2. 0 2. 2 3.0 

3. 6 0. 5 0. 7 3. 5 

3. 7 3. 2 3. 2 3. 5 

5,946. 2 6, 666. 7 6, 343.0 6, 116. 3 

2, 510. 2 

406. 1 

124.9 

336.6 

150.2 

349.4 

+117.5 

2, 339. 3 

488. 9 

169.6 

340.3 

161.5 

378.4 

-117.5 . 

4, 588. 8 3, 994. 9 3, 760. 5 

3,096. 6 2, 756. 6 

583.7 469.5 

115.8 126.9 

409.6 380.6 

128.4 152.2 

389.7 363.4 

.................... 

4, 723. 7 4,249. 7 

2,412. 6 

478.6 

148.9 

358.3 

158. 7 

393.3 

......... 

3,950.0 

1 Excludes amounts for aircraft technology. Source: Bureau of the Budget. 

Aeronautics Budget 

[In millions of dollars] 

New obligational authority 

1968 1969 est. 1970 est. 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

NASA 1 ....................................................................... 136.3 150.2 161.5 

Department of Defense 2. ........................................................ 1, 125.5 987.4 1,349.3 

Department of Transportation 3-Federal Aviation Agency. .......................... 142.4 - 30.0 0. 0 

Total.. ..................................................................... 1,404.2 1, 107.6 1,510.8 

R&D, RPM, C. of F. 

RDT & E aircraft and related equipment. 

3 R&D, SST. Unobligated balances rescinded in 1969. 

Source: Bureau of the Budget. 
INDEX 

Page 

A-7 senes aircraft ________________________ 41 

AC-130 Gunship I1 _______________________ 42 

Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft 

( AMSA) _____________________________ 42 

Advanced nuclear space technology _________ 5 1 

Advanced re-entry tests .................... 43 

Advanced Research Projects Agency ( ARPA) _ 43,70 

Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator 

(ATEGG) ____________ ______ _________ 44 

Advanced Vidicon Camera System (AVCS) __ 59 

Aeronautics ________________________ 5, 18, 80-84 

Development activity ______________ 19,40,87 

Safety ________________________ 4,19,80-84 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) ________________________ 33,46 

Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board_--_ 74 

Aerospace Research Pilots _________________ 36 

Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel ____________ 34 

Aerothermodynamics ..................... 23 

Agriculture, Dept. of ..................... 17,53 

AH-56A (Cheyenne) ..................... 41 

Airborne Warning and Control System 

(AWACS) ___________________________ 45 

Aircraft Propulsion Subsystem. Integration 

(APSI) ______________________________ 44 

Air Force ____________________________ 17,45,47 

Range support _______________________ 47 

ALOUETTE ___________________________ 15,62 

Ames Research Center ________________ 19,22,24 

Antarctica ______________________________ 56 

APOLLO 1, ______________________________ 8,9 et seq., 28, 29, 31, 34,48, 89 

APOLLO Applications Program __________ 9, 12,61 

APOLLO Lunar Surface Experiments Package 

(ALSEP) ____________________________ 8, 

12,26,48,51 

.. 

AH-1G (HUEYCOBRA) _________________ 41 

APOLLO/Range Instrumentation Aircraft 

APOLLO Telescope Mount _______-_______ _ 13,6 1 

APPLICATIONS TECHNOLOGY SATELLITES _______________________________ 

(A/RIA) _____________________________ 31,39 

2, 

8, 15, 17, 25, 30, 58,59, 60,63, 64,65, 67, 88 

Applied technology _______________________ 67 

ARCAS rocket ___________________________ 17 

Page 

Argentina ______________________________ 31 

Argonne National Laboratories _____________ 32 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency______ 91 

Amy .................................. 44,46 

Army Map Service _______________________ 46 

Arnold Engineering Development Center_____ 47 

Asteroids ............................... 29 

Astronauts ______________________________ 1 

Rescue and return treaty ______________ 3,4,53 

Astronomy 2,55,56,76 

ASW aircraft ............................ 41 

ATLAS ______________________________ 2, 14, 17 

Atmosphere control, spacecraft _____________ 22 

Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) _________ 38,48 

Atomic and molecular astrophysics 78 

Australia _______________________________ 31,40 

Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) ) ____ 4, 

3 1,58,59,60, 65 

Aviation Safety __________________________ 80 

Balloons ________________________________ 15 

Basic measurements- _ ____ _ ___ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ ____ 65 

Belgium ________________________________ 31,38 

Bikini Atoll ______________________________ 39 

Bioinstrumentation ___ _ _____ ____ _ ____ _ _ ___ 2 1 

Biotechnology _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 1 

BIOSATELLITE ________________________ 15,71 

Brazil ____________________________ 15, 30, 31,53 

Buoys, satellite-interrogated ________________ 58 

C-5A ______________________-_________ 3, 36, 40 

Canada .................... 15,30,31,37,38,61 

Celescope, Project ________________________ 76 

CENTAUR .......................... 2, 14, 17 

Cerro Tololo Inter-herican Observatory____ 55 

Chemical propulsion ______________________ 20 

Chemical power __________________________ 26 

Clear Air Turbulence (CAT) program______ 42 

Cloud maps .......................... 59,60,61 

Coast and Geodetic Survey _________________ 58,63 

Cobalt-60 thermionic generator ____________ 43 

Combustible gas detector -_________________ 24 

Command and Service Module (CSM) _ 9 et seq., 12 

Commerce, Dept. of ______________________ 17,58 

Committee on Atmospheric Sciences________ 71 

Committee on SST-Sonic Boom ____________ 74 

Communications Satellite Corp ________ 2, 16, 30,86 

Communications satellites _________________ 16 

.. 

.. 

.. 

113 
114 INDEX 

Page 

Contamination and interference studies----_- 70 

Contracting guide ____________________--_- 32 

COSMOS satellites _______________________ 61 

COSPAR ___________________________-_-_ 69,71 

Cost reduction ______________________-_--- 32 

Data compression ____________________--_- 25 

Deep Space Network ______________________ 29 

Defense, Dept. of _______________________ 2,17,36 

Defense Satellite Communications System---_ 36,37 

Defining space____________________-_-____ 91 

Denver Research Institute _________________ 33 

Division of Behavioral Sciences _____________ 72 

Division of Biology and Agriculture _________ 72 

Division of Earth Sciences _____________--__ 72 

Division of Engineering ________________.-__ 73 

DODGE ____________________---_-------- 44 

EARLY BIRD___-_________________-_-__ 16 

Earth resources satellites ____ _______________ 13 

Earth resources survey _______________ 17,30,53,64 

Eastern Test Range ______________________ 39 

ECHO _________________________________ 16 

Edwards AFB ___________________________ 40 

Eglin AFB ............................... 40 

Electric Power ___________________________ 43,50 

Electric Propulsion- _ _ - - __ _ _ - - __ __ - - __ __ __ 25 

Electronics and control .................... 23 

Electronics Research Center ____________ 18, 22, 24 

Electrophysics ___________________________ 18 

Engineering Division, NSF _________________ 56 

Engineers, Corps of _______________________ 46 

Environmental Data Service ________________ 58,65 

Environmental Science Services Administration _____________________-___ 15,16,38,58,72 

ESRO satellites ..................... 4, 15, 17, 31 

ESSA Research Laboratories _______________ 58,61 

ESSA satellites _________________ 2, 3, 16, 58, 59, 60 

Ethiopia ________________________________ 31 

European Launcher Development Org. 

(ELDO) _____________________________ 92 

European Space Research Org. (ESRO) ____ 15. 

31,54 

EXAMETNET __________________________ 31 

Exhibits, space ___________________________ 90 

EXPLORER ______________________ 15,17,30,62 

F-15 ___________________________________ 41 

F-106 __________________________________ 18 

F-111 series _____________________________ 40 

Federal Aviation Administration _________ 2 1, 80-84 

Federal Communications Commission__-_- 16,34,86 

Flight dynamics __________ ______________ __ 19 

Flight Research Center .................... 21 

Fluid dynamics _______ _______ _____________ 17 

. .. .. 

.. . .. 

.. 

.. 

F-14A _________________________________ 41 

Page 

Fog .................................... 18 

France ______________________________ 15, 30,31 

Fuel cells _________________________-____-- 43 

Gas dynamics ............................ 18,56 

Geodetic satellites _________________________ 17 

Geological Survey, U.S .................... 53 

Geometric satellite triangulation ____________ 63 

Georgia, Univ. of ________________________ 33 

GEOS _________________________ 15,17,24,38,39 

Germany ____________________________ 30,31,38 

Global atmosphere research program--_----- 71 

Goddard Space Flight Center __-___________ 24,25 

Goldstone, Calif __________________________ 29 

Grand Bahama ........................... 31,54 

Guam .................................. 40 

HASP ................................. 17 

Hawaii ____________________--__-______-39 

Hazards Identification Committee ___________ 35 

Health, Education and Welfare, Dept. of---- 34 

HEOS ................................. 4,31 

HL-10 lifting body _______________________ 3,8 

Human research _________________________ 2 1 

Hurlburt, E. 0. Center for Space Research--- 55 

Hurricanes ______________________________ 59 

Icarus, Asteroid .......................... 29 

India _______________________________ 15,30,31 

Indiana Univ ____________________________ 32 

Industry affairs ___________________________ 31 

Initial Defense Communications Satellite Project (IDCSP) __________________________ 2,4 

INTELSAT consortium ____________ 2,3,53,54,86 

INTELSAT satellites _________________ 2,3, 16,86 

International affairs ______________________ 30 

Interior, Dept. of _________________________ 17 

International Civil Aviation Organization 

(ICAO) ............................. 88 

International Radio Consultative Committee 

(CCIR) _____________________-______- 86,88 

International Telecommunication Union____- 86 

Iowa, State Univ. of ______________________ 15 

Isotopic fuel ............................. 52 

Italy ................................... 38 

5-2 engine ______________________________ 10 

Japan __________________________________ 54 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) ___________ 24,25 

Kitt Peak National Observatory ____________ 55 

Labor relations ___________________________ 32 

Langley Research Center _____________ 8,18,19,23 

Lasers ________________________ 1,8,18,24,64, 77 

Lawrence Radiation Laboratories ___________ 32 

LES Satellites ____________________________ 37,38 

Lewis Research Center .................... 28 

.. 

.. 
INDEX 115 

Page 

Life support _____________________________ 22 

Light Intratheater Transport (LIT) ________ 42 

Lincoln Laboratory _______________________ 37 

Liquid Propulsion ........................ 20 

Load Alleviation and Mode Stabilization 

(LAMS) _____________________________ 45 

Locomotion and restraint aid (LARA) ______ 22 

Long-Distance Point-to-Point System- _ _ __ __ _ 36 

Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory _-________-_ 49 

Lunar and planetary programs (unmanned) - 2,3,14 

Lunar exploration _________________ _______ 13 

Lunar Module (LM) __________-________ 9,12,28 

LUNAR ORBITER ___________________ 2,18,46 

Lunar Science Institute _____-_________---_ 70 

Madrid, Spain__________________-______-- 29 

Malagasy _______________________________ 54 

MANNED ORBITING LABORATORY 

(MOL) _____________________________ 2,4,36 

Manned space flight ____________-____--___ 1,8 

Manned Space Flight Network ____________ 28-29 

MARINER __________________________ 14,29,46 

Maritime Administration __________ -_______ , 67 

Maritime mobile service ___________________ 87 

Mars ___________________________________ 14 

Marshall Space Flight Center _______-_-____ 23 

Materials measurement .................... 66 

Materials research ________________________ 18,73 

Mathematics, applied ..................... 18 

Mauritius _ ____________ _________________ 3 1,54 

Meteontics __________________L__________ 77 

Meteorological satellites ______________ 2, 16,58,59 

Mexico _____________________________ 30,31,53 

Midwest Research Institute ________________ 33 

Mission Control Center .................... 29 

Motion sickness __________________________ 21 

Mount Hopkins Observatory _______ _____ ____ 78 

Natick Laboratories _______________________ 46 

National Academy of Engineering __________ 69 

National Academy of Sciences _____________- 69 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 8 

National Aeronautics and Space Council- 5,34,46,69 

National Bureau of Standards ______________ 65 

National Center for Atmospheric Research 

(NCAR) _____________________________ 55 

National Environmental Satellite Center 

(NESC) _____________________________ 58,60 

National Geodetic Satellite Program--___--_ 31,39 

National Operational Meteoroligical Satellite 

System _______________________________ 58 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory______ 55 

National Research Council ___-_____________ 69 

National Science Foundation _______________ 55 

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Naval Aerospace Medical Institute __________ 46 

Naval Research Laboratory _____________ 15,44,61 

Navy Oceanographic Offce ________________ 53 

Navy, U.S _______________________________ 17,46 

Navigational satellites_- 2,4, 16, 36, 38, 39,44, 48, 51 

Nellis AFB ______________________________ 40 

NERVA _____________________--____ 8,27,48,49 

Netherlands _____________________________ 15,38 

NIKE-CA JUN __________________________ 17 

NIMBUS _____________ 16,17,26,48,50,59,60,63 

Noise alleviation __________________ 8,18,22,74,75 

Norway __________________________ 15, 30, 31, 38 

Nuclear detection _________________________ 52 

Nuclear electric power .................... 26,51 

Nuclear rocket program _________________ 3,27,48 

Nuclear safety ___________________________ 51 

Nuclear space systems ..................... 3,51 

OBSERVATORY satellites- 2,3,14, 17,28,30,31,76 

Ocean surface______________________L-____ 60 

Office of Scientific Personnel _______________ 72 

Office of State Technical Services __________ 33,68 

Oklahoma State Univ .____________________ 33 

OPLE _________________________________ 16 

Orbital Workshop ________________________ 13 

Outer Space Treaty _______________________ 91 

Over the Horizon (OTH) Radar ___________ 43 

PAGEOS ............................ 17,38,63 

Paris Air Show ___________________________ 5 

PEGASUS ______________________________ 23 

Peru ___________________________________ 61 

PEWEE ______________________ 3,8,27,28,48,49 

PHOEBUS ______________________ 3,8,27,48,49 

PILOT ................................ 43 

PIONEER _______________________ 15,17,28,29 

Pittsburgh, Univ. of ______________________ 32 

“Pogo effect ____________________________ 10 

President’s Science Advisory Committee_---- 69 

Propulsion, air-breathing ______________---- 18 

Princeton University ______________________ 56 

Property management___ _ ____ _ _ _ _ ___ _ ___ _ _ 32 

Radio Astronomy Explorer ________________ 28,30 

Radio Attenuation Measurements (RAM), 

Project _______________________________ 17,24 

RANGER _____________ ______ ___________ 2 

Re-entry “blackout” ______________________ 24 

Reliability and Quality Assurance Office----- 32 

Runways ............................... 19 

S-IVB SATURN stage _________________ 9,11,28 

Sandia Corporation _______________________ 32 

Satellite Control Facility ________--__--- ---- 40 

Satellite Network ______________________ 29,30,77 

Satellite Test Center ...................... 40 

SATURN IB ..................... 1,9, 12,28,47 

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SATURN V ________________________ 1,10, 12,47 

Scanning electron mirror microscope__------ 24 

SCOUT _______________________________ 17 

SECOR _____________________-____----__ 38,39 

Seismological activities- __ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - _ _ 64 

Semiconductor memory device ______________ 24 

Sensor study _____________________________ 65 

SERT___________-________-_____----____ 25 

SHAPE Technical Centre _____________-_-__ 38 

Shed Light, Project ....................... 42 

SILENT JOE I1 ________________________- 43 

SKYNET_______________________________ 37 

Small Business Administration ____-________ _ 33 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory__-___ 63, 76 

SNAP systems ,___________________ 8,26,48,50,70 

Solar power 26 

Solar radiation measurement ____ __________ _ 24 

Solar-terrestrial program _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 56 

Solid propulsion _________________ _________ 20,2 1 

SOLRAD ______________________--_---__ 44,61 

Sonic boom _______________________- 17,18,22,74 

Sounding rockets _________________ 4, 15,17,31,62 

SOYUZ ______________-____-__-___------ 3 

Space detection and tracking _______________ 40 

Space Experiments Support Program (SESP) 45 

Space power _____________________________ 25 

Space Science Board ______________________ 69 

Space stations- ___ __ __ _ _ _ __ _ __ _ _ __ __ _ _ __ __ 13 

Space suits ______________________________ 22 

Spacetrack ______________________________ 40 

Space vehicle systems ..................... 23 

SPADATS ___________________________-__ 40 

Spain __________________________________ 30,31 

SPASUR __________________________--___ 40 

STADAN ______________________________ 76 

START ________________________________ 43 

State, Dept. of ___________________________ 31,53 

Stress endocrinology ______________________ 2 1 

Supersonic Transport (SST) _______ 3,19,74,81,85 

SURVEYOR ______________ 2,8,14,17,24,28,29 

Sweden ________________________________ 30,31 

Switzerland _____________________________ 30 

SYNCOM ______________________________ 36 

Tactical Stellite Communications Program--__ 36,37 

Tech Briefs ______________________________ 32 

Technological measurements _______________ 66 

Technology utilization ..................... 32 

Television _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ __ _ _ _ - _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 

Test and training satellite (TETR) ________ 29 

Thailand _____________________________-_ 31 

THOR-DELTA _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ __ __ _ _ __ _ _ 17 

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THORAD-AGENA ______________________ 17,50 

Time transfer tests _______________________ 63 

TIROS ______________________________ 2,16,58 

TIROS Operational Satellite (TOS) ________ 16 

TITAN-AGENA ________________________ 16 

TITAN IIIC __________________________ 1- 36 

TITAN ~IIM_________--______________-_ 2 

Tools, space _____________________________ 22 

Tracking and data acquisition _____________ 28 

TRANET ______________________________ 39 

TRANSIT (see navigational satellites) 

Transportation, Dept. of 5,34,80 

Tropic Moon I11 42 

Tsunami warning system _-________________ 64 

Turbo engines ___________________________ 44 

Tycho Crater ___________________________ 1,14 

United Kingdom ________________ 15,31,37,38,54 

United Nations __________________________ 53 

United Nations Conference on Outer Space___ 4, 

31,53,60 

United States Information Agency __________ 89 

University programs ______________________ 30 

USSR __________________________________ 3,5 

Van Allen radiation belt ___________________ 14 

Vandenberg AFB ________________________ 2,36 

VELA 38,52 

Vestibular research _______________________ 21 

Vice President ___________________________ 5,39 

Voice of, America _________________________ 89 

V/STOL _______________________ 8,19,22,31,41 

VTOL Integrated Flight Control Systems 

(VIFCS) _____________________________ 45 

Wallops Island ___________________________ 3 1 

Washington-Moscow data exchange _________ 61 

Wayne State University _______-__-________ 33 

Weather Bureau _________________________ 58,64 

Weather Facsimile Experiment _____________ 58,W 

Western Test Range ______________________ 39 

Wisconsin, Univ. of _______________________ 76 

Woods Hole study ________________________ 70,73 

World Meteorological Organization (WMO) _ 61 

X-ray detection ........................... 25 

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X-15 ___________________________________ 8,20 

X-22 __________________________________ 42 

XB-70 _________________________________ 8,19 

XE engine______-________________________ 8 

XECF engine tests ________________________ 49 

XV-5B ________________________________ 8,19 

Yaw control, fluidic ______________________ 23 

XC-142 ________________________________ 8,19 

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U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: IS69 0--32&789