Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1 9 75 Activities 
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Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

I975 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
President’s 

To the Congress of the United States: 

I am pleased to transmit this report on 

Message of Transmittal 

the Nation‘s 

progress in space and aeronautics during 1975. This 

report is provided in accordance with Section 206 of 

the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 as 

amended (42 U.S.C. 2476). 

1975 was another year of continued progress in 

the Nation’s space and aeronautics activities. It 

marked significant accomplishments in many areas. 

Earth-orbiting satellites continued to bring new 

and increased benefits in a variety of applications. 

Two additional international communications satellites were launched, expanding the already impressive 

international satellite communications capability. A 

second domestic commercial communications satellite 

was put into operation. Military satellite communications were enhanced. In addition, a new system of 

satellites for global weather reporting was initiated. 

providing reports every thirty minutes on weather 

across half the globe. 

Landsat 2 was orbited to join Landsat 1 to provide 

additional Earth sensing data to explore potential 

uses in a wide range of activities, including crop 

forecasting, pollution monitoring, forestry and land 

use studies, and in mineral exploration. 

I had the pleasure and thrill of talking to our 

astronauts and the Soviet cosmonauts when they 

linked up in space at the culmination of the historic 

U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo Soyuz Test Project. 

Major milestones were met in the development of 

the Space Shuttle, the Nation’s current major space 

project. Canada agreed to develop the remote 

manipulator system for the Shuttle, a major. and 

welcome contribution. 

Development of Spacelab, a key systeiii to take 

advantage of the capability of the Space Shuttle and 

being built and funded by the European Space 

Agency, continued on schedule. 

We continued to probe the unknown in space. 

Pioneer 10 will be the first Inan-made object to 

venture beyond our solar system. Pioneer 11 will 

make the first flyby of Saturn in 1979. In passing 

Jupiter these vehicles sent back pictures that added 

greatly to our knowledge of the largest planet. Last 

August and September we launched two Viking 

spacecraft toward Mars. They will arrive at the 

height of our Bicentennial celebration and may 

provide information on the existence of life in some 

form on our neighboring planet. 

In aeronautics, research focused on the technologies 

needed to reduce fuel requirements, noise, and pollution. Also emphasized was improved reliability, 

performance, and safety. Military aircraft development featured the first supersonic flight of the B-1, 

the operational deployment of the F-14 and F-15, 

and the selection of the F-16 and F-18 as future 

fighter aircraft. 

The fruits of our research continued to be enjoyed 

by the transfer of space and aeronautics technology 

to many beneficial uses in our society, including 

energy research. medical care, transportation, and 

new techniques and iiiaterials for manufacturing. 

Our Nation’s activities in aeronautics and space 

continue to be a major contribution to our quality 

of life and economic growth. 

We can all take pride in our commitment to 

advancement in space and aeronautics as reflected in 

the accomplishments aexribed in this report. 

1’HE 14’131~~ HOUSE, 

June 1976 

GERALD R. FORD 

iii 
Table of Contents 

I. Summary of U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities in 1975 ____________________---- Introduction __________-______________ Space ______________________________ Aeronautics _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ ________ _ 11. National Aeronautics and Space Administration Introduction _ ___ - ________-__ ________ _ Study of the Universe and the Sun-Earth 

Relationship . ____ ________________ ___________. 

Explor?tion of the Planets and the Moon 

Life Sciences _____-__________________ Study of the Earth’s Atmosphere ___---_ 

Applications to Earth _-______________ 

NASA Energy Program __________-____ 

Space Flight _________________________ Space Flight Transportation ___________ Tracking and Data Acquisition _________ International Affairs -_ . ______________ University Affairs .................... Space and Nuclear Research and Technology __--_________-_--_---------- 

Aeronautics Research and Technology __ Disseminating Trchnology and Benefits __ 111. Department of Defense --_-_________-__-___ Introduction _________________________ Space Activities ...................... Space Ground Support __--__-_---_--_ 

Space Research and Technology _______ .4eronautical Activities _-_-------_-___- 

Relationship with NASA ______________ IV. Department of Commerce -_-_________-----_ 

Introduction ________------_-_---_____ 

Satellites in Environmental Monitoring 

and Prediction .................... Other Satellite and Space Applications -- 

Space Support Activities _____________ Space and Atmospheric Physics Research 

Data Programs ____--__-_____________ Aeronautical Programs _______________ V. Energy, Research and Development Administration --_-___ ______ - -- - - __- -_- - __- - -_ - 

Introduction _______ - __ _ __ ___ - __ ___ _ __ 

Viking Mars Lander _-_-_____________ Lincoln Experimental Satellite (LES) __ Mariner Jupiter/Saturn _---__--_------ 

Generator Technology ________________ VI. Department of the Interior ------__--__-__-_ 

Introduction _-___-___________________ Space __---___-____-_--_------------- 

Aeronautics ________-----__-__-______ 

International Activities ____-__________ 

VII. Department of Agriculture _--------__--____ 

Introduction __________-_-__----______ 

Remote Sensing Activity 

VIII. National Science Foundation _________--____ Introduction _---_-_____________--_-_- Astronomy _____--_________----______ 

Atmospheric Sciences __________-__--__ Polar Research Programs -----------_- 

Engineering - _ ___ _ ___- --- _ -- - -_ _ --_ - - 

Materials Research _---__-_---___--_- 

Education Activities _-__-__-----__---_ 

IX. Environmental Protection Agency __________ Introduction _________________________ Energy-Related Environmental Research 

and Development __________--_-_--_ 

Advanced Monitoring Programs ---_____ 

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X. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Of Engineering, National Research 

Council ____________________----------- Introduction ______________________--- 

Aerospace Science _____-----_------- - Space Applications __-___-____________ 

Aerospace Engineering _________-_____ 

Education _______ ____ ________________ XI. Office of Telecommunications Policy _______- Introduction ___--_________-_____----- AEROSAT __________________-_______ INMARSAT __________ 2 _________-_-_ Proposed Amendmrnts to the Communications Satellite Act of 1962 __--____ 

Direct Broadcast Satellites ____________- 

Frequency Management___--______-___ 

High Power Satellites ________________ XII. Federal Communications Commission ____-- 

Introduction ____ ___ ______________ - -- - 

Communications Satellites _____________ Specialized Satellite Services ___________ International Telecommunications Union 

(ITU) ___________________________ Frequency Allocation and Coordination _ XIII. Department of State _-____________--______ Introduction _______________-_________ Activities within the United Nations -___ 

International Cooperation -____--______ Satellite Services ..................... Support of Federal Agencies _________-_ XIV. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ____- Introduction _____-___________________ Demilitarization __ _ _______ ____________ Crisis Management and Verification _--- 

Space Technology .................... XV. Department of Transportation _____________ Introduction __________ ____-_ - ___ _____ Office of the Secretary (OST) Programs 

FAA Research and Development: Aviation Safety ________________________ Air Traffic Control and Navigation _____ XVI. The Smithsonian Institution ___--_________ Introduction __ _______________ ___ ___ __ Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory _ National Air and Space Museum _______ XVII. United States Information Agency __________ Introduction _________________________ Radio ______________________________ 

Press and Publications ______________ Films and Television _________________ Information Centers and Exhibits ______ 

Appendixes 

A- 1 

A-2 

A-3 

B- 1 

B- 2 

B-3 

C 

D 

E- 1 

E-2 

U.S. Spacecraft Record .................... World Record of Spare Launchings Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond __-_-__ 

Successful U.S. Launchings-1975 _____---__ 

U.S. Applications Satellites, 1971-1975 _____-- 

US.-Launched Scientific Payloads, 197 1-1975 

US.-Launched Space Probes, 1971-1975 _---- 

History of .United States and Soviet Manned 

Space Flights ___________________________ US. Space Launch Vehicles _____-_-_-_--__ 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government --_-- 

US. Space Budget-Budget Authority _--_-- 

Space Activities Budget .................... Aeronautics Budget 

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V 
New Tools for Space Research 

An increasing array of Earth-based and spacecraft- borne instruments and sensors is joining together to 

study the planets of our solar system, the Sun, our galaxy, and the far reaches of the universe. 

Nestled in a natural bowl near Arecibo, Puerto Rico, is the big radio/radar 

telescope of the National Science Foundation. The 390-meter-diameter dish was 

resurfaced with aluminum panels to a spherical precision within 3.2 millimeters, an 

improvement that broadened the frequency range for scientific observations by a 

factor of 12. A new 450-kilowatt 5-band planetary radar transmitter was sponsored 

by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. It raised the facility’s 

capability for radar ranging and surface mapping of the planets by a factor of 1000. 

The new equipment began operation in 1975, mapping the surface of cloudshrouded Venus to include terrain details as small as two kilometers. It also 

surveyed the sites on Mars where the Viking landers will set down in 1976. 

This mockup of the Space Shuttle or 

biter was used to make detailed studies 

of a full-scale model of the Low Cost 

Modular Spacecraft. This spacecraft was 

one of several modular configurations being studied by NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center as economical means to 

place spacecraft into orbit from the orbiter and later to resupply or retrieve 

them. The first prototype orbiter is scheduled for rollout in September 1976. 

vi 
Summary of United States Aeronautics 

and Space Activities in 1975 

I 

Introduction 

The past year has been one of significant achievements in space and aeronautics. Scientific investigations advanced our understanding of the universe, 

the solar system, and the Earth’s space environment, 

atmosphere, and surface features. At the same time, 

operational satellite systems for weather data and 

communications were functioning with increased 

reliability and diversity. A manned Apollo spacecraft 

joined a Soviet spacecraft in orbit for an international 

experiment and progress on the Space Shuttle continued with the fabrication and construction of the 

two prototypes. Aeronautical research made advances 

toward quieter, more economical, and safer aircraft. 

Space 

The United States had 34 launches intoapace in 

1975. We orbited 30 spacecraft, while 4 failed to 

achieve the desired orbit. The Department of Defense had ll successful launches, NASA 19. Of 

NASA’s total, 3 were commercial communications 

satellites, 2 launched for INTELSAT and 1 for 

RCA; one was for the U.S. Navy; 2 were for the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

(NOAA) ; and 3 were international satellites 

launched for Canada, the European Space Agency, 

and Germany and France. Of spacecraft launched 

for NASA’s own program, 4 were scientific satellites, 

3 were applications satellites, 1 was a manned flight, 

and 2 were planetary probes. 

The Universe 

Exploration of the universe seeks to answer fundamental questions: How big is the universe? When 

did it begin? What are the dynamics of the birth, 

life, and death of stars? What are the processes of 

creation, sustenance, and deterioration of enormous 

sources of energy? Are there other solar systems in 

the universe similar to ours? If there are, is there 

life on those planets? NASA’s space science program, 

which focuses on these questions, continued to make 

significant gains during 1975. 

The last of the Small Astronomy Satellites, SASC (Explorer 53), was orbited in 1975 to pursue the 

study of galactic and extra-galactic sources of radiation. It joined a small fleet of other satellites making 

similar measurements. Among them was OAO-3 

(Copernicus), launched in 1972, which this year 

identified a star other than our own Sun that had a 

corona (halo of high-temperature gas), but with 

temperatures in the gas much below predicted 

levels. This suggests that comparison of a number of 

stars and their coronal variations could tell us much 

about the different kinds of stars. Meanwhile, work 

continued on design and fabrication of the first 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO-A) , which will be instrumented to study recently discovered phenomena such as pulsars, quasars, and black 

holes. Ground-based radio telescopes of the National 

Science Foundation and sounding rocket and balloon 

X-ray experiments by the Smithsonian Institution 

conducted complementary studies of these and other 

phenomena in 1975. 

The Solar System 

Using both ground-based observatories and spacecraft, the pursuit of knowledge about our solar 

system continued with studies of the planets, the 

Sun, the Moon, and the interplanetary medium. 

Planetary Exploration. In the past year, three 

planetary spacecraft successfully continued their missions, two were launched, and four continued into 

development. Mariner 10, which flew by Venus in 

1974, was the first spacecraft to use the gravitational 

force of one planet to accelerate toward another 

planet. Mariner 10 made three close passes of the 

planet Mercury and took close-up photographs; and 

discovered the presence of a weak magnetic field 

around the planet. 

The Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft which were 

launched in 1972 and 1973 and sent back photographs of Jupiter in 1974, continued their exploration 

of the outer regions of the solar system. During 1975 

Pioneer 10 headed on a course that would take it 

out of the solar system by about 1987, the first manmade object to venture into interstellar space. 

Pioneer 11 travelled across the solar system toward a 

1 
1979 flyby of Saturn, for a first look at that planet 

and its unique rings. Also the most ambitious planetary exploration to date-the Viking Mars orbiter/ 

lander mission-was launched in the summer of 

1975. When it arrives at Mars in the summer of 

1976, the first Viking spacecraft is to orbit the 

planet for several weeks, confirm a landing site, and 

the lander spacecraft is to descend to the surface 

of Mars to softland and spend 60 days taking photographs, sampling the atmosphere, and testing the 

Martian soil for evidence of extraterrestrial life. The 

same pattern will be repeated later in the year by the 

Looking ahead, NASA is preparing two future 

planetary missions involving two spacecraft each. The 

Mariner JupiterJSaturn mission, to be launched in 

1977, will swing past Jupiter in 1979, then move on 

to pass Saturn in 1981. The Pioneer Venus mission 

will consist of two spacecraft to be launched to Venus 

in 1978, one to orbit the planet, the other to drop 

probes to the Venusian surface. 

Study of the energy source of 

of the solar system, the Sun, continued in 1975 with 

the launch of the last and largest of the observatoryclass solar satellites, the Orbiting Solar Observatory 

(OSO-I) . It will measure a number of solar phenomena during the low point (or quiet phase) of the 

1 l-year solar-activity cycle. Helios-A, the US.-German cooperative satellite launched in 1974, flew 

nearer the Sun than any previous satellite, and 

collected data on solar radiation. Work continued 

on the second satellite, Helios-B, scheduled to be 

launched in early 1976. Data analysis of observations 

from the Apollo Telescope Mount carried on the 

Skylab flights, between May 1973 and February 

1974, continued in 1975. Among other findings was 

evidence that the cool spots on the solar surface 

reached to deeper levels in the Sun than previously 

known. In addition, design and advanced technology 

development continued on the Solar Maximum Mission, which is designed to study the Sun during the 

next period of solar flare activity (1979-1980). 

Studies of the Moon. Analysis and laboratory 

research progressed on lunar soil samples and other 

lunar data. Studies of the lunar soil samples from the 

Apollo program identified lunar mare basalt as having been laid down as lava flows 3.1 to 3.8 billion 

years ago. These samples came from a region that 

had been chemically isolated 4.4 billion years ago, 

very close to the probable 4.6-billion-year age of the 

Moon and the Earth. In addition, instruments left on 

the lunar surface continued to send back important 

data on lunar events. 

Earth's Environment 

Understanding the Upper Atmosphere. In the 

past the majority of NASA's scientific satellites have 

' second Viking lander. 

Study of the Sun. 

studied the complex interactions of incoming radiation between the Earth's magnetic field and the 

various layers of the upper atmosphere. Emphasis on 

investigations of the upper atmosphere was continued 

in 1975 with the launch of two scientific satellites 

with diverse missions but with one new technological 

advantage-an upgraded onboard propulsion system 

that makes it possible to repeatedly dip in and out of 

the lower reaches of the upper atmosphere to catch 

samples of particles without being pulled into the 

lower atmosphere and burning up. Atmosphere EXplorer D, AE-D (Explorer 54), was launched into 

polar orbit in October. AE-E (Explorer 55) was 

launched into low-inclination orbit in December. 

Together they are designed to provide global studies 

of effects of solar ultraviolet radiation on the makeup 

of the lower thermosphere and down into lower levels 

where most of the radiation is absorbed. Data 

from these satellites are now being received. As they 

are interpreted and pieced together over the next 

several years, they should greatly improve our understanding of the detailed structure and processes in 

these layers of the atmosphere that protect the 

Earth's surface from the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. 

Complementary studies will be carried out by the 

National Science Foundation in conjunction with the 

International Magnetospheric Study of the nearEarth environment and ways in which it is influenced 

by the Sun. The Department of Transportation, 

NOAA, the National Academy of Sciences, and 

NASA have been gathering data on the possible 

threat to the ozone layer that is posed by the loss of 

ozone to halogens released from Earth as fluorine and 

chlorines. 

In 1975 Congress assigned to NASA the responsibility for continuing study of the upper atmosphere and coordination of research results with other 

agencies. The long-term effort will seek to develop 

instrumentation to monitor conditions in the upper 

atmosphere so as to better understand the physical 

and chemical processes in this region. The immediate 

effort focuses on the problems of the ozone layer and 

halogens. During 1975, several constituents thought 

dangerous to ozone were measured by a NASA research balloon and a U-2 aircraft. 

In the last decade environmental satellites have significantly improved midrange and longer-range forecasting by the global 

scale of their observations and the integrative, realtime data they have produced. Advances in shortrange forecasting have been less pronounced, partly 

because general weather patterns are modified by 

local conditions and partly because local changes are 

too rapid and too detailed for global-coverage satellites to discern. Accurate short-range forecasts are 

particularly important in the identification and tracking of severe storms, such as tornadoes. To improve 

Predicting the Weather. 

2 
such forecasts, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) of the Department of 

Commerce sponsored the development of a new kind 

of environmental satellite, the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite (SMS) . One SMS in synchronous 

orbit over each coast of the North American continent would observe the detailed weather conditions 

over the continent and its approaches every 30 

minutes. The first of these prototypes was placed in 

orbit over the east coast for NOAA by NASA in 

1974. In February 1975 SMS-2 was launched into 

orbit over the west coast, and in October an operational system was inaugurated with the launch of 

Goes 1 (Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellite). NOAA-4, backed up by NOAA-3, continued to provide the operational global weather 

data from polar orbit. 

Nimbus 6, most recent in the series of NASA experimental weather satellites, was launched in June 

to test advanced sensors as well as to supply supplemental weather data to NOAA and serve as a datacollection and relay satellite for sensors on remote 

platforms. Development continued on Tiros-N, NASA 

prototype of the third-generation operational weather 

satellite. Tiros-N will be launched into orbit in 

1978. 

On the ground the network of stations for use and 

dissemination of GOES data was completed during 

1975. Now 50 weather stations have equipment for 

receiving the satellite data and transmitting local 

short-term forecasts and advisories. With this capability came the improved GOES-TAP system, which 

disseminates satellite weather photographs to television stations, local governments, universities, and 

Federal agencies. In August the GOES Data Collection System became operational, enabling users to 

collect environmental data from a variety of remote 

sensor platforms. 

Satellites as Communicators. The earliest commercial application of space technology was the use 

of satellites in orbit above the Earth as a means of 

efficient relay of long-distance communications. In 

1975 communications satellite systems further augmented their capacity and networks, continuing their 

rapid expansion as a major factor in global long-distance and middle-distance communications. Further 

advances in sate!lite communications technclogy 

were sought through investigations conducted with 

NASA’s Advanced Technology Satellite (ATS-6), 

development of Canada’s Communications Technology Satellite, and both technological and organizational work on expanding the number of usable 

channels in the frequency spectrum. 

INTELSAT, the international communicationssatellite consortium, added another Intelsat IV satellite in May to maintain the capability of its worldwide communications network. In September the 

first of a new series of upgraded spacecraft, Intelsat 

IVA, was launched by NASA for INTELSAT. EXpansion of the more recently established field of 

domestic communications satellites continued with 

the NASA launch of Canada’s Anik 3 in May and of 

KCA-1 in December. Final preparations were being 

made for the launch of Canada’s Communications 

Technology Satellite in 1976, which will experiment 

with communications for education, health, social 

service, and information exchange using low-cost 

ground receiving stations. 

The versatile ATS-6 satellite spent the early part 

of 1975 conducting experiments in delivery of health, 

educational, medical-diagnosis, and social-service information to small, inexpensive antennas in remote 

areas of Alaska, Appalachia, and the Rocky Mountains. After serving as a communications link in SUPport of the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

in July, in August ATS-6 was shifted a third of the 

way around the world and began one year of experimental broadcasting to small receivers in 2400 

villages in India, featuring educational, agrkultural, 

and health programming developed by the government of India. 

The burgeoning use of communications satellites 

and the rapid growth of the technology have strained 

the number of available channels in the radio spectrum, as well as the international political and technical entities that control the allocation of this 

scarce resource. Major international conferences were 

called for the late 1970s to update the political and 

technical agreements. Both the Office of Telecommunications Policy of the Executive Office of the 

President and the Federal Communications Commission were heavily involved in gathering information 

and otherwise preparing for these meetings. NASA 

stepped up its experiments on possible ways of increasing the number of available channels in the 

higher regions of the radio frequency spectrum; and 

the United Nations began debate on international 

rules for direct broadcasting by satellite to home TV 

receivers. 

An agreement for an experimental international 

aeronautical communications and positioning satellite 

(Aerosat) to improve air traffic control over the 

North Atlantic had been signed in 1974 by the 

Department of Transportation for the U.S., the 

European Space Agency (ESA) for Europe, and 

Canada. This year the AEROSAT Council met four 

times, reviewing progress and reevaluating the increasing costs of the space segment. Slightly less advanced in planning was INMARSAT, the proposed 

International Maritime Satellite System. Discussions 

generated by the Office of Telecommunications 

Policy were centered on organization of international 

3 
participation and direction of such a system and on 

the desirability of U.S. participation. 

Earth Applications 

The use of experimental Earth-survey satellites to 

explore the potential benefits of space-based remote 

sensing systems continued. The second Earth-resources 

survey satellite, Landsat 2, was launched in 1975 to 

test the capability for providing remote sensing data 

from space and to explore the potential uses of these 

data in activities such as measuring and monitoring 

the world’s food, timber, and water resources; locating mineral and fossil fuel deposits; and land use 

planning. The Geodynamic Experimental Ocean 

Satellite, Goes 3, was launched in April to supply 

data to experiments in measurement of ocean topography and solid-Earth physics. Development progressed on two satellites which will refine these investigations, Lageos (Laser Geodynamics Satellite) 

and Seasat. A small satellite, HCMM (Heat Capacity Mapping Mission), is under development to 

make a thermal map of the Earth’s surface. 

Various governmentaI agencies and industries continued to participate in *the investigation of potential 

applications of Earth-survey satellites. NASA, the 

Department of Agriculture, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) moved 

into the second phase of the Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) . By expanding on the 

available technology base, LACIE represents an 

experimental system for demonstrating the use of 

Landsat data for crop production inventory over 

large areas in a “quasi-operational” environment. 

The expected accomplishments of LACIE will be the 

development and testing of the technology required 

for the implementation of an operational satellite 

system for global crop monitoring and an assessment 

of the cost-effectiveness of such an operational system. The first phase of LACIE explored the possibilities of using Landsat data to inventory the U.S. 

wheat crop. The second and third phases will extend 

the investigation to other areas. 

The Department of Interior, through its Geological 

Survey, made significant advances in computer 

manipulatibn of satellite imagery, including enhancement of Landsat images for use in geological research. 

Computer analysis of both digitized graphics and 

original Landsat digital data is being evaluated for 

potentia1 use in systems that gather and report information on natural resources, geography, and 

basic-resources inventories. In another project, the 

Department of Agriculture used NOAA environmental satellite data in the control of the screwworm population in the southwestern U.S., where 

these grubs have long been a major destroyer of 

animals, especially cattle. 

NASA, NOAA, and EPA continued their investigations of experimental use of satellite data to identify 

sources, type, extent, and potential effect of various 

kinds of pollution, both in the atmosphere and in 

the waters of lakes, streams, and oceans. A joint 

project was conducted in the New York Bight and 

another in the ocean area off Philadelphia where 

municipal sewage sludge is dumped. In the western 

US., EPA experimented with satellite and aircraft 

monitoring of the effects of new mining activities, 

particularly strip mining. 

Other investigations of the potential use of data 

from Earth-resources satellites continued with some 

of the investigations in less immediately obvious applications. The Censu,s Bureau of the Department 

of Commerce used satellite data in demographic 

studies both in the US. and overseas. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is using satellite 

and aircraft data to map noise-polluted areas around 

six major municipal airports. The Geological Survey 

improved its streamflow estimates by use of Landsat 

data. In all, some 300 separate investigations have 

been or are in progress to explore the potential benefits and cost-effectiveness of Earth-resource data in a 

wide variety of information needs. 

Man in Space 

The one manned spaceflight in 1975 was the U.s.- 

U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), to be 

discussed in the following section. ASTP was the last 

U.S. manned spaceflight scheduled until the Space 

Shuttle makes its first orbital test flight in 1979. 

NASA’s Space Shuttle continued development 

this year. Fabrication of all major components was 

on schedule and major assembly was proceeding. 

Rollout of the first orbiter vehicle is scheduled for 

September 1976. 

International Cooperation 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. The Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project (ASTP) was the largest international 

cooperative space exploration project to date. For 

three years technical teams of American and Soviet 

engineers had worked closely together in planning 

the mission, developing the docking hardware, laying out the mission operations, and agreeing on 

joint experiments. In July 1975 the Soviet Soyuz 

spacecraft with two cosmonauts aboard was boosted 

into Earth orbit; seven hours later an American 

Apollo spacecraft with three astronauts was launched 

from Kennedy Space Center to catch up with the 

orbiting Soyuz. Rendezvous and docking were successful, with the crew moving from one spacecraft 

to the other, and performing joint experiments. 

Spacelab. The European contribution to the 

total Space Transportation System, the Spacelab, 

4 
was on schedule in 1975. Spacelab is intended to 

serve as a pressurized labwatory, to be transported 

in the cargo bay of an orbiter, where non-astronaut 

scientists can perform their experiments in shirtsleeve 

conditions. Another configuration is designed to provide instrument pallets open to outer space, where 

the instruments can be exposed directly to the space 

environment. In addition, Canada in 1975 agreed to 

join the Space Shuttle team and made commitments 

for a $30 million investment in development of a 

Remote Manipulator System to emplace and retrieve 

orbital payloads for the Space Shuttle. 

Other highlights of the international program included three launches for other nations in 1975, the 

signing of three agreements for launch of future 

satellites, the beginning of the year-long experiment 

with India for instructional broadcasting by satellite 

to 2400 Indian villages, and the signing of three new 

agreements for foreign remote-sensing receiving stations for the Landsat program. 

Defense 

The Department of Defense made significant progress during 1975 in space activities. Development of 

the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is proceeding on schedule, with work going forward on user 

equipment and prototype NAVSTAR satellites. When 

operational, NAVSTAR will make available precise 

data on user position and velocity, enhancing the 

military forces’ capabilities for enroute navigation 

and position fixing. Until then, the current navigation satellite system (TRANSIT) continues to provide reliable, worldwide, two-dimensional position 

fixing. 

The Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS) provides global communications support for 

the World Wide Military Command and Control 

System. In 1975 two Phase I1 DSCS satellites failed 

to achieve proper orbits after launch but the system 

maintained limited operations through shared use of 

the NATO II-B and United Kingdom Skynet satellites. The Navy Fleet Satellite Communications System was authorized to procure its first flight-model 

spacecraft. Air Force and Army satellite communications efforts were advanced by successful tests of 

their ground terminals. 

In other space activities, the Department of Defense chose a solid-propellant concept for validation 

and for development as the Interim Upper Stage, to 

be used with the Space Shuttle for extended-range 

missions where payloads need to be placed in higher 

orbits than the Space Shuttle alone can achieve. 

Finally, the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program continues to provide important weather data 

to all military services in support of operational 

forces. 

Aeronautics 

Aeronautical research and development have over 

the years contributed to the improved speed, comfort, and safety of commercial aircraft. In recent 

years, increased concern for the protection of the 

environment and for energy conservation has 

prompted a refocusing of research into the reduction 

of aircraft noise, emissions, and fuel consumption, in 

addition to the continuing research on improving 

aircraft safety, airport terminal operations, and the 

air traffic control system. 

lmprovement of Currelzt and Fgture Aircraft 

After several years of research in a number of 

disciplines, in 1975 NASA reported a systems approach to improvement of current commercial transport aircraft that would lessen the size and intensity 

of the aircraft noise level around airports and reduce 

emissions of engine-exhaust pollutants in both lowand high-power operations. Advanced research continued to define the elements of the next generation 

of long-haul and short-haul aircraft. A multi-faceted 

effort led to the formulation of a combination of 

improvements that have the potential of reducing 

fuel consumption of future commercial aircraft by a 

total of 50 percent. NASA and the Air Force jointly 

studied the design of a hypersonic research aircraft 

which would flight-test new developments in structural panels for hypersonic flight and assess the 

potential of scram-jet engines. In the field of shorthaul aeronautics, NASA studied industry proposals 

to modify a C-8 Buffalo aircraft for flight-test of a 

short-haul engine having an upper-surface-blowing 

system for propulsive lift. DOT, DOD, and NASA 

studied the equipment and systems feasibility of 

using short-haul aircraft #to supplement ground 

transportation in low and medium density intercity 

travel. 

Improvement of the Operuting Ewironment 

A number of independent and joint programs of 

DOT’S Federal Aviation Administration and NASA 

continued work designed to improve safety and 

operational efficiency of airway operations. These 

included research on reducing wake vortices that 

trail behind aircraft in airport traffic patterns, 

studies of fire-retardant materials for aircraft, analysis of human error in aircraft accidents, and improving airport terminal operations. Other research continued investigations of short-takeoff aircraft, supersonic-cruise aircraft, and improvement in aircraft 

control systems. FAA’s modernization of the airspace system was completed, with new equipment 

installed at all air route traffic control centers and 

at the 61 busiest airport terminals. 

5 
Defense 

Several important milestones were reached in niilitary aeronautics in 1975. The first prototype B-1 

bomber completed a year of flight testing, which included supersonic flight and aerial refueling. Congress approved funds for the production of six E-3A 

aircraft for the Airborne Control and Warning System. The Air Force selected the F-16 as its air combat fighter to complement the F-15. The F-15 completed its evaluation of the YCH-53E helicopter 

and the F-14 compiled the most successful fleet 

introduction record of any Navy aircraft. The F-14A 

will be joined in the future by the F-18, which the 

Navy selected to be its air combat fighter. The A-10 

close-air-support aircraft completed its final preproduction tests with excellent results. 

The first prototype of the Air Force Advanced 

Medium Short Takeoff and Landing Transport made 

its first fight in 1975, while the second prototype is 

scheduled for flight testing in 1976. The Navy completed its evaluation of the YCH-53E helicopter 

and was authorized to fabricate two pre-production 

prototypes. The Advanced Attack Helicopter program is proceeding through the first phase of development, which includes ground and air tests. 

In aeronautical research, experiments by the three 

services indicate that substantial weight savings can 

be achieved with no loss in performance when 

standard metal parts are replaced by composite parts. 

Improved combustor concepts for the reduction of 

engine emissions have demonstrated reductions on the 

order of 50 percent. 

During 1975 the Department of Defense and 

NASA participated in many cooperative efforts. The 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

( AACB) is the principal formal coordinating body 

between DOD and NASA. Last year the AACB concladed that a single National Transonic Facility was 

feasible, recommended the construction of the Aeropropulsion System Test Facility ( ASTF) , and found 

Vandenberg AFB to be a more effective and less 

costly west coast landing site for the Space Shuttle 

than Edwards AFB. The Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft, a joint Army-NASA product, will be ready for 

testing early in 1976. Finally, the first flight of the 

Kotor System Research Aircraft, another ArmyNASA development, is scheduled for July 1976. 

Details of the activities summarized here are presented in the chapters that follow. 

6 
II 

Introduction 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the civilian agency of the United 

States government charged with planning, direction, 

and conducting research and development activities 

related to civilian space and aeronautics programs. 

In carrying out these responsibilities, the agency 

works with many other civilian Federal agencies that 

have research or operational interest in these fields 

and also interacts with and provides research and 

development assistance to (the Department of Defense, 

which conducts the military space and aeronautics 

program. 

In its space program, NASA has since its inception 

in 1958 pursued several broad goals: development 

of technology for space operations, demonstration of 

practical applications of space systems and technology, and discovery of new scientific knowledge 

about the origin, evolution, and processes of the 

universe, our solar system, near space, and the complexities of the Earth’s atmosphere. While emphasis 

has fluctuated from time to time, the broad intent 

has remained constant. 

In 1975 NASA made significant gains in both 

space and aeronaut,ics. In space, NASA orbited 19 

satellites, the largest number in several years. Many 

of these spacecraft, as well as others launched in 

previous years, produced useful informafion. The 

successful U.S.-U.S.S.R. docking flight in the ApolloSoyuz Test Project and the launches of Viking 1 

and 2 were the most visible highlights in a year of 

diversified and intense activity In aeronautics, a 

major study of several years’ research results in 

various disciplines identified technology efforts that, 

taken together, could reduce fuel consumption of 

commercial aircraft by as much as 50 percent, with 

attendant reductions in emission of pollutants and in 

noise. These and other aeronautical technology advances typified the achievements in 1975. 

The succeeding pages describe the details of 

NASA’s space and aeronautical program and progress in the year just ended. 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Study of the Universe and the 

Sun-Earth Relationship 

The NASA physics and astronomy program is 

directed toward the investigation of the Earth, the 

Sun and the solar system, galactic and extragalactic 

phenomena, and how they interrelate. To achieve the 

program objectives, the techniques used include 

theoretical and laboratory research, aircraft, balloons, 

sounding rockets, small Explorer spacecraft, large 

automated observatories, and manned spacecraft. Research teams are located at NASA field centers, other 

government laboratories, universities, and industrial laboratories, NASA also conducts a number of 

cooperative projects with foreign countries. 

Significant accomplishments of the program during 1975 included the launches of the Orbiting 

Solar Observatory (OSO-8) to study solar phenomena, Small Astronomy Satellite-C (Explorer) to 

conduct X-ray studies of galactic and extragalactic 

sources, and Atmosphere Explorers D and E to investigate Earth‘s lower atmosphere. Several significant 

scientific experiments were also conducted on Ithe 

Apollo-Soyuz mission. The NASA Airborne Observatory, with its 9 l-centimeter telescope, became operational and made several meaningful discoveries. 

The sounding rocket and balloon programs also made 

important scientific contributions. 

Stzldy of the Universe 

Orbiting Observatories. The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory-3 (OAO-3, also named Copernicus) , which was launched in August 1972, continued to 

obtain scientific data during 1975. Its primary objective has been to obtain high-resolution ultraviolet 

spectra of the stars with which to investigate the 

composition and physical state of matter in interstellar space and stellar sources. More than 14,000 

observations of 309 unique celestial objects have 

been made using the University College London 

X-ray telescope. 

Astronomers from the University of Colorado and 

the Johns Hopkins University, using ultraviolet in7 
strumentation on the Copernicus satellite, discovered 

the first evidence of the presence of a corona 

(region of high-temperature gas) surrounding a 

normal star other than the Sun. The temperature of 

this corona (about 260,000 kelvins) was less than 

expected from current theories explaining the heating of the solar corona. This discovery introduced the 

possibility of performing comparative studies of the 

coronas of stars with varied surface temperatures, 

luminosities, and ages, for a greater understanding of 

basic coronal physics, possible evolution of the solar 

corona, and nature of the long-term interaction between the Earth and the Sun. 

The OS0 series of spacecraft has not been restricted entirely to solar studies, but has acted as host 

for other disciplines. OS0 8, launched in June, continued this tradition and carried four experiments to 

search for celestial X-ray sources. X-ray spectra of 

two stellar objects, Cen A and Sco XI, and spectra in 

the 2 to 60-keV range were obtained for more than 

20 of the sources identified by the Uhuru satellite. 

Studies were made of the galactic X-ray background 

radiation and of the polarization of stellar X-ray 

emission. The distribution and variability of helium 

and hydrogen were studied in the terrestrial atmosphere and in the interplanetary medium. 

In May the last of the 

Small Astronomy Satellites, SAS-C, was placed into 

an equatorial orbit by an Italian launch crew from 

the San Marco Facility off the coast of Kenya, 

Africa. Many new questions were posed as a result 

of the success of the previous SAS-A mission (Uhuru) 

and other X-ray satellites such as ANS (an international cooperative project with the Netherlands) and 

UK-5 (another cooperative project with Great 

Britain), sounding rockets, and coordinated and 

correlative observations in the X-ray, optical, and 

radio spectra. The accumulation of information and 

significance of results necessitated many more observations with higher spatial and energy resolution, 

over broader spectral range, with more precise source 

position accuracies and finer temporal resolution. 

SAS-C, with its complement of four X-ray instruments, is the most powerful X-ray mission yet flown. 

It obtained significant new results on the properties 

of many specific galactic and extragalactic X-ray 

sources. In August 1975 SAS-C discovered the most 

intense X-ray source ever observed, believed to be a 

recurrent nova. This source had a peak X-ray intensity five times that of Sco X-1, which had been the 

most intense known. After SAS-C located the source 

accurately enough to enable observations by groundbased optical and radio observatories, the source was 

identified optically. The degree of optical brightening was almost 100 times that during the quiescent 

change phase. 

Small Astronomy Satellite. 

Helios. Helios, a cooperative space project between the Federal Republic of Germany and the 

United States, has as its general scientific objective 

providing increased understanding of fundamental 

solar processes and solar-terrestrial relationships. 

Helios-A was launched by a Titan-Centaur on 

December 10, 1974, and Helios-B is scheduled to be 

launched in 1976. They will travel more than two 

thirds the distance from the Earth to the Suncloser to the Sun than any previous spacecraft. Germany built the spacecraft and seven of the experiments; the United States provided three experiments, 

the launch vehicles, launch and flight operations 

support, and technical support. During 1975, assembly and test of Helios-B was completed, and analysis 

of the Helios-A data was started. 

High Energy Astronomy observatory (HEAO). 

The basic scientific objective of the High Energy 

Astronomy Observatory Program is to explore the 

previously inaccessible regions of celestial X-ray and 

gamma-ray sources and of cosmic-ray flux. This 

program should increase our understanding of newly 

discovered energy processes, of the creation of matter, and of observed phenomena such as quasars, 

pulsars, novae, supernovae, and black holes. The 

first phase of the HEAO program consists of three 

satellites to be launched on Atlas-Centaur rockets; 

larger observations are being stud,ied by NASA as 

possibly payloads to be launched by the Space Shuttle. 

Considerable progress was made during 1975 in the 

design, development, and fabrication of the first 

three spacecraft and experiments, with primary 

emphasis on the HEAO-A mission. 

International Cooperative Satellites. Work continued on the International Ultraviolet Explorer 

(IUE), a joint project between NASA, the United 

Kingdom, and the European Space Agency (ESA), 

planned for launch in FY 1977. Detailed design 

reviews were completed and hardware was procured 

for this international orbital telescope facility; and 

fabrication of the flight telescope and spacecraft 

began. 

Progress in another joint project, the International 

Sun-Earth Explorers (ISEE) , included completion of 

major procurements, detailed design review of the 

A and B spacecraft and experiments, and completion 

of contract negotiations with all experimenters. 

Three spacecraft, two provided by NASA and one by 

ESA, with a combination of instruments from both 

NASA and ESA, will be used on the mission. ISEE 

goals include the study of the Earth’s magnetosphere, 

effects of the solar wind on the magnetosphere, and 

interaction of cosmic rays with the solar wind and 

magnetosphere. 

The study of astronomical objects requires telescopes of the largest collecting area 

Space Telescope. 

8 
and the highest resolution possible. During 1975 

NASA studied a proposed 2.4-meter high-resolution 

Space Telescope which would provide enhanced 

capability to observe galaxies and objects at greater 

distances than those that can be seen using the largest Earth-based ,telescopes. The Space Telescope, 

which is designed to be placed in a low Earth orbit 

by the Space Shuttle, would be operated as a national 

facility, providing continuous coverage in wavelengths from the far ultraviolet to the near infrared. 

Scientific instruments would explore the universe and 

observe both stellar and galactic phenomena. Significant contributions are expected from the study of 

early stages of star formation and from observations 

of such highly evolved objects as supernova remnants 

and white dwarfs. 

Sounding Rockets, Balloons, and Aircraft. The 

sounding rocket program launched 65 rockets from 

sites in the United States (Wallops Flight Center, 

White Sands Missile Range, Poker Flat, and Hawaii), Canada (Ft. Churchill), Sweden, Norway, 

and Kerguelen Island and supported about 50 

research teams from universities, private industry, 

foreign governments, NASA field centers, and U.S. 

government agencies. A coordinated program in 

Peru near the geomagnetic equator involved 30 

sounding rocket launches and observations from balloons and aircraft. These equatorial stratospheric and 

ionospheric observations were correlated with the 

Jicamarca backscatter radar on Atmospheric Explorer. Gravity Probe-A, involving an extremely accurate 

hydrogen maser clock to measure the relativistic 

effects predicted by Einstein, was developed for 

launch in 1976. 

The NASA balloon program launched 40 balloons 

from the United States and Canada and supported 20 

research organizations. The balloon is a cost-effective 

way of conducting research, and this has been recently 

reaffirmed by important scientific discoveries, including the infrared measurement of objects not detectable by satellites or radiotelescopes, a far-infrared 

celestial survey along the galactic plane, and detailed 

mapping of complex cold gas regions in which stars 

are being formed. 

The NASA airborne science program utilized two 

aircraft for astronomical research at altitudes above 

90 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. The C-141 

aircraft, with its 91-cm infrared telescope, was 

designated the Kuiper Airborne Observatory and began operational flights in 1974. Initial results included 

the discovery of water vapor on Jupiter and the 

discovery of the “Egg Nebula,” believed to be a 

solar system in the process of formation. The NASA 

Lear Jet, with its 30-cm telescope, continued significant infrared research. 

Stzldy of the Sm 

OS0 8, the 

last and largest satellite in this Observatory series, 

was launched into an orbit 550 kilometers above the 

Earth in June. Its primary objective is to study the 

hot outer layers of the Sun at a time in the solar 

cycle when they are least disturbed. The structure 

and composition of the solar chromosphere and lowtransition region, where the temperature rises suddenly from about 4200 to more than 100,000 kelvins, 

are being studied by two high-resolution spectrometers. Accurate measurements are being made of 

material motions and oscillations in different solar 

features, allowing a better understanding of the heating mechanisms responsible for the increase in 

temperature. Knowledge of the variability of the 

ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet radiation selectively emitted at these temperatures is important 

from a terrestrial viewpoint because this radiation 

interacts with the Earth’s atmosphere, forming the 

ionosphere and ozone layer. 

Even at “solar minimum,” some active regions occur on the Sun. The ultraviolet spectrometers and 

two X-ray spectrometers, mounted in the wheel of 

the satellite, conduct studies in active regions of the 

variations in conditions as a function of time in their 

evolution. Investigations of energy transport mechanisms in sunspots are of special interest. 

Data collected 

by Skylab astronauts with the six major solar ATM 

telescopes flown in 1973-1974 were in full analysis in 

1975. Participation by outside scientists increased as 

a result of the ATM guest investigator programs 

and a series of Skylab Solar Workshops was initiated 

to further encourage participation. 

High-resolution ATM observations of coronal 

holes, at all heights in the solar atmosphere, permitted the investigation of their properties. These solar 

features were confirmed to be cool regions of open 

magnetic-field configuration, apparently the source of 

recurrent high-velocity streams in the solar wind. 

ATM observations revealed two new properties: (1) 

holes maintain a signature down to lower levels in 

the solar atmosphere than previously had been realized; and (2) certain holes seem to rotate as rigid 

bodies rather than displaying the normal latitude-dependent differential rotation. The significance of 

these discoveries will be considered in the first Skylab Workshop, which will offer a detailed survey of 

these features. 

Prominence activity, identified as the source of 

most coronal transients, solved a long-standing problem in solar wind disturbances. Comparisons of the 

density and energy properties of coronal transients, as 

observed by the white light coronagraph on ATM, 

with corresponding properties measured several days 

Orbiting Solar Observatories (OSO). 

Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM). 
later by Pioneer 10 have increased our understanding 

of disturbance propagation through the interplanetary medium. This work will be extremely beneficial 

in predicting the effect on the Earth of solar disturbances. 

The variability of ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet emission from different quiet solar features 

was defined by means of ATM observations. The 

output of these radiations from the quiet Sun, 

found from the ATM to be variable as a function of 

time, could have important solar-terrestrial implications. 

In contrast to 

OS0 8, predominantly devoted to studies of the 

quiet Sun, plans were formulated for detailed investigation of flares and other manifestations of 

solar activity during the active Sun period in 1979- 

1980. So it can observe the greatest possible number 

of flare even,ts, the SMM is scheduled to be launched 

at the peak of activity in the forthcoming cycle, 

which is estimated to occur in 1979-1980. About 

eight instruments, designed to investigate all aspects 

of a flare, would be carried. 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). 

Exploration of the Planets and the Moon 

Investigations of the planets and the Moon continued during 1975 to provide further understanding 

of the nature, origin, and evolution of the solar 

system, and particularly the Earth. 

The Inner Planets 

Viking Mars. Two Viking spacecraft (each consisting of an Orbiter and a Lander) were launched 

in the late summer of 1975 by Titan-Centaur vehicles. 

Both spacecraft are now on their planned trajectories 

to Mars and are performing satisfactorily. 

Viking 1 will be inserted into orbit in June 1976; 

planned landing sites will be evaluated for about 

two weeks before the Lander is placed on the Martian surface in July to conduct scientific experiments 

for about 60 days. Viking 2 will land at a different 

site in September and will also conduct experiments for 60 days. 

The basic Viking mission will end in November 

1976 after providing data about the existence of life 

on Mars and gathering information to help scientists 

understand the evolution of Mars and the solar system. 

Results derived from these spacecraft, the first NASA 

spacecraft ever to land on another planet, will provide information regarding the origin of life and how 

life interacts with a planetary environment. 

NASA plans to conduct an extended mission to 

observe seasonal changes, at a much reduced level of 

effort, after completion of the basic mission. The extended mission will end about September 1978. 

Mariner VenuslMercury 1973 (MVM ’73). The 

Mariner 10 spacecraft completed a third flyby of 

Mercury on March 16, 1975, at a distance of only 

327 km from the planet’s surface. This close trajectory 

was selected to achieve the major objective of the 

third encounter, investigation of Mercury’s magnetic 

field. In addition to learning of the existence of a 

weak intrinsic magnetic field, scientists determined 

that the magnetosphere of Mercury is remarkably 

similar in structure to that of the Earth. Mariner 10 

also took about 300 quarter-frame TV pictures, some 

of the best resolution (about 50 meters) pictures produced throughout the mission. 

Following engineering tests, which overstressed 

various spacecraft subsystems to obtain data on flight 

anomalies and limits for future missions, the spacecraft ran out of attitude control gas and was commanded to turn off its transmitter for the last time 

on March 24, 1975. 

In addition to these significant discoveries, Mariner 

10 was the first spacecraft to use the gravitational 

field of one planet to reach and explore another. 

It obtained the first close-up TV pictures of Venus 

and Mercury; discovered the fast rotating clouds of 

Venus; revealed the thin helium atmosphere, weak 

magnetic field, and temperature gradients of Mercury. 

It also completed both the basic and extended missions below the cost projections established five years 

earlier. 

The Pioneer Venus project began in FY 1975 and included detailed design and 

necessary development testing. The objectives of the 

mission are designed to further improve our understanding of the origin and evolution of the solar 

system. The primary goal is to obtain a detailed 

characterization of the Venusian atmosphere, which 

in turn will provide information that could help 

scientists to understand the atmosphere of Earth. 

Two flights are planned: one will make in-situ 

measurements at multiple locations on Venus with 

atmospheric entry probes; and the other, an orbiter 

mission, will provide data on a planetary scale. The 

spacecraft will be launched by Atlas-Centaur launch 

vehicles in 1978. 

Pioneer Venus. 

Outer Plawts 

Pioneer Jupiter. Pioneer 10 began the close exploration of the outer planets when it completed its 

successful flyby of Jupiter in December 1973. As 

Pioneer 11 was launched one year after Pioneer 10, 

there was sufficient time to examine the Pioneer 10 

data and then to select a target point for Pioneer 11 

that best augmented the data. The point selected 

provided excellent data on Jupiter and also modified the spacecraft trajectory in a way that will take 

10 
it to Saturn in 1979. Pioneer 10 meanwhile continues 

on its flight out of the solar system. 

The 1975 analysis of the data from Pioneer 11, 

which completed its successful flyby in December 

1974, provided a much better understanding of 

Jupiter, its atmosphere, and especially its field and 

particle environment. 

Mariner Jupiter/Saturn Mission. During 1975 the 

detailed sub-system design of the Mariner Jupiter/ 

Saturn 1977 (MJS ’77) spacecraft was completed. 

Subsystems and science instrument hardware were 

fabricated and tested, and assembly of the test-mode1 

spacecraft was initiated in preparation for structural 

and temperature-control tests. Work on mission operations software and ground-based hardware was 

initiated. 

The project consists of two Mariner-class spacecraft to encounter Jupiter in 1979 and Saturn in 

1981. In addition to photographs, scientific studies 

will be made of Jupiter and Saturn, including their 

satellites and the rings of Saturn, as well as of the 

interplanetary and interstellar media. Observations 

will be made of the planets’ mass and density, atmospheric composition and circulation, magnetic field, 

and exposure to solar radiation. 

L~~~ Scielzce 

Studies of the Moon over the past decade produced 

large amounts of new data that not only increased 

our knowledge of the Moon but also added new 

dimensions to our understanding of the earliest 

events in the history of the Earth, where the geological record of the first billion yeprs has been 

destroyed. These data provided new facts about the 

long-term history of solar radiation with possible 

major clues to long-term trends in the Earth’s climate, and even the events causing sthe ice ages. Continuing lunar studies provide deeper insight into the 

evolution and interrelationships of the entire solar 

system. 

Radioactive dating of the lunar mare basalt 

samples returned to Earth showed that they all 

originated as lava flows about 3.1 to 3.8 billion years 

ago. Further analysis showed that they were all derived from a source region that had been chemically 

isolated 4.4 billion years ago, implying a planetarywide geochemical separation of the Moon’s crust 

from the deeper mantle at that time. This evidence 

has brought scientific understanding still closer to 

the earliest events nearly 4.6 billion years ago, when 

both the Earth and the Moon were formed. 

The use of the Moon as an interplanetary probe 

into time and space took a major advance when ion 

microprobe measurements showed significant variations with depth of ions implanted at different energies into the surfaces of individual lunar soil grains. 

This means that soil samples from different depths, 

cores, and ages can extend the detailed history of 

solar activity over billions of years. 

Impact-produced glass (agglutinates) in lunar 

soils are significantly enriched in some elements (iron, 

magnesium, sulfur, phosphorus, etc.) and depleted 

in others (calcium, aluminum, europium, etc.) in 

comparison with the bulk soil composition. The 

mechanisms of this effect have not yet been clearly 

established ; however, spectral measurements of the 

planet Mercury suggest that a similar process may 

exist there. 

Accurate determination of the lunar moment of 

inertia from observations of Explorers 35 and 49 

produced evidence that the Moon has a small, dense 

core. This important discovery provided information needed to understand the geological evolution of 

the Moon and the possible existence of an early, but 

now vanished, magnetic field. 

Laser ranging measurements from observatories on 

Earth (three in the U.S. and one in the U.S.S.R.) to 

the lunar retroreflectors are continuing as scheduled. 

During 1975, the first such measurements were made 

from the newly opened station on Mt. Haleakda, 

Hawaii, to determine baseline distances on Earth, 

and to help refine measurements of the relative motions of the Earth and Moon. Changes in long baseline distances on Earth measure movements of the 

lithospheric plates (plate tectonics), which are also 

the causes of earthquakes and of ore deposits. 

During 1975, five of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Packages placed on the Moon between 

1969 and 1972 continued to return significant data 

on lunar phenomena, including moonquakes and 

meteor impacts. 

Life Sciences 

Recognizing the importance of the science aspect 

of Life Sciences, and especially the anticipated role 

of Life Sciences in the Space Shuttle/Spacelab 

payloads, NASA transferred the Life Sciences program from (the Office of Manned Space Flight to 

the Office of Space Science. The Life Sciences Supporting Research and Technology Program has been 

reoriented to emphasize research that will explain 

the physiological mechanisms underlying the changes 

observed in human physiology during the Skylab 

flights. 

Preparation of Life Sciences payloads for inflight 

investigations in the Space Shuttle/Spacelab era 

began. “An Invitation to qarticipate in Planning the 

NASA Life Sciences Program in Space” was mailed 

in May 1975 to a large segment of the Life Sciences 

community, resulting in over 1400 responses by the 

end of September 1975. 

11 

209-257 0 - 76 - 2 
In anticipation of the need to provide medical 

support to orbiter crews, a prototype system for the 

delivery of hralth care has been developed. This 

system includes use of two-way video communication, 

advanced data management techniques, and extensive 

usr of paramedical personnel. To evaluatr the medical acceptance of this concept, NASA and HEW 

arc conducting a two-year operational field test of 

the system at a remote site, the Papago Indian Reservation in Arizona. During the first six months of this 

firld test, approximately forty patients per day have 

been treatcd, with a high degree of acceptance by 

both the patients and the medical and paramedical 

personnel. 

At the fifth nireting of the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Space 

Medicine and Biology Working Group at Tashkent, 

U.S.S.R., in October-November 1974, the Soviets 

offered NASA Life Scienccs an opportunity to participate in the experimrnts on the Kosmos Biological 

Satellite. Subsequently, the U.S. proposed to fly four 

experiments on the Kosnios; these werc accepted by 

the U.S.S.K. and were launched by thc Soviets in 

December 1975. 

Study of the Earth’s Atmosphere 

Atmospheric Explorer Satellites 

The last two Atmospheric Explorers (AE-D and E) 

werc launched in October and December 1975, respectively. AE-D (Explorer 54) was placed in polar 

orbit and AE-E (Explorer 55) into a low-inclination 

orbit to provide coordinated global studies of the 

upper atmosphere. The spa,cecraft are collecting data 

relating solar ultraviolet radiation to atmospheric 

composition in the lower thermosphere, where most 

chemical and energy conversion processes that govern 

the structure and properties of the upper atmosphere 

occur. Measurements are also being extended to regimes down to altitudes below the upper atmosphere, 

where most of the solar extreme-ultraviolet radiation is absorbed. 

Upper Atmospheric Research 

In 1975 Congress included in NASA’s FY 1976 

authorization bill a section assigning to NASA the 

responsibility for conducting research in the upper 

atmosphere. NASA established an Upper Atmospheric Research Office, consolidated research previously conducted on the stratosphere by other NASA 

offices, and initiated an expansion of the research 

effort. The long-term goal is to develop a better 

understanding of the physical and chemical processes 

occurring at the level of the upper stratosphere. For 

the short term, the resources are being used to assess 

the effects on the amount of ozone in the stratosphere from chlorofluoromethanes, Space Shuttle 

effluents, aircraft effluents, and other chemicals. 

There were several positive results in 1975. The 

assessment of ozone reduction that would be caused 

by Space Shuttle operations was reduced by a 

factor of three and the uncertainty factor of the data 

was also reduced. This research is continuing. Since 

the amount of ozone in the stratosphere is known to 

fluctuate, it is difficult to ascertain how much ozone 

depletion is caused by its interaction with effluents 

and other chemicals and how much from “natural” 

causes. Therefore, much of the research attacks the 

problem indirectly by measuring the amounts and 

types of chemicals that are present at that height. A 

research balloon was sent into the stratosphere with 

equipment using the resonance fluorescence technique 

and measured the amount of OH radical. A NASA 

U-2 aircraft measured the vertical profile of stratospheric hydrogen chloride, using an interferometer. 

New projects undertaken in 1975 added fluorocarbon measurement equipment in the U-2 and in 

three of the commercial airliners participating in the 

Global Air Sampling Program. Support has begun 

for research that will make other important nieasurenients of stratospheric chlorine, hydrochloric acid, 

and fluorocarbons. 

Applications to Earth ~ 

The objective of the Applications program is to 

identify potential applications of space-related technology which could make substantive contributions to 

solving national, as well as international, problems 

and needs. The program includes investigations in 

areas such as ecology, population, weather and climate, communications, food production, hydrology, 

energy, and natural resources. 

In 1975 the Applications program had five successful launches of satellites which provide continuous data in the areas of Earth Resources Survey 

(Landsat 2), Weather and Climate (SMS-2, Nimbus 

6, Goes 1 ) , and Ocean Dynamics Kesearch (Geos 3). 

The Applications Technology Satellite, ATS-6, 

completed more than one year of successful operations, demonstrating the use of satellites in broadcasting educational and health information to people 

in remote areas. ATS-1, 3, and 5, earlier experimental 

communications satellites, were still in limited service 

for certain kinds of experimental data and communications. The first Earth-resources satellite, Landsat 1, 

continued to provide Earth-resources data but with 

data transmission limited to those times when it was 

in line of sight of a ground receiving station. Of the 

earlier weather satellites, SMS-1 and NOAA 3 and 4 

were fully operational. Essa 8 and Nimbus 4 and 5 

were still capable of limited data collection. 
Earth Resources Surwey 

The Earth Resources Survey Program involves the 

application of space or space-related remote sensing 

systems to the measuring and monitoring of parameters associated with agriculture, forestry, rangeland 

management, minerology, marine and inland water 

resources, cartography, land use and urban development, and geology. 

During 1975, the Earth Resources Technology 

Satellites (Landsat 1 and 2) continued to acquire 

new data and, along with extensive data from the 

Earth Observations Aircraft Program, were used to 

further develop and demonstrate our measurement 

and monitoring capability. 

Landsat 1, 

launched July 23, 1972, has been a successful experimental mission and has provided data for more than 

300 specific investigations. In addition, Landsat 2, 

launched on January 22, 1975, is operating satisfactorily, Several potential applications have been 

identified from the investigations : 

0 Measurement of agricultural acreages and use 

of such data with yield data for crop estimates; 

0 Monitoring of timber and forestry resources; 

0 Surveillance of grazing land to improve range 

management; 

0 Incorporation of land-use data in state and regional inventory systems and in environmental 

impact assessments; 

0 Water resources applications in watershed mapping, snow mapping and monitoring, flood plain 

mapping, detection and monitoring of lake and 

sea ice, and surface-water mapping; 

0 Reductions in cost and savings in time for mineral and oil exploration; 

Collection of marine resources data for use in 

coastal zone management; and 

0 Environmental applications such as monitoring 

of mines, and the impact of man's activities on 

wildlife habitat. 

Applications Demonstrations. Demonstrations this 

year include a Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment (LACIE) concentrating on wheat production 

estimates, satellite snow-cover observations for waterrunoff estimates, a natural resources inventory system for 'the state of Mississippi, an environmental 

information system in south Louisiana for the Corps 

of Engineers, and a project with the Coast Guard to 

extend the Great Lakes winter shipping season by 

monitoring lake ice. 

Earth Resources Technology Satellites. 

Weather and Climate 

The Weather and Climate programs have the 

longest history among U.S. programs to apply space 

techniques and are primarily directed toward improving the accuracy of both short- and long-term weather 

forecasting. 

Basic and applied research supported space-related 

experiments, satellite development, and operations of 

the National Weather Program. Activities also included the development and demonstration of new 

sensing techniques and atmospheric modeling techniques in support of the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) . The second Synchronous 

Meteorological Satellite (SMS-2) was launched on 

February 6, 1975, and joined the first member of the 

SMS series in acquisition of near-continuous imagery 

of the western hemisphere's cloud cover. SMS-1 continued to make major contributions to the success of 

GARP through the acquisition of important meteorological data Qver the Atlantic tropical region. A major 

new direction of the Weather and Climate program 

has been in the detection, prediction, and warming of 

short-lived, violent, and destructive storms. Stationed 

over the equator at 115OW, SMS-2, together with 

SMS-1, which was launched in 1974 and stationed at 

75OW, provided continuous observational capability of 

the cloud cover over most of the western hemisphere. 

Each spacecraft is capable of taking complete Earthdisc pictures every thirty minutes day and night, extremely useful in detecting the formation of severe 

weather phenomena associated with tropical storms, 

hurricanes, and tornadoes. Data from these satellites 

were provided in real time to the National Weather 

Service, the Hurricane Center at Miami, and the 

Severe Storm Center in Kansas City. 

The SMS satellites are the operational prototypes 

of the Geostationary Operational Environment Satellite (GOES) system managed and operated by 

NOAA. The first GOES satellite, successfully 

launched on October 16, 1975, signified the inauguration of the fully operational GOES system. 

Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP). 

A series of Data Systems Tests (DST) , has been providing a simulation of the observing, data-collection, 

and data-processing system for the First GARP Global 

Experiment (FGGE) planned for 1978-1979. The 

fourth Data Systems Test (DST-4) was conducted in 

early 1975 and produced a 60-day global data set useful for studies in atmospheric sounder impact tests 

and included sea-ice and rain-rate data. 

In August/September 1975, following the launch 

of Nimbus 6, DST-5 produced a summer global data 

set useful for four-dimensional simulation studies. 

The Tropical Wind Energy Conversion and Reference Level Experiment (TWERLE) obtained tropical wind and meteorological data from more than 

100 balloons flying at a constant level near 14 

kilometers and using Nimbus 6 for data collection 

and location. The Carrier Balloon System 

(CABALS) was tested during DST-5 and provided 

data from more than a dozen extra-large balloons 

13 
flying at 24 kilometers. The balloons circled the 

tropical regions, each carrying over 50 dropsondes, 

which were released on command to obtain wind 

and meteorological data on their descent through 

the atmosphere. 

DST-6 will assemble a complete global-data set 

during winter-time conditions. Buoys transmitting 

air-sea observational data through Nimbus 6 are a 

new addition to this DST. 

As part of the national effort, NASA was assigned 

responsibility for planning of FGGE. In August 1975, 

the U.S. plan for participation in FGGE was forwarded to the- Chairman of the Federal Committee 

for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. 

The plan will be used for developing detailed implementation plans. 

Pollution Monitoring 

Water Pollution Monitoring. Man’s disposal of 

many forms of waste has put the coastal waters and 

marine environment under ever-increasing stress. The 

waters of the New York Bight-an area extending 

from Cape May, New Jersey, to Montauk Point, 

Long Island-continued to be used for the dumping 

of dredge spoil, sewage sludge, and industrial wastes. 

NASA, in cooperation with the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and 

with Region I1 of the Environmental Protection 

Agency (EPA) , evaluated the potential role of remote 

sensing through coordinated overflights and surfacetruth measurements of the New York Bight. In addition to detecting the dumping and resultant dispersion, spectral signatures of the sludge and acid wastes 

were measured, as well as quantitative correlations 

of surface winds, temperature, salinity, sediment, and 

chlorophyll concentrations. 

Earlier research had shown that remote sensing 

can detect algae blooms and, with spectral discrimination, give some indication of the algae color 

group. This promising work has led to a new emphasis, in cooperation with the Florida Department 

of Natural Resources, on determining the requirements for a remote sensor to detect red-tide blooms 

and to discriminate between the harmful, toxic red 

tides and the harmless algae types that also occur 

in the Gulf Coast waters. The Florida red-tide, Gynodinium breve, is known to originate offshore. The 

overview provided by remote sensing is necessary 

for early detection and possible control action. 

Tropospheric Monitoring. Emphasis in tropospheric monitoring research has been on developing 

remote-sensing techniques to measure tropospheric 

trace gases on a global scale and to define the capabilities to satisfy urban/regional-scale monitoring 

needs. 

Oceanographic and Air Pollution. The Nimbus-G 

Oceanographic and Air Pollution Observing Satellite, 

to be launched in 1978, is a major element of the 

program. Its experiments are designed to provide data 

on air and water pollution, oceanography, the atmosphere/ocean interface, and the Earth‘s energy balance. Nearly 200 scientists and other data users responded to an Announcement of Opportunity for 

participation on Nimbus Experiment Teams. 

As part of the continuing developmental program 

for the Coastal Zone Color Scanner experiment, a 

series of field tests led to selection of the optimum 

spectral bands for the satellite instrument. An airborne scanner with adjustable spectral channels was 

flown over ocean-dumped wastes from industrial 

plants, areas of high sediment concentration, and 

waters containing algal blooms to gather a wide range 

of spectral signature data on substances in coastal 

waters. Many of these flights were supported by 

correlation measurements to obtain surface truth. 

Communications and Data Mawgement 

NASA’s program in space communications continued to develop and demonstrate the technology 

needed to meet agency requirements for communications systems, to maintain the nation’s position as a 

world leader in communications systems technology, 

and to fulfill statutory obligations to provide consultation and technical services to Federal agencies. 

ATS-6 successfully completed one year of U.S. operations on 

May 20, 1975, and performed many experiments involving broadcast of high quality, color television 

programming to small, inexpensive ground terminals. 

Also included were voice communications and position determination for ships and airplanes and broadcasts of educational, health, and medical information 

to people in remote areas in Alaska, Appalachia, and 

Rocky Mountain states. This year of experimentation 

was highly successful in demonstrating the widespread utility of high-powered broadcast satellites in 

supporting social needs of remote regions. After the 

first year’s operations in the US., ATS-6 was moved 

to 35”E, arriving on station July 1, 1975. The first 

operations there provided television coverage of the 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Program mission. ATS-6 was the 

communications link that permitted live television 

coverage of the link-up of the two spacecraft and the 

meeting of astronauts and cosmonauts in space. 

ATS-6 began support of the Satellite Instructional 

Television Experiment (SITE) on August 1, 1975. 

This one-year experiment is being conducted by the 

Indian Government to provide instructional television 

to about 5000 Indian villages. Areas of instruction 

include family planning, health and hygiene, agriculture, and national development. In August 1976, 

Applications Technology Satellite 6. 

14 
ATS-6 will be moved back to the U.S. to resume 

third-year experimental operations. 

Communications Technology Satellite (CTS) . CTS is a cooperative program between the Canadian 

Department of Communications and NASA. This 

experimental satellite will be launched early in 1976 

to experiment with technology demonstrating satellite 

communications to low-cost ground stations in the 

12-GHz frequency band. Experiments will encompass 

a wide range of educational, health, social services, 

and information-exchange investigations. 

Advanced Communications Research and Technical Consultation. In 1975, research exploring the 

higher regions of the radio frequency spectrum was 

expanded. Studies continued on frequency allocation 

and bandwidth and orbit requirements for future 

missions. Investigations to open up new regions of 

the spectrum for applications were continued as were 

efforts to develop or improve space communication 

components and technologies. Technical consultation 

to the Federal Communications Commission, in evaluating satellite systems, expanded as more new applications for domestic and international satellite services were filed. Spacecraft design reviews for 

INTELSAT and the US. domestic communications 

satellite applicants continued. 

A major effort in 1975 involved preparations for 

the World Administrative Radio Conferences to be 

held in 1977 and 1979. NASA provides technical 

support to the Federal agencies as they prepare the 

U.S. position. 

Data Collection Via Satellite 

Data collection experiments with new users expanded during 1975. Over 250 balloons and 20 buoys 

have been launche-l and are being tracked and their 

sensor data relayed to ground stations by Nimbus 6. 

Landsat 2 is collecting experimental data for use by 

the Department of Agriculture in predicting snow 

run-off, as well as flood-control information on a 

number of rivers and streams for the Geological Survey and the Corps of Engineers. Landsat 2 data have 

been completed and are being used by these agencies 

in the Mississippi and Louisiana regions. 

Data Management. Data-information management moved ahead on several broai fronts. Users of 

space-derived data and designers of missions, platforms, sensors, and analysis techniques participated 

in the development of the total systems to ensure 

that objectives are met. Computer-based simulations 

of data-management configurations were under construction and will be examined in 1976. 

Space Processing 

This program is developing applications of space 

flight for applied research in all branches of materials 

science and technology and for processing in space 

products of high value to be used on Earth. 

In 1975, analysis of the Skylab experiments on 

solidification and crystal growth was completed. The 

major results of these experiments were confirmed 

and extended by experiments on the Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project (ASTP) mission. The latter experiments 

added significantly to the evidence that orbiting production facilities could have unique advantages for 

the growth of electronic crystal materials from molten 

materials, vapor phases, or solutions. In addition, the 

ASTP mission carried two experiments on the 

preparation of pure strains of living cells by a process 

known as electrophoresis. These space-based experimen,ts produced purer cell preparations than those 

produced on Earth and returned the cells alive for 

culturing and scientific evaluation. 

The Space Processing Program studied specifications for Space Shuttle payload equipment and 

began a series of ballistic rocket flights in 1975 to 

continue experimentation until the Shuttle becomes 

available. 

Earth and Ocean Dylzamics Applications Program 

EODAP is directed toward the design, development, demonstration, and use of space-derived techniques for observation of dynamic motions of the 

Earth and for monitoring and forecasting ocean surface conditions on a global, near real-time basis. The 

Earth Dynamics portion is aimed at the measurement 

of crustal motions near earthquake fault zones and 

detection and analysis of anomalies in the motion of 

the Earth’s pole and rotation rate, which are believed 

to be associated with certain earthquakes. Measurements are derived from very accurate ranging to 

satellites with tracking instruments and from an 

analysis of the emissions of distant radio stars as 

they are received simultaneously at (two or more 

tracking stations. The Ocean Dynamics portion is 

directed toward measuring and predicting ocean surface conditions, including wave height, temperature, 

and wind, as well as determining tides and mapping 

ocean currents and circulation. 

On April 9, 1975, the Geodynamics Experimental 

Ocean Satellite (Geos 3) was successfully launched. 

This spacecraft, equipped with a radar altimeter, will 

be used for ocean studies ; laser-ranging-cube corners 

will also support very accurate polar motion determination. 

Preparations neared completion for the launch 

in early 1976 of the Laser Geodynamics Satellite 

(Lageos) , the first satellite specifically designed for 

laser ranging to determine crustal motion parameters. 

Procurement was begun in 1975 for the spacecraft 

and sensors for the Seasat-A mission. Seasat-A, to be 

(EODAP) 

15 
launched in 1978, will carry a set of active and passive microwave devices for joint NASA/user-agencies 

studies of sea state, ocean currents, and the air/sea 

boundary. 

User Afairs 

The User Affairs office identifies user needs; disseminates information to potential users of NASA’s 

space systems; and plans and monitors technology 

transfer programs in the space applications area. 

A cooperative effort in technology transfer during 

1975 was an agreement between NASA and the 

Environmental Protection Agency to undertake a 

joint program of environmental monitoring, using 

remote sensing from satellite and aircraft, and the 

development of remote air-pollution monitoring devices. This agreement authorized a cooperative project in overhead monitoring of surface mining operations in the Western United States, where the impact 

of energy-resource development will be substantial. 

The two agencies will also work together to develop 

a ground-based laser instrument for monitoring air 

pollution. 

In June 1975, NASA sponsored a comprehensive 

Earth Resources Survey Symposium on potential 

applications of remote-sensing technology for management of global resources. This gathering attracted 

1500 people to Houston, Texas, for four days of 

discussion on uses of satellite and aircraft data. The 

symposium was “user oriented” with a high proportion of the attendees from state government, 

industry, Federal agencies, and other organizations 

with resource-management responsibilities. 

The problems faced by state governments in meeting Federal regulations for resource management 

prompted NASA to initiate visits to states for workshops on the potential of remote sensing. Maine and 

New York were visited in the spring of 1975 and a 

similar meeting with Massachusetts officials was 

held later in the year. These discussions have increased interest in remote sensing on the part of 

the states. 

Cost/Benefit Studies. NASA conducts economic 

analysis of the comparative costs and benefits of proposed satellite systems. Approval for new projects is 

based on reasonable demonstration that economic 

benefits to the nation would more than offset the 

cost of development. In 1975 studies were made of 

prospective U.S. benefits of improved world-wide 

wheat crop information from an operational Landsat system and additional studies were made of the 

Seasat project. 

Technology Applications 

The Technology Applications program has included development of large-scale systems for Federal, 

state, and local agencies, such as the Activated Carbon Waste-water Treatment System (ACTS) . Construction continued in Orange County, California, 

under a $3.5 million EPA grant on a 3800-cubicmeter-per-day municipal pilot plant. ACTS converts sludge into activated carbon by pyrolysis, an 

energy-conservative, low-air-contamination method. 

The carbon is then used to treat the water. Another 

system under test in Mississippi used water hyacinths 

in the second stage of lagoons to absorb and metabolize pollutants. Other activities included research 

and development on water monitoring systems and 

an unmanned vehicle to explore and monitor the 

deep-ocean bed. 

NASA Energy Program 

In 1975, NASA‘s energy programs were funded for 

the most part by reimbursement from the Energy 

Research and Development Administration (ERDA) 

and other agencies having direct responsibilities in 

the energy field. In June 1975 ERDA and NASA 

signed a Memorandum of Understanding that provides the framework for use of NASA’s laboratories 

and personnel for supporting the national program of 

energy research and development. NASA supported 

ERDA in a number of programs primarily in the 

areas of wind energy, low-cost solar cells, and solar 

heating and cooling. As a part of the ERDA Wind 

Energy Conversion Systems program, NASA designed and constructed an experimental 100-kilowatt 

wind turbo-generator at the Plum Brook Station in 

Sandusky, Ohio, to gain experience that might 

contribute to commercial applications. 

Work on low-cost solar cells emphasized improvements in automated manufacturing and testing processes and techniques to reduce the cost of solar cells 

to levels where they will be commercially attractive. The objective is to achieve a system development 

market price of $500 per peak kilowatt by 1985. 

Research in solar heating and cooling proceeded in 

two directions. At Marshall Space Flight Center a 

development program supported ERDA and the Department of Housing and Urban Development in 

the commercial demonstrations called for by the 

1974 Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration Act. 

The objective is to develop more cost-effective solar 

heating and cooling systems together with the instrumentation and data processing systems needed in 

the test and demonstration programs. The other approach, at Lewis Research Center, sought improvements in component technology for the next generation of solar heating and cooling equipment, and 

establishment of low-cost manufacturing technologies. 

Many advanced concepts have been proposed in 

energy conversion to improve the efficiency of central 

electrical generating plants. NASA continued, for 

16 
the National Science Foundation and ERDA, a comparative evaluation of those con'cepts that employ 

coal, or coal-derived, fuels. The final report is due 

in 1976. 

In addition, NASA also had a number of programs intended to identify and evaluate the applicability of NASA's space and aeronautics capabilities 

to energy problems. These programs included : identifying and clarifying the technical problems associated 

with satellite power systems; assessing the technical 

and social impacts of disposing of hazardous waste in 

space; and identifying how aeronautics and space 

technologies can aid and improve the efficiency 

of coal combustion as well as of automobiles and aircraft. 

Space Flight 

Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission 

was planned to accomplish spacecraft rendezvous, 

docking, undocking, crew transfer, interaction of control centers, and interaction of spacecraft crews. The 

mission concluded successfully when the U.S. spalcecraft splashed down at 5: 18 pm EDT, July 24, 1975, 

approximately 520 kilometers west of Honolulu. All 

primary mission objectives were met. 

Apollo flight crew members were Apollo Commander Thomas P. Stafford, Command Module 

Pilot Vance D. Brand, and Docking Module Pilot 

Donald K. Slayton. Soyuz flight crew members were 

Soyuz Commander Alexey A. Leonov and Flight 

Engineer Valeriy N. Kubasov. 

The Soyuz spacecraft was launched from the 

Baikonur Cosmodrome at 8: 20 am EDT on July 15, 

1975. The Apollo spacecraft was launched from 

Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center, 

Florida, on July 15 at 3:50 pm EDT. Soyuz and 

Apollo contact and docking occurred on time on 

July 17. 

Four crew transfers were made between the spacecraft, with joint occupancy of the two spacecraft 

for approximately 19 hours and 24 minutes. Additional major crew activity included joint experiments, 

TV tours of each spacecraft, a joint press conference, 

and activities symbolic of this first international 

manned space flight. 

The Apollo spacecraft was undocked from the 

Soyuz spacecraft at 8:02 am EDT, July 19. The 

second docking of the two spacecraft was then accomplished with the Soyuz docking system active. 

The Soyuz descent vehicle landed safely within 11 

kilometers of the target point at Kazakhstan, northeast of Baikonur, on July 21. The Soyuz crew members were subsequently found to be in good health. 

For the four days following undocking (July 19- 

23), the U.S. crew performed various scientific experiments. Following Apollo splashdown on July 24, 

the crew and command module were transferred to 

the prime recovery ship U.S.S. New Orleans by crane. 

It soon became evident from interviews and medical 

examinations that the crew members were experiencing eye and lung discomfort. Subsequently it was 

learned that Reaction Control System combustion 

products, including a small amount of nitrogen tetroxide, had been ingested through the cabin pressure 

relief valves. Because of the exposure of the crew to 

nitrogen tetroxide, the crew was transferred to Tripler 

General Hospital for further observation. Although 

their general health was good, the crew remained in 

Hawaii until August 8 to avoid the possibility of 

bronchial infection from exposure to other people. 

Actions to close out this very successful program 

are nearly complete. A team of Soviet technicians 

travelled to Houston in November to prepare final 

technical reports jointly with their American counterparts. Analysis of the results from the experiments 

conducted by the crews of ASTP as a secondary objective of the mission continued. Of the 28 experiments, 21 were U.S., 5 were joint US.-U.S.S.R., and 

2 were West German. As of December 1975 preliminary results showed several interesting discoveries. 

In the field of astronomy, the soft X-ray experiment 

discovered the first known pulsar outside our galaxy. 

Located in the Small Magellanic Cloud, it is the 

most luminous pulsar known by at least a factor of 

10. The Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) Survey experiment confirmed detection of four EUV stars, two 

of them very strong sources of radiation. While they 

had been known before by their visible radiation, 

their extremely high temperatures (some 100,000 

kelvins) had not been known. 

In the Earth's atmosphere, the Stratospheric 

Aerosol Measurements successfully measured the 

layering of aerosols. The data reported 2.5 to 

3 times the concentrations of aerosol in the Northern 

Hemisphere over those in the Southern Hemisphere 

and that the concentration centered at an altitude 

of approximately 19 kilometers in the Northern 

Hemisphere. 

Earth observation experiments identified a large 

northward extension of the Red Sea rift system. The 

photographs suggested that the primary motion of 

the Arabian subplate is counterclockwise rotation 

about the branch point of the fault lines. This is 

the first observation from space of rotational plate 

movement. 

. 

Space Flight Transportation 

Space flight activities provide the transportation 

and related capabilities necessary to conduct both 

manned and unmanned operations in space. These 

17 
activities include the Space Shuttle program for the 

development of a reusable manned Earth-to-orbit 

space vehicle; U.S. participation with the European 

Space Agency (ESA) in a cooperative program for 

the European-funded development of a Spacelab to 

be used in the shut'tle; development and supporting 

activities for other elements of the space transportation system; development of new component and 

subsystem ,technology; integration planning of future 

orbital payloads ; conceptual studies and research on 

future space operations; and launch operations and 

support for expendable launch vehicles for automated 

space missions. 

Space ShuttZe 

The Space Shuttle is the key element of a Space 

Transportation System (STS) which will provide 

round-trip access to space beginning in the 1980s. 

The Space Shuttle is a reusable space vehicle which 

will operate between the surface of the Earth and 

Earth orbit. It will offer unique capabilities to carry 

out space missions-to retrieve payloads from orbit 

for reuse, to service or refurbish satellites in space, 

and to transport to orbit, operate, and return space 

laboratories. These capabilities can result in savings 

in the cost of space operations compared to the use 

of present day expendable space vehicles. 

Space Shuttle developmenjt is well along. During 

1975, major milestones toward development and 

completion of major subsystems of the orbiter were 

met as scheduled. The prime contractor selected to 

build the orbiter vehicle and to integrate the shuttle 

systems is Rockwell International/Space Division. 

The Rocketdyne Division of the Rockwell Corporation has been selected to construct liquid-fueled 

rocket engines of advanced high-pressure design, 

which will provide propulsion for the Space Shuttle 

orbiter. Major hardware components of the main 

engine, such as the thrust chamber, have been fabricated and tests are presently underway in Santa 

Susanna, California and the National Space Technology Laboratories in Mississippi. 

The external tank which will contain the cryogenic 

propellants-liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen-for 

the orbiter main engines will be designed and built 

by the Martin Marietta Corporation, Denver Division. They will be manufactured in the governmentowned Michoud Assembly Facility near New Orleans, 

Louisiana. 

The fourth element of the Space Shuttle System 

will consist of two reusable solid rocket boosters, 

which will burn in parallel with the orbiter main 

propulsion system to provide additional thrust during 

launch. The Thiokol Corporation in Wasatch, Utah, 

has been awarded the contract to build these solid 

rocket motors. 

Rollout of the orbiter is currently scheduled for 

September of 1976. The first approach and landing 

test will occur in 1977 at the Flighlt Research Center 

at Edwards, California. The orbiter will be unpowered and released from a 747 carrier aircraft. 

Developmental manned orbital flights will start in 

mid-1979 aimed at 'an operational capability by 

mid-1980. 

Spacelab 

The Spacelab Program is a joint venture between 

NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) . The 

research and development portion is being paid for 

by the European nations and the Spacelab will be 

supplied to NASA for flights in the Space Shuttle 

cargo bay. When it becomes operational in the 1980s, 

the Spacelab will be a unique facility in which experiments can be performed in an environmentally controlled manned module, or remotely controlled instruments can be mounted on pallets exposed directly 

to the space environment. The development of a 

large community of international users is in progress. 

In 1975 substantial progress was made in many 

areas. A NASAJESA agreemenst was reached on the 

basic technical and schedule requirements, and Europcan contractors were well into Spacelab design and 

began to fabricate the development hardware in July 

and the first engineering model in December. In addition, in accordance with the Memorandum of 

Understanding between NASA and ESA, NASA 

confirmed its intent to procure supplementary Spacelab hardware which will enable the Space Shuttle to 

carry out an operational role. 

Zlzterim Upper Stage 

NASA and DOD continued to work closely together this past year. DOD has the responsibility 

for the definition and development of the Interim 

Upper Stage (IUS), and NASA is the overall Space 

Transportation System program coordinator and will 

be an IUS user. NASA kept track of lthe DOD progress and the many non-DOD requirements involved 

in upper-stage missions. A large number of the 

space payloads expected to be flown by the new 

Space Transportation System during the 1980s will 

be put into Earth orbit by the orbiter but then will 

need an upper stage to propel these payloads to destinations beyond the capability of the orbiter alone. 

In 1975, DOD and NASA jointly assessed these 

national mission requirements and evaluated the results from DOD's five study contracts to define IUS. 

AS a result, a multi-staged, solid propellant motor 

concept was selected for the follow-on IUS Validation 

Phase, scheduled to begin in mid-1976. A major industry competition for this phase of IUS development 

is planned by the USAF for early 1976. The initial 
operational capability for the Interim Upper Stage 

System is expected in mid-year 1980. 

Space Science Payloads 

In preparation for the Space Shuttle era, Spacelab 

science payloads were studied to provide data on 

new developments for Space Shuttle flights. 

In atmosphere and space physics, a feasibility study 

of an atmospheric, magnetospheric, and plasmasin-space payload, which included all aspects of the 

proposed effort from payload configuration to mission profiles, was completed and in-depth project 

definition begun. This study emphasized the commonality of instrumentation to conduct investigations of 

the quiescent and dynamic near-Earth environment 

in the several disciplines represented. 

In astronomy, engineering feasibility studies were 

completed on a meter-class, cryogenically cooled, infrared telescope; a meter-class high-resolution ultravioletJoptica1 telescope; a meter-class, solar-physicsclass telescope ; solar X-ray and extreme ultraviolet 

facilities ; and various high-energy astrophysical instruments. These studies will lay the groundwork 

for future consideration of scientific instruments that 

could be developed for the Space Shuttle. 

Advanced Studies 

The Advanced Studies Program is a planning 

activity to define future transportation and spacecraft systems requirements and to develop advanced 

mission concepts, as well as the integrated planning 

required. 

During 1975, a number of studies were conducted 

of future space transportation systems for potential 

missions during the late 1980s (e.g., erection large 

structures in space). Other vehicle studies are under 

way on orbit-to-ovbit transfer. 

Mission and Payload lntegration 

The Mission and Payload Integration program 

continued its activities to coordinate future use of 

the Space Transportation System (STS) and to 

ensure hardware and operational compatibility between payloads and the STS. 

In 1975, primary emphasis was placed on formalizing early Shuttle mission plans and developing a procedure by which user charges for STS 

services can be determined. 

Launch Vehicle Programs 

When the Space Shuttle is fully operational in the 

1980s, it will replace most if not all of the current 

group of expendable launch vehicles. Until 'then 

NASA will continue to build and improve these 

vehicles. Discussion of reimbursable international 

satellite launches is provided in the section of the 

report on international cooperation. 

During 1975, the Scout vehicle successfully 

launched two satellites into orbit : the Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS-C) and a navigation satellite 

for the Navy. The Dual Air Density (DAD) Explorer 

satellite was launched but failed to achieve orbit. 

The Delta vehicle successfully launched 12 

satellites into orbit, including missions such as the 

second Landsat Earth resources technology satellite ; 

OS0 8, the last NASA orbiting solar observatory; 

Goes-A, the first operational synchronous meteorological satellite for NOAA; and the first of a series of 

three domestic communications satellites for the 

Radio Corporation of America (RCA) using a new, 

more powerful Delta (Model 3914) developed by 

McDonnell Douglas Corporation and financed jointly 

by them and RCA. 

Atlas-Centaur. A failure occurred in the firststage Atlas booster electrical disconnect plug during 

the 1975 launch attempt of an Intelsat IV communications satellite. A modification was incorporated, 

and the vehicle was used successfully in two subsequent launches of Intelsat IV and IVA communications satellites launched for the Comsat Corporation. 

Titan IIIE-Centaur. This vehicle was used in 

1975 to launch the two Viking spacecraft to Mars. 

Four launches have been conducted using this vehicle, and launches are planned in subsequent years for 

payloads beyond the lifting capability of the AtlasCentaur. 

Scout. 

Delta. 

Tracking and Data Acquisition 

The objectives of the Tracking and Data Acquisition Program are to provide responsive and efficient 

tracking, data acquisition, communications, and related support to meet the requirements of all NASA 

flight projects. Such support is essential for achieving 

the scientific objectives of all flight missions, for 

executing the critical decisions that must be made to 

ensure the success of these flight missions, and, in 

the case of manned missions, to ensure the safety of 

the astronauts. During the past year the Tracking 

and Data Acquisition Program met the requirements 

of all flight projects on schedule and with excellent 

reliability. 

The majority of the support rendered the flight 

projects is provided through the facilities of two 

worldwide tracking networks-the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN) and the Deep Space 

Network (DSN) . The STDN furnishes support to 

all Earth-orbiting missions ; the DSN supports the 

other major class of NASA's flight programs, the 

planetary and interplanetary missions. All facilities 

are interconnected by a communications network 

19 
capable of instantaneous transmission of data and 

critical commands between spacecraft and the control centers in the United States from which the 

flights are directed. 

Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network 

The operational activities of the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network (STDN) remained at a high 

level during 1975, supporting an average of 40 individual flight projects. A highlight in 1975 was support of the first international joint manned space 

flight between the United States and the Union of 

Soviet Socialist Republics. 

Manned Space Flight. The Apollo-Soyuz Test 

Project (ASTP) mission, during July, was unusual 

and innovative in international cooperation in tracking and communications support. The US. and 

U.S.S.R. tracking and communications facilities were 

in constant contact with the Apollo and the Soyuz 

vehicles and astronauts throughout the critical phases 

of the mission in the predocking and linkup activities. 

The U.S. and U.S.S.R. mission control centers were 

interconnected so that either could communicate with 

either or both spacecraft. Orbital television coverage 

of the two spacecraft, for both engineering use and 

public consumption, was provided by the network 

stations and ATS-6 satellite. 

Laser Tracking Network. In 1975 OTDA established an initial laser tracking network in support 

of the Geos 3 mission launched in April. The prime 

objective of the mission is to measure the geometry 

of the ocean surface. The Geos 3 spacecraft carries 

a radar altimeter that continuously measures the 

distance to the surface. To achieve the required accuracy for this instrument, it is necessary to calibrate 

the altimeter through precise ground tracking. Lasers 

are located at four sites along the Atlantic coastWallops Flight Center, Bermuda, Grand Turk Island, 

and the Eastern Test Range in Florida. The satellite 

is tracked by these systems and its altitude is computed from these tracking data. Altimeter data are 

now contributing to our improved knowledge of seasurface topography. 

Landsat 2. In January 1975, Landsat 2 was 

launched and the STDN began support two highdata-rate satellites. (Landsat 1 had been launched 

in 1972 and is still operating.) Special wideband 

equipment for handling higher data rates has been 

installed in the stations at Alaska, Goldstone, and in 

the Network Test and Training Facility at GSFC in 

Maryland. Under ground station control, Landsat 2 

was placed in a Sun-synchronous orbit and so located 

as to traverse the Landsat 1 ground ,trace nine days 

later. (Landsat 1 itself exhibited an 18-day repeat 

cycle.) Reducing this period is especially important 

for investigating phenomena that exhibit rapid 

change. Data from Landsat 1 and 2 are flowing regularly to the Large Area Crop Investigation EXperiment (LACIE) users and many other national 

and international experimenters. 

Deep Space Network 

The Deep Space Network (DSN) continued to 

provide excellent support to NASA’s planetary and 

interplanetary missions. The rate of activity remained 

high. 

Mariner/Venus/Mercury. The Mariner 10 spacecraft flew by the planet Mercury for the third time 

on March 16, 1975, in the final phase of its mission. 

The flyby occurred at a critical time because the 

DSN was supporting the closest approach of Helios 1 

to the Sun (perihelion), as well as the Pioneer 10 and 

11 superior conjunctions-an unusual convergence of 

critical events. Network pre-launch testing and training activities were also underway for the Viking 

mission. Commands were sent from the Canberra, 

Australia, station to Mariner 10 to guide it on its 

final course within 327 kilometers of Mercury and 

to transmit back to Earth pictures of the planet’s 

surface. 

Pioneer. Following the very successful flyby of the 

planet Jupiter by Pioneer 11, the DSN assisted in retargeting the spacecraft for its encounter with the 

planet Saturn in late 1979. Continued cruise support 

of this new mission objective, in addition to supporLt 

of the outward-bound Pioneer 10 spacecraft as it 

heads to the outer edges of the solar system, is providing unprecedented scientific information about 

the interplanetary space medium. 

The two Viking spacecraft launched in 

August and September 1975 will travel some 700 million kilometers through space, arriving at Mars when 

that planet is about 330 million kilometers from 

Earth. When the orbiter and lander separate, DSN 

support efforts will become more intense in commanding and controlling the two systems from Earth. 

The network stations will communicate with the 

lander and acquire scientific data either directly or 

through the orbiter. Transmission time is 20 minutes 

one way from Earth to Mars, which means that many 

activities, especially during the landing, will have 

to be controlled by onboard computers. 

Viking. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

A major objective in the longer range plan for the 

Tracking and Data Acquisition Program is the introduction of Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) services into the Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network. It is planned that these senices will be obtained on a long-term contract with 
industry, under which the contractor would develop 

and build the system (both space segment and ground 

terminal) and operate it to provide the required 

services to NASA. In July 1975, NASA let two Phase 

1 contracts for detailed system design and firm, fixedprice cost proposals for the TDRSS services. From 

the review of these Phase I contracts, a final contractor will be selected in 1976 to implement the system and provide the service in early 1980. Before 

entering into the final contract, NASA will review the 

TDRSS program with the cognizant congressional 

committees. 

International Affairs 

U.S.-U.S.S.R. Cooperation 

In July, the 

joint US. and U.S.S.R. ASTP mission flew successfully and on schedule. This mission was provided for 

in the May 24, 1972, Agreement Concerning Cooperation in Space between the two countries. The mission achieved its technical objective : verification of 

( 1 ) compatible mechanisms and techniques for rendezvous, docking, and crew transfer; and (2) the required interaction between the ground control centers 

of each country. ASTP broadened personal contacts 

between the U.S.S.R. and the US., and opened the 

possibility for future cooperative endeavors in space. 

Although ASTP 

was the major product of U.S./U.S.S.R. cooperation 

during 1975, cooperative work in space science and 

applications went forward, as provided in the NASA/ 

Soviet Academy Agreement of January 1971 and 

endorsed at the May 1972 Summit. 

The Soviets provided negatives and prints of the 

first panoramic photographs of the surface of Venus, 

taken by the descent modules from Veneras 9 and 10, 

and imagery obtained by their Mars 4 and 5 orbiters 

for enhancement by US. methods. They also provided supplementary soil samples from Luna 20 as 

part of a continuing exchange of lunar samples. Coordinated magnetometer observations by the ATS-6 

satellite and Soviet ground stations began in October, 

and in November four US. biological experiments 

were flown aboard the Soviet Cosmos 782 spacecraft. 

English and Russian versions of a joint work on 

Fundamentals of Space Biology and Medicine were 

published in 1975. 

Preparations began for several joint projects in 

iiieteorology : [ 1 ) rocketsonde intercomparison tests, 

(2) sounding rocket study of diurnal variations in 

geomagnetic conditions, (3) compilation of upperair atlases, (4) development of common and improved methods of processing satellite temperaturesounder data, and (5) joint research on microwave 

observations of sea surface and temperature. In the 

Apollo-Soyur Test Project (ASTP). 

Space Science and Applications. 

study of the natural environment, NASA and the 

Soviet Academy embarked on the first phase of a program of remote sensing of vegetation (including 

crops) at analogous US. and U.S.S.R. test sites. EXchanges of ground truth as well as of multispectral 

data from aircraft and spacecraft are contemplated. 

Spacelab Progress 

Development in Europe of Spacelab, undertaken 

in 1973 by the European Space Research Organization (now European Space Agency-ESA) under an 

agreement with NASA, proceeded on schedule during 1975. Delivery of the first Spacelab flight unit by 

ESA to NASA is planned for mid-1979. Spacelab 

will provide the user community with a ground-type 

laboratory for 7- to 30-day trips into space on board 

the Shuttle orbiter. It represents a contribution to 

the Shuttle-based Space Transportation System by 

the ten participating European countries. 

Planning for Spacelab use received increasing emphasis in 1975. NASA and ESA in June completed 

a six-day series of aircraft flights, using the NASA 

CV-990 aircraft from Ames Research Center, to simulate a Spacelab science mission of the 1980s. The 

NASA-ESA Joint User Requirements Group, representing potential Spacelab users in a variety of disciplines, continued to meet to ensure that user requirements were provided to the Spacelab program. In 

June, the NASA Administrator and the ESA Director 

General accepted recommendations of a Joint Planning Group on experimental objectives of the first 

(joint) Spacelab flight. A Joint Program Integration 

Committee has been established to coordinate planning for that first mission. Working groups, including scientists from the U.S. Europe, Canada, and 

Japan, met throughout the year to define potential 

Spacelab missions in the areas of atmospheric, magnetospheric and plasmas-in-space (AMPS) studies, . solar physics, and ultraviolet astronomy. 

Remote Manipulator 

After five years of discussion, Canada, like the 

European Space Agency became a major international 

contributor to the development of the Space Shuttle/ 

Spacelab System. Under an agreement between 

NASA and the National Research Council of Canada 

(NRCC) signed in July 1975, Canada will develop a 

Remote Manipulator System (RMS) as an integral 

part of the Shuttle. The RMS will be operated by 

astronauts from within the Space Shuttle orbiter to 

deploy and retrieve payloads in space and perform 

payload servicing operations. Under the arrangement 

with NRCC, like that for the European Spacelab development, NRCC will deliver the RMS first flight 

unit free of cost to NASA and NASA will procure 

21 
follow-on units as needed. The first flight unit is 

expected to be delivered in 1979 for test flights of 

the Shuttle. 

Earth Resources 

The January launching of Landsat 2 permitted 

investigators from 45 countries and five international 

organizations to continue testing and demonstrating 

the potential utility of NASA-supplied satellite data 

in a variety of disciplines. 

During a NASA-sponsored Earth Resources Survey 

Symposium held in June in Houston, foreign investigators reported significant results of their studies of 

data obtained from Landsat 1 and the Earth Resoiirces Experiment Package (EREP) flown on Skylab. 

During 1975, agreements were concluded with 

three foreign nations-Iran, Zaire, and Chile-for 

their establishment and operation of ground facilities 

for direct reception of Landsat data. Such stations 

are already operating in Canada, Brazil, and Italy, 

and several other countries are planning similar 

facilities. 

New Cooperative Satellite Projects 

NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) 

concluded an agreement in March for joint conduct 

of the International Sun-Earth Explorer Project. 

ISEE will use three coordinated spacecraft (2 NASA 

and 1 ESA) to advance knowledge of the magnetosphere, interplanetary space, and interactions between them. All three spacecraft will be launched by 

NASA from the Eastern Test Range in 1977 and 

1978. 

The French national space agency, CNES, is undertaking the design, development, and operation of the 

Satellite Data Collection System (SDCS) to be flown 

on the Tiros-N series of advanced polar-orbiting 

meteorological satellites, the first of which is to be 

launched in 1978. Another international contribution 

to the Tiros-N family of weather satellites is the 

stratospheric sounding unit provided by the British 

Meteorological Office. Also party to both these 

arrangements is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which is responsible for 

managing the operational satellite system following 

demonstration of the prototype NASA spacecraft. 

Reimbursable lnternutional Launches 

The following cost-reimbursable launches of ThorDelta vehicles took place in 1975: 

0 Telesat-C, the third Canadian domestic communications satellite, fom the Eastern Test Range 

(ETR), May 7. 

0 COS-B, an ESA scientific satellite to study 

extra-terrestrial gamma radiation, from the Western 

Test Range (WTR), August 9. 

Symphonie-B, a second FrenchjGerman experimental communications satellite, from ETR, August 

27. 

A new agreement for reimbursable launching was 

concluded in May with Indonesia for the launch in 

1976 of a domestic communications satellite, and 

similar agreements were concluded in June with 

Japan for launch of a geostationary meteorological 

satellite and an experimental domestic communications satellite in 1977, and an experimental broadcast satellite in 1978. Launch services contracts were 

concluded in March with ESA for launch of Geos, a 

geostationary magnetospheric research satellite, in 

1976, and Meteosat, a geostationary meteorological 

satellite, in 1977. A similar launch services contract 

was concluded in March with Italy for launch of 

Sirio, an experimental communications satellite, in 

late 1976. 

Broadcast Satellite Experiment 

On August 1, 1975, the Indian Space Research Organization and NASA inaugurated the one-year COoperative Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) using the NASA ATS-6 satellite. 

ATS-6, which operated over the U.S. for a year 

following launch in May 1974, was moved to a 

position over East Africa within view of India to 

provide four hours per day of broadcast time. Instructional television programs, produced by India, 

are broadcast from stations in Ahmedabad and New 

Delhi via ATS-6 to some 5000 Indian villages. Some 

2400 of these receive the signal directly from the 

spacecraft on standard TV receivers augmented by 

a 3-meter antenna and associated equipment to convert the satellite signal into a TV picture. The remaining villages are receiving the signals via terrestrial rebroadcast stations. India is responsible for all 

ground equipment. SITE is the first large-scale experiment in satellite broadcasting to community receivers in a developing country. 

Overseas Tracking Facilities 

During 1975, NASA tracking stations in Johannesburg, South Africa; Newfoundland, Canada ; Madagascar; and the Canary Islands were closed as 

planned as a result of changed programmatic requirements. A new five-year tracking station agreement 

was effected in Ecuador by an exchange of notes in 

September. NASA has initiated procurement action 

22 
which will lead to tracking and data relay satellite 

services beginning in 1980. Such services will permit 

the closure of additional tracking stations in 1980 

and succeeding years. 

University Affairs 

NASA continues to seek the participation of universities in its programs, especially in those that entail basic, long-term research applicable to NASA 

objectives. Equally important, in FY 1975 the agency 

invited members of the university scientific community to participate in planning programs and in 

ongoing flight experiments that included space applications, life sciences, deep space probes, and lunar 

and planetary exploration and research. More than 

80 percent of the experiments offered in response to 

the life sciences invitations came from universities and 

non-profit institutions. University researchers also participated in studies that bear on the effects of the 

space program on national goals and elements of 

public concern in environmental, social, and energy 

problems. NASA has continued to try to increase the 

participation of schools with predominantly minority 

enrollment. 

In FY 1975, NASA funded 2009 research grants 

and contracts totaling $112.4 million in support of 

research and space flight experiments at 282 universities. 

Space and Nuclear Research and Technology 

The NASA Space and Nuclear Research and 

Technology programs are directed at providing a 

technology base for support of current and future 

space activities by advancing the technology used in 

systems that transport, power, control, and communicate with the spacecraft, and in scientific instruments 

needed in current and future NASA space missions. 

Some of the resulting technology has applications to 

terrestrial uses as well. 

Space Propulsion Technology 

NASA propulsion technology encompasses efforts 

in liquid and solid fuel chemical systems as well as 

electric powered thrusters. The technology is aimed 

at expanding mission capabilities and reducing costs. 

Liquid Propulsion Technology. The fabrication of 

the turbomachinery and the regeneratively cooled 

thrust chamber for a reusable oxygen-hydrogen engine was completed in 1975. Flight-qualified oxidizer 

valves were redesigned and 1000-hour fracture 

mechanics tests of titanium in liquid fluorine were 

completed as part of a technology effort aimed at 

using liquid fluorine as an oxidizer. Results of research directed at stabilizing atomic hydrogen indicated that at temperatures below 0.3 kelvins, atomic 

hydrogen may behave ferromagnetically, which could 

reduce magnetic field strength necessary for longterm storage. 

Solid Propulsion Technology. A new start-stop 

solid rocket capability was demonstrated in which 

a motor was quenched, reignited, and quenched 

again. Also, an advanced-technology light-weight 

composite motor case was successfully fabricated and 

tested. 

Electric Propulsion Technology. A 15,000-hour endurance test of an 8-centimeter, one-millipound 

(150-watt) ion thruster for station keeping was completed. A 10,000-hour test was also completed on a 

30-centimeter, 30-millipound (2.75-thousand watt) 

ion thruster for primary electric propulsion systems. 

Space Energy Systems Technology 

Space energy systems technology encompasses the 

generation, storage, conversion, transmission, and 

management of the energy required to power spacecraft systems. 'The technology is aimed at expanding 

mission capabilities and reducing the weight and cost 

of energy systems. 

Research efforts on nuclear multi-hundred-kilowatt 

power systems applicable to future missions were focused on thermionic power conversion research. Tests 

of selected converter electrode materials and configurations were conducted in 1975 to determine 

their performance characteristics. A handbook was 

published with detailed information to aid in the 

design of low cost, standardized solar cell arrays. 

Virtually non-gassing, sealed nickel-cadmium battery 

cells, which should exhibit higher reliability and longer life than previous types, successfully completed 

evaluation tests. An efficient 2000-10,000-watt Brayton turbine power system completed more than 

20,000 hours of testing. A 99-percent-efficient solidstate, remote power controller has been developed 

and tested in 1975. Previous units had efficiencies of 

85 percent. 

Guidance, Control, and Information Technology 

Important technology advances have come from 

efforts in 1975 to expand NASA's ability to gather, 

process, transmit, and analyze data in a reliable, 

efficient, cost-effective manner. 

Navigation, Guidance, and Control. A breadboard 

model of the STELLAR all-solid-state star-tracker 

for space use demonstrated its abihty to automatically 

track multiple stars in a single field of view. The 
solid-state approach offers potential for increased 

reliability. 

Sensors. An airborne laser bathymeter has been 

developed for measuring and mapping the depths of 

shallow coastal waters down to 50 meters. Compared to the shipborne sonar technique, the system 

reduces the time of mapping by a factor of 20 and is 

capable of covering hazardous areas that are inaccessible even to small craft. 

A C02 laser data transfer 

system for space-to-space and space-to-ground applications, with data rates 10 .times greater than today’s 

systems, was demonstrated in the laboratory. 

Information Systems. 

Materials and Structures Technology 

Materials and structures are the building blocks 

of launch vehicles, spacecraft, and payloads. The 

technology effort has as its goal the expansion of 

mission capabilities through the development of new 

materials and the reduction of structural weight and 

cost. 

Significant advances have recently been made in 

thermal protection for manned reentry vehicles. 

Light-weight, rigid silica insulations were developed 

that have superior high-temperature stability. One of 

these materials is currently being evaluated by a 

major automobile manufacturer as an insulation in 

a potential .turbine engine. Progress made in technology for pressure vessels using composite materials 

overwrapped on metal liners has led to its selection 

for the design of numerous Space Shuttle pressure 

vessels with weight savings on the order of 25 percent. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

The NASA Aeronautics Research and Technology 

programs are directed at developing technology to 

(1) improve the energy efficiency of aircraft, (2) 

reduce the undesirable environmental effects of aircraft such as noise and pollution, (3) improve aviation safety and terminal area operations, (4) advance long-haul and short-haul aircraft systems, and 

(5) provide technical support to the military in 

maintaining the superiority of military aircraft. 

Improving the Energy Eficiency of Aircraft 

NASA completed a major study activity during 

this past year to focus and expand its efforts on 

technology developments directed at significant improvements in the energy efficiency of future civil air 

transports. Six major activities were identified that 

could lead to new aircraft using 50 percent less fuel 

than the best aircraft flying today. 

Potential improvements in many components used 

in current engines could improve the fuel efficiency of 

new production versions of current engines by as 

much as five percent. Results of system design studies 

completed in the past year indicate that advanced 

turbofan engines and ,engines incorporating unconventional engine cycles could be made 10 percent 

more efficient than engines currently in use on widebody transports. Recent preliminary calculations 

indicate that turboprop propulsion systems could be 

designed to operate efficiently at cruise speeds and 

altitudes comparable to today’s turbofan-powered aircraft with potential fuel savings of 15 to 20 percent. Applications of supercritical aerodynamics and 

active controls technology to increasing aircraft efficiency rather than speed could produce 10 to 15 

percent fuel savings. Extensive use of composites in 

primary structures could gain 10 to 12 percent fuel 

savings compared with all-metal aircraft. During this 

year, a contract was awarded to Lockheed Aircraft 

Corporation to design, fabricate, and evaluate in air-. 

line service an L-1011 vertical tail made from 

graphite-epoxy composite material. 

Reducing Undesirable Enuironmental Eflects 

Significant progress has been made during 1975 in 

the demonstration of technology to reduce and assess the undesirable noise and pollution effects of 

aircraft. 

Reducing Noise from Existing Transport Aircraft. 

Completion of the REFAN program was particularly 

significant. The demonstration of modified JT8D 

engines in Boeing 727 acoustically treated nacelles 

in ground tests concurrent with the flight tests of engines and acoustic nacelles in a modified DC-9 provide the full technical basis for consideration of the 

REFAN as an option for retrofit of current narrow 

body commercial aircraft. 

The completion of the 

in-service evaluation of the two-segment noise abating 

approach, using Boeing 727 and Douglas DC-8 aircraft, confirmed the noise relief available from the 

use of this operational procedure in commercial airline service at major airports. 

Noise Prediction. The recent award of a major 

contract to develop an advanced noise-prediction 

computational procedure will provide NASA, regulatory agencies, and industry with an improved and 

uniform capability to predict aircraft noise sources 

and aircraft noise patterns on the ground around airports. 

Engine Pollutant Emission Reduction. Completion 

of the second phase of two three-phase contracts for 

demonstration of new technology for reduction of 

Two-Segment Approach. 
exhaust pollutant emission from large jet engines 

showed that major reductions in emissions of carbon 

monoxide and unburned hydrocarbons are possible 

during low-power operation. Nitric oxide emission 

reduction by factors of two to three were achieved 

for high-power operation. 

Global Air Sampling. The Global Air Sampling 

Program (GASP) became operational during this 

year with installation of three of the four planned 

airborne sampling systems on Boeing 747 aircraft 

operated by United Airlines, Pan American, and 

Qantas airlines. Each system continuously monitors 

emissions and particulates above 20,000 feet along 

world airways. A report covering the first three 

months of operation will be published this winter. 

NOAA regularly receives data for analysis and correlation with meteorological factors. 

Improving Safety and Terminul Area Operations 

Significant progress was made in developing advanced technology to improve aviation safety and 

terminal area operations. 

Wake Vortex Reduction. Concern for the potential 

hazard to smaller aircraft from the wakes left by 

large aircraft recently prompted the FAA to increase 

certain aircraft separations. Through model and 

B-747 flight tests, NASA continued to explore the 

promising vortex minimization technique of varying 

spanwise lift distribution. Tests of the NASA laser 

doppler system for detecting and tracking aircraft 

wakes near the ground were successfully completed 

for FAA at Kennedy Airport in New York. 

Typical aircraft lavatory and cargo bay units were tested under 

controlled conditions to measure rate and extent of 

fire build-up, and fire containment capability of current designs. These tests yielded data not only of 

use in designing new detection and extinguishing 

systems, but also in determining the thermal environment for new improved materials. 

Human Error in Aircraft Accidents. As set forth 

in a Memorandum of Agreement between FAA and 

NASA, NASA is designing an Aviation Safety Reporting System for implementation by NASA early in 

1976. FAA has determined that the effectiveness of 

their Aviation Safety (no fault) Reporting Program 

would be greatly enhanced if the gathering, processing, and analysis of the raw information were done by 

NASA, rather than the FAA. This would further 

assure the reporter of anonymity, and consequently 

increase the flow of information, data that would also 

be useful in NASA human error research. 

Improving Terminal Area Operations. Flight research with the NASA Augmentor Wing Jet Short 

Fire Retardant Materials for Aircraft. 

Take-off and Landing (STOL) Research Aircraft 

was highlighted this year with a series of automatic 

landings, the first for a powered-lift aircraft. 

Advancing Long-Haul and 

Short-Haul Aircraft Systems 

NASA’s effort to integrate the results of research 

in aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, controls, and 

avionics to define advanced long-haul and short-haul 

aeronautical systems continued in 1975. 

Quiet Propulsive Lift Technology. NASA evaluated industry proposals to modify a C-8 Buffalo into 

a Quiet Short-Haul Research Aircraft with an uppersurface-blowing propulsive-lift system. The Quiet, 

Clean Short-Haul Experimental Engine program 

progressed from design to fabrication of two turbofan propulsion systems suitable for under-the-wing 

and over-the-wing propulsive-lift installations. 

Supersonic Cruise Aircraft Research. NASA YF12 aircraft were flown at supersonic speeds to evaluate the impact of engine emissions on the stratosphere 

and to test advanced aircraft structural panels. Tests 

of models of new aircraft configurations in wind tunnels showed that increased ranges are possible with 

the major improvements achieved in aerodynamic 

cruise efficiency. Hypersonic research experiments in 

propulsion, structures, and aerodynamics were complemented by a joint study with the Air Force to 

define a hypersonic research aircraft for carrying 

ground-developed systems into flight to solve critical 

design problems. 

Flight tests with a commutertype aircraft are exploring the merits of a split-controlsurface stability augmentation system as a low-cost 

means of improving aircraft control and ride quality 

in a cooperative program with Kansas University and 

Beech Aircraft Company. 

Control Systems. 

Technical Support to the Military 

In addition to the continuing broad-based support 

of military aircraft development programs, a number 

of notable accomplishments occurred in 1975. The 

Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology program 

reached the point of a contract award for the design 

and fabrication of two remotely piloted research aircraft to be used to exploit high-risk technology opportunities. Two joint NASA/Army Experimental 

Aircraft Programs-the Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft and the Rotor Systems Research Aircrafthave both progressed to the final assembly phase. 

Each program will proceed to the ground testing of 

two aircraft early in 1976. 
Disseminating Technology and Benefits 

The NASA Technology Utilization Program, now 

in its thirteenth year, is designed to encourage and 

promote the secondary application and use of aerospace-developed technology in the industrial and 

public sector of the nation. Since the program’s inception, a spectrum of transfer and dissemination 

mechanisms have been established and institutionalized by NASA to interact with potential users in the 

non-aerospace community. 

During 1975 the publications program continued 

to be the mainstay for stimulating user awareness and 

has been strengthened with a NASA-Small Business 

Administration agreement to develop cooperative 

programs to serve the technological needs and interests of small businesses. In addition, NASA has 

initiated an expansion of its Industrial Applications 

Center network into other regions of the U.S., p:rticularly in highly industrialized urban areas which 

were previously difficult to serve. 

User agencies at the Federal, state, and local levels 

have continued to profit by NASA’s technology applications efforts to adapt or otherwise reengineer 

aerospace technology to meet their needs. A wide 

range of projects, including better brakes, highway 

profiling, corrosion-free paint for bridges, prosthetic 

limbs, and biomedical instrumentation devices, have 

been actively pursued by NASA in conjunction with 

user agencies. Announcement of a new and improved 

commercialized Fire Fighters Breathing System was 

the 1975 highpoint in the technology applications 

program. 

Low Cost Systems. The Low Cost Systems Office 

was established to lead an agency-wide effort to reduce the overall cost of space systems. The program 

was structured to develop standardized spacecraft 

components, ground support equipment, and software designed to satisfy a majority of anticipated 

mission requirements and to study the cost impact 

of NASA’s business and program practices. To date, 

a number of components have been declared standard. These include a tape recorder, spacecraft computer, inertial reference unit, initiator, star tracker, 

battery, transponder, attitude control assembly, and 

a specification for solar cells. Panels and ad hoc 

working groups are currently developing assessments 

of additional standard equipment and specifications 

in areas such as Sun sensors, Earth sensors, solar 

panels, additional batteries and battery cells, standard command detectors, standard spacecraft computer compilers, and a standard gimbal and drive 

for antennas of other spacecraft using the tracking 

and data relay satellite system. This office has also 

coordinated agency-wide assessments of Multi-Mission Spacecraft. A System Integration activity has 

been established as part of the Standard Equipment 

Program to ensure that compatible interfaces exist 

between the items of standard equipment currently 

being developed and procured. Interface management 

techniques will be established to maintain this compatibility. Current practices which are being studied 

to reduce costs are testing procedures, specifications, 

logistics concepts for standard items, assessment between costs and risks; and assessment and simplification of specifications. Future studies are 

planned on spare-parts concepts and the trade-off 

between costs and reliability. A Catalog of Available and Standard Hardware has been established, 

providing computer retrievable information on hardware already declared as standard and an index of 

other flight-qualified hardware suitable for multimission use. Project Management Workshops have 

been held with NASA managers to exchange information on cost-effective project management practices. 

26 
111 

Introduction 

The Department of Defense space activities in 

navigation, communications, meteorology, and space 

surveillance support both the strategic and tactical 

forces, and DOD space research and development 

and the space ground facilities ensure that the technology is available for new space system options in 

the future. In aeronautics the primary emphasis oi 

the DOD effort is development of improved aircraft 

systems for replacement and modernization of the 

operational inventory. The substantial aeronautical 

research and development program provides the 

technology for new operational concepts and capabilities with reduced acquisition and support costs. 

During 1975, the Joint Program Office of the 

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System continued to 

make progress in the development of prototype 

NAVSTAR satellites and user equipment. When 

operational, the system will provide unprecedented 

accuracies of position and velocity in three dimensions. This will greatly enhance military capabilities 

for enroute navigation and position fixing. Until 

NAVSTAR becomes available, the Navy Navigation 

Satellite System (TRANSIT) continues to provide 

a world-wide two-dimensional position-fixing system 

in support of the strategic forces. Improved Transit 

satellites will provide the system with greater survivability and longer mission lifetime. 

In world-wide military communications DOD has 

placed heavy emphasis on satellite communications 

systems to fulfill its diverse requirements. The Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) supports the global requirements of the World-Wide 

Military Command Cxtrol System. The space segment of the DSCS suifered a loss in 1975 when two 

Phase I1 satellites failed to achieve the desired orbits. 

However, through mutual agreement the U.S. will 

rely on the NATO 11-B and the United Kingdom 

Skynet satellites so that limited operational capability 

will be maintained through 1977, when the next 

series of Phase I1 satellites will be launched. 

Authorization to procure the first flight-model 

spacecraft was granted to the Navy Fleet Satellite 

Department of Defense 

Communications System. The installations of Fleet 

Satellite Broadcast Receivers are on schedule. The Air 

Force Satellite Communications System, which supports the communication, command, and control requirements of the strategic forces, completed initial 

operational testing of its terminal in 1975. The Army 

also successfully tested its transportable ground terminals during the past year. 

DOD participation in the Space Shuttle program 

was increased in 1975 to keep pace with the NASA 

development program. A solid-propellant concept 

was chosen for validation and development of the 

Interim Upper Stage (IUS). The IUS will be used 

with the Shuttle by both DOD and NASA until the 

NASA-developed Space Tug is available in the mid1980s. The Space Shuttle holds great promise for 

reducing the cost of military space operations while 

introducing a new capability that would make DOD 

space operations more effective. 

In space research, the Defense Advanced Research 

Projects Agency is advancing the technology of space 

surveillance. Concurrently, improved techniques for 

space-object identification are being investigated. 

Significant events and accomplishments in aeronautics took place in 1975. The F-16 was selected as 

the air combat fighter by the U.S. Air Force. This 

highly maneuverable fighter will complement the 

F-15 Air Superiority Fighter, which completed a very 

successful year of test and evaluation. The Navy 

selected the F-18 as its air combat fighter to complement its F-14A tactical fighter, which is being deployed successfully into the fleet. The A-10 close air 

support aircraft completed its development tests with 

excellent results. The A-10 program is currently in 

low-rate production. 

The first of four Research, Development, Test and 

Evaluation B- 1 aircraft continued its flight-test 

program during 1975. Accomplishments achieved included supersonic flight and aerial refueling. 

Finally, the need to conserve energy resources has 

had a sizable impact on DOD aeronautical research 

and development efforts. In 1975 advances in composite materials technology indicated that substantial 

27 

208-251 0 - 'I6 - 3 
reductions in aircraft weight can be realized through 

use of composite structures. Also, in cooperation with 

NASA, DOD is engaged in long-term configuration 

development, exploiting advances in aerodynamic 

design along with advanced propulsion and composite materials. 

Space Activities 

Defense Satellite Communications System ( DSCS ) 

The Defense Satellite Communications System’s 

primary mission is the communications support of 

the National Command Authorities and the WorldWide Military Command and Control System 

(WWMCCS) . Four of the Phase I satellites launched in 1966- 

1968 are still working. However, this limited number 

is unable to provide continuous connection between 

specific ground stations and are not considered 

operational. 

Two high-powered synchronous-orbit satellites 

make up the present DSCS I1 space segment. On 

May 20, 1975, two additional Phase I1 satellites were 

launched aboard a Titan IIIC vehicle. The third 

stage of the Titan failed to ignite, and both satellites 

were lost. Since the Atlantic DSCS I1 satellite was 

able to accommodate the NATO satellite requirements, NATO authorized the United States to relocate the Atlantic NATO 11-B satellite in the Eastern 

Pacific. Along with limited access to the United 

Kingdom satellite, this gave the U.S. a limited worldwide system. 

In early September 1975, the Atlantic DSCS I1 

satellite experienced problems in antenna-pointing 

accuracy, so the NATO 11-B was moved back to the 

Atlantic. Although the problems on the Atlantic 

DSCS I1 satellite were subsequently corrected, only 

those circuits not provided !through commercial 

means have been restored. The present space segment of the DSCS provides full coverage in the 

Western Pacific and Atlantic areas, limited coverage 

in the Indian Ocean area, and no coverage in the 

Eastern Pacific area. 

The Air Force is on contract for six additional 

DSCS I1 satellites. Delivery of these satellites will be 

accelerated where possible so that the first two satellites of this group can be launched in March 1977. 

In addition, there is the possibility of using one of 

the three future NATO I11 satellites if the need 

arises. 

As for the ground systems, the Army’s first two 

heavy transportable terminals were installed at the 

Satellite Test Center in Sunnyvale, California. The 

Navy installed and activated additional shipboard 

,terminals for operation with the DSCS. Initial production units of digital modulation equipment were 

available for use in the DSCS ground terminals in 

November 1975. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System 

The objective of the Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSATCOM) is to deploy a satellite communications system to satisfy the most urgent, 

worldwide, near-term tactical communications of ,the 

Navy and Air Force. Authorization was granted in 

August 1975 to procure the first flight-model spacecraft, with an option for a second to be exercised 

after completion of a test program in January 1976. 

Production approval for additional spacecraft is 

expected to be granted in 1976. More than 200 

Fleet Satellite Broadcast Receivers have been installed 

aboard ships. Technical and operational evaluations 

of the Common User Digital Information Exchange 

Subsystem have been completed. Development continues on other information exchange subsystems providing high-speed data interchange between ship 

and shore. The first FLTSATCOM launch is projected for late 1977. 

Air Force Satellite Communications System 

‘The Air Force Satellite Communications System 

(AFSATCOM) will provide communications to satisfy high-priority national requirements for command 

and control of strategic forces. The AFSATCOM 

space segment included Air Force Ultra High Frequency (UHF) communications capability on the 

Navy FLTSATCOM spacecraft and the Air Force 

Satellite Data System spacecraft, wi,th global backup 

on other DOD satellites. The AFSATCOM terminal 

segment will consist of airborne, mobile, and fixed 

terminals. Initial operational testing of the strategic 

terminal was completed in 1975. Terminal production is to begin in 1976. 

Army Satellite Communications Activities 

The Army Satellite Communications Ground Environment includes development of strategic and 

tactical satellite communications ground terminals 

for use by all services. Two major projects are the 

DSCS Phase I1 support effort and the Ground 

Mobile Forces Satellite Communications Program. A 

third, smaller project is exploratory development to 

support the two major projects. 

The small terminal contract for test models of 

militarized, highly transportable ground terminals 

was awarded in December 1972. Seven models were 

delivered in June 1975 and are undergoing operational testing. These terminals will provide multichannel communications for the ground mobile forces 

in the field through the DSCS satellites. Engineering 

28 
development has begun on a UHF manpack terminal 

and on a UHF vehicular terminal. 

The interim operational capability has been upgraded and con,tinues to support various contingencies and field exercises. Operational testing through 

the year has assisted further development of concepts for the use of this significant transmission medium in support of combat readiness. 

International Cooperation in Space 

The United States has assisted in the development, 

procurement, and launching of communications satellites for both the United Kingdom and NATO. Since 

both of these systems grew from the US. DSCS 

Phase I system, all three arc interoperable. During 

1975, significant progress was made at U.S., U.K., 

and NATO meetings to improve plans for more 

effective use of SATCOM systems in the event of 

failures. When one of the DSCS satellites failed in 

early September 1975, these international arrangements proved to be very worthwhile sources of international cooperation. The U.S. has provided support to the U.K. and NATO via the DSCS satellites, 

while the U.K. is providing support to the US. via 

their Skynet satellite. NATO has made their NATO 

II-B satellite available to the U.S. in times of need. 

Since 1973 the United States has supported NATO 

in the development and procurement of satellites for 

the NATO Phase I11 SATCOM Program. In 1976 

NASA will provide launch services for the first 

NATO I11 satellite, while the U.S. Air Force will 

provide operational services. 

Progress has continued toward establishing the 

Direct Communications Link (DCL) called for in 

the 1971 agreement between the United States and 

the U.S.S.R. The DCL is to use satellite conimunications circuits via both Intelsat and Molniya. In 

implementing the improved US.-U.S.S.R. Direct 

Conirnunications Link, the Intelsat segment has been 

undergoing end-to-end testing since December 1974, 

and the Soviet Molniya link has been partially tested. 

Navigation Satellite Activities 

The US. Navy Navigation Satellite System 

(TKANSIT) is beginning its second decade of operation. TRANSIT provides a world-wide, two-dimensional system for position fixing at least every two 

hours to an accuracy of less than 200 meters. 

TRANSIT has been adapted for other activities, such 

as offshore oil exploration and the measurement 

of polar motion. Recently developed satellites will 

have greater survivability and longer orbital lifetime. 

These improved satellites are able to compensate 

for orbital disturbances caused by solar radiation 

pressure and atmospheric drag. One such satellite was launched for DOD by NASA in October 

1975, and another is scheduled for launch in 1976. 

TRANSIT will be replaced in the future by the more 

accurate NAVSI’AR Global Positioning System. 

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is a 

joint service development program which will provide a world-wide, continuous position-fixing capability in three dimensions. When operational, 

NAVSTAR will consist of 24 satellites in 17,600- 

kilometer orbits and a ground segment for controlling 

the satellites. Estimates are that some 25,000 ‘to 

35,000 users in almost every kind of military mission 

will use NAVSTAR for navigation and position fixing. With continuously transmitted satellite signals, 

a user will be able to determine his position within 

10 meters and velocity within 0.03 meters p3r second 

in three dimensions. 

validation phase, with the launch of the first satellites 

scheduled in 1976 and 1977. This phase will lead to 

a decision in early 1978 regarding full-scale engineering development of NAVSTAR. During 1975, the 

Joint Program Office has continued to develop the 

prototype NAVSTAR satellites and the user equipment and to plan for support of the Navy’s Improved 

Accuracy Program. Significant progress was made in 

the development of user equipment, including manpack, high-performance, and low-cost models. Civil 

agencies have expressed significant interest in the 

system. 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

The Air Force operates the Joint Service Defense 

Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) , which 

provides timely, high-quality visual and infrared 

weather data to support military operations. Two 

satellites arc maintained in orbit, one providing data 

in the early morning and evening, and the other near 

local noon and midnight. The satellites are in polar, 

Sun-synchronous orbits at an altitude of 720 kilometers and have an orbital period of 102 minutes. 

Weather data from the entire Earth are stored 

aboard the satellites and transmitted to Air Force 

Global Weather Central in Nebraska. In addition. 

real-time imagery of their local area is transmitted 

to mobile readout stations around ,the world to support tactical opcrations. The DOD is cooperating 

with NASA in the development of the Tiros-N domestic weather satellite. ‘Tiros-N will be an adaptation 

of the DMSP vehiclr and will be operated by the 

National Oceanic and Atinosphcric Administration 

(NOAA I. 

Development of NAVSTAli is in the concept- . 

Space Shuttle 

DOD’s participation in the Space Shuttle has increased this past year to keep pace with the NASA 

29 
development program. The Air Force has continued 

its close interface with NASA in various Shuttle 

design reviews and at planning meetings to ensure 

that DOD requirements are being incorporated into 

the evolving design. In early September 1975, the 

Air Force chose an expendable, solid-propellant 

concept for validation and development of the Interim Upper Stage (IUS). Choice of a solid-fueled 

as opposed to a liquid-fueled IUS is expected to 

provide advantages in unit and life-cycle costs, as 

well as high overall reliability. The IUS will be used 

with the Shuttle by both DOD and NASA until the 

NASA-developed upper stage is available in the mid1980s. The IUS will be ready for use at Kennedy 

Space Center when the Shuttle launch complex becomes operational in 1980. DOD payloads that require low-inclination or high-altitude orbits will begin 

using the Shuttle at that time. 

DOD plans West Coast Shuttle launch and landing facilities at Vandenberg AFR, California, with 

an cxpected operational date of December 1982. 

DOD payloads requiring polar or near-polar orbits 

will begin using the Shuttle at Vandenberg shortly 

afterwards. 

Space Boosters 

The Atlas and Titan I11 standard launch vehicles 

and the surplus IRBM SM-75 Thor and surplus 

ICBM Atlas E/F vehicles comprise the DOD family 

of space boosters. During 1975 there were seven 

Titan I11 launches, including one unsuccessful SM75 Thor launch, one successful Atlas-Agena launch, 

and one unsuccessful Atlas F launch in 1975. 

Space Ground Support 

DOD Range, Tracking, and Data 

Acquisition Facilities 

Department of Defense space activities are principally supported by the Air Force’s Eastern Test 

Range, Space and Missile Test Center, Satellite Control Facility, and Arnold Engineering Davelopment 

Center; the Army’s White Sands Missile Range and 

Kwajalein Missile Rangc ; and thc Navy’s Pacific 

Missile Test Center. These facilities also support n 

wide variety of test and cvaluation activities and are 

available to DOD, other Federal agencies, industry, 

and international agencics that may require their 

support. 

Eastern Trst Range (ETR). During 1975 the 

Air Force ETR provided launch, tracking, and data 

acquisition support to a variety of DOD space and 

ballistic missile operations, NASA space science programs, and commercial communications satellitc 

launches under the overall sponsorship of NASA. 

Test support was provided also for the SKAM, an 

Air Force air-launched missile, and the COMPASS 

COPE drone. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Program, conducted in cooperation with the U.S.S.R., was successfully completed. Modernization and improvement of 

range instrumentation and associated supporting systems continued, with I emphasis on telemetry, radar 

tracking, range safety, real-time data distribution, and 

adaptation of selected instrumentation to a mobile 

configuration. These improvements enhance the ETR 

capability to meet user requirements, increase the 

efficiency of instrumentation, and provide flexibility 

to support the broad variety of test programs. Preliminary planning and assessment of the ETR role 

in the Space Shuttle Program was initiated in cooperation with NASA and the Air Force Space and 

Missile System Organization. 

Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC) . SAMTEC manages, operates, and maintains the Western Test Range, a national range, in support of DOD, 

NASA, and others. SAMTEC provides range tracking, data acquisition, and flight safety support for all 

ballistic missile and space launches from Vandenberg 

Air Force Rase, California. The number of launches 

has remained essentially constant at approximately 

65 ballistic and space launches per year. SAMTEC 

has again experienced an increase in aircraft testing, principally in the Offshore Test Arm over the 

Pacific. 

SAMTEC has been actively engaged in planning 

for the first Space Shuttle launch from Vandenberg 

AFB. Extensive construction will be required for 

launch, maintenance, and logistic facilities. SAMTEC 

has continued to iinprove and modernize thc range 

instrumentation, with emphasis on the range telemetry system. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF) . In 1975, the SCF 

supported a workload of 23 launches, over 51,000 

satellite contacts, and nearly 53,000 network support 

hours. To reduce costs, one of the SCF network’s 

ten worldwide satellite tracking stations, Kodiak 

Tracking Station, was deactivated. Work is progressing on improvement of communication and data 

systems. Replacement of the on-line computers at 

the Satellite Test Center is nearly completed, and 

scveral of the new mission control centers have been 

completed. Development efforts arc underway on the 

support capability for the DOD/NASA Space Transportation System. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center (AEDC). 

AEDC provides cnvironrnental simulation testing 

for major aeronautical, missile, and space programs 

under development. AEDC has 40 ground cnvironmental test facilities, of which over half are unique 

because of one or more of the inajor test parameters 

they simulate. AEDC supported a wide variety of 

testing, ranging from basic’ R&D investigations to 

30 
scale-model testing. In addition there is full-scale 

flight hardware testing at AEDC. Major DOD programs supported include F-15, B-1, Advanced Ballistic Reentry Systems, Minuteman, Trident, and Advanced Combat Fighter. AEDC also supported 

NASA’s propulsion, aerodynamics, and Shuttle 

testing. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). The 

Army’s WSMR continued to provide support to 

DOD and NASA aeronautics and space programs. 

A full spectrum of launch, flight, and recovery services was provided, including ground and flight safety, 

surveillance, command and control, and data acquisition and analysis. Army and Air Force programs 

included sounding rockets and atmospheric-measurement balloons. NASA support included the Skylab 

calibration rockets, R&D and operational balloons, 

upper atmosphere rocket soundings using the Aerobee 

rocket, numerous smaller rockets, and astronomical 

test programs. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR) . The Army’s 

Kwajalein Missile Range conmtinued to provide, maintain, and operate a national range to support technological advances in both offensive and defensive 

strategic weapon test programs. KMR is our only 

range with the technical capability to obtain critical 

data associated with terminal ballistics of intercontinental ballistic missiles. KMR radars have also 

provided back-up tracking data for NASA’s space 

program. By agreement between the U.S. and Japan, 

a temporary down-range tracking station was established on Kwajalein to support two launches in the 

Japanese space program. 

Pacific Missile Test Center (PMTC). During 

1975 the PMTC (formerly Pacific Missile Range) 

provided support to DOD and NASA in missile, 

aeronautics, and space activities. PMTC provided 

support range services for most launches from Vandenberg, including NASA’s Landsat 2, Geos 3, Nimbus 6, and COS-B launches. PMTC aircraft provided real-time telemetry reception and data transmission from the ATS-6, ATS-1, and ATS-3 satellites 

to the NASA Goldstone, California, tracking site for 

real-time relay through the NASA tracking network. 

Space Research and Technology 

Space Scieltce 

The Navy 

is conducting research to measure and forecast solar 

parameters and their effects on electromagnetic systems. A significant part of this program is the SOLRAD-HI project, which places two Sun-oriented 

satellites in 1 12,000-kilometer circular orbits. These 

Solar Radiation Monitoring Program. 

satellites will measure solar X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, and particle emissions. The spacecraft have been 

completed and will be launched along with several 

other satellites on a single Titan I11 booster in 

February 1976 as part of the space test program. 

Environmental Remote Sensing. The Navy established in 1975 an Environmental Remote Sensing 

Coordinating and Advisory Committee. This committee is tasked to ensure research and development 

toward efficient remote sensing for obtaining allweather global environmental data. 

The scope of Navy activities in calendar year 

1975 included the following: ( 1) application of data 

from DOD, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) , and NASA aircraft and space 

platforms; (2) development and implementation of 

data acquisition and analysis; and (3) work on prediction and dissemination technology for operational 

fleet support. Thermal infrared, visual imagery, and 

sea-surface temperature maps were used to improve 

the effectiveness of coastal surveys. Visual, thermal 

infrared, and passive microwave images and maps 

from DOD, NOAA, and NASA aircraft and satellites 

were used in support of research experiments, fleet 

exercises, and logistic operations in the Arctic. 

Experiments for the development of sensors for 

Clobal all-weather measurement of sea-surface roughness, temperature, surface winds, and salinity by 

radar altimeter and microwave radiometers were carried out, using Geos 3 and Skylab data. Close liaison 

has been established with NASA and NOAA for 

cooperative planning of experiments and effective 

data utilization from future missions of Tiros-N, 

Nimbus-G, Seasat-A, and Goes satellites. 

Gamma Ray Spectrometer Experiments. Fabrication and component testing of a second-generation, 

high-resolution gamma ray spectrometer and charged 

particle detector are continuing in preparation for 

launch in the spring of 1978. These instruments will 

permit the detection, tracking, and analysis of radioactive debris from nuclear explosions, as well as provide measurements of upper atmospheric contamination by nuclear bursts. This experiment is a followon to an instrument package launched in October 

1972, which surveyed the radiation background in 

the upper atmosphere and near space, and which 

demonstrated that instrumentation could locate radioactive sources and therefore could monitor and 

measure effects of nuclear explosions on the environment. Improved detectors and state-of-the-art mechanical sensor cooling in the forthcoming experiment will permit long-term monitoring and analysis of upper atmospheric and near-space gamma radiation and will provide data for design of sensors for 

operational space systems. 

31 
Space Sureeillame 

The purpose of the Space Surveillance Program is 

to develop and demonstrate new optical techniques 

that will significantly reduce the cost of systems that 

search for and automatially detect space objects. 

Activity includes data gathering on current space objects, using the Maui Optical Station. These data will 

form a catalog of target signatures needed for detailed systems design. A new generation of sensors 

with very large formats, employing advanced readout 

and data processing schemes, is under development. 

The final phase of this multi-year program will be 

verification experiments to demonstrate the capabilities of these advanced sensors for autonomous 

surveillance of space. Ground tests will take place at 

the Maui Optical Station. The program will provide 

a base of demonstrated technology for cost-effective 

improvement of the Space Surveillance and Detection Tracking System (SPADATS) . Since 1972 the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) 

has been involved in a broad research program to 

advance the technologies for space-object identification. Both optical and radar techniques are being refined, developed, and demonstrated to measure the 

physical characteristics of space objects. Transfer of 

this technology to the services is underway. Millimeter-wave-imaging techniques are approaching the 

point where demonstration of their potential is possible. A program to develop a wideband laser imaging radar is also underway. In the optical area, 

sensors are being developed to measure the effects of 

atmospheric turbulence on pictures of space objects 

taken by large ground-based telescopes. Removal of 

the atmospherically imposed distortions will greatly 

improve the present image quality. A verification 

test of an atmospheric correction imaging system is 

planned for the Maui Optical Station. Radar and optical techniques developed under DARPA sponsorship will obtain diagnostic information on our own 

satellites and serve as a prime source of technology 

for improvement of the Space Surveillance and 

Detection Tracking System. 

Space Object Identification. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Aircraft ad Aircraft Systems 

During 1975 

the F-16 was selected as 'the air combat fighter for 

the U.S. Air Force. The Air Force plans to procure 

650 aircraft to modernize its tactical fighter force. 

In June 1975 the European Consortium (Belgium, 

Denmark, the Netherlands, and Norway) entered 

into a formal commitment to purchase the F-16 to 

replace its aging F-104 fighter. The European ConF-16 Air Combat Fighter Program. 

sortium will share in the production of the aircraft 

and plans to purchase 348. 

The F-16 air combat fighter is designed to meet 

the air combat challenges of 1980-1990. Furthermore, it will provide a lower cost fighter to complement the F-15. 

The F-15 Air SUperiority Fighter Development Program is nearing 

completion and ,the Tactical Air Command completed one year of training experience in November 

1975. Over 4500 hours have been flown in the 

vigorous F-15 test program with excellent performance results. 

In 1975 the 

Navy selected the F-18 as the Navy air combat 

fighter. This aircraft will replace the remaining 

Navy and Marine Corps F-4 Phantom fighters. An 

attack version of the F-18 will replace the aging 

A-7 light attack aircraft in the mid-1980s. Introduction of this aircraft into the fleet will provide the 

tactical commander at sea with a high performance, 

agile strike fighter capable of defeating the projected air threat and surviving over hostile territory. 

The F-18, though not as sophisticated as the F-14, 

will complement the F-14 in maintaining maritime 

air superiority. 

In early 

1975 two F-14A squadrons returned from their first 

extended deployment to the Western PacificlIndian 

Ocean. The F-14A compiled the most successful 

fleet introduction record of any new Navy aircraft. 

The two East Coast F-14A squadrons completed deployment on schedule and are on the U.S.S. John F. 

Kennedy in the Mediterranean. Two additional 

F- 14A squadrons are completing 'transition on 

schedule and were assigned to the U.S.S. Constellation in late 1975. The F-14A has proven to be a 

highly maneuverable and agile fighter, demonstrating 

its air superiority capability in impressive fashion. 

The F-14A continued to demonstrate its multitrack, multi-shot Phoenix air-to-air missile, completinq 21 successful launches with a success rate of 

90 percent. 

The objective of the 

Air Force's Wild Weasel research and development 

program is to design, fabricate, and flight-test a 

system that will give strike aircraft the capability to 

search out and destroy hostile radar systems. This will 

greatly improve the effectiveness of tactical forces in 

suppression of air defenses. In 1975, the follow-on 

R&D and pilot modification programs proceeded on 

schedule. The Wild Weasel is being designed to be 

comDatible with the next generation of anti-radiation 

missiles. Plans are underway to modify a significant 

number of newer F-4s with the Wild Weasel avionics 

system. 

F-15 Air Superiority Fighter. 

F-18 Carrier-Based Strike Fighter. 

F-14A Carrier-Based Tactical Fighter. 

F-4 Wild Weasel Avionics. 

32 
AV-8B VSTOL Light Attack Aircraft. The AV8B is the advanced version of the Marine Corps AV8A Harrier. Design refinements and aerodynamic 

changes will yield significant range/payload improvements over the current operational AV-8A. The 

AV-8B will replace the Marine Corps AV-8A and 

A-4M light attack aircraft as they reach the end of 

their service. It will provide the Marine Corps wilth 

a flexibility of basing that is especially suited for 

optimum support of amphibious operations. 

The A-10 development program entered the low-rate production 

phase late in 1975 with the delivery of the first production aircraft. All six test and evaluation aircraft 

were delivered, and development tests required prior 

to a decision on full-production were completed with 

excellent results. The test and evaluation aircraft 

performed well from a maintenance standpoint also. 

Maintenance manhours per flight hour are very low 

and the operational readiness criteria are being exceeded by 40 percent. One fuselage frame failed in 

fatigue testing, but a fix has been identified that 

should cause minimal impact to the program and 

have no adverse effect upon performance. 

The Air Force is developing the B-1 aircraft to modernize the strategic bomber 

force in order to maintain a credible manned bomber 

element of the strategic Triad in lthe 1980s and be 

yond. The first of four Research, Development, Test, 

and Evaluation (RDT&E) aircraft began flight test 

in December 1974. Significant accomplishments during 1975 included the first supersonic flight and 

aerial refueling. 

The second RDT&E aircraft underwent a series 

of static-proof load tests duplicating the conditions 

that will be encountered in flight. Having successfully completed these tests, Ithe aircraft was returned to 

tk.2 manufacturing facility for installation of hydraulic and electrical equipment. Its first flight is scheduled for the latter half of 1976. 

The third RDT&E aircraft has completed major 

assembly and is starting its system checkout. It will 

be the first B-1 aircraft to have a full offensive avionics system. Flightt testing is scheduled for the first 

half of 1976. 

Congressional approval has been given for the 

fourth RDT&E aircrafit, which will be used for defensive avionics testing in 1978-1979. 

COMPASS COPE Remotely Piloted Vehicle 

(RPV). The COMPASS COPE is a high-altitude, 

long-endurance RPV which is being developed to 

perform communications relay and surveillance tasks. 

Two different prototype aircraft have been built. Both 

designs are basically jet-powered sailplanes with a 

high proportion of gross weight allocated to fuel. 

During 1975 extended prototype flight testing 

A-IO Close Air Support Aircraft. 

B-I Bomber Program. 

took place at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, in which hands-off automatic landing of the aircraft was demonstrated. A decision on continued 

development will be made in 1976. 

Heavy Lift Helicopter (HLH). The original 

HLH program goal was to develop a tandem-rotor, 

three-engine, crane-type helicopter designed to carry 

bulk cargo externally, to off-load containerships, 

and to move heavy tactical equipment. A newly developed fly-by-wire flight control system, slated to be 

an an advanced technology component for the HLH, 

was successfully demonstrated in flight, and tests of 

components of this control system were completed in 

March 1975. An austere prototype was being built 

to validate these advances, and first flight of lthe 

prototype HLH had been scheduled for April 1976. 

However, under (the direction of Congress, the Army 

is terminating this program. 

Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST). 

The Advanced STOL (Short Takeoff and Landing) 

Transport program involves two advanced development prototypes (the YC-14 and YC-15) built by 

competing contractors to demonstrate STOL technology and the operational utility of STOL designs. 

The YC-15 had its first flight in late August 1975 

and is proceeding with a successful flight test program. Final assembly of the YC-14 was begun in 

July 1975; it is scheduled for its first flight in 

August 1976. 

The AMST is designed to provide improved shortfield performance, higher speed, an outsize cargo 

capability, and greater productivity than is possible 

with current tactical airlift aircraft. 

Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft S y s t e ni 

(UTTAS). The UTTAS helicopter is designed to 

transport 1 1 combat-equipped troops, resupply them 

while in combat, and perform aeromedical evacuation and repositioning of reserves. Replacing the 

UH-IH, its increased payload will reduce the number of troop-transport helicopters. 

In August 1972, contracts were awarded for the 

production of three prototypes. Since then, each 

prototype has flown approximately 400 hours; a decision on the final prototype design is slated to come 

in 1976. 

YCH-53E Helicopter. The YCH-53E helicopter 

completed its first Navy preliminary evaluation tests 

in February 1975. The program entered the engineering development phase in April 1975 with authorization to fabricate two pre-production prototypes and a 

static-teslt article. Tests on recent modifications (a 

new horizontal stabilizer, new set of improved rotor 

blades, and changes to the automatic flight control 

33 
system) continue in preparation for the second Navy 

Preliminary Evaluation scheduled for the end of 

1975. When operational, 'the YCH-53E will sign& 

cantly upgrade the amphibious forces' heavy-lift 

capability. 

The AAH 

is a <two-phase development program. The first phase 

is aimed at obtaining the best airframe and will 

culminate in a fly-off between two competing designs. The full mission equipment will be developed 

and integrated in the second phase. Significant milestones were achieved during 1975. Both prototypes 

completed 50 hours of ground preacceptance tests. 

First flights occurred for both prototypes in late 1975. 

Phase I is scheduled for completion in November 

1976. 

Cobra/TO W Helicopter. The Army Cobra/ 

TOW program includes retrofit of the TOW antitank missile system in 290 existing Cobra helicopters and purchase of new aircraft equipped with 

TOW (Tube Launched Optically Track Wire 

Guided) missiles. Deliveries of retrofitted Cobra/ 

TOW helicopters began in June 1975. Tests of 

the uprated engine, transmission, and dynamic 

components for Improve Cobra Agility and Maneuverability (ICAM) and flight tests of two 

prototypes with ICAM components were successfully 

completed in 1975. These ICAM components will be 

incorporated in new AH-1S and the 290 retrofitted 

AH- 1 S Cobra/TOW helicopters. In addition, a 

Marine Corps program provides for new procurement of the 'twin-engine Seacobra AH-1 J with modcifications to include the TOW missile system. Qualification tests of the uprated engines for the Seacobra 

were completed in early 1975. 

E-3A Airborne Warning and Control System 

(AWACS) . The E-3A provides all-altitude air, sea, 

and ground surveillance with command, control, and 

communication functions. It can be deployed worldwide with strike forces to meet the requirement for 

survivable air defense surveillance and control. It 

can also be deployed rapidly to provide for a tactical 

command/control capability. 

In February 1975, the Secretary of Defense certified 

the effectiveness of the E-3A. This cedfication was 

founded on the results of the extensive system integration demonstration in 1974, on the report by a group 

of independent technical experts on radar and electromagnetic-countermeasures, and on exhaustive DOD 

analyses. Congressional hearings on the certification 

were held in March 1975, and production funds for 

six E-3As in Fiscal Year 1975 were approved. First 

delivery of an operational aircraft is scheduled for 

Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH). 

November 1976. Fabrication of the three p~-pr~- 

duction development test and evaluation prototypes 

has continued, and flight tests began in 1975. 

The first step toward a NATO acquisition program 

for an Airborne Early Warning (AEW) system, based 

on the E-3A, took place in April-May 1975. An 

embryonic NATO AEW Program Office was established and began a contract definition study for an 

AEW system. The NATO Defense Ministers will 

consider procurement in June 1976. 

E-4A/B Advanced Airborne Command Post (AABNCP). The E-4A/B will proyide the National 

Command Authorities and Strategic Air Command 

with a significantly improved and highly survivable 

airborne command, control, and communications center that would operate during all phases of a general 

war. The three interim E-4As achieved operational 

status at Andrews AFB in support of the National 

Command Authorities in September 1975. The fourth 

aircraft, a Boeing 747, was accepted by the Air Force 

in August 1975. Advanced command, control, and 

communications equipment is being developed for 

integration into this aircraft. 

EF-I I IA Tactical Jamming System (TJS) . A 38- 

month contract was awarded in January 1975 for 

two prototype EF-1 1 1A TJS aircraft for research, 

development, test, and evaluation. When developed, 

the EF-111A will be used primarily to support 

counter-air, close air support, interdiction, and reconnaissance sorties. The peacetime mission will be to 

provide worldwide training for air defense and tactical forces. The preliminary design phase was completed in September 1975 and aerodynamic flight 

testing began the next month. 

Aero?Mtltical Research am? Technology 

Aircraft Structure and Materials Technology. Significant progress was made in 1975 in advanced composite structures and materials technology by all 

three services. 

The Air Force completed a program using the F15 wing as the design baseline to demonstrate the 

technology in construction of primary structures. The 

test wing had a composite torque box and metal leading and trailing edges and ,tips and control surfaces. 

Extensive static-load testing and 500 hours of fatigue 

testing showed that the full-scale composite wing satisfied all structural requirements imposed by the F-15 

design. A weight saving of 18 percent, or 170 kilograms, over the existing metal torque box was 

achieved. Another project using the YF-16 forward 

fuselage as the design baseline component is nearing 

completion. The composite parts are collectively 2 1 

percent lighter than the replaced metal items. The 

horizonal stabilizer torque box of the B-1 aircraft, 

34 
the largest advanced-composite article to date, is 

slated for testing during 1976. 

The Navy components that have completed laboratory static and fatigue tests include the S-3 spoiler, 

F-14 overwing fairing, F-14 main landing gear door, 

and a wing for the BQM-34E supersonic target 

vehicle. An additional 70 composite components are 

being fabricated for operational aircraft and will be 

monitored over a five-year period to answer critical 

technical questions as well as to increase confidence 

with graphite composites. The Navy also began 

development of a fiberglass composite rotor blade to 

replace the H-46 metal rotor blade. The fiberglass 

rotor blade is designed to be corrosion resistant and 

to be insensitive to small defects. 

The Army has designed a monocoque-sandwich 

aft fuselage for future tactical and utility helicopters. 

Indications are that composite rotor blades and airframe structures can provide significant cost advantages and greatly reduced radar reflectivity. Development of composite materials for aircraft windshields 

using surface-coated polycarbonates, glass/polycarbonates, and transparent crystallized glass will produce windshields that are more abrasion and impact 

resistant and also have improved ballistic properties. 

Finally, the Army has developed a process for fabricating integral sheet-stringer-frame structures from 

composite materials, applicable as a hybrid composite 

design for a CH-53 fuselage. 

Advanced Helicopter Rotor System. The Advanced Helicopter Rotor System is intended to prove 

the flight feasibility of the Circulation Control Rotor 

(CCR) concept with a full-scale system to establish 

design-to-cost goals and trade-off parameters. CCR 

is to be capable of replacing all existing helicopter 

rotor systems without any inherent operational limitation. The CCR system operates on the basic principle of a rotor blade with a trailing-edge boundarylayer blowing system. Cyclic control is provided by 

air modulation, eliminating many conventional rotorhead complexities and reducing vibration levels. In 

January 1975 a contract was awarded for a 42-month, 

incrementally-funded program to demonstrate CCR 

feasibility. 

Helicopter Noise Research. Acoustic detectability 

is a major factor in helicopter survivability. A new 

technique has been developed for measurement of 

helicopter far-field impulsive noise in flight. New 

data have been obtained, for example, on noise in 

the “blade-slap” condition. Other measurements 

made in wind tunnels agree with flight data. These 

results will expand the data base for helicopter noisereduction efforts. 

Advancing Blade Concept (ABC) Demonstration 

Vehicle. The ABC development program was initiated by the Army in December 1971. The program 

includes fabrication and flight test of two aircraft to 

verify and demonstrate the concept. The ABC demonstrator is equipped wi’th two coaxial, counter-rotating hingeless rotors. This concept offers several POtential advantages over conventional rotor systems: 

problems of retreating blade stall would be largely 

eliminated, maneuver capability significantly enhanced, and maintenance eased. The first aircraft was 

involved in an accident in August 1973. Following a 

comprehensive accident investigation, the program 

was restructured and flight testing was resumed in 

July 1975 with a modified flight control system. The 

current test aircraft has flown over 12 hours at 

speeds up to 60 knots. 

A major success 

in the Army’s aeronautical propulsion research program has been the development of efficient methods 

of analytical design for small high-temperature combustors. Two combustors designed to reduce levels 

of emissions have demonstrated a 50 percent reduction. Another success was the achievement of singlestage pressure ratio of 10: 1 at 78.4 percent efficiency 

for the 3- to 5-pounds-per-second class of compressors. 

The increase in compression ratio means at least a 

20 percent reduction in specific fuel consumption for 

future gas turbines. 

Engineering development of the T700 engine, which 

began in March 1972, is on schedule. The preliminary 

flight-rating test was completed in July 1974. Emphasis on ease of maintenance, plus its modular 

aspect, will significantly reduce costs over the lifetime 

of this engine. 

Initial results from the Small Turbine Advanced 

Gas Generator (STAGG) Program indicate that increased specific power and reduced specific fuel consumption have been achieved. STAGG technology 

will support future Army aircraft and auxiliary 

power plants of the 200-to- 1000 shaft-horsepower 

range. 

One low-emission combustor has been incorporated 

into an updated T63 engine to increase tolerance to 

water injection, which had previously caused flameout. The XT701 engine, which was selected to power 

the prototype heavy-lift helicopter, completed a preliminary flight-rating test on schedule in March 1975. 

A T39 aircraft with JT12 engines was test-flown 

from Ohio to Texas on JP-4 fuel made from shale 

oil-the first turbine aircraft to fly on this synthetic 

fuel. A joint Air Force/Navy program was initiated 

for an engine to demonstrate turbofan technology 

necessary for powerplants of the next decade. 

US. Army Avionics. Aircraft at four major Army 

installations with the highest density of air traffic 

have been equipped with Proximity Warning Devices (PWD) . The pilot receives a visual and aural 

warning whenever an “intruder” enters a certain 

volume of airspace around his own aircraft. There 

have been no mid-air collisions between PWDResearch in Aircraft Propulsion. 

35 
equipped aircraft. The Army, with ‘the other services 

and the FAA, is studying a national collision avoidance system. 

A Laser Obstacle Terrain Avoidance Warning 

System (LOWTAWS) has been fabricated to make 

tactical nap-of-the-earth flight safer and more effective by detecting terrain variations and obstacles. 

Flight tests are planned for Fiscal Year 1976. 

Finally, development of phase-front-homing technique will be applied to the AN/ARC-114 VHF/FM 

radios now installed in Army aircraft. Modification of 

circuitry in the radios and the use of a small antenna 

adapter will enable the pilot to home to a tactical 

FM transmitter with significant improvement in accuracy and in “flyability” of the displayed indications. 

Other benefits associated with phase-front-homing 

include less complex antennas, less concern for antenna placement, and potential use of the modified 

radio as a low-cost hover sensor and automatic direction finder. 

Tactical Airborne Signals Exploitation System 

(TASES) . The Navy’s TASES program is developing a multi-sensor, tactical electronic warfare support 

system for carrier-based aircraft. Its primary task 

will be to provide real-time tactical electronic warfare and surveillance information to the operational 

commander at sea. Electronic, communications, infrared, and radar sensors will be integrated into an 

S-3A aircraft. The three crewmen will be assisted in 

processing and correlating intercepted data by a 

highly automated sensor management system. TASES 

is intended to cope with the complexities of the 

electromagnetic environment projected for 1980-1990. 

Relationship with NASA 

Aeronuutics and Astronautics Coordinuting Board 

The AACB, the principal formal coordinating body 

between DOD and NASA, met three times in 1975. 

The Aeronautics Panel of the AACB reevaluated 

the National Aeronautical Facilities Program in the 

light of rapidly escalating costs. The primary purpose 

was to determine the feasibility of a single, highReynolds-number, transonic tunnel to meet both research and development needs. The final report concluded that a single National Transonic Facility 

(NTF) was feasible. On June 2, 1975, the AACB 

Go-chairmen signed a memorandum agreeing that 

NASA would provide the facility. The NTF is included in NASA’s current funding plans. The two 

other facilities in the National Aeronautical Facilities 

Program are the NASA 40-x-80-foot subsonic wind 

tunnel modification and the Air Force Aeropropulsion System Test Facility (ASTF) . ASTF is in the 

DOD funding plan. 

(AACB) 

The new minimum cost concept for the Space 

Shuttle baseline launch and landing facilities for 

Vandenberg AFB was reviewed by the Board. The use 

of Edwards AFB as the primary landing site was 

shown to be less effective and more costly than use 

of Vandenberg AFB. A Memorandum of Understanding on Management .and Operation of the Space 

Transportation System (STS) was signed by the Air 

Force and NASA; it establishes the broad policies that 

will govern relationships between DOD and NASA 

relevant to the development, acquisition, and operation of the national STS. Space Shuttle’s payload environment problems, alternative solutions, and payload costs, along with Shuttle operating costs, were 

considered by the Board. 

Joint Programs 

Rotor System Research Aircraft (RSRA). This 

joint Army-NASA program will evaluate the potential of promising new advanced rotor concepts, as 

well as verify numerous areas of supporting research 

and technology. The design of the research aircraft 

is essentially completed, except in two areas. First, 

analysis and simulation studies using wind tunnel data 

indicated the need for a fail-operational stability augmentation system to ensure flight safety. Second, extensive analysis of the rotor Active Isolation/Balance 

System indicated that changes were desirable in the 

proposed configuration to enhance adaptability to a 

wide range of advanced rotors. First flight of the 

RSRA is scheduled for July 1976. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft. The Tilt Rotor 

Research Aircraft, a joint Army-NASA program, 

will lead to a complete flight demonstration of the 

tilt-rotor concept and an evaluation of tilt-rotor 

capabilities with respect to mission performance, survivability, and safety. On August 1, 1973, a contract 

was awarded for the design, fabrication, and testing 

of two XV-15 Tilt Rotor Aircraft. The fuselage 

structure for the first aircraft has been completed and 

systems are being installed. Many other components, 

including the Automatic Flight Control System, engines, and major wing and blade structures have been 

completed. Powered tests of the rotor and controls 

are scheduled to be conducted in the NASA Ames 

40-x-80-foot wind tunnel late in 1975 to explore 

autorotation characteristics and expand the boundaries of previous tests of conversion from hover to 

forward flight. Rollout of the first XV-15 will occur 

in early 1976, to be followed by extensive ground 

testing and wind tunnel tests. First flight is scheduled 

for 1977. 

Rotor downwash, trailing tip vortex, and bound circulation on 

the blade of a teetering rotor model have been measured in the NASA Ames 7-x-10-foot wind tunnel 

Rotor Flow Field Test Techniques. 

36 
with a laser velocimeter. Color Schlieren techniques 

have been developed and demonstrated. A doppler 

laser has been used to make wake measurements behind the oscillating yaw rig in the NASA Langley 

7-x-lO-foot wind tunnel. Oscillating airfoil equipment 

has been designed and fabricated for test in the Langley transonic wind tunnel. A program has been initiated to provide measurement of local rotor-blade 

angle of attack in flight and various sensors have been 

studied for applicability to the research. Advanced 

laser velocimeter methods that provide three-dimensional measurements in the rotor flow field are being 

investigated. All these research investigations in rotor 

flow field test techniques are joint Army-NASA efforts. 

The X-24B was built by a 

joint Air Force-NASA program to explore the lowspeed flying qualities of a hypersonic lifting body. 

After 33 flights, this program was concluded successfully during 1975, 

X-24B Lifting Body. 

37 
IV 5 @ Department of Cornrnerce 

% Q Q 

+4rEs of 

Introduction 

The Department of Commerce program in aeronautics and space activities is carried out by the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 

the National Bureau of Standards, the Office of 

Telecommunications, the Maritime Administration, 

and the Bureau of the Census. 

The broad goals of these agencies include programs to ensure that the environment and its resources are wisely used ; to strengthen, advance, and 

facilitate application of science and technology for 

the public benefit; to improve ship communications, 

navigation, safety, and operations; to provide 

specialized engineering, management, and advisory 

assistance to other Federal agencies in telecommunications applications; and to provide information on 

population trends, urban growth, and internal 

demography of national land areas. 

These goals have been or are being reached by 

establishing and maintaining an operational satellite 

system; by continuing programs for monitoring and 

predicting marine resources; by monitoring our 

marine environment continuously with improved 

sensors on ships, aircraft, and satellites; by improving 

our weather observations and forecasts through the 

use of automated observation stations, improved 

radar systems, and continued atmospheric research 

programs; by conducting research in weather modification; by improving data collection, processing, and 

dissemination techniques; by providing basic measurement and calibration methods for operating technical 

systems and for engineering data on the design and 

construction of sophisticated space and aeronautics 

equipment; by installing, testing, and evaluating 

shipboard satellite equipment; by conducting electromagnetic wave propagation studies for the improvement of aerospace communications; and by applying 

imagery to demographic studies. 

Satellites in Environmental Monitoring 

and Prediction 

Emironmental Satellite Operations 

On January 1, 1975, the National Environmental 

Satellite Service (NESS) of the National Oceanic and 

38 

Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) was operating 

four polar-orbiting satellites: Essa 8 of the TIROS 

Operational Satellite (TOS) series and NOAA-2, 

NOAA-3, and NOAA-4 of the Improved TOS 

(ITOS) series. Essa 8 has been providing data to 

users of Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) on 

a worldwide basis for nearly seven years. NOAA-4 

has been the primary global data-gathering satellite 

throughout 1975, NOAA-3 was placed on 

operational standby in December 1974 and serves as 

a backup to NOAA-4, and NOAA-2 was deactivated on January 30, 1975. ITOS-E2 (to be named 

NOAA-5 when in orbit) was scheduled for launch 

in July 1975. Its launch was deferred month by 

month because NOAA-4 continued to operate satisfactorily, and NOAA-3 was an adequate backup. 

ITOS-E2 will be launched when needed. 

On February 6, 1975, NASA launched the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite, SMS-2, the second 

and final prototype for the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system. 

SMS-2 was placed in geostationary orbit, 35,785 

kilometers above the equator at 115" West longitude. 

The instrument and communication systems are 

identical to those on SMS-1: a Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer (VISSR) , a Space Environment Monitor, a Data Collection System 

(DCS) , and a Weather Facsimile broadcast system. 

SMS-1, located over the equator at 75" West long& 

tude, and SMS-2, together provide a viewing of the 

area from 70' N to 70' S and westward from 5' W 

to 175" E. Full-disc pictures are acquired at 30-minUte intervals from the VISSR instruments on each of 

the spacecraft. This permits nearly continuous viewing of severe storms and helps weather forecasters to 

provide the public with timely warnings. 

Goes 1, the first NOAA operational version of 

SMS, was launched on October 16, 1975, into geostationary orbit 35,769 kilometers over the equator 

at 55' West longitude. Goes 1 carries the same 

instrument and communication systems as SMS-1 

and 2. Late in 1975, SMS-2 was moved to 135' W, 

arriving on station December 19, 1975. Goes 1 

would move to 75' W, replacing SMS-1 as the 

eastern operational satellite, in January 1976. SMS-1 
would then move to 105O W in February 1976 and 

be placed on operational stand-by. 

Development is continuing on the third generation 

of polar-orbiting satellites, the Tiros-N series. These 

satellites, destined to replace the current ITOS system, will provide more accurate data for environmental monitoring and prediction. The instruments 

to be included are the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer, the TIROS Operational Vertical 

Sounder, the Space Environment Monitor, and the 

Data Collection and Platform Location system. The 

NASA prototype of Tiros-N is scheduled for launch 

in early 1978. 

Because of the higher data rate, the fully digital 

data system, and the increased operational demand 

for timely delivery of processed data, a new ground 

system is needed to accommodate the data from the 

Tiros-N. This ground system, incorporating as many 

parts of the ITOS system as practicable, will consist 

of two major subsystems: the Data Acquisition and 

Control Subsystem (DACS) and the Data Processing and Services Subsystem (DPSS) . DACS comprises the equipment. for the Wallops, Virginia, and 

Gilmore Creek, Alaska, Command and Data Acquisition (CDA) stations; the Satellite Operations Control Center (SOCC) ; and the interconnecting 

communications between the CDAs, SOCC, and 

DPSS. DPSS consists of NESS data processing facilities and interfaces with the NOAA large-scale 

central computing capability. 

Uses of Environmental Satellite Data 

A longterm goal of NESS is to develop a system for monitoring global atmospheric temperature and wind 

profiles that is operationally independent of the worldwide radiosonde network. Vertical Temperature 

Profile Radiometer (VTPR) data obtained from 

NOAA satellites have contributed toward this goal. 

VTPR soundings are used routinely in the National 

Meteorological Center’s numerical weather prediction 

program. NESS continues research toward development of satellite instruments and analysis methods 

that can determine the vertical temperature structure 

of the atmosphere and the global distributions of 

atmospheric constituents such as water vapor, carbon 

dioxide, and ozone, all of which influence the accuracy of measurements. The High Resolution Infrared Radiation Sounder (HIRS) experiment was 

carried on Nimbus 6, launched on June 12, 1975. 

The HIRS is a third-generation instrument with new 

features, one of which is measurement in the 4.3- 

micrometer COz band. This should greatly improve 

soundings of the atmospheric temperature to the 

40-kilometer level and of the water vapor profile to 

the 10-kilometer level. 

Vertical Temperature and Wind Profiles. 

Both SMS-1 and SMS-2 visible and infrared 

images are being used to derive wind vectors from 

cloud motions. Infrared data are used to determine 

cloud-top temperatures and cloud heights, which 

enable wind vectors to be assigned to their proper 

atmospheric level. Comparison of satellite-derived 

wind vectors, produced operationally, with those 

processed on an experimental basis agree within 

reasonable tolerances. The low-level wind values 

generally agreed within 1 meter per second while 

high-level winds agreed within 3 meters per second. 

Research is being conducted to develop better 

techniques to measure winds from geostationary infrared images of cloud motions. Much of the effort 

is concentrated on establishing the heights of clouds 

through accurate determination of the equivalent 

blackbody temperature. 

The Earth Radiation Budget experiment, carried on Nimbus 6, is 

designed to measure with high accuracy the radiation 

of the Sun and Earth. A terrestrial radiation budget 

can then be determined on both the synoptic and 

planetary scales. The measurements will serve as an 

initial bench mark for the long-term monitoring of 

global radiation. 

The launch of 

SMS-2 increased the primary warning platforms to a 

two-spacecraft system. In addition two new Satellite 

Field Services Stations (SFSS) have been established. 

In July 1975, an SFSS began operations in Honolulu 

using data from the SMS-2 spacecraft, and in November an SFSS was established at Anchorage, 

Alaska, to use data from the polar-orbiting satellites 

via the Gilmore Creek CDA. Data are received at 

the Gilmore Creek CDA from an average of seven 

orbits each day. 

Full-disc or sectors of VISSR images received at 

each SFSS are sent to Weather Service Forecast 

Office ( WSFO) facilities. Twenty-nine WSFO/ 

GOES facilities were commissioned in 1975, completing a planned network of 50 National Weather 

Service field offices to receive and use GOES 

pictures. Forecasters are using the pictures to improve 

short-term forecast and advisory services to the 

public, aviation, and shipping. The opportunity to 

receive the data distributed to any SFSS has been 

extended to television stations, universities, local 

governments, and Federal agencies. This system, 

called GOES-TAP, allows the user to receive any 

one of the standard sectors available to the SFSS 

every 30 minutes. 

The SMS/GOES satellites are equipped with a 

Data Collection System (DCS) to collect and relay 

environmental data sensed by widely dispersed surface 

platforms such as river and rain gages, seismometers, 

tide gages, buoys, ships, and automatic weather 

stations. Each spacecraft can accommodate data from 

Monitoring Global Radiation. 

Environmental Warning Services. 

39 
10,000 or more individual observing platforms every 

six hours. Platforms transmit sensor data by radio, 

either at scheduled intervals or upon interrogation 

from the satellite. Platforms also may operate in an 

emergency alarm mode, during which a signal is 

transmitted immediately whenever an observational 

parameter exceeds a preset threshold value. Data 

received by the satellite are transmitted on S-band 

to the Wallops CDA Station and relayed to the 

World Weather Building, Camp Springs, Maryland. 

From here the data are disseminated by paper tape 

fed into a telephone system using commercial circuits. The GOES DCS began providing service 

to users on August 18, 1975; currently services are 

provided to various agencies in the United States 

and Canada. 

In March 1975, France began relaying Vertical 

Temperature Profile Radiometer data to the United 

States operationally. These data are from NOAA-4 

orbits that do not pass within range of the United 

States CDA stations. 

Tornadoes and severe thunderstorms can frequently be predicted shortly hefore they occur by 

noting the intersection of lines of convection on 

SMS high-resolution satellite pictures. Experiments 

in using satellite pictures at five-minute intervals 

instead of the usual thirty-minute interval hold hope 

for considerable improvement in tornado warning. 

Determining Ocean Conditions. Seasat-A, an 

an oceanographic satellite being developed by NASA, 

is scheduled for launch in 1978. NOAA has begun to 

plan experiments that will exploit Seasat-A data for 

satellite altimetry; sea and lake ice monitoring; 

geodesy; ocean tides, waves, winds, currents, and 

temperatures; and meteorology. 

NOAA-4 Very High Resolution Radiometer 

(VHRR) infrared images are being used to produce 

weekly composite charts that depict water masses and 

thermal fronts in the Gulf Stream along the east 

coast of the U.S. These charts are sent to users over 

the National Facsimile network and by mail. The 

National Weather Service also uses these data to 

prepare the Gulf Stream Wall Bulletin, which is 

broadcast to the public by radio. Researchers are 

using these infrared data in their studies of warm 

anticyclonic and cold cyclonic eddies associated with 

the Gulf Stream. The satellite measurements provide 

an instantaneous view of sea-surface temperature 

patterns that cannot be identified by in-situ data 

alone. SMS-1 infrared images of Gulf Stream features 

also are put in time-lapse movies that enable scientists to continually monitor motions of thermal 

features in and adjacent to these currents. Further 

exploitation of SMS data is expected to permit 

monitoring of turbidity fronts, which in some areas 

are strongly correlated with fish concentrations. Shipping interests are using Gulf Stream data to route 

40 

their ships along the east coast, minimizing transit 

times and saving fuel. The Coast Guard also is using 

this information in computerized search and rescue 

operations. 

The Coast Guard uses SMS images to determine 

the presence of low clouds and fog over the US. 

portion of the International Ice Patrol area. With 

this information, unproductive ice reconnaissance 

flights have been cancelled or redirected. 

Composite ice charts of Alaskan coastal waters, 

based on infrared imagery, are produced and disseminated weekly over National Facsimile and by 

mail. The severe ice conditions along the north coast 

of Alaska during the summer of 1975 were of special 

interest. Numerous barges carrying supplies to the 

pipeline project had difficulty in reaching Prudhoe 

Bay. The Fairbanks Weather Service Forecast Office 

used VHRR images in developing ice advisories and 

forecasts to assist this shipping. NOAA-4 images also 

were used during 1975 in helping to free the U.S. 

Coast Guard icebreaker Glacier and the Argentinian 

ship San Martin from the Antarctic ice pack. 

NOAA satellite images and remotely sensed data 

from aircraft were used to support the Arctic Ice 

Dynamics Joint Experiment. Studies are being conducted to relate ice thickness to infrared and microwave radiometer measurements. 

Determining Lake Conditions. NOAA-4 VHRR 

images in the visible part of the spectrum were used 

to produce the Great Lakes ice charts, transmitted 

twice weekly on National Facsimile. Use of these 

charts to route ships through the ice is credited with 

extending the 1974-75 shipping season in most of 

the Lakes by more than 30 days. Ships were able 

to operate between Chicago and Duluth the entire 

1974-75 winter season. 

At the same time, NOAA, NASA, and the Coast 

Guard conducted a joint remote-sensing ice reconnaissance experiment. A C- 130 aircraft, equipped 

with Side-Looking Airborne Radar, recorded ice 

conditions over the Great Lakes and relayed these 

data in near-real time to the Ice Central in Cleveland via the GOES Data Collection System. This 

timely reception of data allowed a more rapid dissemination of ice information to the ships. 

Studies of Great Lakes whitings (chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate) have been expanded 

to include frequency of occurrence and areas affected. One of nature’s largest dye operations, the 

whiting provides the limnologist with an ideal tracer 

for assessing horizontal circulation. 

In 1975, Great Lakes surface temperature charts 

were prepared from satellite infrared data for the 

first time. These charts are mailed biweekly to the 

Eastern and Central Regions of the National Weather 

Service for use in forecasts of Lake freezeup and in 

upwelling studies. 
Determining Hydrological Conditions. Quantitative estimates of snow cover derived from VHRR and 

GOES VISSR data were extended to 18 river basins 

in the United States and 4 in Canada. Also radio 

transceivers were installed on river and rainfall 

gages at 44 remote locations. Data from these platforms are obtained by interrogation by the GOES 

Data Collection System. The ability to make earlier 

assessments of rainfall and snow cover enables the 

National Weather Service’s (NWS) River Forecast 

Centers to improve their river forecasting and flood 

warning services and their estimates of water supplies. 

It is difficult to determine whether snow cover in 

forested river basins differs in depth, area, and water 

equivalents from snow cover in non-forested areas. 

Remote sensing images from aircraft are being compared to in-situ measurements to determine the spectral reflectance of snow in forest-covered areas. The 

NWS Hydrologic Research Laboratory also is conducting airborne gamma radiation surveys of snowcovered areas to obtain reliable, current information 

on snow-cover water equivalents for use in NWS 

forecasts of snowmelt runoff. 

A joint United States-Mexico program to eradicate screwworms 

throughout Mexico is using NOAA satellite temperature and moisture data. The object of the program is 

to push the screwworm barrier, now along the U.S.- 

Mexican border, southward. The barrier is maintained by continously seeding the area near this barrier with sterile flies. Studies are being conducted to 

see if there are optimum times, based on temperature 

and moisture conditions, for breeding so the sterile 

flies can be introduced at selected times, rather than 

continuously, to reduce program costs. 

From April 7 to 17, 1975, 

NOAA and NASA conducted an extensive experiment 

in the New York Bight using Landsat, NOAA, and 

SMS satellites, three research airplanes, four helicopters, and one research ship. Although similar to 

the 1973 field program, the effort covered a larger 

area and included more measurements. This experiment was designed to demonstrate the capability of 

remote sensing methods to determine water circulation, water mass characteristics, and amounts of suspended particulates, chlorophyll-a, and pollutants 

such as acid waste and sewage sludge. 

Fisheries. The Inter-American Tropical Tuna 

Commission continues to study the use of NOAA 

satellite infrared data for locating and mapping 

oceanographic fronts and upwelling areas related 

to the distribution and abundance of several commercially important species of fish. 

The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) 

is using geostationary-satellite data to study the 

relationship of Gulf Stream meanders in continental 

shelf waters to the presence of biological organisms. 

Monitoring Agriculture Conditions. 

Pollution Monitoring. 

Satellite-derived and in-situ surface temperature data 

are used to determine the relationship between sea 

temperatures and coastal upwellings and fish migrations. 

NMFS, state governments, and private industry 

are conducting a 22-month investigation to determine 

the feasibility of using satellite data to improve the 

management and use of coastal fishery resources in 

the northern Gulf of Mexico. Menhaden and thread 

herring are the target species. Data from SMS, 

NOAA, and Landsat satellites and aircraft remote 

sensors will be correlated with sea-truth data to 

provide NMFS with increased knowledge of coastal 

water ecology. 

Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys. 

The NOAA Data Buoy Office (NDBO) is developing prototype buoy systems for the acquisition of 

environmental data. Development has started on an 

air-deployable ice buoy and an oceanographic and 

meteorological ice buoy. The data acquired will be 

used in studies of ice behavior on the continental 

shelf and elsewhere. The air-deployable buoy will be 

placed at the ice edge to measure ice motion. The 

second type will measure oceanographic and meteorological parameters. Data from these buoys are to be 

relayed to analysis centers through the Nimbus 6 

satellite. 

Development was started on drifting buoys for use 

in the open ocean. The impetus for a drifting buoy 

capable of measuring simple environmental parameters comes in part from the Global Atmospheric 

Research Program. Prototype drifting buoys are now 

under test, using the Nimbus 6 satellite to relay data. 

These open-ocean drifters also can be used by oceanographers for tracking surface currents. 

Other Satellite and Space Applications 

International Cooperatiolz 

Under the Voluntary Assistance 

Program of the World Meteorological Organization, 

the NWS installed ground stations for Automatic 

Picture Transmission (APT) in Costa Rica, Barbados, and the Bahamas. In addition APT equipment was sent to Cambodia. This makes a total.of 

25 countries that have received APT -facilities. A 

new ground receiver station, designed by NASA to 

receive the APT broadcasts from polar-orbiting 

satellites and S-band Weather Facsimile broadcasts 

from geostationary satellites, was installed in Trinidad for operational test and evaluation. 

NESS and the Office of Foreign Disaster Relief 

Coordinator of the Department of State, Agency for 

International Development (AID), initiated a cooperative program in which AID is advised daily of 

weather conditions that could lead to natural disasters 

anywhere around the world. This information, based 

Sharing Data. 

41 
on satellite images, alerts the AID office to probable 

requests for assistance. 

The exchange of environmental satellite data between Washington and Moscow continues. The US. 

receives data from Meteor 18, 21, and 22, and the 

U.S.S.R. receives data from NOAA-4. The most recent launch by the Soviets was Meteor 22 on September 17, 1975. 

The Bureau of the Census, 

using AID funds, continues to study the applicability 

of Landsat 1 and 2 data to demographic studies and 

other census operations in Kenya and Bolivia. These 

images are the base for developing a national mosaic 

for statistical data mapping and analysis and for 

preparation of annotated photomaps for field use. 

Mapped Landsat images and ground-truth data also 

are being used to develop population estimates and 

distribution models. 

The Census Bureau continues to study the application of satellite data to domestic census programs. 

Landsat 1 computer-compatible tapes and an interactive display and manipulation system were used 

experimentally to derive preliminary urbanized-area 

boundaries. Results indicated that a preliminary urban-rural boundary zone can be established from the 

Landsat images ; the method should increase efficiency 

and reduce the cost of this Census Bureau program. 

These investigations are being conducted to ascertain 

the nationwide applicability of this approach. The 

incorporation of Landsat and other forms of imagery 

for the preliminary identification of small, unincorporated clusters also has been useful. Aggregates 

in the 600-to-1500 population range generally can 

easily be identified. It appears that satellite images 

will be helpful in the development of a nationally 

consistent approach to delineating unincorporated 

places. 

Demographic Studies. 

Weather Modification 

The NOAA Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry 

Laboratory ( APCL) conducted an aircraft flight program to measure electric fields over the Kennedy 

Space Center lightning warning network. The findings were used to modify existing rules about lightning hazards during spacecraft launches. APCL 

personnel were on hand to advise NASA on the 

hazards of electric fields in clouds over the launch 

site and the danger of lightning triggered by the 

launch vehicle during the Apollo-Soyuz and Viking 

launches. 

The NOAA National Hurricane and Experimental 

Meteorology Laboratories continued to use satellite 

data to study the modification of hurricanes and 

tropical convective clouds. Satellite data were used to 

estimate winds from cirrus cloud motions, to evaluate 

the accuracy of estimating hurricane and typhoon 

position and intensity, to evaluate rainfall from convective clouds by comparing satellite images with 

radar data and surface rainfall, and to determine 

surface thermal properties of the Florida peninsula 

for use with numerical models of the sea breeze. 

Ship Navigation and, Commutticatiorts 

The Maritime Administration used NASA’s ATS5 and 6 satellites to conduct experiments for ship 

navigation and communications. Techniques for twosatellite ranging were evaluated, and satellite capability for teleprinter, facsimile, and voice transmission was demonstrated. These experiments prove that 

satellites can extend common terrestrial communication services to ships at sea. Experiments also were 

conducted in telemetering medical data to ships at 

sea. These services can be valuable for improving 

management and operating economy of merchant 

vessels. 

Determilzatiolz of the Earth’s Shape and 

Gravity Field 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS) continued to 

prepare computer programs for the analysis of altimetry data from the Geos 3 satellite. New mathematical methods were devised for measuring the 

Earth’s gravity field. Analysis was begun on determination of accurate orbits for the Seasat satellite, 

which will carry an altimeter with an expected 10- 

centimeter precision. 

NOS initiated studies of new methods to determine geodetic control and to monitor temporal variations in horizontal and vertical positions, pole 

locations, and Earth rotation. Doppler observations 

from the Navy navigation satellites were obtained at 

71 stations throughout the United States, at 6 stations 

emplaced near the Cook Inlet area of Alaska to 

support pre- and post-earthquake horizontal positioning, and at 10 stations placed on offshore oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico to extend the offshore 

horizontal positioning network. 

NOS completed work on the network of North 

American station locations. The adjustment covers 

the North American continent and includes ties to 

Greenland, Iceland, and Norway. Results showed 

an average standard deviation of less than three 

meters per station coordinate. 

Marine Smveys and Maps 

NOS investigated the feasibility of using Skylab 

photography in analytic aerotriangulation procedures. 

The Coastal Mapping Division identified 29 photo 

control points of known position and elevation on a 

strip of 12 photographs along a 570-kilometer track 

extending from Charlotte, North Carolina, to the 
Rappahannock River in Virginia. The photo coordinates, processed through an established analytic aerotriangulation system of computer programs, showed 

a root-mean-square error of 15 meters in horizontal 

position; the maximum observed error was 25 meters. 

A remarkable ability to penetrate water is a property of several film emulsions used in aircraft-mounted 

cameras. The resulting dramatic presentation of submerged detail makes photogrammetric bathymetry 

an excellent alternative tool or supplement for mapping the seabed in shoal and moderate-depth waters. 

Natural-color film emulsion has the deepest water 

penetration, nearly 23 meters in clear waters and 

2 to 3 meters in turbid coastal waters. Naturalcolor film is ideal for photointerpretation of underwater details. False-color infrared emulsion can 

penetrate clear water to a depth of nearly 8 meters; 

bottom details are nearly as sharp as on natural 

color. 

Satellite Communicatiom 

The Office of Telecommunications (OT) has 

developed a 125-station satellite communications 

network model for the U.S. Postal Service to use in 

planning its electronic message system. The model, 

which permits estimation of system characteristics 

and message delay, was used with traffic loads of 

90 million messages per day to estimate typical delays. 

In a single-satellite network, typical delays are abou‘t 

three seconds per message. 

Rapid changes in ionospheric brightness limit the 

data rate of Earth-space telecommunication systems. 

OT participated in a program with other government agencies to determine the time and space 

variations of these scintillations, to relate them to 

predictable or observed geophysical parameters, and 

to use them to determine degradation to be expected 

in current or planned satellite communication systems. 

OT has made measurements to determine the 

attenuation of UHF radio signals by buildings, for 

use in planning the feasibility of a future directbroadcast, disaster-warning satellite system. Attenuation directly influences the size, weight, and power 

reqriirqments for the sp:cscraft and the cost of the 

receiving unit. OT designed and assembled the instrument system to measure attenuation as a function 

of frequency, type of building construction, elevation angle, and climate. The signals for these test 

measurements were transmitted from the ATS-6 

satellite. 

’ 

Time Services 

The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) began 

an advanced experimental time-dissemination service via the GOES satellite system. The signal, a 

time-of-day code transmitted from NOAA’s Wallops CDA Station, is relayed nearly continuously by 

the GOES satellite to about one third of the Earth’s 

surface. NBS also has developed a technique for 

generating 30-day predictions of a satellite’s position 

in space. These data are broadcast with the time 

code. The uncorrected time-of-day information is 

accurate to about 1 millisecond. If this is inadequate, the coded satellite position prediction may be 

used to determine path delay and increase the accuracy to within 100 microseconds. There will be 

widespread use of this service, in communications, 

position location, monitoring of seismic events, and 

scientific experiments. 

Lunar Ranging 

NBS has participated in determining new geophysical information from analysis of laser distance 

measurements to the Apollo retroreflectors on the 

Moon. The value of the gravitational constant G 

times the mass of the Earth has been measured with 

an accuracy of 2 parts in lo7, and the location of 

the center of mass of the Moon has been determined 

to 25 meters. Measurements of the Earth’s rotation 

have been obtained. The angular position has been 

determined to an accuracy of 20 centimeters or 

better at the equator. The’results permit a careful 

investigation of short-period interchanges of angular 

momentum between the atmosphere and the solid 

Earth. 

The National Ocean Survey and NASA’s Johnson Space Center completed work on the Selenocentric Reference System Project. A simultaneous adjustment of all 1244 usable photographs from the 

Apollo 15, 16, and 17 missions was completed. The 

horizontal positions and elevations of more than 90 

percent of 5325 lunar-surface features were determined to within 45 meters. 

Space Support Activities 

Apollo-Soyuz Support 

The National Weather Service provided forecasts 

for the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, made daily 

cloud-cover predictions to aid in scheduling 

photography from Landsat, provided sea-truth support for Geos 3, and provided forecasts for NASA’s 

Earth Resources aircraft program. 

The NOAA Space Environment Services Center 

(SESC’I provided warning and hazard evaluation of 

solar proton radiation to NASA for the Apollo-Soyuz 

joint mission. Warnings were coordinated with the 

Hydrometeorological Service of the U.S.S.R. This 

project included exchange of data on solar emissions 

and radiation levels in the near-Earth environment. 

43 

209-257 0 - 76 - 4 
Space Enuironment Services 

The SESC provided forecasts and warnings of 

adverse environmental conditions, including geomagnetic storms and polar cap absorption events, to 

communication satellite operators, electric power 

utilities, geophysical exploration groups, pipeline 

companies, scientific experimenters, the Federal Aviation Administration, and Air Force and Navy commands responsible for military communication and 

navigation systems. The year was especially marked 

by the disruption or temporary loss of operation of 

several satellites because of high-voltage arcing. 

Geomagnetic disturbances occurring near the end of 

the solar activity cycle, when flare activity is near 

minimum, appeared to be the main cause of these 

outages. SESC used data from the global solar flare 

patrol, from satellite sensors, and from terrestrial 

magnetometers. Data obtained from the Space Environment Monitor systems aboard SMS-1 and 

SMS-2 provided real-time information on solar 

X-rays, solar particle emissions, and the near-Earth 

geomagnetic field. Other data were obtained from 

the NOAA, Vela, and Pioneer satellites. 

Space Processing Research 

NBS continues to provide support of NASA's 

Space Processing Program. The work deals with 

experimental and theoretical studies of the possible 

effects of the absence of gravitational forces on 

preparation of materials when such forces may be 

important in reducing perfection or purity. Areas 

of work are Czochralski crystal growth, evaporative 

purification, composite materials, melt shape in 

zero-g, vapor tramport synthesis of single crystals, 

and Marangoni flow 

Measurements and Calibrations 

The NBS Electromagnetics Division has pioneered 

the development of accurate and powerful nearfield measurement 'techniques for directive microwave 

antennas. It is possible to accurately measure the 

amplitude and phase of any desired number of 

points over a rectangular lattice within one or two 

meters of the antenna in the 1- to-15-GHz range. 

These data are used to compute complete antenna 

characteristics such as gain, pattern, polarization, 

and side-lobe levels. Since laboratory-type control 

is possible and ,the errors associated with conventional 

far-field-measurements are avoided, high accuracy is 

achieved. The near-field approach is particularly 

valuable for electrically large antennas that cannot 

be managed on existing far-field ranges and in 

situations where it is necessary to avoid interference, 

physical contamination of satellite or space systems, 

and atmospheric absorption. The method also can 

be applied to many antennas mounted in operational 

configuration, such as on a spacecraft or airplane. 

In such cases, the computed antenna characteristics 

include the effects of the mounting structures. A 

recent application was the measurement of a NASA 

radiometer antenna of the type used on Skylab and 

for the Earth Resources program. Accurate knowledge of the resistive loss of the antenna is needed for 

interpretation of the radiometer data. This measurement proved that the near-field method can determine loss to at least the same accuracy as other 

methods and provide complete gain, pattern, and 

beam efficiency data which are difficult to obmtain by 

other means. 

Space and Atmospheric Physics Research 

Space Physics 

The Joint Institute for Laboratory 

Astrophysics, a cooperative effort of NBS and athe 

University of Colorado for the study of atomic 

physics and astrophysics, has been developing plasmadiagnostic and model-atmosphere techniques useful 

in analyzing ultraviolet spectra. Physical properties 

of structures in the solar chromosphere and the 

propagation of waves in the. solar photosphere and 

chromosphere are being studied by experiments on 

OSO-8. Solar observations from OSO-7 and Skylab 

also are being analyzed to study the formation of 

neutral and singly ionized helium spectra in the 

ultraviolet portion of the digit spectrum. 

The NOAA Space Environment Laboratory ( SEL) continued to develop 

time-dependent numerical codes to forecast the 

arrival at Earth of material ejected during solar 

flares and to simulate space probe data associated 

with shock waves. The theory of the nonlinear interactions between high- and low-speed solar wind 

streams was extended to small amplitude disturbances 

and to the solar equatorial plane. 

Cooperative research of SEL with the University 

of Iowa and the Applied Physics Laboratory of 

Johns Hopkins University demonstrated the possibilities for predicting ionospheric and magnetic disturbances several hours in advance. Signals received 

by a large radiotelescope at Clark Lake Observatory, 

California, exhibit scintillations caused by irregularities in the interplanetary electron density, which 

in turn are caused by propagating shock waves from 

solar flares and complex interplanetary stream interactions. These data, supplemented by solar and interplanetary data, can be used to track shock waves and 

Atmospheric Physics 

Ionospheric Physics. The radio beacon experiment on the ATS-6 satellite and the X-ray measureAstrophysics. 

Interplanetary Physics. 

solar streams in the interplanetary medium. 

44 
ments from SMS-1 and 2 have provided SEL with 

the highest resolution and absolute accuracy ever 

achieved in total-electron-content measurements and 

the greatest resolution in intensity and largest dynamic range for broadband X-ray monitoring. The ATS-6 

measurements permit the columnar ionospheric 

electron content up to 2000-kilometer altitude to be 

separated from the total content up to the satellite 

altitude. This can be done with sufficienmt accuracy 

to determine the residual plasmapheric content between 2000 kilometers and the satellite; such data 

are used for studies of diurnal, seasonal, and storm 

variations. The SMS-1 and 2 measurements have 

permitted study of the time rate of change of the 

solar soft-X-ray flux and its relation to the impulsive 

solar radio bursts at microwave frequencies. These 

data are being used to model and verify the effects 

of solar flares on the E and F regions caused by 

broadband and impulsive extreme-ultraviolet radiation. 

The NOAA Aeronomy Laboratory has recently 

begun using a VHF radar system to map the location, intensity, and velocity of irregularities in electron density in the northern auroral ionosphere. These 

irregularities, closely associated with the auroral electrojet, can be used to determine electrojet morphology and to obtain a rough idea of the ionospheric 

electric fields associated with the irreplarities. Two 

VHF radar systems were installed at Siple Station, 

Antarctica, to determine the morphology of the 

southern auroral radar echoes and their relationship 

to other auroral zone phenomena. 

SEL scientists have determined that a resonance between ion cyclotron 

waves and magnetically trapped radiation-belt protons is a major process that causes precipitation of 

these protons into the atmosphere during the recovery 

phases of large magnetic storms. The existence of 

these energetic, heavy ions has been detected by the 

SEL instrument on ATS-6. The presence of heavy 

ions suggests that both the Earth’s ionosphere and 

the Sun may be sources of radiation-belt particles. 

Atmospheric Photochemistry. The Aeronomy Laboratory has developed a technique for measuring the 

quantity of stratospheric nitrogen peroxide from 

the ground. This new technique has been used 

during a global survey with a jet aircraft. Unexpectedly large seasonal variations in the amount 

of nitrogen peroxide have been found at high latitudes. Automatic monitoring devices are being built, 

and the first instrument has been installed at Poin,t 

Barrow, Alaska. 

In a joint NOAA/NBS program, NBS developed 

techniques to detect, measure, and study the rotational spectra of atmospheric free radicals. These techniques are being used to study chemical reactions between free radicals and different halogenated organic 

Magnetospheric Physics. 

molecules released into the atmosphere from natural 

and man-made sources. High-resolution electron spectroscopy has been used to measure photoabsorption 

cross sections of the chlorofluorocarbons in the region 

of ,the strongest stratospheric ultraviolet flux. Additional characterization of the molecular energy levels 

of free radicals derived from potential sources of 

stratospheric chlorine atoms will provide data on Ithe 

ultimate fate of these fragments and will indicate 

means for developing systems for detecting ‘them. A 

measurement of the rate of reaction between atomic 

chlorine and ozone has been completed. This is one 

of the processes in the principal catalytic cycle, during 

which chlorine from chlorofluorocarbons destroys 

ozone in the stratosphere. The result indicates a 

slightly lower rate of reaction than earlier predictions. 

This work relates closely to the current concern over 

the role of chlorofluorocarbons as potential destroyers of the ozone balance. 

Data Programs 

Envirolzmental Data 

The Satellite Data Services Branch (SDSB) of the Environmental Data 

Services (EDS) disseminates environmental and 

Earth-resources satellite data to users. The Branch 

also provides photographs collected during Skylab 

missions. SDSB files contain data starting with the 

early Tiros series, much of the imagery gathered by 

Nimbus spacecraft, full-Earth disc photographs from 

ATS-1 and 3, a myriad of images from the ESSA 

and NOAA satellirtes, and both full-disc and sectorized images from SMS-1 and 2. Both visible and infrared data are available. A computer terminal, soon 

to be installed, will link SDSB to NASA’s Landsat 

data base in Huntsville, Alabama. 

Climatic and Environmental Assessment. NOAA, 

the US. Department of Agriculture, and NASA are 

jointly studying the degree to which computer-assisted analyses of data acquired from archives and 

satellites can contribute to crop forecasting. This 

program, the Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment, is designed to find whether use of historical 

and satellite data can improve the timeliness and 

accuracy of major crop forecasts. The EDS Center 

for Climatic and Environmental Assessment is responsible for developing and refining the mathematical models that relate crop yields to weather 

condiltions and for providing processed climatological 

and meteorological data. 

Satellite Data Service. 

Solar Data 

The National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial 

Data Center (NGSDC) of EDS and the World Data 

Center-A for Solar-Terrestrial Physics are archiving 
and publishing data from satellites and space probes. 

Solar proton data are obtained from NOAA-2, 3, 

and 4 and Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9; solar X-ray data 

from OSO-5 and SMS-1; interplanetary electric and 

magnetic field data from Pioneer 8 and 9; and solarwind data from Pioneer 6, 7, 8, and 9. The daily 

solar-wind speed data are deduced from interplanetary scintillation measurements of several radio 

sources at three stations of the University of California at San Diego. Solar-geophysical data also include direct observations of the Sun, ground-based 

optical and radio observations of solar flares, daily 

maps of solar magnetic fields, and ground-based 

observations of geomagnetic variations and geophysical cosmic rays. NGSDC also archives auroral data 

from the U.S. Air Force satellites; more recently, the 

Center has acquired precipitating electron data from 

these satellites. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Use of Sensor Data from Aircraft 

Outer Continental Shelf Studies. The NOAA 

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment 

Program is using remote-sensing data to investigate 

the extent, morphology, growth, and decay of landfast ice, the nature of the pack ice, including the 

frequency of pressure ridges and leads, coastal 

morphology and erosion, sediment transport by rivers, 

and the possibility of detecting walrus, seals, and 

whales by remote sensing. Geological Survey remote 

sensing aircraft, equipped with side-looking radar, 

an infrared scanner, and a mapping camera, are collecting bi-weekly imagery of ice, sediments, currents, 

and coastal features along the Arctic coast from Cape 

Lisburne to Demarcation Point on the Canadian 

border. NASA’s U-2 aircraft based at Ames Research Center is flying along the entire Alaskan 

coast three times a year to take high-altitude color, 

infrared, and multispecltral imagery. 

Safety Services for Aeronautics. The NOAA 

Wave Propagation Laboratory ( WPL) has developed 

an acoustic Doppler wind-measuring system capable 

of monitoring potentially hazardous wind shears in 

the 30-to-600-meter height ranges at airports. After 

successful tests of the acoustic remote sensing system, 

WPL researchers are continuing development of the 

device for eventual operational use by the FAA. 

The Aeronomy Laboratory is using its recently 

developed VHF meteorological radar at Sunset, 

Colorado, to study winds; waves, and turbulence in 

the troposphere and stratosphere. This long-wave 

radar measures the parameters of clear-air turbulence 

and all components of wind velocity in the troposphere wiith a minimum velocity resolution of 3.7 

centimeters per second and a minimum altitude 

resolution of 150 meters; similar measurements at 

lower resolutions are made in the stratosphere. The 

Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory also 

has developed a water-vapor-sensing infrared radiometer that shows considerable promise in the detection of clear-air turbulence. 

Air Trafic Control Systems 

The Office of Telecommunications has launched a 

multi-faceted effort to assist the Federal Aviation 

Administration to advance the technology of air 

traffic control communications. This includes efforts 

to improve microwave radar links and develop 

equipment for measuring the performance of voice 

communication systems. 

Aeronuutical Charts 

Increased use of the national airspace and more 

complex air traffic control regulations and procedures have had a heavy impact on the number 

and type of aeronautical charts needed for air safety. 

The National Ocean Survey has developed a helicopter chant for low-altitude use in the Los Angeles 

area. World Aeronautical Charts covering the Caribbean and Mexico have been updated to meet civil 

specifications. A Visual Flight Rules Radio Navigation Chart and bound versions of the Instrument 

Approach Procedures have been developed and will 

be tested during the coming year. 

Landsat images are being used to improve the 

accuracy of hydrographic data on charts. The positional accuracy of all navigational features and airway data is being certified by the National Geodetic 

Survey. 

46 
Energy Research and 

v Development Administration 

Introduction 

The United States Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) has the responsibility 

to develop nuclear electric-power generators required 

for the nation’s space program. These generators 

have made possible many of the past major United 

States accomplishments in lunar and interplanetary 

exploration and they will be essential to the future 

exploration of the solar system. The Apollo lunar 

surface and the Pioneer- Jupiter missions are notable 

examples of nuclear electric power as a critical element of the success of space programs. 

This past year, NASA successfully launched the 

Viking mission, which will make the first exploration 

of the surface of Mars. Pioneer 10 is now heading 

toward escape from the solar system and Pioneer 11, 

having swung around the planet Jupiter, headed on 

the first journey to Saturn and is expected to fly by 

the planet in 1979. These missions are possible 

only through the use of nuclear electric power. In 

the next two years, nuclear electric power will 

also make possible the testing of defense satellites 

where compact and reliable power is a principal 

determining factor in mission viability. Additional 

highly sophisticated missions are anticipated in the 

1980s and higher performance, lower cost technology 

is being pursued to ensure readiness for the increased performance demands of these missions. 

In each of these applications, the unique characteristic of nuclear energy to operate for long periods 

without relying on energy from the Sun, along with 

related attributes such as small size and low weight, 

has led to the development and use of nuclear power 

sources. These characteristics will make possible 

the exploration of the outer planets. Without nuclear 

power, exploration of these planets cannot take 

place, as solar power is inadequate at such distances from the Sun. Likewise, nuclear power 

sources will make possible and economically practical 

many missions in Earth orbit that need large amounts 

of electrical power generated by a source of minimum 

size and with maximum freedom from any Sunorientation restrictions-i.e., need for a satellite to be 

continuously positioned so its solar panels receive 

energy from the Sun. 

Specifically, the U.S. has launched sixteen spacecraft powered totally or in part with nuclear power 

and four more are scheduled for launch during the 

next two years. 

During 1975, the generators required for the 

Viking and Lincoln Experimental Satellite missions 

were fabricated and delivered to NASA and the 

DOD, respectively. Progress was also made on the 

development and fabrication of the generators for 

the Mariner Jupiter/Saturn mission and on the 

technology for more sophisticated applications. 

Viking Mars Lander 

On August 20 and September 9, 1975, NASA 

successfully launched the Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft with the goal of traveling to Mars, orbiting the 

planet, and descending for a soft landing on Ithe 

Martian surface. Each lander vehicle will be powered 

by two Pioneer-type isotopically fueled thermoelectric generators, each weighing 14 kilograms. The 

thermoelectric elements of each generator continuously convert the heat from the spontaneous decay 

of the radioisotope fuel into electrical power at an 

efficiency of 5.2 percent. Each generator will provide a minimum of 35 watts-or a total of 70 wattsafter 90 days on the Martian surface. The ability of 

these isotopically fueled generators to operate in the 

harsh environment postulated for the surface of Mars 

will enable the extended operation of scientific experiments aimed at understanding the composition 

and history of our closest planetary neighbor. A 

major goal is to try to answer questions concerning 

the presence of life on the planet. 

The modified Pioncer-type generators were developed by the ERDA laboratory and industrial contractors organizations. During the year, the four 

flight generators and one spare were fabricated, 

tested, and delivered to NASA. 

Lincoln Experimental Satellite (LESI 

As part of its program to develop a survivable defense communications network, DOD will launch in 

March 1976 two experimental satellites powered 

by a new, improved generation of radioisotope-fueled 

47 
thermoelectric generators, the multi-hundred watt 

(MHW) generators. These satellites, designated 

LES-8 and LES-9, will each be powered by two 

nuclear-powered generators. Each generator will 

weigh 38 kilograms and provide a minimum of 125 

watts, or a total of 250 watts, after five years. The 

MHW generators are designed for longer life, increased total power, and more power per pound 

than the generators used on the Pioneer and Viking 

missions. 

Fabrication of the flight hardware was completed 

during the year for all four flight generators and the 

spare. All generators were acceptance-tested prior to 

delivery to the DOD. 

Mariner Jupiter/Saturn 

The next major program to extend man’s exploration out into the solar system will involve 

launching two Mariner spacecraft in the late summer 

of 1977 to fly past the planets Jupiter and Saturn. 

These spacecraft will be relatively sophisticated in 

comparison to the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft and 

will enable scientists to gain a much more complete 

understanding of the atmospheres, surface features, 

and physical properties of these two large planets. 

Each spacecraft will be powered by three nuclearpowered generators providing a minimum of 385 

watts when the spacecraft reaches Saturn, approximately four years crfter launch. The generators 

required for this mission are a modified version of 

the MHW design used for LES. Modifications were 

required to reduce weight and improve entry protection. The 1975 effort was directed toward 

incorporating these design modifications and fabricating test and flight hardware. Design activities 

were also completed for the one-half watt radioisotope heaters required to supply heat to the spacecraft instruments during the four-year journey to 

the outer planets. 

Generator Technology 

Projected missions of the 1980s will impose increased performance requirements on the nuclear 

power sources. Weight and overall system unit cost 

will become extremely important, particularly on 

repetitive DOD missions. Also, power levels on 

several missions are anticipated to increase into the 

low kilowatt range where dynamic conversion systems 

(turbines, rotors) rather than static (no moving 

parts) systems are most applicable. Current emphasis 

is directed toward the selenide thermoelectric materials for the lower power static systems and toward the 

Brayton or Organic Rankine cycles for the higher 

power dynamic systems. The selenide thermoelectric 

materials, and fabrication of a one-kilowatt, 20 

percent efficient, dynamic conversion system, will 

raise system efficiency to 11 percent, double that of 

the current static conversion system. These improvements will support DOD and NASA requirements 

for the imprmed nuclear power systems necessary for 

national security and the exploration of space. 

In 1975, a 20-watt selenide thermocouple module 

was designed, fabricated, and tested, and demonstrated 8 percent conversion efficiency. Related efforts 

were conducted on a heat source that would be 

compatible with this selenide module. Two competing dynamic power system programs, the Brayton 

and Organic Rankine, were initiated in 1975. Effort 

included design studies, materials development, and 

component testing. directed toward the fabrication -, 

and testing of ground demonstration systems 

1978. 
VI Department of the Interior 

Introduction 

The Department of the Interior’s goal in the field 

of aeronautics and space is to use aircraft and spacecraft, and the related technology, to improve the 

efficiency and capability of the department to manage the nation’s public Iands and natural resources. 

The department has used a variety of aircraft for 

many years in its daily operations, for transportation 

in remote areas, for transmission line surveys, for 

acquisition of aerial photography, and for fire suppression. Remote sensing is recognized as a valuable 

additional tool in investigation, planning, development, and management. Incorporation of remotely 

sensed data into operational programs is just beginning, and its assessment throughout the department 

is the current goal. The degree to which this has 

been accomplished in 1975 is reflected in this report 

of bureau and office activities. 

Space 

Earth Resources Observatiom Systems 

The purpose of the Interior Department’s Earth 

Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Program is 

to develop, demonstrate, and encourage applications 

of remote-sensing data acquired from aircraft and 

spacecraft which are relevant to functional responsibilities of the department. The primary areas of 

activity within the EROS Program are: 1) applications demonstration and research, 2) user assistance 

and training, and 3) data reproduction and dissemination. 

A major element of the program is the EROS 

Data Center (EDC) at Sioux Falls, South Dakota. 

Data archived at the center total approximately 

6,000,000 images, including over 600,000 frames of 

Landsat imagery; Landsat electronic data in the 

form of computer-compatible tapes ; 40,000 frames 

of Skylab, Apollo, and Gemini data; more than 

1,800,000 frames of data from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) research 

aircraft program; and more than 3,600,000 frames 

of Department of the Interior aerial mapping 

photography. 

To facilitate regional applications, the EROS 

Program operates eight Applications Assistance 

Facilities where the public may view microfilm copies 

of imagery available from EDC and may receive 

assistance in searching and ordering data via computer terminal link to the central computer complex 

at EDC. These facilities also offer assistance in techniques of applying the data to resource problems. 

Facilities are currently established in Menlo Park, 

California; Phoenix, Arizona; Denver, Colorado; 

Reston, Virginia; Bay St. Louis, Mississippi; Ft. 

Clayton, Canal Zone; Fairbanks, .Alaska; and at 

EDC in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. In addition to 

these offices, 10 Data Reference Files have been 

established throughout the United States to maintain microfilm copies of the most used data and to 

provide assistance to the visitor in reviewing asd 

ordering data. 

Applications Demonstration and Research. The 

objective of this activity is to demonstrate and document applications of remote sensing to significant 

resource and environmental problems, with emphasis on the utility of NASA and National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellite 

data. Results to date indicate that remote sensing is 

a potentially useful tool for resource and environmental problem solving. 

To provide a basis for assessing the cost and 

potential contribution of an Earth-resources satellite, 

the Interior Department’s Geological Survey, in COT 

operation with other interested Federal agencies, 

conducted a study to determine the potential economic, social, and environmental benefits to accrue 

from an operational system. The study was performed under contract to the Earth Satellite Corporation with Booz-Allen Applied Research as subcontractor. 

Principal emphasis was placed on a benefit-cost 

analysis of three alternative systems postulated for 

the 10-year period 1977-1986an aircraft alternative, a one-satellite alternative, and a two-satellite 

alternative. The study shows that benefit-cost ratios 

range from 0.7 to 2.0 for the high-altitude aircraft 

system; 0.4 to 1.1 for the one-satellite system; and 

0.6 to 1.9 for the two-satellite system. The environ49 
mental, social, cultural, and educational benefits may 

be large, but, generally, are not subject to quantification and economic analysis. The costs of aircraftcollected data for applications not requiring repetitive 

coverage are approximately equivalent to satellite 

data, but where repetition is required, duplicating 

the frequency of satellite data raises aircraft costs 

far above satellite costs. On the other hand, aircraft 

remote sensing produces data of substantially higher 

quality. 

In keeping with standard benefit-cost analysis 

techniques, certain constraints governed the assignment of benefits : 1 ) technological improvements 

planned for future experimental satellites will substantially increases costs and could provide significant additional benefits, which were not considered 

in this study; 2) benefits were restricted to the 

United States, thereby excluding applications associated with benefits to US. industry and Federal government operations in other countries; 3) quantifiable potential benefits that may be derived from new 

types of information tend to be reduced in value 

because appropriate changes in management and 

related substantial investment costs needed to gain 

these benefits cannot be documented at this time; 

and 4) benefits from the aircraft alternative were 

assumed to be the same as those from satellite-quality 

data, although aircraft data would be of much 

higher value. 

The objective of 

this activity is to provide assistance and training in 

methods of remote-sensing data analysis and feature 

extraction to resource managers, both domestic and 

foreign. Recognition of the utility of remote sensing 

has led to an increasing demand for assistance and 

training by interested users. The number of users 

requesting assistance increased twofold in 1975, and 

is expected to double again in 1976. 

During 1975, 25 workshops of 3- to 4-day duration 

were conducted for resource managers from various 

Federal and state agencies. Personnel trained included 

representatives from the Bureaus of Land Management, Reclamation, and Indian Affairs, and the 

Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department of the 

Interior; the Soil Conservation Service, Statistical 

Reporting Service, Forest Service, and Animal Plant 

Health Inspection Service of the Department of 

Agriculture ; the South Dakota State Planning Commission, North Dakota State Water Commission, and 

the Pacific Northwest Regional Cornmission. 

Two courses for foreign nationals of four weeks in 

length stressing the fundamentals of remote sensing 

were held at the EROS Data Center in 1975. Fifty 

individuals from over 30 foreign countries attended 

these courses. In addition, the EROS Program and 

Inter-American Geodetic Survey sponsored a oneUser Assistance and Training. 

week workshop in June 1975, at Fort Clayton, Canal 

Zone, for 30 Latin Americans interested in the use 

of Landsat data collection platforms and relay capability for monitoring remote regions. 

The objective of this activity is to distribute reproductions, including photographic copies and magnetic computer 

tapes, to domestic and foreign users at prices commensurate with cost of labor and materials. A second 

objective is to streamline and upgrade operations and 

facilities to improve remote-sensing data quality, 

ensure compatibility with long-range plans of other 

Federal agencies, and decrease time between data 

acquisition and availability to users. 

The demand for reproduction of data archived 

at EDC continues to increase both in number of 

frames and dollar value. Data sales and training 

services totalled $1,600,000 in FY 1975, and are 

projected to be $2,600,000 in FY 1976. The operating and capital costs of the EDC were $5,800,000 

in 1975 and are projected to be $8,300,000 in 1976. 

Approximately 58 percent of the dollar value for 

products at the center is for Landsat data. The customer profile for purchase of all data shows that private industry is the largest single purchaser with 30 

percent of the total dollar value, followed by agencies 

of the Federal government with 24 percent. Academic 

and educational institutions account for 16 percent of 

data sales, while foreign customers comprise 12 

percent. Individuals, state, and local government 

agencies account for the remainder. 

Discussions with resource managers interested in 

the potential use of experimental Landsat data have 

indicated that at least two improvements are desirable in the current system: l) more timely data 

to aid in making time-critical decisions, and 2) better 

quality data, both in contrast and spatial resolution, 

with more flexible formats. The EROS Program is 

cooperating with NASA and other interested agencies to supply satellite imagery and electronic products in the shortest possible time and in formats 

users request, consistent with the fact that this continues to be an experimental rather than operational 

program. 

Data Production and Dissemination. 

Operational Uses of Space Data 

Waterfowl Forecasting. In 1975 the Fish and 

Wildlife Service, for the first time, used satellite 

imagery in the preparation of its annual Status of 

Waterfowl and Fall Flight Forecast, a management 

document for developing annual waterfowl harvesting regulations in the United States. Forecasts of 

Arctic geese population-largely dependent on the 

timely disappearance of snow, ice, and melt water 

from traditional nesting areas-were originaily made 

from satellite imagery interpretations. Biologists of 
the Canadian Wildlife Service and the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service jointly forecasted an optimistic 

outlook, which was supported later by reports from 

ground crews. Two satellite systems provided imagery 

useful for monitoring the Arctic breakup: the Very 

High Resolution Radiometer on Tiros, and the 

Multispectral Scanner on Landsat. Landsat imagery 

was received as quick-look ERTSFICHE cards from 

a Canadian vendor. Tiros imagery is available 

routinely from NOAA within six days of satellite 

acquisition. Satellite imagery is expected to become 

an increasingly useful management tool as data 

accumulate from satellites and ground studies, 

enabling identification of years and areas of probable 

catastrophic nesting failure in the Arctic. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs is coordinating an investigation by the State of Washington and the Northwest 

Indian Tribes into the reliability of automated interpretations of original Landsat digital data dealing 

with forested lands. Forest cover has been classified 

by species composition (alder, Douglas-fir, hemlock, 

and cedar), burned areas, size, and age, including 

forest recovery. The bureau plans to use the results 

of this investigation, in concert with available resource data being digitized to their new orthophoto 

base maps, for continued development of the Natural 

Resource Information System (NRIS) for monitoring purposes. The Colville Tribe is digitizing landforms, hydrology, ownership, soil types, rainfall, 

roads, and land-use graphics to create a comprehensive data base for incorporation into NRIS for 

later automated monitoring. The NRIS manipulates digital data or digitized graphics derived from 

satellite, aircraft, and ground data, using a polygon 

approach. The tribe will also perform planning 

analysis with the system to determine alternate uses, 

such as reforestation as compared to farm units, 

type of agricultural uses, and recreation. 

The National Park Service is setting up a Resources Basic Inventory (RBI) Pilot Program for 

park planning and management, drawing on the 

NRIS developed for the Department of the Interior. 

The RBI is a collection of physical, biological, and 

socio-economic data, generally in map format, on a 

national park. After digitization and conversion into 

a digital format, the data base can be manipulated as 

in the NRIS. Additionally, the RBI makes use of a 

land-use planning system developed by Harvard 

University and modified by Pennsylvania State University. In the system, each physical, biological, or 

other attribute is given a score on its suitability to 

support a given land use. By summing the scores of 

all attributes, the areas best suited for that particular 

use can be identified. To date RBIs have been developed for the Great Smoky Mountains National 

Natural Resource Information System. 

Park, Delaware Water Gap National Recreation 

Area, and J. D. Rockefeller Memorial Parkway. 

The National Park Service is using Landsat digital 

tapes in an interactive multispectral image analysis 

system for land classification of Canyonlands, Arches, 

and Capitol Reef National Parks, and Natural 

Bridges National Monument. The computer-derived 

classifications will be added to RBIs for these areas. 

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

is preparing maps from Landsat imagery and Skylab 

photography for public sale. A satellite image map 

at 1:500,000 scale of the State of Georgia; ten 

1 : 500,000-scale, single-image maps covering portions 

of the State of Florida, using data previously prepared for the Landsat image map of the state; 

satellite image maps of coal-rich areas along the 

Powder River in Wyoming and Montana; the Hartford lo x 2", 1 : 250,000-scale quadrangle covering 

most of Connecticut; a 1 : 100,000-scale satellite 

image of Hartford and vicinity; and a 1:125,000- 

scale mosaic of the State of Connecticut have been 

completed this year. In addition, seven Landsat 

index maps showing available worldwide coverage 

by cloud-cover criterion have been printed in 

quantity for free distribution. 

The USGS continued to 

support planetary exploration. New lunar mapping 

includes: air-brushed maps of the near and far side 

of the Moon at 1:7,500,000; preliminary maps derived from digital processing of altimetry, magnetic, 

gravity, X-ray, and gamma-ray data from Apollo 15, 

16, and 17; and preliminary maps color-combining 

Apollo data with telescopic albedo and other data. 

Mars mapping at 1 :5,000,000 continues, with 10 

geologic maps completed. Ten shaded-relief maps 

of Mercury have been compiled and geologic mapping has started. 

Cotnmunications in the Trust Territory. The 

Department of the Interior has supported the 

PEACESAT (Pan Pacific Education and Communication Experiments by Satellite) Project, a user of 

the NASA ATS-1, directed from the University of 

Hawaii. The PEACESAT network has locally owned 

and operated ground terminals in several locations 

including Saipan, headquarters for the Trust Territcry of the Pacific Islands. In rddition to providing 

satellite communication experimentation and demonstration primarily in the areas of health, education, 

and community activities, PEACESAT has also been 

used to transmit to Saipan the annual U.N. Trusteeship Council meetings on the administration of the 

Trust Territory. 

Research on Application of Remote Setwing 

from Space 

Geologic Studies. 

Mapping. 

Planetary Exploration. 

The USGS takes advantage of 

the new perspective and temporal and repetitive 

51 
nature of data from satellites to speed and improve 

its research efforts. Major advances were made in 

computerized manipulation of data from Landsat, 

Skylab, and Nimbus. A method of making Landsat 

stereopairs has been perfected using Defense Mapping Agency digital contour information. A computercompiled mosaic of the State of Nevada in simulated 

natural color was completed. Co-mputer-enhanced 

Landsat images were used in the detection of altered 

ground in a Wyoming uranium area and in Sonora, 

Mexico, to detect lines of geologic structure not 

previously mapped and apparently associated with 

mineral deposits in Mexico and Brazil; they were 

also used to aid in rapidly mapping large areas of 

difficult access as part of the Alaska Mineral Resource Assessment Program. New computer programs 

for analysis and display of linear structure elements 

were used to show the presence of many unmapped 

structural lines in the Mississippi Embayment, including some which coincide with active seismic 

zones. High-frequency enhancement of Landsat 

imagery was used in seismic risk and structure studies 

in the southeastern United States where dense vegetation normally makes such analysis difficult. Data 

Collection Platforms were installed on Mount Baker, 

Washington, to permit monitoring of the increasing 

activity of that volcano through satellite relay. 

Analysis of satellite magnetic data is continuing with 

reduction of data for the Bangui (Africa) anomaly to 

common elevations to facilitate geologic interpretation. 

Geodetic and Mapping Studies. A continuation of 

the successful Landsat image control experiments 

using mirror flashes to identify control points on 

Landsat images is being conducted in Antarctica by 

the USGS to pinpoint control positions derived from 

geoceivers (geodetic positioning devices) . Application 

to ice movement studies is also under investigation. 

The Space Oblique Mercator (SOM) has been 

defined by the USGS as the map projection for 

Landsat imagery and the equations are being derived by contract with DBA Systems, Inc., to relate 

the SOM plane coordinates to the figures of the 

Earth in terms of geographic coordinates. This is an 

essential step for automation of the Landsat mapping system. 

A study conducted by Mead Technology Laboratories under contract to USGS has demonstrated that 

some improvement can be effected in the resolution 

of Landsat imagery by digitally combining successive images of the same scene. Another study is being 

conducted to investigate the relationship of tonal 

scale and resolution in optimizing equipment, materials, and techniques to enable large distribution 

in photo form. This is aimed at development of an 

image map which meets considerations of costs, time, 

and consumer acceptance. 

52 

Land-Use Analysis and Mapping. Demonstrations of the utility of data derived from aerial photography, Landsat, and other sources for the compilation, mapping, and graphic display of land-use/landcover data resulted in 14 research reports covering 

studies undertaken as part. of the Central Atlantic 

Regional Ecological Test Site Project. Some of the 

topics included were : land-use perspective, land-use 

analysis, land-use information and air quality planning, and user evaluation. In conjunction with staff 

at Purdue University Laboratory for Applications of 

Remote Sensing, USGS personnel used Landsat digital data to: 1) complete demonstrations of land-use/ 

land-cover change detection over such diverse urban 

test areas as San Francisco; Washington, D.C.; and 

Phoenix; 2) develop spatial analysis techniques to 

supplement the spectral analysis techniques primarily 

used for monitoring the location and extent of landuselland-cover changes; and 3) demonstrate possible 

opportunities for use of Landsat digital data in supporting the compilation of selected land use classification Level I1 categories, such as forested wetlands; 

deciduous, evergreen, and mixed forest land; and the 

delineation of pemanent ice and snow in Alaska. 

Remote-sensor data are also helping solve problems 

arising from interactions of land use practices and 

environmental factors-for example, analysis of the 

environmental impact of phosphate mining in Idaho. 

Hydrologic Studies. The USGS has used Landsat 

data to study sediment plumes, circulation dynamics, 

and Arctic ice dynamics, and to delineate wetlands. 

Skylab data have been used to analyze the hydrologic system of the Green Swamp, Florida, and to 

identify fracture-zone lineaments that are potentially high-yield sources of ground water in central 

Tennessee. 

A research project on a strip mine area of Tennessee demonstrated that data from the ground, air, and 

space could be digitized and made compatible to a 

single coordinate system, thus establishing a common 

data base for hydrologic analysis by computer. The 

project also demonstrated the potential utility of 

repetitive digital Landsat data for monitoring strip 

mine change routinely. 

The relationship between land-cover type and 

streamflow characteristics is being studied by USGS 

in cooperation with NASA, using Landsat data for 

land-cover-type classification. Statistical techniques 

were used to analyze predictive estimates of streamflow characteristics with and without four variables 

defined from Landsat data. In general the streamflow estimates improved with the inclusion of information obtained from the Landsat data. 

The Geological Survey has continued to field-test 

and evaluate an experimental satellite Data Collection System for hydrologic data. Data from about 

100 USGS gaging stations are now being relayed 
from field platforms by Landsat to NASA receiving 

stations and routed into the Survey’s computer system. The data are then processed and made available in near real time via computer terminal connections to field offices. The performance has been 

excellent but the system is more costly than the 

present widely used stations that have manual collection. A similar program is being studied in cooperation with NOAA to transmit data via the 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

(GOES) relay system. 

Water Management Studies. The Bureau of 

Reclamation is actively engaged in developing staff 

expertise and competence to plan and implement 

programs for logical and timely incorporation of 

remote-sensing data in bureau operations. In June 

1975, a Remote Sensing and Engineering Physics 

Section was established at the bureau’s Engineering 

and Research (E&R) Center in Denver, Colorado, 

to centralize the applications research and develop 

remote-sensing technology to operational use. 

A major effort is under way to develop in-house 

capability for computer-assisted image analysis from 

Landsat computer-compatible tapes. The computer 

software is being installed and tested at the E&R 

Center under contract. The program also offers the 

opportunity for training government personnel in 

use of the system for natural and human resources 

inventory and monitoring. 

In a weather modification program in Montana, 

the Bureau of Reclamation is using Data Collection 

Platforms to monitor hydrometeorological parameters, and cloud photographs collected by SMS GOES 

weather satellite in near real time to study the 

associated cloud physics. The data are collected and 

analyzed at the E&R Center where the necessary 

computer facilities and an image reproducer are in 

operation. Specially equipped aircraft are used in 

this program for cloud seeding, data collection, and 

data relay with ground-base weather radar stations. 

The Bureau of Reclamation, Bonneville Power 

Administration, and the U.S. Geological Survey are 

cooperating in various NASA-sponsored projects that 

monitor the extent of mountain snow cover to aid 

in spring runoff forecasting. Both Landsat and 

NOAA-2 satellite imagery are being used to interpret the extent of snow cover and rate of depletion, 

based in part on snowline mapping. Supplemental 

oblique aerial photography of snowpack is being 

acquired by the Bureau of Reclamation in its study 

area in western Colorado. 

Aeronautics 

Operational Uses of Aerial Data 

The USGS utilized aircraft to acquire photographic, other remote sensor, and geophysical data 

to better perform its mission of geological and geophysical investigations. Airborne sensors were used 

for aeromagnetic, gravity, radioactivity, microwave, 

thermal, and geochemical surveys. Contract aircraft 

logged over 100,000 traverse miles for aeromagnetic 

mapping. More than half, or 58,000 traverse miles, 

of these surveys also obtained aeroradioactivity data. 

A high sensitivity aeromagnetic survey of the Pacific 

continental shelf is also being made. Almost 38,000 

traverse miles will be flown. The objective is to assess 

the economic potential of the continental margin, 

especially for petroleum, and also to obtain new 

knowledge of its geologic structure and tectonic relationships. Other airborne sensors, used singly or in 

combination, for USGS activities included cameras 

(for conventional aerial, high-altitude, and multiband 

photography), thermal infrared scanners, and infrared and microwave radiometers. 

In 1975, USGS contracted for more coverage by 

aerial photography than ever before473,OOO square 

miles for the national mapping program, 21 percent 

more than in 1974. More than 81 percent consists of 

high-altitude, quad-centered photographs for support 

of orthophotoquad production as well as for aerotriangulation and other photogrammetric applications. 

Land-use/land-cover maps and data for 400,000 

square miles of the U.S. were compiled under the 

USGS Land Use Data and Analysis (LUDA) Program, and are being prepared for distribution. The 

LUDA Program was initiated to provide systematic 

and comprehensive mapping and compilation of 

land-use and land-cover data on a nationwide 

basis. This program employs aerial photography 

and other sources in compiling land-use/land-cover 

maps and in developing a computer-stored statistical data base which is incorporated into a 

geographic information system for use in solving 

problems associated with land-resource use. Supplemental data accompanying the land-use/land-cover 

maps are Federal land ownership, river basins and 

subbasins, counties, and census county subdivisions. 

Large-scale ( 1 : 24,000 and 1 : 100,000) demonstration 

land-use/land-cover maps of the Atlanta, Georgia, 

metropolitan region have been prepared as an experiment to show the relation of the 1:250,000-scale 

land-use/land-cover mapping to the more detailed 

large-scale needs for land-use/land-cover mapping. 

In the regulation of both onshore and offshore oil 

and gas operations, the USGS uses aircraft, when 

they best serve the need, for pollution detection, for 

overseeing containment and cleanup, for on-site inspections of oil and gas fields and pipelines, and for 

environmental inspection of locations prior to 

drilling. 

The Bonneville Power Administration uses aircraft 

in many of its operations, including inspection and 

maintenance of transmission lines, line-location in53 
vestigations, surveying, and construction. High-altitude vertical photography and color-aerial photography are used for regional environmental analyses 

preliminary to facility site selection and for impact 

evaluations. Low-altitude photography is used to 

aid in determining locations and size of hydraulic 

bank storage. With unique methods, Bonneville also 

performs aerotriangulation and photogrammetric 

mapping for the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 

The Bureau of Indian Affairs agreements with 

NASA and the USGS to obtain high-altitude photoraphy over all Indian reservations continued in effect, 

with 85 percent of the photography acquired. The 

orthophoto base mapping, for which the photography 

is used, is now 20 percent complete. 

The Bureau of Land Management's Division of 

Cadastral Survey in Alaska has adapted a militarydesigned inertial guidance system to a helicopter. 

With it the survey crews have increased their corner 

monumentation by a magnitude of two to three. 

Color-infrared aerial photography, flown at high 

altitudes, has been acquired over large areas of bureau lands to prepare environmental impact statements and baseline inventories. 

In 1975, HRB-Singer, Inc., under contract to the 

Bureau of Mines, completed an inventory of mining 

activity in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania. 

Flights had been made in 1974 to acquire aerial 

photography and thermal-infrared imagery of the 

entire region. With this imagery and other data, 

five reports were prepared. Two of these are updated 

compendia on mine fires and refuse-bank fires. These 

are used by bureau staff to locate and monitor such 

fires and to plan control activities. Another volume 

reports on research in thermal sensing of surface and 

ground-water discharges from underground mines. 

The encouraging results should be of use both in 

pollution control and in controlling water levels in 

abandoned coal mines. The fourth report is an atlas 

of remaining strippable coal lands in the region. 

Aerial data were combined with land-use data and 

geologic and mine maps to produce this much needed 

inventory of such lands. The fifth report is an atlas 

of all mining activity in the region, depicting strip 

mined areas, refuse piles, fires in abandoned mines 

and refuse piles, impoundments and other water 

bodies, and processing plants. This large volume is 

the first known atlas in which thermal sensing served 

an equally integral purpose with aerial photography. 

Thermal-infrared imagery was used by the Bureau 

of Reclamation to identify thermal hot springs that 

contribute mineral salts to the Colorado River. 

Thermal imagery, along with high-altitude 'aerial 

photography, was also used in a study of the geothermal energy potential of Honey Lake Valley 

near Susanville, California. Multispectral and colorinfrared photographs were used to detect evidence 

of canal seepage on the Uinta Basin Project in 

Utah. 

The National Park Service has used low-altitude 

mapping photography in a land-use planning study 

done in cooperation wlth the town of Springdale, 

Utah, outside Zion National Park. Medium- and 

high-altitude NASA photography has also been 

used for a variety of resource management studies, 

such as visitor impact on back-country areas, burn 

mapping, and vegetation and geologic mapping in 

such diverse parks as Olympic, Grand Teton, Redwoods, Kings Mountain, Lava Beds National Monument, Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore, and 

Gulf Islands National Seashore. Several forms of 

NASA aerial photography were used to find a technique for early detection of Dutch elm disease in 

the National Capitol Park area. NASA high-altitude 

photography was also employed by the Harpers 

Ferry Center to construct a large-scale interpretive 

display for use in a visitor center. 

Research Usiltg Aerial Data 

The USGS 

continued to apply the interdisciplinary approach 

for developing and improving remote-sensing techniques by identifying the parameters by which rocks, 

minerals, soil, and moisture can be remotely discriminated and by developing models and methods to 

analyze and display remote-sensor data. Modelling 

of thermal characteristics of geologic materials was 

refined in an effort to optimize the detectability of 

geothermal prospects from aerial infrared surveys. 

A thermal-inertia map was produced from aircraft 

data to delineate potential uranium-host channel 

conglomerates in south Texas. Temperature anomalies observed in images of the Mt. Baker volcano, 

Washington, provided evidence that subglacial heating is probably triggering the avalanches that are a 

serious risk in the area. The microwave, thermal 

emission characteristics of layered, moist, and frozen 

soils are being studied both theoretically and experimentally. These investigations have produced new 

airborne techniques for detecting geothermal, structural, and soil anomalies, and have yielded a better 

understanding of the spectral radiobrightnesses of the 

Moon and the planets. Reflectance and thermal 

surveys were made of a proposed wilderness area in 

Arizona to speed the geologic evaluation and to 

define possible mineralized zones. Preliminary statistical analysis of aerial gamma-ray spectrometry data 

for a uranium area in south'Texas suggested that 

automated mapping of the data can improve existing 

geologic maps and that radio-activity anomalies may 

overlie some oil and gas deposits. Luminescent-intensity data obtained by a Fraunhofer Line Discriminator operating from a helicopter were used to 

Mineral and Geothermal Prospecting. 

54 
identify papermill and phosphate processing effluents 

and sewage outfalls in tests made in cooperation with 

the Environmental Protection Agency. 

Remotely sensed data are being used by the USGS in several departmental and 

interagency research projects on wetlands hydrology, 

classification, delineation, and mapping. The Survey 

is assisting the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 

developing a wetlands classification system in preparation for the upcoming National Wetlands Inventory. The Survey is also cooperating with the 

Tennessee Valley Authority to develop a wetland 

classification system that identifies and maps Tennessee wetlands and to study the dynamics of the 

hydrologic system in relation to changes and species 

succession. In the Great Dismal Swamp, the USGS, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and NASA are 

mapping wetland vegetation, analyzing vegetative 

succession and habitat diversity, and studying wetland hydrology. The Survey is also experimenting 

with the use of high-altitude color-infrared photography to improve the methodology for mapping 

inland wetlands on the standard USGS 1:24,000- 

scale quadrangle series. 

The USGS is contributing aircraft 

data on the geophysics of floating ice in the Arctic 

Ocean to two international programs concerned 

with floating ice: the Arctic Ice Dynamics Joint 

Experiment, which is studying the dynamics and 

thermodynamics of sea ice, and the Polar Experiment which is studying the relationship of 

polar ice to climatic variations and trends. 

The Office of Water Research 

and Technology is continuing support of research 

using remote sensing from aerial platforms to identify 

areas of high ground-water potential, to determine 

water quality and trends of lake systems, to measure 

snow depth and water equivalent volume, and 

water movement and distribution in subsoils. New 

research projects include : in Nevada, development 

of a watershed runoff-prediction model based on 

satellite data; in Nebraska, use of infrared thermometry to obtain ground and crop temperature data 

to develop a resistance model for estimating evapotranspiration rates over large areas. Studies are also 

underway in cooperation with NASA to develop a 

reliable wash-water recycle system for use on longduration spacecraft missions. 

Wetlands Mapping. 

Ice Studies. 

Water Resources. 

International Activities 

The USGS conducts a broad program of international cooperation in the Earth sciences, including 

technical assistance, joint scientific studies, training, 

and participation in international commissions. As 

part of this program, a number of remote-sensing 

activities related to aeronautics and space were conducted in 1975. These include workshops and seminars, consultation and planning activities, and cooperative remote-sensing projects. 

During 1975 USGS personnel conducted or participated in workshops and seminars on the applications of remote sensing to geologic, hydrologic, 

rangeland, or land-resource appraisal in Australia, 

Brazil, Mali, Ghana, Somalia, and Thailand. In 

Thailand the activity included a seminar on behalf 

of the U.N. Economic and Social Commission for 

Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) and a workshop 

for the U.N. Mekong Committee, including Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and South Vietnam. 

Consultation was provided to Costa Rica on possible use of radar data and Landsat data for 

cadastral surveys of regions over which cloud cover 

frustrates aerial photography; to Mexico on the 

preparation and final composition of the project 

report on use of Landsat data for land-use mapping; 

to Iran, Pakistan, and Turkey, through the CENTO 

Regional Study (Landsat) of Igneous and Tectonic 

Geology; to the Turkish Government on its National 

Project on Landsat Applications; and to the ESCAP 

Coordinating Committee for Joint Prospecting of 

Mineral Resources in Asian Offshore Areas. 

Projects included a CENTO program on remote 

sensing involving Landsat investigations and the 

presentation of results by 20 CENTO-country scientists at the Third CENTO Seminar/Workshop on 

Remote Sensing, at Lahore, Pakistan; a USGSNASA-Government of Nicaragua cooperative 

Landsat/DCS experimental project on earthquake 

monitoring; the Thailand National Remote Sensing 

project, which includes applications programs in 

geology, forestry, agriculture, and land use, and the 

development of a National Remote Sensing Center; 

and continuation of the project for development 

and application of remote sensing in the search for 

copper and other metals in heavily vegetated areas. 

In that project aerial multiband photography and 

field geochemical data for sites in Brazil and Thailand have been obtained for analysis in cooperation 

with those governments. 

Cooperative projects with the less developed 

countries are supported by the Agency for International Development (AID), U.S. Department of 

State. Those with other countries are sponsored by 

their governments. The remainder have been funded 

by the international bodies identified with them and 

by AID, through payment of expenses of U.S. experts on temporary assignment. 

55 
VI1 

Introduction 

Responsible for helping establish sound public 

policies for the use of agricultural, forestry, and 

rangeland resources, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is constantly concerned with 

improving the long-term benefits of its program. 

During 1975, USDA continued to develop and employ remote sensing technology and techniques to 

improve agricultural programs that depend upon 

the rapid accumulation, analysis, and application of 

information on condition of crops, pests and pathogens, soils, water, and wildlife. 

Remote Sensing Activity 

The unique multispectral characteristics of aerospace-acquired data have been recognized as potential means for improving the use of agricultural, 

forestry, and rangeland resources. Especially, remote 

sensing could provide greater efficiency in inventorying, protecting, and managing these resources. This 

year research continued with various remote sensing 

techniques, often in collaboration with other Federal 

agencies and various institutions. 

Department of Agriculture 

Research and Development 

One of the most destructive parasitic pests of 

livestock, especially cattle and sheep but including all 

warmblooded animals, is the screwworm. The larva 

or maggot of the screwworm fly consumes the healthy 

flesh of open untreated wounds. The estimated loss 

to Southwestern ranchers exceeds $100 million annually. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection 

Service is cooperating with NASA to develop an operational Screwworm Eradication Data System that 

would provide a method for estimating variation in 

screwworm populations caused by weather and various biological phenomena. With up-to-date, widearea information, releases of male-sterile screwworm 

flies as a control measure could be made more effective. The screwworm weather model supplies twicedaily temperature data, obtained from the NOAA-4 

satellite, in conjunction with moisture data obtained 

from the National Weather Service crop moisture 

indices. 

In anticipation of the proposed Heat Capacity 

Mapping Mission, the Agricultural Research Service has submitted two research proposals to NASA. 

One involves using the anticipated thermal data for 

large-crop-area freeze damage assessment, planting 

date advisory, and evapotranspiration studies. The 

other investigation is to demonstrate the feasibility 

and to evaluate the reliability of assessing soil 

moisture over large land areas, using thermal data 

obtained from a space platform. 

The Department, in cooperation with NASA and 

NOAA, is conducting a Large Area Crop Inventory 

Experiment (LACIE) . The purpose is to determine 

the feasibility of using computer-analyzed satellite 

data to improve the accuracy and timeliness of crop 

forecasts. The experiment will combine crop acreage 

measurement obtained from Landsat data with 

meteorological data obtained from NOAA satellites 

and ground stations, and will relate weather conditions to yield assessment and ultimately to production 

estimates. LACIE Phase 1, April-October 1975, (1) 

tested the capability of the LACIE system to estimate 

wheat acreage for selected segments in the U.S. 

Great Plains, (2) developed yield models for the 

U.S. and Canada, (3) identified and evaluated 

problems, techniques, and procedures, from which 

(4) subsequent research can be planned. A semioperational test of the acreage measurement techniques has been conducted over the Great Plains and 

yield models have been tested semi-operationally 

within the U.S. Results are being evaluated. LACIE 

Phase 2 goals, begun in October 1975, are to conduct 

an operational test of selected wheat acreage, to devise a system for estimating yield and production 

over the Great Plains and Canada, and to evaluate 

the results. 

SignijicaBt Developments 

Complete, cloud-free photoniaps of the 48 contiguous United States, from Landsat 1 multispectral 

scanner (MSS) imagery, have been developed by the 

Soil Conservation Service (SCS) in collaboration 

with NASA. The maps were compiled and assembled 

from photo mosaics taken in MSS Band 5 (visible 

red) and Band 7 (near infrared). The original 

56 
mosaics were constructed at a scale of 1:1,000,000 

and finally reproduced at various scales ranging from 

1 : 10,000,000 ( 100 kilometers=l centimeter) to 

1 : 500,OOO (5 kilometers= 1 centimeter) . The photomaps are rendered in two seasonal aspects-summer 

and winter. The summer season map was compiled 

from imagery obtained primarily from July through 

October 1972. The winter aspect was obtained from 

imagery taken primarily from December 1972 

through March 1973. Reproductions of the summer 

aspect have been available since 1974. Winter aspect 

reproductions will become available about January 

1976. Either seasonal photomap may be obtained 

as a Band 5 or Band 7 rendition. Government agencies (domestic and foreign), schools and universities, 

private concerns, and individuals, bought approximately 6000 prints during the past year. 

The following significant advances in use of remote sensing technology and techniques were made 

by the Agricultural Research Service during 1975: 

0 Use of remotely-acquired soil-surface temperatures in conjunction with routine weather network data to estimate actual evaporation rates 

through all stages of soil drying. 

0 Development of an information management 

system enabling retrieval of Landsat data corresponding to ground-truth samples; this may be 

used either in locating crop fields for training in 

discrimination or for evaluating classification 

results of satellite imagery. 

0 Development of watershed storm runoff potentials (coefficients), classified by remote sensing 

measurement from an airborne passive microwave imaging scanner. 

0 Enhancement of rate and quality of soil mapping by use of aerial color and color infrared 

photography. 

Rapid detection of fire-ant infestations with 

remote sensing methods. 

0 Development of operational systems parameters 

for analysis of agricultural remote sensing data. 

Other Acthities 

A Remote Sensing Users Requirements Task Force, 

comprised principally of representatives from eight 

USDA user agencies, along with additional expertise 

provided by specialists from NASA and several universities, has cataloged the Department’s requirements for Earth-resource data. The task force developed a procedure for analyzing over 3000 resource 

data requirements and appraised the current status 

of remote sensing technology to satisfy the requirements. Data requirements are now matched against 

remote sensing systems that are operational, still in 

development, or at the research stage. Remote sensing systems that indicate maximum potential for 

both short- and long-range benefits will be identified 

in the near future. 

Assistance and advice on the feasibility and practical employment of agricultural remote sensing 

technology were sought by a number of foreign 

visitors during 1975. In cooperation with the Departments of Commerce and State, briefings were 

given to representatives from Australia, Bolivia, 

Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Peru, Saudi Arabia, 

Syria, and Thailand. 

57 
National Science Foundation 

Introduction 

The National Science Foundation is an agency 

of the Federal government established to advance 

scientific progress in the United States. The Foundation fulfills this responsibility primarily by sponsoring 

scientific research, encouraging and supporting improvements in science education, and fostering scientific information exchange. NSF supports research 

activities related to aeronautics and space sciences 

in astronomy, atmospheric sciences, engineering, 

materials research, polar programs, and education 

activities. NSF also supports National Research 

Centers, available to visiting scientists to pursue 

research relevant to space sciences and aeronautics. 

Astronomy 

General 

Photons are the universal currency of the electromagnetic spectrum, coming in energy denominations 

ranging from low-energy radio waves to visible light 

waves to high-energy X-rays and gamma rays. For 

astrophysicists and astronomers photons convey basic 

information about the structure, energy sources, and 

life cycles of stars and galaxies. The highly energetic 

X-rays and gamma rays are of particular interest 

because they are produced by electrons possessing 

very high velocities. How these electrons acquire 

their enormous energies raises intriguing questions 

about fundamental processes at work in the universe. 

X-rays and gamma rays cannot be observed from 

the Earth’s surface because the atmosphere acts as 

a screen. For this reason astrophysicists send their 

instruments beyond the Earth’s atmosphere by 

rockets, or suspend them beneath 90-story-tall balloons, to be lofted above 99.7 percent of the Earth’s 

atmosphere. Future experinients flown from the 

Northern or Southern Hemispheres will give information on black holes, quasars, radio galaxies, and 

other unidentified X-ray and gamma ray objects. 

Kitt Peak National Obseruatory 

Kitt Peak National Observatory-an NSF-supported research center for ground-based optical 

astronomy in the Northern Hemisphere-today maintains the world’s largest concentration of facilities 

for stellar, solar, and planetary research. Located in 

the Quinlan Mountains 91 kilometers southwest of 

Tucson, Arizona, the observatory is the site of the 

nation’s second largest reflecting telescope, the Mayall 

4-meter instrument, as well as the largest solar telescope, the 1.5-meter McMath instrument. A planetary program supports studies of all the planets of 

the solar system. Using spectrographic techniques, 

telescopes record the light transmission and absorption characteristics of planetary atmospheres. The 

data are used to develop theoretical atmospheric 

models. 

For a closer look, KPNO staff have designed experiments for the 1973 Mariner Venus/Mercury 

(MVM) mission and the 1977 Mariner Jupiter/ 

Saturn (M JS) mission. An ultraviolet spectrometer 

was designed to observe airglow radiations in the 

spectral range 200 to 1700 angstroms aboard the 

MVM. Successful observations were obtained during 

the mid-March 1975 third encounter with Mercury. 

Analysis of data from previous encounters indicates 

that the solar system’s innermost planet is surrounded 

by a thin atmosphere consisting in part of helium. 

Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, argon, neon, and xenon 

were also observed. 

The KPNO experiment aboard the MJS 1977 

spacecraft is designed principally to determine the 

concentration of the main constituents in the atmospheres of Jupiter, Saturn, and Titan, and also 

determine the distribution of hydrogen and helium 

in the interplanetary and interstellar medium. 

Daily magnetograms of solar observations conducted with the solar vacuum telescope are provided 

to NASA. The magnetograms indicate magnetic 

fields on the Sun and are used by NASA to support 

its orbiting solar observatory program. 

National Radio Astrolzomy Observatory 

Research in. astronomy now depends on observing 

celestial objects and regions in their characteristic 

emissions throughout the frequency spectrum, 

whether these be X-rays, visible light, infrared radiation, or radio waves. NRAO, headquartered in 

58 
Charlottesville, Virginia, provides large radio telescopes, auxiliary equipment, and support services 

required for sensitive observations of the radio sky. 

The principal users of the four NRAO telescopes, 

three at Green Bank, West Virginia, and one on Kitt 

Peak near Tucson, Arizona, are visiting radio astronomers and graduate students from throughout 

the United States. A major new radio telescope, the 

Very Large Array, is now under construction on the 

Plains of San Augustin near Socorro, New Mexico. 

Natioml Astronomy and Iolzosphere CeBter 

The NAIC mission is to provide the scientific community with unique facilities for research in radio 

and radar astronomy and aeronomy. The primary 

research instrument is the Arecibo, Puerto Rico, 

radio/radar telescope that incorporates a 390- 

meter-diameter spherical reflector and a 545-metricton feed platform suspended 115 meters above the 

reflector and associated transmitters and receivers. 

This past year was the first full year of operation 

of the new S-band (2380 MHz) planetary radar 

system sponsored by NASA and operating through 

the Arecibo telescope. In 1975, new observing programs studied the properties of the rings of Saturn 

and the satellites of Jupiter and prepared detailed 

topographic maps of the surface cf Venus. The maps 

of the cloud-obscured surface of Venus show terrain 

detail as small as two kilometers in size. 

In addition, the S-band and 430-MHz planetary 

radar systems were used to make radar observations 

of the surface of Mars. These studies were conducted 

in collaboration with the NASA Viking lander scientists. The radar data have provided valuable new 

information on the constitution, texture, and electrical properties of the material forming the Martian 

surface. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

Meteorology 

This program investigates the dynamical and 

physical behavior of the atmosphere by means of field 

observations, laboratory experiments, and theoretical 

and numerical analysis. Techniques are being developed for remote sensing of atmospheric motions and 

of particulate and gaseous species. Over the past 

several years there has been an expanded program 

of research on the chemistry of the troposphere 

and stratosphere. 

Solar-Terrestrial Research 

In studying the dynamic interaction between the 

Sun and the Earth, an interdisciplinary approach is 

required. NSF supports such studies by optical and 

radio observations of the solar atmosphere, observations of the expanding solar envelope (the solar 

wind), and measurements of the Earth‘s magnetosphere and upper atmosphere. Cosmic ray studies 

provide a common link for all four regions. In 1975 

further progress was made in implementing the 

International Magnetospheric Study. This intensive, 

cooperative effort in 1976-79 will further our knowledge of the near-Earth environment and the way in 

which it is influenced by the Sun. Studies will include auroral particle precipitation, geomagnetic perturbations, hydromagnetic wave propagation, plasma 

physics, and electric fields. 

Aeronomy 

Aeronomy is concerned with the Earth’s highaltitude atmosphere and its interactions with the 

lower atmosphere and with the space environment. 

The Foundation supports theoretical, laboratory, and 

field studies of phenomena that occur in this region, 

including airglow, aurora, ionospheric dynamics and 

instabilities, and chemical processes. In addition to 

the general work, current emphasis is on high-altitude investigations related to the International Magnetospheric Study and on a variety of studies of the 

chemistry and dynamics of the natural and disturbed 

stratosphere related to understanding man’s impact 

on this region. 

National Center for Atmospheric Research 

In cooperation with universities and other organizations, NCAR plans and executes atmospheric 

research programs. NCAR also develops and operates special research facilities in support of the national atmospheric research effort. 

The Tropical Wind, Energy Conversion and Reference Level Experiment (TWERLE) , a collaboration between NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, 

the University of Wisconsin, and NCAR, has entered 

its operational phase. The Nimbus 6 satellite, 

launched in June 1975, is successfully tracking 

several hundred TWERLE balloons and relaying 

information to the Nimbus control center. The objectives of the TWERLE experiment are tied to the 

Global Atmospheric Research Program. Chief objectives are to measure tropical winds at the 150- 

millibar pressure level and to measure air motions 

that relate to energy transfer processes in the global 

atmosphere. 

Polar Research Programs 

The Foundation continues its support of upper 

atmosphere investigations in the polar regions. Most 

measurements made in these regions cannot be made 

elsewhere. 

59 

209-25’7 0 - 76 - 5 
Instruments at Thule, Greenland, and McMurdo, 

Antarctica, recorded cosmic rays penetrating to 

Earth from opposite directions perpendicular to 

Earth’s orbital plane-a perspective not possible in 

lower latitudes. Comparison of simultaneous observations from the two locations has revealed puzzling 

transient differences in cosmic ray intensity-a 

north/south asymmetry. 

Researchers from nine institutions performed extensive investigation of the magnetosphere in June 

and July at Roberval, Quebec. The site is geomagnetically conjugate to Siple Station, a unique U.S. 

facility in Antarctica. The 2 l-kilometer-long, verylow-frequency (VLF) antenna at Siple transmitted 

in a number of modes, and instruments at Roberval 

measured the effect on the magnetosphere. Balloons 

over Roberval at 34-kilometers altitude measured 

trapped particles precipitated by the VLF emissions 

and measured VLF and other electric fields. Analysis 

of the extensive data is in progress. 

Engineering 

Support related to aeronautics research has been 

provided for the systematic investigation of transition 

from laminar to turbulent flow and the effects of 

external disturbance on transition, as well as stability 

computations. 

Materials Research 

Of the numerous NSF-funded activities in materials research, two general areas are of particular 

significance to aerospace. These involve studies of 

the -mechanical and the electro-optical properties 

of materials. The development of advanced aerospace 

vehicles is critically dependent upon high-performance structural materials, be they metals, ceramics, 

or polymers. Current efforts to better understand 

these materials include studies of the hydrogenembrittlement of metals and the use of thermodynamic and phase equilibria data for predicting the 

properties of complex alloys. Fabrication of polymer 

fibers having strengths in excess of the best steels, 

at less than one fifth the density, opens new horizons 

for organic composites. Moreover, recent research on 

block and interpenetrating-network polymers suggests that organic composites can be toughened, 

thereby further improving their usefulness. 

Materials research in the solid-state sciences represents a second general area of importance to aeronautical and space technologies. Fundamental investigations of defect formation, diffusion, and impurity 

effects in metals, insulators, and semiconductors have 

an obvious bearing on the future development of 

improved devices. 

Education Activities 

In fiscal year 1975 the Foundation’s Education 

Directorate supported graduate and postdoctoral 

training in aeronautics and space sciences, including 

the support of 24 graduate students in NSF’s Graduate Fellowship program. The Faculty Research Participation program helped upgrade the aeronautics 

and space sciences subject matter background of 26 

college and university faculty members. 
Introduction 

The critical concern to protect the environment 

while developing domestic energy resources and 

new energy technologies has recently led to the 

creation of a Federal Energy/Environment Research 

and Development Program, coordinated by the Environmental Protection Agency’s Office of Research 

and Development (EPA/ORD) with seventeen participating Federal agencies. A portion of this effort 

includes the development and application of aerospace technology through a series of interagency 

agreements with the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration (NASA) and the Tennessee Valley 

Authority. The major aerospace-related activity is a 

joint EPA-NASA aerial monitoring study of environmental conditions in the vicinity of energy development sites, such as coal strip mines and mine-mouth 

power plants in the western United States. 

In addition, EPA has in the past year continued 

its involvement in an advanced monitoring program 

to solve critical environmental measurement and 

monitoring probIems through the unique -capabilities 

of aerospace-derived technologies. This program has 

been devoted to (1) the development of aerial monitoring techniques for identifying the sources of pollution, (2) determining pathways by which pollution 

enters the environment and the extent of its effects, 

and (3) the development of remote measurement 

instrumentation. The purpose of this program is to 

provide cost-effective monitoring technology and advanced technical assistance to EPA offices and 

regions, as well as to states and local agencies with 

responsibilities for assessing environmental problems 

and enforcing laws and regulations. 

Energy-Related Environmental Research 

and Development 

Western E+zergy/E+zz&o+zme+zt Mo+zitorhg Sttrdy 

One major direction of activity being pursued by 

the Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry 

(OEMI/ORD) is the Western Energy/Environment 

Monitoring Study. This is a multi-year, multi-media 

baseline monitoring study being carried out by 

EPA primarily in the Northern Great Plains and 

Rocky Mountain states. Field coordination of the 

study is being carried out by EPA’s Environmental 

Monitoring and Support Laboratory (EMSL) , Las 

Vegas, Nevada. 

A major purpose is to establish a baseline against 

which can be measured the impact of energy development on the land. To carry out this aspect of the 

study, EMSL/Las Vegas is coordinating aircraft cob 

lection of infrared and multispectral analyzer data 

at various energy development sites and correlating 

such data with corresponding air and water quality 

monitoring data. Aircraft support is provided both by 

EMSL/Las Vegas and by NASA. EMSL/Las Vegas 

has coordinated flights with corresponding groundtruth measurements made by seven Federal and state 

agencies, including other elements of EPA. This information provides a synoptic overview of the extent, 

variation, effects and, in some cases, the pathways 

of pollution from specific sources, as well as a record 

of land disturbance caused by development. Such 

parameters as visibility, vegetational stress, sedimentation drainage patterns, thermal pollution, land 

erosion, and subsidence will be evaluated at various 

sites. The technology for more refined interpretation 

of such data will be developed concurrently. 

One important feature of this effort is monitoring 

reclamation of mined lands. In addition to collecting information on the extent of development and 

ecosystem damage, the EMSL flights over strip mining areas will employ a laser terrain profiler which 

is capable of rapidly measuring the contours of strip 

mine excavations and associated reclamation with a 

resolution of a few inches. This information is valuable in quickly determining whether restoration has 

been carried out properly. This may have real significance for future regulation of strip mining. 

In addition, both present hardware and software 

techniques and those developed during the project 

will allow the EPA to establish and man a fully 

operational energy-related overhead monitoring system by maximum use of its present aircraft capability to supplement remote data acquired by satellite. 

61 
Although maximum use would be made of present 

Landsat capability, Landsat’s resolution may not be 

adequate. 

At first the program will concentrate on the development of aerial remote sensor techniques to 

monitor environmental factors related to coal extraction and rehabilitation. Roughly half of the total 

effort will be to monitor these activities in the Northern Great Plains, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New 

Mexico. Sites of planned activity and active sites 

will be included. Environmental impact on surface 

and near-surface water, soil condition and slopes, 

subsidence manifestation, vegetation density and 

speciation, and other rehabilitation aspects will be 

considered. 

Approximately one third of the program will be 

dedicated to monitoring environmental impact from 

mine-mouth fossil fuel power plants. Both on-line 

and planned sites will be monitored. In addition to 

activity in the Northern Great Plains, sites in Utah, 

Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada will be 

observed for specific environmental concerns, such 

as effects from particulate and sulfur dioxide emissions on surrounding vegetation vigor and density 

and on synoptic visibility. 

Other work will relate to problems associated with 

oil shale extraction, conversion, and waste site rehabilitation. Monitoring the extent of environmental 

impact associated with accumulation of spent shale 

and potential related surface runoff into the drainage 

system will be considered. Fugitive dust from spent 

shale may be of concern, depending on the effectiveness of revegetation efforts. Most of the initial coverage will be of undeveloped sites. Monitoring will 

continue as extraction and rehabilitation proceed. 

A smaller effort will be made to develop monitoring techniques applicable to the environmental 

effects of geothermal development. The probability of 

high-salinity brines entering the surface and nearsurface water is evident. Aerial thermal and other 

techniques will be investigated for applicability. Sites 

in California will receive attention first. 

The management system for these data is not 

operational but has been under development. 

REMIDS (Remote Micro Imagery Data System) 

will incorporate coded data cards with a microprint 

insert of the specific site noting each outfall point. 

After periodic collection of data for several years, 

regulatory officials will have a synoptic record against 

which to evaluate the effects of regional energy 

development. 

Finally, the planned correlation and integration 

of multimedia data by energy site and as a function 

of time will establish an evolving “time lapse” overview of western energy development, along with an 

accurate quantitative environmental data baseline 

and a record of deviations from that baseline. Then, 

the environmental aspects of energy development in 

the West can be evaluated over five years by both 

national energy and environmental policy makers. 

The program could be useful earlier to regional and 

local decision-makers. 

The key mechanism now planned for disseminating 

the scope and details of the study as it evolves is 

the Western Energy/Environment Monitoring Study 

Atlas, a compendium of environmental information 

from major western energy development areas. It 

will contain photographic map coverage of specific 

sites, such as individual strip mines, along with 

a list of relevant air and water baseline data and 

land monitoring baseline data. It will also contain 

an evaluation of current environmental conditions 

in the area and a key for accessing actual data. 

The document will be published periodically for 

distribution to key Federal and state officials and to 

other concerned parties. 

In addition, EPA is supporting remote monitoring 

efforts of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) to 

determine the extent, intensity, and effects of sulfur 

dioxide emissions from fossil-fueled electric generating stations. The primary purpose of this effort is 

the testing, refinement, and development of infrared 

and multi-spectral scanning techniques for assessing 

effects chiefly on soybean crops and mixed stands of 

southern pine and deciduous hardwoods. 

Pollutant Emission Research 

OEMI, through EPA’s Industrial Environmental 

Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, 

North Carolina, is supporting an interagency agreement with NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) 

to study fuel combustion processes with the aim of 

minimizing nitrogen oxide emissions. 

Combustion interactions among multiple burners 

using natural gas, light fuel oil, and coal are being 

examined. This effort will be a guide to reducing 

emissions of nitrogen oxide from larger scale facilities. A catalytic partial oxidation reactor is also 

being developed, with which EPA researchers can 

study nitrogen oxide emissions from a variety of lowBTU gases. This will allow EPA to simulate combustion of fuels from a wide range of coal gasification 

processes. 

Remote Measurements of Energy-Related 

Pollutants and Effects 

The Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry is 

sponsoring a number of projects aimed at accelerating development of remote measurement instrumentation for energy-related pollutants and their effects. 

Remote sensing methods, including those using an 

airborne platform, offer a potentially important contribution to solution of the problem of formation, 
transforniation, and transport of aerosols and fine 

particulates. This can assist the evaluation of EPA’s 

control strategy on a regional and local basis. 

0 EMSL/Las Vegas is developing a multi-wavelength Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) system for measuring particulate signatures from specific sources and is evaluating a tracer dispersion 

system for optimizing site selection of sources. 

0 NASA’s Langley Research Center is developing, 

under an interagency agreement, a tunable infrared 

differential absorption LIDAR which has the potential for sensitive measurement of several pollutant 

compounds, including sulfur dioxide. 

0 NOAA/Boulder is developing a LIDAR for 

differentiating between stack-produced and naturally 

occurring aerosols. 

0 EMSL/Las Vegas is developing a laser fluorosensor system for identifying specific oils on surface 

water. 

0 EMSL/Las Vegas is evaluating laser fluorosensors for remote monitoring of vegetational stress. 

Advanced Monitoring Program 

EPA’s Office of Monitoring & Technical Support 

is identifying EPA’s critical monitoring needs and 

then developing the remote sensing technology that 

can fulfill the requirements. Through a reorganization of the EPA/ORD, the research and development 

for remote monitoring in the Agency is conducted at 

the Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory (EMSL) in Las Vegas, Nevada. EMSL/Las 

Vegas has established a Remote Sensing Directorate 

to develop, apply, and conduct aerial and groundbased remote monitoring for assessment of environmental quality. The new Division will be the focal 

point for all advanced monitoring activities in the 

Agency and will direct and coordinate other remote 

sensing developments within the Agency. 

Non-Energy Uses of Remote Monitoring 

EMSL/Las Vegas has responded to a 

number of emergency oil spill situations. This included an oil tanker collision on the Delaware 

River which resulted in fire, explosion, loss of life, 

and a spill of more than one million gallons of 

crude oil. The oil spill covered 80 kilometers of 

shoreline. Aerial overflights directed by personnel of 

EMSL/Las Vegas provided black and white and 

color photography. The black and white film was 

processed promptly in the field to assist immediate 

clean-up operations. The color film was processed 

and analyzed at the EMSL/Las Vegas where annotated maps were prepared. This information was 

provided to Federal personnel directing clean-up 

operations and was also used for environmental 

damage assessment. 

Oil Spills. 

Ocean Dumping. The Agency, in cooperation 

with NASA, has been conducting test flights over the 

New York Bight in a U-2 aircraft to evaluate the 

NASA coastal-zone color scanner scheduled to be 

installed on the Nimbus-G satellite. This instrument 

is being evaluated for monitoring ocean dump sites 

and transport phenomena. 

In another significant remote-monitoring development, an experimental buoy has been installed approximately 60 kilometers southeast of the mouth 

of Delaware Bay. Deployed by the U.S. Coast Guard, 

it is one of a group of buoys for gathering environmental data from the waters of the Continental 

Shelf. This particular buoy, EB-52, supports a cooperative study being made by NOAA and the EPA. 

The water quality instruments are measuring chlorophyll, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, pH (acidity), 

temperature, and clarity. The site is located within 

the Philadelphia municipal sewage-sludge disposal 

area and is also near an industrial acid disposal site. 

Data are reported automatically via an HF radio 

link. The buoy may also be interrogated from shore. 

The Agency makes extensive use of land-use mapping acquired through 

aerial and satellite sensors. The analyzed thematic 

maps are furnished to the EPA Regional Offices. 

Some examples of the land-use maps developed for 

the Region include: 

0 Detection, location, and extent of duckweed 

blooms near Birmingham, Alabama, for ecological 

assessment. 

0 Location and mapping of oil storage facilities 

for assessing the effects of possible spills on nearby 

bodies of water. 

Mapping of all animal feed lots in Elkhorn 

River Basin, Nebraska, for possible sources of pollution in this drainage basin. 

0 Evaluation of rehabilitation activities of disturbed areas and status of vegetative species associated with strip-mined areas in the Northern Great 

Plains. 

Mapping and assessment of urban areas subject 

to noise effects from air traffic around six metropolitan airports. 

Application of remote sensing to detect and 

monitor land-fill sites subject to leaching. 

Air Pollution and Eflects. Several projects have 

been under way: 

A LIDAR system is being evaluated during the 

Regional Air Pollution Studies in St. Louis, Missouri. Installed on an aircraft, the instrument is 

measuring the particulate burdens in the atmosphere 

and the air-inversion locations and mixing heights. 

0 Measurements of opacity and particulates are 

being conducted around smokestack plumes through 

the use of photographic and LIDAR techniques. 

Vegetation damage resulting from sulfur diLand Quality and Use. 

63 
oxide and dust from coal-fired plants is being assessed through the use of multi-spectral scanning 

and color IR photography. 

Water Pollution and Effects. The several projects 

include : 

0 Assessment of environmental impact to North 

Carolina wetlands as a result of converting land to 

agricultural use. 

0 Mapping of thermal discharges from power 

plants located in tidal waters to assess environmental 

trends. 

0 Environmental assessment of flood damage to 

petroleum facilities as in the case of the Atchafalaya 

River Basin flood. 

0 Mapping of actual and potential water pollution sources in northwest Iowa, such as wastetreatment sewage lagoons, sand and gravel pits, construction site runoff, and large auto graveyards. 

64 
National Academy of Sciences 

National Research Council 

x National Academy of Engineering 

Introduction 

The National Academy of Sciences is a private 

society of scholars in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and 

its use for the general welfare. Its charter, an Act 

of Incorporation passed by Congress, calls upon it 

to serve as an official advisor to the Federal government on any question of science or technology. 

The National Academy of Engineering is a parallel 

organization of engineers that shares with the Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the 

Federal government. 

Most of the activities undertaken by the two academies are carried out through the Commissions and 

the Assemblies of the National Research Council, 

which draws upon a wide cross-section of the nation’s 

leading scientists and engineers. 

Aerospace Science 

Space Science Board (SSB) 

The Space Science Board was established to provide programmatic and policy advice for the national 

scientific program in space research. The Board’s major effort for 1975 was to update the priorities study 

of 1974 (see Opportunities and Choices in Space 

Science, 1974, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1974). New scientific discoveries, better 

definition of proposed missions, and changes in fiscal 

constraints made this revision necessary. 

The disciplinary committees of the SSB (the Committees on Space Astronomy and Astrophysics, Space 

Physics, Lunar and Planetary Exploration, Space Biology and Medicine, and the Exobiology Panel) were 

involved in the effort to examine the scientific merits 

and technological aspects of proposed space science 

programs. In addition, summer studies defined the 

status and priorities for research in two areas: (1) 

Infrared and Submillimeter Astronomy, and (2) 

Solar Physics. 

The Board was also involved in planning for the 

19th Plenary Meeting of COSPAR (the Committee 

on Space Research of the International Council of 

Scientific Unions) . The National Academy of Sciences, as the representative of the United States, will 

serve as host for the meeting in Philadelphia in 

June 1976. 

Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research 

The Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research 

(CSTR) reviews and makes recommendations on 

the national program in solar-terrestrial physics and, 

through international bodies, participates in the organization and planning of international research, in 

solar physics, interplanetary medium, planetary atmospheres, and the magnetosphere. In February 1975, 

the Science Advisor of NSF prepared a GovernmentWide Plan for the International Magnetospheric 

Study (IMS) for the Office of Management and 

Budget. This plan is largely based on major recommendations provided by a joint study by CSTR and 

the Space Science Board in 1973, and a report by the 

CSTR Panel on the IMS in 1974. The chief objective 

of the IMS is to obtain a comprehensive, quantitative understanding of the dynamical processes operating on plasmas in the geomagnetic field. The 

operational basis of the IMS is an international plan 

of coordinated observations from spacecraft, groundbased facilities, aircraft, balloons, and research 

rockets. 

Committee on Atmospheric Sciences 

The Committee on Atmospheric Sciences, to ensure a balanced national program, examines progress 

and future needs related to scientific, technical, and 

national problems and encourages research and development wherever such needs are revealed. The 

Committee also monitors the manpower needs and 

educational characteristics of the scientific community 

in terms of the ability of the United States to carry 

out programs that have been identified for greater 

effort and support. 

The Committee is now in the final stages of the 

last of several studies identified for attention in 

1970, including: weather modification (1973) ; 

climate and climate change (1974) ; atmospheric 

chemistry (1975) ; and severe storms and short-term 

predictions (in process of completion) . Since many 

65 
of the needed observations for the last three fields 

must come f.rom an integrated, well functioning 

system of ground-based, airborne, and satellite sensors, the major agency responsibilities were identified. 

Data from satellites on atmospheric temperature, 

moisture, trace gas, particulate constituents, and 

solar and terrestrial radiation must be obtained to 

improve global prediction of climate, atmospheric 

chemistry, and short-lived severe weather phenomena. In addition, interrogation by remote sensors of 

land masses, ice masses, and the oceans is important 

for obtaining observations in difficult terrain and 

remote regions. 

The need for direct application of all current 

observational techniques and capabilities is being 

recognized by scientists and by the technical administrators of Federal and state agencies. The use of 

advanced observational techniques will be greatly 

enhanced when they are directly coupled to advanced computers that allow theoretical, experimental, and diagnostic studies to be undertaken on 

our complex physical environment. 

Global Atmospheric Research Program 

Stemming from resolutions of the United Nations 

in the early sixties, the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) is being conducted under 

the joint sponsorship of the International Council 

on Scientific Unions and the World Meteorological 

Organization. The principal objective of GARP is 

to study the physical processes of the atmosphere for 

better understanding and prediction of the transient 

behavior of the global atmosphere and the statistical 

properties of the general circulation that would 

lead to greater knowledge of the physical basis of 

climate. The U.S. Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research (USC-GARP) , the principal 

body for defining and developing United States 

participation, works closely with the principal Federal agencies in the planning and implementation of 

the programs. 

Intensive research and data reduction from major 

subprograms conducted earlier are presently underway. The GARP Atlantic Tropical Experiment 

(GATE) was successfully conducted from June to 

September 1974. Many nations contributed to the 

program, which employed an unprecedented array of 

surface, balloon, aircraft, ship, buoy, and satellite observational systems. Geostationary and polar orbiting 

satellites provided crucial research and operational 

data. 

On a somewhat smaller scale, and under the 

leadership of Japanese scientists, international participation in the second phase of the Air Mass 

Transformation Experiment ( AMTEX) was carried 

out in the South China Sea during the late winter 

of this year. In both the GATE and AMTEX the 

interaction of various scales of dynamic weather 

systems was studied with a view to incorporating key 

processes into numerical models of the general circulation. 

These experiments are principal precursors of the 

First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) , scheduled 

for 1978-79. This will be a twelve-month period of 

intensive global observations of the atmosphere and 

oceans, utilizing the complex array of surface, airborne, satellite, and special observing and measurement systems. Satellites will have a central role in 

providing a variety of observations, as well as serving as interrogation and data communication platforms. The needed planning and preparation for the 

U.S. paiticipation in the FGGE is now the primary 

function of the USC-GARP. 

Climatic Impact Committee 

The Climatic Impact Committee was established 

as a multidisciplinary committee in response to a 

request from the Department of Transportation. 

The function of the Committee has been to advise 

interested eIements of the Federal government on 

planning and interpreting results from research programs to assess the climatic impact, and other effects, 

of high-altitude vehicles, flights of Space Shuttles, 

and other activities of man that can affect the 

atmosphere, and in particular the stratospheric 

portion thereof. The Committee is studying the environmental impact of various chlorinated compounds, including fluorocarbons used as refrigerants 

and aerosol propellants, through their effect on the 

Earth's stratospheric ozone layer. A report of the 

Committee's assessment of the climatic and biological impact of a projected fleet of high-altitude 

aircraft, Environmental Impact of Stratospheric 

Flight, was released in April 1975. 

Geophysics Research Board 

The Geophysics Research Board (GRB) was 

established to effect participation by US. scientists 

in the activities of international geophysical organizations and to stimulate and encourage research in 

the United States in geophysics and related fields. 

In response to numerous suggestions from the 

scientific community, the GRB and the Space 

Science Board are jointly sponsoring a study of the 

uses of balloons for astronomical and geophysical 

observations. For administrative purposes, the study 

was organized under GRB. 

The study of scientific ballooning will include a 

review of past scientific achievements, an assessment 

of the future promise of this technique, and a definition of the equipment and facilities needed to realize 

the potential of ballooning. The stimulus for the 

66 
study was a widespread belief among scientists that 

the balloon’s potential for obtaining high-quality 

scientific data at low cost is far from being fulfilled. 

The Balloon Study Committee began its work in 

spring 1975 and should complete its study within one 

year. 

The GRB also sponsors the Committee on Data 

Interchange and Data Centers. This Committee was 

established to meet the problems of international 

exchange of geophysical data through the World 

Data Centers (WDCs) and to advise the GRB and 

the Director of WDC-A (the U.S. Center) on policies and effectiveness of the service to the US. 

scientific community of both the WDC-A complex 

(eight discipline-based subcenten and the Data 

Center Coordination Office) and other U.S. data 

centers and services. The Committee is concerned 

with coordination of these services and their improvement, especially in regard to effective use of 

the centers, quality control of the data, and services 

to the scientific community. 

Committee on Toxicology 

The Committee on Toxicology (TOX) has been 

engaged in several aeronautics and space-related 

activities: 

0 The Committee is waiting to evaluate the results 

of a current NASA contract relating to the toxic 

effects of mercury from the ion engine, as mentioned 

in last year’s report. 

0 As a result of last year’s study of the toxic aspects 

of fires in aircraft lavatories, the Committee is undertaking a long-term study of fire toxicology. 

0 References on the toxicology of hydrazine propellants were provided for use in waste-disposal 

problems. 

0 References were provided on the toxic effects 

of hydrogen chloride for use in problems from propellant exhausts. 

Space Applications 

Space Applications Board 

The Space Applications Board (SAB) advises the 

government on how the national space capabilities 

may be used to benefit mankind. 

In 1974 the Board organized a study to review 

progress in the practical applications of space systems 

and to solicit user needs that might be met by such 

systems. In the study, potential users drawn from 

Federal, state, and local governments, business, and 

industry served on panels in the fields of weather and 

climate, uses of communications, land use, agricultural resources, water resources, extractable resources, environmental quality, maritime activities, 

and materials processing in space. During 1975, the 

Board has reviewed the work of the study panels, 

evaluated their findings, and issued a report (see 

Practical Applications of Space Systems, National 

Research Council, 1975) which includes significant 

recommendations based on the work of the panels, 

as well as conclusions and recommendations arrived 

at by considering the work of the study as a whole. 

The Board concluded that present institutional 

arrangements are not adequate to encourage future 

applications of space technology. Since no institutional mechanism exists that permits the large body 

of potential users to express their needs and to 

have a voice in the definition of new systems, the 

Board recommended that Congress establish a 

national space applications council to direct policies 

affecting non-military space applications; set priorities for meeting user needs; provide for exchanges 

between users and providers of space technology; and 

encourage non-Federal investment in the application 

of space systems. The report calls for the council 

to operate as an interagency group, with representation from state and local governments, advisory to 

the President and Congress. 

To satisfy the launch requirements of future applications satellites, outlined by the user community 

at the study, the Board recommended that plans 

for the Space Shuttle offer an early capability to 

place payloads in both polar and geosynchronous 

orbits. Specific recommendations were also made for 

implementing practical applications in the following 

areas : hazardous weather warnings and long-range 

weather and climate predictions; land-use planning, agriculture, forest, and range management; 

exploration for food, water, energy, and mineral resources; and environmental monitoring. 

The Board has concentrated its 1975 activities on 

dissemination of the findings and recommendations 

of the study. 

Committee om Remote Sensing Programs for Earth 

The Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for 

Earth Resources Surveys (CORSPERS) provides advice to the Federal government on the use of remote 

sensing from spacecraft and aircraft for Earth-resource management and environmental monitoring. 

After completing a major study on the usefulness of 

remote sensing in late 1974, the Committee activity 

during 1975 was primarily addressed to responding 

to follow-on questions from individual Federal agencies. One was on the utility of remote sensing in 

ground-water quality management; another related 

to evaluating the full potential of remote sensing to 

assist a particular agency. 

The Committee has initiated a major study to 

evaluate the concept of having the Thematic Mapper, a second-generation Landsat sensor, provide a 

Resolcrces Surueys 
repetitive matrix of high-quality land-cover information as basic information for all users and then 

supplement this with data from user-specific missions 

as necessary. While this study may take 18 months, 

interim reports will be made along with preliminary 

conclusions. 

Comdtee om Radio Freqaertcies 

The Committee on Radio Frequencies (CORF) 

and its Subconimittees on Space Sciences, Radio 

Astronomy, and Earth and Life Sciences coordinate 

the views of the U.S. scientific and engineering 

communities on radio frequencies needed for research. CORF is working closely with Study Group 

2 of the U.S. National Committee for the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR) in 

preparing documents on space research and radio 

astronomy for the CCIR Study Group 2 meeting to 

be held in Geneva in March 1976. 

Recommendations concerning frequency allocations for the radio astronomy service were prepared and submitted by CORF to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for use in preparing the U.S. position for the 1979 World Administrative Conference. 

Additional tests were conducted by the radio 

astronomy observatories to study the interference 

by transmissions from ATS-6. 

Aerospace Engineering 

Aeronautics and Space Engineerilzg Board 

The Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board 

(ASEB) was organized to focus the talents and 

energies of the engineering community on significant 

aerospace policies and programs considered essential 

to maintaining and improving the contributions that 

can be made by this important sector of the nation’s 

economy. In 1975 the Board reviewed and commented on NASA’s proposed research and development programs in aeronautics and space. 

As its contribution to the National Energy Program, the ad hoc Committee on Aircraft Fuel Conservation reviewed and made suggestions on plans 

and programs to increase emphasis in those specific 

areas of research and technology focusing on early 

development of a fuel-conservative aircraft. 

In a related area of aeronautics, an ad hoc Committee on Supersonic Cruise Aircraft Research and 

Technology reviewed progress in this area and was 

pleased to note that the special emphasis on certain 

facets of work previously recommended had produced new concepts of potential importance to 

future commercial and military aircraft. This Committee plans to continue to monitor NASA’s supersonic research and technology program and to con68 

tinue to offer comments and recommendations as 

appropriate. 

In the area of space activities, the Board’s ad hoc 

Committee on the Management of Space Program 

Costs met in conjunction with two NASA Project 

Manager Workshops to determine what steps can 

be taken to reduce costs by learning from earlier 

and on-going projects in NASA. As a result, several 

steps are now under way which should help future 

NASA project managers to meet performance, cost, 

and time goals. The most recent Committee created 

by the Board, the ad hoc Committee to Review Requirements for National Turbine Engine Test Facilities, is reviewing the need for those additional facilities for the development and ground-based testing of 

superior gas turbine engines on succeeding generations of commercial and military aircraft. 

During the coming year the ASEB plans not only 

to continue to review the nation’s overall aerospace 

research and development program, but also to 

create ad hoc groups, when needed, to review in 

depth and comment on areas of critical importance. 

National Materials Advisory Board (NMAB) 

The general goal of NMAB is the advancement of 

materials science and engineering in the national 

interest. The scope of the activity covers the entire 

life cycle from raw material through finished product 

and the recycle of the spent product into the processing system. A significant portion of the Board‘s activities pertains to aerospace materials. The NMAB 

completed several studies in 1975 which address 

specific problems in aerospace materials technology 

and propose solutions. 

The report of the ad hoc Committee on Implementation of Cost-Saving Recommendations for 

Aerospace Construction identified factors that have a 

major influence on cost in airframe, engine, and 

helicopter procurement. These factors were used as 

a basis for proposing structures and materials programs aimed at reducing costs. 

Another NMAB ad hoc committee completed its 

study of structural ceramics. The principal objective 

was to evaluate the advances in the uses of ceramics 

as load-carrying structural materials, and make 

recommendations for future developments. 

In its report, “Characteristics of HY-180 and Ti100 for Welded High Strength Structures,’’ the ad 

hoc Committee presented the present state of the 

art and identified developments necessary for successful commercial application for high-strength 

materials in welded structures. A general review of 

the problems and the potential of the various welding processes is included and those processes are 

identified which show greatest promise and should 

be further developed. 

Although it was a minor part of the overall study, 
the report of the ad hoc Committee on Mechanical 

Rope and Cable did address the use of wire rope 

in aerospace systems. The general assessment of 

factors including design, materials, environment, 

wear, maintenance, and fittings is applicable. Conclusions are drawn regarding the need to determine 

by nondestructive evaluation a rope’s service life, 

the extent of internal corrosion, and wear. 

Education 

Commission on Human Resources 

A postdoctoral Resident Research Associateship 

Program is administered for NASA by the National 

Research Council through its Commission on Human 

Resources. Carefully selected postdoctoral scientists 

and engineers have an intensive research experience in areas of interest to the NASA centers at 

which the Associates are on tenure. The program 

strengthens the research efforts of the host centers 

and constitutes a major means for staff stimulation 

because of the interaction with these talented visitors. 

There were 166 Associates on tenure on August 31, 

1975. 

69 
Office of Telecommunications 

Policy 

XI 

Introduction 

The Office of Telecommunications Policy (OTP) 

was created in 1970 as an independent agency 

within the Executive Office of the President. OTP 

has three major functions: (1) to serve as principal 

advisor to the President on communications policy; 

( 2) to establish policies and provide coordination 

for the Federal government's communications SYStem; and (3) to serve as spokesman for the Executive Office on communications matters. 

As specified in its charter, OTP develops plans, 

policies, and programs with respect to communications designed to promote the public interest, support national security, contribute to the economy 

and world trade, promote the interests of the United 

States in its relations with foreign nations, and foster 

effective and innovative telecommunications technology. 

During the past year, OTP was active in a broad 

range of telecommunications issues involving the 

application of aeronautics and space technology. 

Aeronautical and maritime mobile satellite systems 

continue to be the subject of international discussions. In 1974, a Memorandum of Understanding 

was signed by the Department of Transportation, 

Federal Aviation Administration; the European 

Space Research Organization (ESRO) , now the 

European Space Agency (ESA) ; and the government of Canada for an experimental aeronautical 

satellite system ( AEROSAT) to serve international 

civil aviation requirements in the North Atlantic 

region. During the past year, the AEROSAT Council, which provides overall program direction, met 

four times. At the end of the year, OTP, along with 

the DOT/FAA and the Department of State, was 

reviewing program objectives and funding arrangements in the light of escalating costs in the space 

segment. 

International talks are continuing on the structure 

of a proposed intergovernmental organization designed to provide maritime mobile communications 

by satellite. During the past year, OTP has provided 

a forum for discusions among interested governmental and industry sectors in the United States on 

70 

the desirability of U.S. participation in the proposed 

International Maritime Satellite System (INMARSAT). 

OTP has introduced legislation to Congress that 

would amend the Communications Satellite Act of 

1962; the amendments are designed to reflect changes 

that have occurred since the time of the original 

legislation. 

The possibility of the use of telecommunications 

satellites for broadcast of television programs directly 

into home receivers continues to generate international debate in the United Nations. OTP participated in the discussions that took place during 

the Fourteenth Session of the Legal Subcommittee 

of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful 

Uses of Outer Space on the drafting of principles to 

serve as a basis for a proposed international convention on Direct Broadcasting. 

The Office makes a continuing review of the de 

mands for use of the radio spectrum, which is a 

limited natural resource. During the year, OTP, in 

cooperation with the FCC and the Department of 

State, was active in preparing for three important I 

up-coming international conferences regarding frequency allocation for aeronautical, space, and terrestrial telecommunications systems. The conferences 

are sponsored by the International Telecommunications Union, a specialized agency of the United 

Nations. 

Finally, OTP, in cooperation with the Office of 

Management and Budget; the Department of Health, 

Education and Welfare; and NASA has been active 

in encouraging the transfer of the technology involved 

in the ATS-6 program to the private sector. NASA's 

ATS-6 program has developed considerable interest 

in using advanced communications satellites with 

low-cost Earth stations to deliver health and educational services to remote sections of the country. 

To make these services regularly available to those 

who need them most, they must be shifted from the 

experimental NASA realm into the operational 

realm. As a result of this stimulus, the Public Service 

Satellite Consortium was formed early in 1975. At 

the same time, OTP is examining the possible benefits that government agencies could realize by continued, expanded use of the ATS-6 satellite. 
AEROSAT 

OTP issued policy guidelines for ‘the development 

of a national program on satellite communications 

for international civil aviation in early 1971. After 

three years of negotiation by the Department of 

Transportation’s Federal Aviation Administration 

(DOT/FAA) and the Department of State with 

foreign authorities, a Memorandum of Understanding was signed in 1974 by DOT/FAA, the European Space Research Organization, the predecessor 

of the European Space Agency, and the government 

of Canada concerning a joint program to test the 

use of satellites for improving air traffic control. The 

AEROSAT program is experimental, designed to explore ways of using satellites to improve the cost 

effectiveness of oceanic en route services, including 

the possibility of reducing air traffic control facilities. 

Consistent with the policy guidelines of the joint 

European/Canadian/U.S. aeronautical satellite program (AEROSAT) , COMSAT General is the U.S. 

industrial partner and the FAA is its only customer 

for use of the satellite. The space segment wohld be 

jointly owned by the European Space Agency and 

COMSAT General, each having 47 percent, and 

Canada having 6 percent. 

During 1975, the AEROSAT Council met four 

times. The issuance of a request for proposals for 

the principal development contract has been delayed until early next year. At the end of the year, 

OTP, DOT/FAA, and DOS were reviewing program costs and funding arrangements. 

IN MARSAT 

Beginning in 1972, an international Panel of Experts (POE) from 20 major countries began considering, under the auspices of the Intergovernmental 

Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) , a 

specialized organ of the United Nations, the possibility of establishing an international global maritime satellite communications system. The satellite 

system would provide public telecommunications, as 

well as safety and radio location determination services, on a global basis for merchant ships at sea. 

In the fall of 1974, the IMCO-POE completed its 

work and wrote a report which included, inter alia, 

a recommendation that a new Intergovernmental 

Maritime Satellite Organization ( INMARSAT) be 

created. The United States had participated in the 

work of the IMCO-POE, but had reserved its position with respect to the report. The U.S. requested 

that a note of its reservations be included in the 

Panel’s report. This note expressed certain reservations about the desirability of creating such an 

wganization, and particularly the necessity to do so 

at this time. 

From January to March 1975, OTP initiated a 

policy of reexamining the U.S. position on this matter and played a key role in providing a forum for 

discussions among interested government agencies 

and sectors of industry regarding the desirability of 

U.S. papticipation in the proposed JNMARSAT 

organization in preparation for an IMCO conference scheduled for April. In April 1975, an International Conference on the Establishment of an 

International Maritime Satellite System was held in 

London, England, under the auspices of IMCO. 

During that conference, the U.S. delegation pointed 

out that, for the U.S. to become a member of the 

proposed organization, certain conditions would have 

to be met. These conditions included such requirements as a two-part agreement specifically delineating 

the rights and responsibilities of designated entities, 

the requirement that the Council be the supreme 

organization for practical purposes, and generally 

that procurement policy be competitive. In this light, 

it is fair to conclude that the conference was quite 

successful from the point of view of the U.S. International talks are continuing on the structure of the 

proposed organization, and OTP participated in 

three Intersessional Working Group Meetings in 

preparation for the next plenary meeting in February 1976. 

Along with other U.S. agencies, the Office is 

drafting legislation which will be required for 

US. participation in the proposed intergovernmental 

organization. 

Proposed Amendments to the Communications 

Satellite Act of 1962 

The Office of Telecommunications Policy submitted legislation to Congress that would amend the 

Communications Satellite Act of 1962. This legislation is now pending before the Senate Commerce 

Committee (S.1693) and the House Committee on 

Interstate and Foreign Commerce. The 1962 Act, 

which called for the creation of a commercial satellite 

system as part of an improved global communications network, established the Communications 

Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) as the chosen 

instrument of the United States for accomplishing 

the purposes of the act. 

Generally, the amendments are designed to update 

the act in response to present conditions in international communications, but these amendments do 

not alter the basic policy premises underlying the 

original legislation. In 1962, a number of technical 

and operational uncertainties regarding the creation 

of COMSAT gave rise to the inclusion of several 

provisions relating to COMSAT’s ownership and the 

conduct of its affairs, provisions not normally associated with a private communications common carrier 

71 
enterprise. With the emergence of COMSAT as an 

established and mature corporation, the proposed 

changes would : 

( 1) eliminate the requirement that COMSAT 

incorporate in the District of Columbia; 

(2) repeal the provision calling for presidentiallyappointed and common-carrier-elected directors; 

(3) eliminate the special class of common carrier stock; 

(4) reduce permissible common carrier shareholding to five percent; 

(5) permit COMSAT to issue par value stock; 

(6) repeal the requirement for COMSAT to 

obtain FCC approval prior to obtaining additional 

capital. 

Additionally, the possible emergence of specialized 

international satellite systems that would be separate 

from the INTELSAT system is also recognized. One 

amendment would make explicit that COMSAT 

could participate in such new international systems, 

on a non-exclusive basis, thus legislatively affirming 

an FCC rule-making decision to the same effect in 

the context of domestic satellite systems. Another 

amendment clarifies the Executive Branch role in the 

planning, implementation, and operation of new 

international satellite systems that are developed 

pursuant to international agreement in which the 

U.S. is a party. 

Direct Broadcast Satellites 

The essential difference between the proposed 

direct broadcast satellites and conventional communications satellites is the former’s capacity to broadcast directly into home receivers, avoiding expensive 

ground stations. The use of receivers designed for 

direct broadcast satellite reception offers the potential 

for radical changes in the way telecommunications 

satellites may be employed. 

The United Nations has served as the forum for 

debate on the issue of Direct Broadcast Satellites 

since 1972, when 102 States voted for a Soviet 

Union-sponsored resolution by which the General 

Assembly considered it necessary to elaborate principles governing the use by States of Direct Broadcast 

Satellites with a view toward conchding an international convention. 

The Uni,ted States voted against this resolution as 

not necessary, pointing out that there are international legal instruments which impact on the question 

of direct broadcast satellites already-for example, 

the United Nations Charter, the Outer Space Treaty, 

applicable provisions of the International Telecommunication Convention and Radio Regulations, 

certain relevant principles expressed in the Universal 

Declaration of Human Righ,ts, and Resolutions of 

the General Assembly. Moreover, the United States 

has stressed the concept of free flow of information 

in the debates. 

During February and March of 1975, the Legal 

Subcommittee of the Uni.ted Nations Committee on 

the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space met for its fourteenth session to discuss, among other things, direct 

television broadcasting. Fourteen topics were agreed 

to as a basis for drafting. Of the fourteen topics, in 

only three were the texts of the draft principles 

agreed to by all members of the Subcommittee. Generally, unanimity is a necessary condition for a proposed convention to exit the Legal Subcommittee for 

final vote in the General Assembly. Although there 

was unanimous agreement on three of the principles, 

there was no consensus in the remaining eleven 

topics and, in a number of instances, the differences 

were fundamental. The issue that continues to attract 

the most controversy and in which there are still 

fundamental differences is that of prior consentthe notion that no State should be allowed to engage 

in direct television broadcasting without prior approval of the State which may be the intentional or 

unintentional recipient. 

In June of this year, the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (Outer Space Committee) 

met in New York to examine the reports of its 

Technical and Legal Subcommittees. Regarding the 

report of the Legal Subcommittee on Direct Television Broadcasting, the Outer Space Committee 

expressed satisfaction with the set of principles 

drafted by the Legal Subcommittee and agreed that 

work should continue. The next session of the Legal 

Subcommittee is scheduled for Geneva in 1976. 

OTP, along with other interested US. agencies, 

participated in the deliberations of both the Legal 

Subcommittee and the Outer Space Committee during the year, and it will continue its contribution to 

the formulation and presentation of US. policy views 

on Direct Television Satellite Broadcasting. 

Frequency Management 

The radio frequency spectrum is a finite resource. 

Its application is subject to the laws of physics; and 

it is shared by all nations and by all classes of radio 

equipment. Discrete segments of this radio spectrum 

are used by navigational aids, radars, and all nonwire forms of communication, e.g., AM, FM, and 

TV broadcasting; satellite transmission; and mobile 

communications generally. Today, the use of the 

radio spectrum affects the day-to-day activity of 

every citizen and every government agency. Increasing use increases the potential for interference. 

Avoiding such interference is a function of frequency 

management. 

National frequency management, including spectrum planning, is carried out by the staffs of OTP 

72 
and the Federal Communications Commission 

(FCC) . The Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee (IRAC), made up of representatives of 

major Federal government departments and agencies 

using radio, provides substantial support to OTP. 

The main body of the IRAC meets several times a 

month to address major radio frequency policy issues and to consider the recommendations of numerous working groups that analyze specific problems. 

International spectrum planning is done within 

the framework of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the 

United Nations. Established in 1865, it is the oldest 

international body in the U.N. structure. Located in 

Geneva, Switzerland, the ITU is composed of 144 

members. The international radio regulations negotiated at conferences of the ITU, when ratified by the 

U.S. Congress, have the force of treaty. In addition 

to the relevance of the ITU regulations to national 

use of the radio frequency spectrum, they have an 

explicit impact on international communications and 

commerce. OTP, the FCC, and the Department of 

State are pursuing preparatory work for three ITU 

conferences : 

0 A World Administrative Radio Conference to 

be held in January 1977 to establish technical 

sharing criteria for the Broadcasting Satellite 

Service in the 11.7-12.2 GHz frequency band, 

taking into account the fixed, mobile, and other 

broadcasting operations to which that band is 

also allocated; 

A World Administrative Radio Conference to 

be held in March 1977 to revise the planning 

for the Aeronautical Mobile Service use of high 

frequencies on the world's air-route communication systems : 

A World General Administrative Radio Conference to be held in the second half of 1979. 

This conference will have the authority to review and revise all of the international radio 

regulations, particularly those dealing with allocation of the radio frequency spectrum. The 

last ITU conference to have such broad authority was held in 1959. The advent of satellites and 

other sophisticated telecommunication technology, combined with the influx of 46 new 

members into the organization since 1959, each 

making further demands on this limited resource, 

and an increasingly political atmosphere at 

recent past conferences indicate that the 1979 

meeting will present the U.S. with greater 

challenges than any ITU-sponsored conference 

in the history of the organization. 

In undertaking preparatory work for these conferences, OTP has identified a dangerous level of 

attrition in qualified frequency management personnel, particularly those having international conference experience. In cooperation with the Civil 

Service Commission, a comprehensive Career Development Plan for government frequency managers 

has been developed and implemented. Personnel at 

the executive, mid-level, and entry-level will be prepared for international negotiations, technical analysis, regulatory enforcement, and decision processes 

essential to frequency management. 

At the initiative of OTP, detailed examinations of 

planned and proposed aeronautical radionavigation 

and satellite systems have been undertaken jointly 

with the sponsoring government agencies to evaluate 

their electro-magnetic interactions with each other 

and with existing systems. As a result, a number of 

design adjustments in planned systems have been 

made by the FAA, NASA, and DOD. These engineering analyses, undertaken at the conceptual and 

design stages, have avoided inestimable expenses in 

hardware replacement or retrofit, which would have 

been necessary had the interference problems gone 

unresolved prior to the production or operational 

stages. 

High Power Satellites 

As a result of the recent ATS-6 program of NASA, 

considerable interest has developed in using advanced communications satellites with low-cost 

Earth stations in the delivery of health and educational services, With such a satellite communications 

system, even the most remote regions of this country 

can have access to such services through television. 

The economic advantages of such satellites are great 

if the user base is large enough. 

OTP, in conjunction with OMB, HEW, and 

NASA, encourages the transfer of this technology to 

the private sector. For such services to be useful to 

those who need them, they must be shifted from 

NASA's experimental mode into the real world of 

operational needs. While NASA has done a good 

job of eliminating technical barriers associated with 

this type of satellite, questions of demand and how to 

bring all the many potential users together into a 

useful economic market have prevented any major 

private sector initiative in this area. 

To correct this situation, OTP and HEW supported the concept of a user consortium that could 

collect all the various user needs for such service 

into a single package. As a result, the Public Service Satellite Consortium was formed early in 1975. 

The ultimate purpose of this organization is to 

make high-powered communication satellite services 

available to public and private institutions concerned 

with the delivery of health, educational, and other 

public services. 

In a related issue, the use of the ATS-6 satellite 

73 
by Federal agencies such as the Veterans Administra- probably be expanded to include other Federal 

tion and the Indian Health Service indicated the agencies. 

possibility of continued and additional Federal uses 

of similar services in the future. OTP therefore examined the possible benefits that might be derived 

from expanded Federal use. This effort included 

determining what coordination, if any, was needed 

within the Federal government in technical and 

funding support which might be provided to nonFederal users of such a service-support aimed at 

encouraging the evolution of a viable and independent user community. To accomplish these tasks, 

OTP formed the Interagency Committee on Communications Satellite Technology Applications in 

January 1975. The initial membership consisted of 

The Committee has met twice and is engaged in 

an analysis of basic issues which must be resolved 

before any real progress in advancing this new technology can be expected. One of these issues centers 

on the frequency band that would be most useful in 

facilitating Federal use of high-powered satellite 

services. The frequency band used by ATS-6 has 

serious limitations and much investigation is going 

on of the usefulness of higher bands. In addition, the 

Radio Regulations place restrictions on Federal activities in what is normally considered to be civilian 

frequency bands. 

those agencies that had demonstrated interest in the 

ATS-6 type of programs and included NASA, HEW, 

HUD, Commerce, VA, NSF, and the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. If the Committee 

determines that significant Federal needs for such 

satellite services do exist and that the Committee 

can serve a useful function, the membership will 

The Committee is investigating the potential uses 

of the ATS-6 spacecraft when it returns from India 

where a year-long experiment in instructional television is presently being conducted. The Committee 

is similarly addressing the use of the Communications Technology Satellite after a joint experiment 

with the Canadians is completed. 

74 
XII Federal Communications 

Comrnission 

Introduction 

The furtherance of the United States policy to 

establish a communications satellite system which will 

be responsive to public needs and national objectives 

and which will contribute to world peace and understanding is indicated by the increase in membership 

in INTELSAT from 86 in 1974 to 91 in 1975. Three 

domestic US. satellite systems continue to broaden 

the services offered to the public, including communications services to cable television system operators and to offshore drilling platforms. Operation of 

a maritime satellite system is scheduled to begin in 

early 1976 with the provision of service to the Navy. 

Communications Satellites 

lNTELSAT 

The INTELSAT system presently consists of three 

Intelsat 1V satellites (two operational and One spare) 

in the Atlantic Ocean Region, two Intelsat IV 

satellites (one operational and one spare) in .the 

Pacific Ocean Region, and two Intelsat IV satellites 

(one operational and one spare) in the Indian Ocean 

Region. The first of the Intelsat IVA satellites was 

launched September 25, 1975, with operations 

scheduled to begin in December in the Atlantic 

Region. A request for proposals has been issued for 

a future generation of satellites designated as the 

Intelsat V series. 

The worldwide network of Earth stations has 

grown to 112 antennas at 89 stations sites in 64 

countries. Besides providing international communications, INTELSAT is providing satellite capacity to 

meet the domestic communications requirements 

of several countries. The additional antennas under 

construction at the Etam, West Virginia, and the 

Andover, Maine, Earth-station sites are scheduled for 

completion by December 31, 1975, with operation 

commencing shortly thereafter. The continued construction of Earth-station facilities is just one indication of the growing reliance on satellites for international as well as domestic communications. 

Domestic Satellites 

In addition to the continuation of domestic 

satellite services by the American Satellite Corporation, RCA Alaska Communications, Inc., RCA 

Global Communications, Inc., and Western Union 

Telegraph Company, several significant new uses of 

domestic satellites developed during 1975. The use 

of domestic satellites to distribute pay cable programming to cable television (CATV) systems began 

in the fall through receive-only Earth stations owned 

by the CATV system operators. Commercial service 

to a small Earth terminal on an offshore drilling 

platform in the Gulf of Mexico was also begun in 

the fall, and construction of twenty small earth 

terminals to serve rural co&unities in remote locations in Alaska was begun under a waiver of the 

rules issued by the Commission. 

Operations of the interim domestic satellite system of RCA Global Communications, Inc., and 

RCA Alaska Communications, Inc., were transferred 

from the Telesat Canada Anik satellites to the 

Westar I1 satellite of the Western Union Telegraph 

Company in early 1975 after the Westar I1 was 

temporarily relocated to an orbital location more 

suitable for serving Alaska. The launch of the first 

RCA satellite took place in mid-December. 

Construction of the American Telephone & Telegraph Company ( AT&T) domestic satellite system 

authorized in 1973, using satellites owned by Comsat 

General Corporation, was completed, with commercial service expected to begin in early 1976. Hearings 

were completed and an initial decision issued by an 

administrative law judge on the proposal filed in 

1974 by GTE Satellite Corporation to use these 

satellites together with AT&T, instead of using 

satellites authorized in 1973 ;c, Nations: Satellite 

Services (a subsidiary of Hughes Aircraft Company) . The Commission is expected to reach a final decision 

in this matter by the end of the year. 

Although no new domestic satellite systems were 

proposed to the Commission during 1975, the Commission rejected a proposal filed in 1974 for a major 

restructuring of the CML Satellite Corporation 

which would result in 45-percent ownership of CML 

75 

209-257 0 - 76 - E 
by Comsat General and 55-percent by IBM. The 

Coinmission did set forth several alternatives under 

which IBM could enter the domestic satellite industry. One of these alternatives, under which CML 

would be jointly owned by Comsat General, IBM, 

and a third party, was selected. In late September 

the Commission was informed that Aetna Casualty 

& Surety Co. was chosen as the third partner. 

Formal applications were filed in late December 

1975. The proposed system would operate in the 

12 and 14 GHz frequency bands to provide integrated voice, data, and image communications services between Earth stations located on customer 

premises throughout the 48 contiguous states. 

Specialized Satellite Services 

Maritime Mobile Satellite Service 

The Commission is continuing to work both 

nationally and internationally to further the development of a maritime mobile satellite service. Such 

a service will significantly improve maritime communications in accuracy, reliability, speed, and variety of transmission modes, all of which will enhance 

maritime safety and management. 

Internationally, the Intergovernmental Maritime 

Consultative Organization (IMCO) , through the 

Panel of Experts on Maritime Satellites, completed 

its final meeting in September 1974, looking toward 

the establishment of an international maritime mobile 

satellite service. Operational requirements have been 

stated and initial economic, technical, and financial 

studies have been completed. An initial conference 

of governments, which considered the report of the 

Panel of Experts, was completed in May 1975. In 

preparation for that conference, the Commission 

instituted an inquiry to help formulate the US. position on the establishment of an international maritime satellite system. At that conference it was.agreed 

that “in order to improve maritime communications, 

there was a need for a world-wide maritime satellite 

system and also that there was a need for an International Inter-Governmental Organization to administer and manage this system.” A second session 

of the conference is planned for February 1976 to 

discuss arrangements for the establishment of the 

International Organization for a Maritime Satellite 

System (INMARSAT). 

In April 1973, the Commission issued waivers 

allowing the construction of three satellites that will 

be part of a five-year system intended to provide 

service to the Navy as well as to maritime users, beginning in early 1976. One satellite is planned for 

deployment over the Atlantic and another over the 

Pacific with the third held as a spare on the ground. 

In August 1973, the Commission provided for a 

consortium of four carriers to participate in this 

Navy/maritime system and has issued several orders 

concerning this matter, the most recent being in 

May 1975. In September 1975, the Commission 

proposed rules for licensing commercial ships to 

operate in such a system. 

The Navy communications services will be provided in the UHF band on a lease basis for a period 

of years beginning in 1976. The satellite capacity 

used by the Navy will be under its control and will 

be used to provide fleet communications. The satellite 

design is such that during the period of the Navy 

service, a large portion of the satellite power will be 

required to meet the naval requirements; the remaining power will be available for commercial maritime use. When the Navy no longer requires this 

service, the entire satellite power can provide commercial maritime service. 

Aeromzutical Mobile Satellite Service 

In the fall of 1974, a memorandum of understanding was signed by the Department of Transportation/ 

Federal Aviation Administration, the European Space 

Research Organization (ESRO) , and the Canadian 

government on the basic arrangements for establishing an experimental aeronautical satellite system in 

the North Atlantic. Comsat General Corporation has 

been chosen as the US. co-owner in the space segment of the system, which is to be evaluated beginning in early 1978. 

The objectives of the program are to gain experience and to evaluate and experiment with the use 

of satellites in providing voice and data communications between aircraft and land stations. The 

system will use frequencies at C-band for communications between ground stations and satellites. Between satellite and aircraft, it is anticipated that 

this initial system will provide limited VHF capability 

(the frequencies now used by civilian aircraft over 

land) in addition to an L-band capability. 

Broadcasting-Satellite Service 

A series of broadcasting-satellite experiments began in June 1974 with the Applications Technology 

Satellite, ATS-6. Further broadcasting-satellite 

experiments are planned with the joint United 

States/Canada Communications Technology Satellite 

(CTS) , which is scheduled to be launched in early 

1976. 

At present, there are no applications before the 

FCC for this new use of the radio spectrum. However, the Commission is investigating the needs for a 

Broadcasting-Satellite Service for community and 

individual reception and has initiated a proceeding 

as part of the preparation for the 1977 ITU World 

Administrative Radio Conference for planning a 
Broadcasting-Satellite Service. (See “International 

Telecommunication Union (ITU) .”) Also, a report 

titled, “The Present Status of Broadcasting Satellites” 

(FCC/OCE RC75-06) was issued by the Chief 

Engineer’s office in September 1975. 

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) 

During 1975, the Commission’s activities increased 

in the area of international advance publication, coordination, and notification about space systems, in 

accordance with provisions of the ITU radio regulations. This increase stemmed primarily from the 

several doxiiestic satellite systems in use or under development; it also arose from U.S. responsibilities to 

carry out these functions on behalf of INTELSAT 

countries. 

Commission personnel developed rulemaking to 

implement the results of the 1974 Maritime World 

Administrative Radio Conference, which, in part, 

adopted regulations for the maritime mobile-satellite 

service. 

The Administrative Council of the ITU, which 

met during the summer of 1975, reconfirmed the 

convening of a General World Administrative Radio 

Conference and set a date for the second half of 

1979. This major conference will deal with overall 

revisions to the current international regulations 

governing all radio services, including the aeronautical and space services. The Council agreed to the 

convening of a special joint meeting of the International Radio Consultative Committee (C.C.I.R.) 

in the second half of 1978, to consider technical factors in preparation for the 1979 General Radio Conference. 

Because of the wide scope of the forthcoming General Radio Conference, extensive preparatory work 

is well under way, taking into account the frequency 

requirements of all radio services and the many other 

technical and operating aspects involved. The Commission is soliciting public comments to assist in the 

development of U.S. proposals. 

Preparatory work has continued for the Satellite 

Broadcasting World Administrative Radio Conference scheduled for January 1977, to plan for the use 

of the frequency band 11.7-12.2 GHz now allocated 

for use by fixed services, fixed satellite services, mobile 

services, broadcasting services, and broadcasting satellite services. Preparatory work was also initiated for 

the Aeronautical World Administrative Radio Conference to be held March 1977. This conference will 

deal with matters relating to the Aeronautical Mobile 

Route Service, including the revision of their frequency allotment plan on the basis of single-sideband operation. 

Frequency Allocation and Coordination 

An order was adopted January 3, 1975, to delete 

footnote US96 to the Table of Frequency Allocations. 

US96 allowed the use of certain frequencies in the 

non-government band, 1990-2110 MHz, by the government in support of the Apollo space program. 

Since there is no longer a need for these frequencies, the provision has been deleted. 

The Commission has amended its rules by adding 

a new footnote, US219, to the Table of Frequency 

Allocations to permit the use of the frequency 2106.4 

MHz by Government Earth stations for Earth-tospace transmissions. This action was requested by 

the Department of Interior through the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee of the Office 

of Telecommunications Policy. The Department of 

Interior will use this frequency in their Earth Resources Survey Operational System to collect and 

disseminate a wide variety of essential data on the 

natural resources. This provision was effective Feburary 19, 1975. 

An order was adopted March 12, 1975, to allocate 

the band 1700-1710 MHz to government and nongovernment meteorological-satellite service on a coequal primary basis with the existing space research 

service. The Department of Commerce requested this 

allocation for implementing a new satellite system, 

the Television Infrared Observation Satellite. This 

new system uses an RF bandwidth of 15 MHz and 

would cause problems to another satellite system if 

required to use the formerly allocated band 1670- 

1700 MHz. 

A Notice of Proposed Rule Making was adopted 

September 5, 1975, to add a new footnote, US222, 

to the Table of Frequency Allocations. The new 

footnote would permit the use of frequency band 

2025-2035 MHz by government Earth stations for 

Earth-to-space transmissions for tracking, telemetry, 

and telecommand at Wallops Island, Virginia; 

Seattle, Washington; and Honolulu, Hawaii. The 

new footnote was requested by the Office of Telecommunications Policy to make provision for the 

Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite 

System (GOES) to operate in the 2025-2035 MHz 

band. GOES will be used in short-range forecasting 

and warning of weather, ocean, and solar hazards, 

providing nearly continuous, detailed observations. 

n 
XI11 Department of State 

Introduction 

International space cooperation efforts in support 

of foreign policy objectives and the goals of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Act were a matter 

of high priority to the Department of State during 

1975. Attention continued to be focused both on 

cooperation with individual countries and on space 

endeavors with multilateral and international organizations. 

Particular progress was seen in support of efforts 

toward a European community by the cooperation 

of NASA with ten countries in their development of 

a large space laboratory for use with the US. Space 

Shuttle system. Support of bilateral relations with 

the U.S.S.R. continued through the joint ApolloSoyuz Test Project, which was successfully completed, 

and scientific exchanges. International cooperation 

for peaceful uses of space by all mankind was advanced in the communications satellite programs, 

the emerging maritime and aeronautical satellite 

programs, and the continued interest in space niatters in the United Nations, The United Nations, 

through its Outer Space Committee and various 

working groups, has continued to be a prime forum 

for the formalization of multinational viewpoints 

and programs to advance cooperation in the uses of 

outer space. 

Activities Within the United Nations 

Outer Space Committee 

Meeting in New York from June 9 to 20, the 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space 

reviewed the reports of its subcommittees and recommended further consideration of the three principal 

topics under consideration : direct television broadcasting satellites, remote sensing, and a draft Moon 

treaty. 

Regarding the use of satellites for direct television 

broadcasting, the Committee expressed satisfaction 

with the progress made to date by its Legal Subcommittee in drafting a set of principles governing 

such use. The Committee noted that these draft 

principles included formulations on which consensus had been reached as well as those on which 

consensus could not be reached. There was no significant progress in resolving the critical differences 

between adherents of the prior-consent concept and 

of the concept of freedom of information (supported 

by the US.). The Committee agreed that the Legal 

Subcommittee should at its 1976 session continue 

to consider as a matter of high priority the elaboration of principles governing the use by states of artificial Earth satellites for direct television broadcasting 

with a view to concluding an international agreement 

or agreements. 

Of the three main topics, remote sensing of the 

Earth‘s resources and natural environment by satellite from space received the greatest amount of 

attention during the meeting. In the working sessions the principal focus was on the future mandate 

of the Legal Subcommittee which had considered 

the question of remote sensing this year for the first 

time. The principal points of contention were 

whether prior consent was necessary for the acquisition and distribution of remote sensing data. The 

Committee finally agreed that the Subcommittee 

should as a matter of high priority (a) continue its 

detailed legal consideration of remote sensing of the 

Earth from space with a view to identifying further 

common elements among the views of states, and 

(b) proceed to drafting principles where common 

elements in the views of states were identified. The 

Committee noted with satisfaction the work of its 

Scientific and Technical Subcommittee, confirmed 

that further studies of the organizational and financial aspects of remote sensing should progress together with consideration of the legal aspects, and 

endorsed the Subcommittee’s recommendations concerning future studies and actions by the Secretary 

General. 

The Committee noted the work of the Legal Subcommittee on developing a draft Moon treaty. The 

Subcommittee discussions were devoted almost entirely to negotiations on formulas concerning exploration and exploitation of the Moon’s resources. 

Also unresolved were two previous issues of whether 

the treaty should apply to other celestial bodies and 

the extent to which launching states should give in78 
formation on their missions to the Moon. The 

Committee agreed that at its next session the Legal 

Subcommittee should, as a matter of high priority, 

continue its consideration of a draft treaty. 

The Committee noted and endorsed the other 

recommendations of its subcommittees, but was unable to reach agreement on the convening of a 

United Nations conference on space applications. 

The Scientific and Technical Subcommittee was 

requested to consider the desirability of holding such 

a conference. The Committee voiced the opinion 

that the practice of rotating meetings of the Legal 

Subcommittee between New York and Geneva 

should be maintained. 

General Assembly 

The traditional two outer space items, “International cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer 

space”, and “Preparation of an international convention on principles governing the use by States 

of artificial earth satellites for direct television broadcasting”, were considered by the First Committee of 

the General Assembly during October 10-15. Fiftytwo delegations spoke on various outer space issues, 

with particular attention devoted to remote sensing. 

The statements reflected a growing recognition 

among many states of the potential contributions 

which analysis of remote sensing data could make to 

their own national economic development plans. On 

October 15 the First Committee unanimously adopted 

a draft resolution (sponsored by 42 countries including the United States) which recommended that the 

Legal Subcommittee should, as matters of high 

priority, a) continue consideration of a draft Moon 

treaty, b) continue to consider elaboration of principles governing the use of artificial Earth satellites 

for direct television broadcasting, and c) continue 

detailed legal consideration of remote sensing with 

a view to identifying further common elements 

among the views of states and proceed to drafting 

principles where such common elements are identified. The resolution also endorsed the other recommendations of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses 

of Outer Space, including those calling for further 

studies and actions by the Secretary General and 

those concerning the priorities of future work for 

the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee. The 

draft resolution was adopted unanimously by the 

General Assembly on November 18. 

International Cooperation 

Cooperation with Europe 

In March NASA concluded an agreement with 

the European Space Research Organization (which 

became the European Space Agency (ESA) as of 

May 31, 1975) to undertake a joint cooperative 

project to study solar-terrestrial relationships. This 

will be a joint contribution to the International 

Magnetospheric Study, a multilateral scientific program established by the Committee for Space Research and Interunion Commission on Solar Terrestrial Physics of the International Council of Scientific Unions. The understanding envisages the 

launching in 1977 of joint ESA-NASA Sun Earth 

Explorer A and B satellites from the Kennedy Space 

Center. The objectives of the mission are to investigate solar-terrestrial relationships in the Earth’s 

magnetosphere, solar wind, and cosmic rays and 

solar flares. Each party will design and fabricate one 

of the satellites for the mission. 

Cooperation continues between ESA and NASA on 

the European project to develop the Spacelab for 

use with NASA’s Space Shuttle. 

Cooperation with Japan 

Space cooperation between the U.S. and Japan 

during 1975 was dominated by a continued flow of 

space hardware and technology to Japan, as authorized under terms of the 1969 United States-Japan 

Space Cooperation Agreement. These exports are 

being transferred under United States-Japan industry arrangements, subject to the approval of the 

Department of State’s Office of Munitions Control, 

and are to be used in Japanese efforts to develop a 

space-launch vehicle and a number of scientific and 

practical applications satellites. The first launch of 

the Japanese N vehicle and an engineering test 

satellite occurred in September and was completely 

successful. 

An agreement has been concluded for NASA to 

furnish reimbursable launches of three Japanese 

satellites. The first is a meteorological satellite to 

participate in the international Global Atmospheric 

Research Program. The second is an experimental 

communications satellite; the third is an experimental 

broadcast satellite. 

Cooperation with the Soviet Usion 

The joint Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was safely 

and successfully completed in July 1975. Both Apollo 

and Soyuz lifted off on July 15, 1975. This mission 

demonstrated compatible rendezvous and docking 

systems and made a major contribution to rescue 

capability for future manned space flights. The 

astronauts and cosmonauts exchanged visits between 

vehicles and carried out five scheduled cooperative 

experiments. The plan for coordination of joint 

flight activities between Houston and Moscow control centers was closely followed with excellent results. Television coverage included the dramatic 

link-up in space. This milestone in U.S.-Soviet co- 
operation was capped by visit of the astronauts to 

several major cities in the U.S.S.R. followed by a 

reciprocal tour of the U.S. by the cosmonauts. 

Also under the U.S.-U.S.S.R. agreement concerning cooperation in the exploration and use of outer 

space, a joint Working Group meeting on Space 

Meteorology was held at the Goddard Space Flight 

Center March 3-6, 1975. Cooperative plans were 

developed in areas such as microwave observation of 

sea surface and temperature, which have the potential 

of improving the meteorological services in both 

countries. 

Finally, also under the Space Agreement, firm 

plans were completed in August at a meeting at the 

NASA Ames Laboratory for joint space biological 

experiments. In late 1975, a Soviet satellite flew 

four U.S. self-contained experiments with live biological material. 

Technology Transfer 

In 1975 the bulk of license requests for export 

of space-related hardware and technology processed 

by the Department of State’s Office of Munitions 

Control involved transfer under the United StatesJapanese Space Cooperation Agreement and exports 

to Europe. The Department continued to emphasize 

the export of hardware rather than the technology 

necessary to produce the hardware. 

Satellite Services 

Commulzicatiolzs Satellites 

The definitive agreements establishing the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 

(INTELSAT) entered into force February 12, 1973, 

and membership in INTELSAT reached 91 as of 

September 12, 1975, with the completion of membership requirements by Libya, Oman, and Panama. 

The definitive agreements consist of an inter-governmental agreement and an operating agreement. The 

US. is a party to the former, and designated the 

Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) , a US. company, to be its signatory to the latter. 

INTELSAT has a structure consisting of an Assembly of Parties, a Meeting of Signatories, a Board 

of Governors, and an Executive Organ under the 

direction of a ’Secretary General responsible to the 

Board of Governors. During 1975 COMSAT participated in the third session of the Meeting of Signatories and represented the US. at the bimonthly 

meetings of the Board of Governors. The Secretary 

General continued to provide financial, legal, and 

administrative support, and COMSAT provided certain technical and operational management services 

to INTELSAT under a contract that runs through 

February 11, 1979. 

In May 1975 the last satellite in the Intelsat IV 

series was launched. It provides a capacity of about 

4000 two-way voice channels plus television in the 

Indian Ocean Region. INTELSAT launched the first 

and second satellites of the new Intelsat IVA 

series in September and December 1975. These satellites each have a capacity of over 6000 two-way 

voice channels and will augment INTELSAT’s capability to provide on a global basis voice, teletype, 

data, facsimile, and television services. Moreover in 

July 1975 the INTELSAT Board of Governors 

authorized a request for proposals covering the design, development, manufacture, and test of seven 

Intelsat V satellites. Through use of new techniques, 

these satellites are expected to have a capacity of 

approximately 12,000 two-way voice circuits plus 

television. As of September 12, 1975, there were 114 

operating Earth-station antennas providing full-time 

service at 89 stations in 64 countries. 

Maritime SateJlites 

For a number of years the world’s maritime nations 

have realized that a communications satellite system 

might be the solution to the inadequacies of the 

present system of communications with and between 

ships at sea. To this end the US. participated in an 

international conference convened in April 1975 by 

the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) to examine the establishment of 

a global maritime satellite system. At that conference 

and several intersessional meetings afterwards, 

progress was made in reaching agreement on fundamental institutional and organizational principles. 

IMCO will reconvene the conference in February 

1976. 

Aeronautical Satellites 

Negotiations regarding the establishment of an 

experimental aeronautical communications satellite 

system (Aerosat) culminated with the entry into 

force on August 2, 1974, of a Memorandum of Understanding between the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the European Space Research 

Organization (ESRO, now known as European 

Space Agency, ESA), and the Government of Canada. The program is designed to test the use of 

communications satellites for air traffic control and 

civil aviation purposes. ESA has selected the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) , a 

U.S. corporation, to be co-owner with it and Canada 

of the space segment to be provided; COMSAT, in 

turn, will lease communications capabilities to the 

FAA. It is planned to launch two satellites in the 

late 1970s. These will be placed in geostationary 

orbit over the Atlantic Ocean. An operational system 

could be in place by the mid-1980s. AEROSAT 

80 
Council meetings have been held periodically in 

1975. installations. 

ing, and other mLMe support forces at foreign 

Support of Federal Agencies Cooperation with the Department of Defense 

NASA Spacejlight Support During 1975 the Department of State continued to 

The Department and its posts overseas continued 

in 1975 to support NASA manned space flight missions, by arranging for the basing of recovery, trackwork closely with the Department of Defense on 

various military space issues having international 

implications. 

81 
Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency 

Introduction fication is an important ACDA interest, and has been 

. The interest and involvement of the Arms Control 

and Disarmament Agency in space activities is threefold. First, ACDA is concerned with maintaining 

space as an environment free of military forces and 

weapons. Second, ACDA is interested in the use of 

space for the purposes of peacekeeping, crisis management, and the verification of arms control treaties. 

Third, ACDA seeks to ensure that other countries 

will not use space technology and equipment to 

develop strategic offensive weapons. In each of these 

areas, ACDA participates in the formulation of U.S. 

policy, in the negotiation of international agreements, 

and in evaluating the effect of such policies and 

agreements on arms control and disarmament issues. 

Demilitarization 

Two international treaties continue to contribute 

importantly to the effective demilitarization of outer 

space. The Limited Test Ban Treaty (Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in 

Outer Space and Under Water) prohibits nuclear 

weapon tests or any other nuclear explosion in outer 

space. The Treaty was opened for signing in 1963. 

As of the end of 1975, 107 countries have ratified 

it and 16 countries have signed but not yet ratified. 

The Outer Space Treaty (Treaty on Principles 

Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration 

and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and 

Other Celestial Bodies) specifically bans the emplacement of weapons of mass destruction in Earth orbit, 

on celestial bodies or elsewhere in outer space, and 

it forbids the establishment of military bases, the conduct of military maneuvers, or the testing of weapons 

on celestial bodies. The Treaty was opened for signature in 1967. As of the end of 1975, 53 countries 

have ratified it and 35 countries have signed but 

not yet ratified. 

Crisis Management and Verification 

Preserving the use of space for peacekeeping activities such as crisis management and treaty verireflected in seGera1 international agreements. The 

197 1 Agreement on Measures to Improve the USU.S.S.R. Direct Communications Link and the technical Annex to that Agreement provided for a secure 

and direct “hotline” link between the US. and 

Soviet governments via space satellite for the transmission of urgent information, notifications, and requests for information in situations requiring prompt 

clarification. The space-based communications link, 

exploiting the capabilities of the Intelsat and Molniya 

communication satellite systems, is a significant step 

in our continuing effort to reduce the risk of nuclear 

war. 

ACDA’s interest in using space for monitoring 

Compliance with the obligations imposed by arms 

control treaties and agreements is reflected in the 

provisions of the 1972 strategic arms limitation agreements with the Soviet Union. These provisions 

specify that each party shall use, for the purpose 

of monitoring treaty compliance, the national technical means of verification at its disposal in a manner 

consistent with generally recognized principles of international law, and that neither party shall interfere with or impede verification by national technical 

means. 

Space Technology 

Finally, ACDA is active in the formulation of 

U.S. policy on bilateral and multilateral international programs for the peaceful use of space. ACDA 

seeks to discourage other countries from using space 

technology and hardware for the development of 

strategic offensive weaponry, and it participates in 

the reviews that precede the export of U.S. space 

technology and hardware and avionics systems. ACDA 

seeks to institute and maintain safeguards that will 

minimize possible exploitation of such technology 

and hardware for military applications, while not 

curtailing legitimate trade or discouraging international cooperation. 

82 
Introduction . 

During 1975 the Department of Transportation 

continued to ensure the coordinated effective administration of transportation programs of the Federal 

government and to facilitate the development and 

improvement of coordinated transportation service 

as assigned in the Transportation Act of 1966. The 

major responsibility under this Act is the development of a transportation system which will provide 

fast, safe, efficient, and convenient low-cost transportation. Although this mandate is applied to all modes 

of transportation, it is especially evident in the DOT 

1975 operational accomplishments and in long-term 

implications of aeronautics and space research and 

development. 

Most of the aeronautics and space activity in the 

Department of Transportation (DOT) is managed 

primarily by the Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA) , with some participation by the other administrations. The Office of the Secretary (OST) also 

conducts research projects related to aeronautics and 

space to (1) evaluate the feasibility and desirability 

of alternative future systems, (2) apply advanced 

technology toward the solution of multimodal prublems, and (3) identify and assess future R&D opportunities. Many such programs are later transferred 

to an operating administration for systems development, test, evaluation, and demonstration. The 

Transportation Systems Center, in Cambridge, conducts programs relating to aeronautics and space, 

such as supporting FAA on air traffic control system 

improvements and systems management support to 

both the FAA and the Coast Guard in a number of 

applications of satellite technology to transportation 

operations. 

The evolving strategies of the Department’s R&D 

program are two: (1) to place more emphasis in 

the short to medium term on those system developments and operational innovations which will upgrade present systems; and (2) to develop the technological building blocks to advance and extend the 

capabilities of the present system to meet the needs 

and challenges of the future. Examples of projects 

to “upgrade and maintain” the present system include the Upgraded Third Generation Air Traffic 

Control R&D, and Aviation Safety and Noise Abatement programs. “Advance and extend” programs are 

typified by the Advanced Air Traffic Management 

Systems Project, and Loran-C applications. 

Office of the Secretary (OST) Programs 

Several aeronautics and space related projects 

were initiated or continued by OST in 1975. They 

include the Climatic Impact Assessment Program 

(CIAP) , Noise Abatement, Potentials of LOW/ 

Medium Density Service Improvement Satellite Applications, and Loran-C Applications. 

The Climatic Impact Assessment Program 

The Climatic Impact Assessment Program (CIAP) 

was established in the Office of the Secretary in 

1971. It was a congressionally funded program that 

put together all the significant factors from a study 

of the effects of propulsion effluents of a world aircraft fleet operating in the stratosphere and determined a basis for regulatory constraints to prevent 

adverse environmental effects. 

Accotnplishnzents in 1975. Specific accomplishments in 1975 include: 

1. Public dissemination and clarification of the 

CIAP Report of Findings was completed; this described specific actions for controlling stratospheric 

pollution and concluded that environmental danger 

can be avoided without prohibiting flight. 

2. Initiated a continuing program in the DOT/ 

FAA to determine the effects on the Earth’s environment of high-altitude aircraft, as a part of the total 

environmental program carried on by FAA. 

3. Compilation of the scientific backup data developed in support of the CIAP findings, according 

to six disciplinary areas with the following titles : 

I. The Natural Stratosphere of 1974 

11. Propulsion Effluents in the Stratosphere 

111. The Stratosphere Perturbed by Propulsion 

Effluents 

IV. The Natural and Radiatively Perturbed 

Troposphere 

83 
V. Impacts of Climatic Change on the Biosphere 

VI. Economic and Social Measures of Biologic 

and Climatic Change 

These documents contain the basic technical references to scientific knowledge which will provide 

universities, libraries, government laboratories, and 

international research organizations with a basic 

encyclopedia for research on the stratosphere, and 

will produce long term benefits as other scientific 

endeavors related to the stratosphere are developed 

in the future. 

The continuing atmospheric monitoring and research program entitled “High Altitude Pollution 

Program” under the direction of the FAA seeks to 

reduce the uncertainties in current scientific data and 

ascertain whether atmospheric quality is being maintained, provide guidance for decisions concerning 

regulatory actions, and minimize the cost of providing any required environmental safeguards. 

Noise Abatement 

Substantial progress continued in understanding the 

kinds of noise associated with aircraft flight, to provide one basis for setting and regulating future noise 

levels. During 1975 the major R&D focus was on 

suppression techniques for high-velocity jet exhausts, 

turbojet engine core noises, and turbulent-boundarylayer aerodynamic noise, to establish realistic longterm minima, below which noise reduction may not 

be possible or feasible. Another vital area includes 

research in measurement of aircraft noise, through 

better understanding and calculation of atmospheric 

and meteorological effects on noise propagation, to 

ensure valid field certification measurements for 

regulation purposes. 

Because aircraft noise reduction at the source is 

limited by anticipated noise “floors” for practical 

aircraft, the Department launched the development 

of a definitive long-term airport noise policy to aid 

airport proprietors in alleviating the residual noise 

impacts around their airports. 

Loran-C Applications 

Although developed initially as a radio navigation 

system for maritime use, Loran-C has potential for 

aeronautical and land mobile uses. During 1975, the 

Office of the Secretary sponsored and coordinated 

efforts to maximize the public benefits of existing fiscal 

commitments to the Coast Guard’s Loran-C. Developments in technology promise continuing reduction in 

receiver cost, with unit prices of a few hundred 

dollars being confidently predicted. 

Somewhat less is known about the performance 

of Loran-C for aeronautical and land uses than for 

maritime applications. Thus, research and development efforts have been initiated to learn more about 

Loran-C performance limits for its use on the surface and in the air. 

Specific accomplishments of this DOT effort during 

calendar year 1975 include: 

0 Coordination and definition of applicationoriented research and development efforts in FAA, 

Federal Highway Administration, National Highway 

Traffic Safety Administration, Coast Guard, and 

Urban Mass Transportation Administration. 

0 Designation of the Assistant Secretary for Systems Development and Technology to coordinate the 

Loran-C efforts. 

0 A study of technical requirements for terrestrial 

navigation. 

0 Conceptual definition and functional description 

of emergency vehicle uses of Loran-C. 

0 Support of development by the Coast Guard of 

a sophisticated aircraft Loran-C navigation unit 

holding promise for Coast Guard applications, with 

potential for civil air use. 

0 Initiation of a project to evaluate the application of Loran-C for non-precision approaches to 

airports and area navigation in mountainous regions. 

FAA Research and Development: 

Aviation Safety 

FAA research and development programs designed 

to promote aviation safety can be conveniently 

divided into three categories: (1) airport safety; (2) 

enroute safety; (3) aircraft security. The most significant calendar year 1975 efforts in these categories 

follow. 

Airport and Vicinity 

Microwave Landing System (MU). An element of the Upgraded Third Generation ATC System is the Microwave Landing System. The prototype Microwave System is designed to meet the needs 

of all aircraft, both civil and military, and should 

have the modularity and flexibility to serve sites that 

cannot be accommodated by the present Instrument 

Landing System (ILS) over the full range of weather 

conditions and traffc densities. 

Phase I, technique analysis and contract definition, 

was completed in 1973. Phase 11, feasibility demonstration, included the dynamics and flight test of four 

feasibility models at the National Aviation Facilities 

Experimental Center (NAFEC) in Atlantic City, 

New Jersey, and at Wallops Island, Virginia, was 

completed in June 1975. Phase 111, prototype development and evaluation, was begun in July 1975. 

This system is being entered in the international 

competition being sponsored by the International 

Civil Aviation Organization to select a worldwide, 
standard Approach and Landing System. 

Minimum Safe Altitude Warning. Minimum 

Safe Altitude Warning (MSAW) is provided through 

a computer program residing in the terminal air 

traffic control automation system. MSAW alerts the 

air traffic controller if an aircraft under his control 

is, or could in the immediate future be, too low for 

safe operation. The program was demonstrated at 

NAFEC and was then submitted to field evaluation 

at the Denver Stapleton Air Terminal Facility. Following a successful field evaluation, the decision was 

made to implement MSAW nationally. Implementation is expected to be completed by the end of 

calendar year 1976. 

Aircraft Security. FAA engaged in the following 

activities, among others, in its continuing effort to 

deter aircraft sabotage and hijacking and other overt 

acts against aircraft. 

0 Completed the installation and began assessing 

the potential of X-ray absorption to detect explosives 

in hand-carried and checked baggage. 

0 Assessed new techniques for detecting vapors 

from explosives in baggage or carried by people. 

Other Terminal Area Safety Developments. FAA 

pursued a variety of other programs designed to improve performance and enhance safety in and 

around airports. These efforts included: 

Conducting tests under an interagency agreement with the U.S. Navy to determine whether configurations or methods costing less than the present 

runway grooves can be used as a means of minimizing hydroplaning on wet surfaces. 

0 Issuing a series of technical reports on airport 

pavement design, including: ( 1 ) non-destructive 

vibrating testing of airport pavements, (2) a survey 

and analysis of aircraft traffic showing that pavement edge sections can be reduced in thickness, (3) 

a study of aircraft-pavement compatibility demonstrating how to operate on rougher pavemen;, (4) 

statistical quality control of pavement materials to 

reduce costs, (5) faster ways of measuring pavement 

profiles to detect failures or incipient failures. 

0 Completing a study which shows that solar 

energy may be a method of controlling snow and 

ice on selected portions of airport pavement. 

Developing a support structure for approach 

lights that would collapse and do minimum damage 

to aircraft in cases of accidental impact. 

0 Designing a lighted wind-cone for installation 

at the end of runways to provide better wind-cone 

visibility. 

Completing a survey of the electrostatic charging tendency of fuel delivered at 10 major airports. 

This survey was part of an FAA-industry program to 

prevent explosions from electrostatic discharges during aircraft fueling. 

0 Completing an in-house engineering study 

which showed that a thermal, ground-based system 

for dispersing fog at Los Angeles International 

Airport could be cost-effective and outlining the 

design for such a system. 

En Route and Post-Crush Safety 

FAA’s calendar year 1975 research and development efforts to reduce or eliminate hazards incident 

to en route operations and increase the chance of 

survival in the event of an accident included a 

number of activities: 

Exposing small animals to toxic gases to establish a relative hazard scale, based on time-to-incapacitation, that can be associated with the ability 

of humans to evacuate an aircraft. 

0 Determining the fire hazard of various flight 

attendant uniforms. 

Continuing development of a technique to analyze crashworthiness by finite element. 

0 Investigating methods of preventing stall/spin 

accidents through better training. 

Developing criteria for aircraft design and certification looking to the avoidance of unintentional 

stalls. 

Beginning a cooperative FAA/Canadian testing 

program using airborne simulation to determine 

effect of wind shear and heavy turbulence on landing aircraft. 

Determining the least dangerous location in 

aircraft in which to place explosives discovered during flight. 

Initiating an effort to determine the role of 

detectors, extinguishants, and compartmentation in 

reducing post-crash and in-flight fire hazards. 

Developing data that establish the characteristics, capabilities, and effectiveness of ground trainers 

used in training pilots in specific maneuvers. 

0 Completing the testing of a propeller-vibration 

measuring technique for general-aviation aircraft to 

provide data for propeller certification standards. 

0 Evaluating three airborne collision avoidance 

systems (ACAS) to demonstrate the technical acceptability of each approach. 

Air Traffic Control and Navigation 

FAA is charged with ensuring the efficient and 

equitable use of airspace and maintaining a common 

air traffic control system for both civil and military 

aircraft. These functions require the application of 

the most promising developments of a rapidly evolving technology. 

National Airspace System Modernization 

The primary focus of FAA’s efforts to modernize 

the National Airspace System over the last 10 

85 
years has been the introduction of two semi-automated air traffic control systems: NAS En Route 

Stage A at the 20 air route traffic control centers 

(ARTCCs) in’ the contiguous 48 states and Automated Radar Terminal System (ARTS 111) at 61 

of the nation’s busiest terminal areas. 

At the beginning of calendar 1975, all 20 

ARTCCs had an operational capability in automatic flight data processing and interfacility data 

transfer, plus computer updating equipment which 

facilitates communications between the controller and 

the automated system. In addition, 14 of the 20 

ARTCCs were fully commissioned with digital radar 

displays and radar data processing. In 1975, the 

remaining six ARTCCs became operational with 

digital radar displays and radar data processing; the 

20th center was fully commissioned in August 1975. 

The initial phase of implementation for the terminal automation program was concluded this 

calendar year with the 61st ARTS I11 also becoming 

operational in August 1975. 

FAA plans to provide approximately half of the 

high-density terminal facilities with primary tracking, continuous data recording, multiprocessing, 

and failsoft capability. The research and development 

effort for these additions to the ARTS I11 system 

was completed in August 1973. 

FAA also plans to introduce a less complex automation system-ARTS II-at 70 lower-density terminal radar control facilities. Delivery of the first 

system is planned for October 1975, with the last 

system scheduled to be delivered in mid-1978. 

Aeronautical Satellite Program. The United States, 

Canada, and the European Space Agency (ESA) initiated the joint Aeronautical Satellite ( AEROSAT) 

program to provide two satellites in geostationary orbit over the Atlantic Ocean for experimentation and 

evaluation of improved oceanic air traffic control and 

communication systems characterized by high quality voice and data transmission as well as dependent 

and independent surveillance. Specifications were 

completed for the satellite system and requests for 

proposals for development of the system were issued 

by ESA and the US. common carrier (COMSAT 

General Corp.) . FAA will lease satellite channels 

from the U.S. common carrier. 

Flight Service Station Program. On July 24, 

1975, the FAA inaugurated a year-long test and 

evaluation of a semi-automated flight service station 

at its Atlanta, Georgia, facility. The installation uses 

computer-based equipment that presents selected 

weather and aeronautical information directly to the 

flight service specialist assisting the pilot. Improving 

the speed and efficiency of service to pilots is a major 

step in the planned flight service station program 

to meet tomorrow’s needs in the airspace system. 

Plans have been announced for the test and evaluation of a prototype automated flight service station 

at Leesburg, Virginia, which will be co-located with 

the Washington ARTCC, as the next step in modernizing the flight service station system. The plan calls 

for applying modern technology in data processing 

and distribution in achieving a more effective operation than today’s highly labor-intensive system. 

Area Navigation (RNAV) . FAA is focusing on 

issues that needed resolution to permit FAA and 

users to decide on procedures, timing, and the extent 

to which area navigation (RNAV) would be implemented in the National Airspace System (NAS) . The year-end results show that implementation of 

RNAV, based on recommended modifications to the 

RNAV Task Force concepts, could be expected to 

provide substantial benefits to the airspace user and 

the ATC system. 

Major user payoffs would result from fuel and 

flight time savings due to en route and terminal 

area mileage reductions, optimized descent corridors, and increased airport capacity. In addition, 

safety would be increased by elimination of circling 

approaches and providing more conflict-free departure and arrival procedures. Highlights of savings to the ATC system include the following: reduction in controller vectoring and communication contacts and talk time, potential increase in controller 

productivity, no decrease in terminal capacity during 

the initial transition period (RNAV/vector mix), 

en route and terminal capacity increases, and reduction in the number of VORTACs with a corresponding reduction in maintenance costs. 

Other Developments. In addition to the foregoing, FAA 

Completed its testing of the anti-midair collision capability of Synchro-DABS. This equipment, 

used in conjunction with the DABS/IPC system, 

could provide aircraft with an onboard capability for 

collision detection and warning at a minimum added 

cost. Aircraft equipped with Synchro-DABS would 

be able to detect and avoid all aircraft carrying a 

DABS transponder, even if DABS ground-system 

(surveillance) coverage were unavailable. SynchroDABS experimental equipment was built by the 

DOT Transportation Systems Center in Cambridge, 

Massachusetts. Testing began at the Naval Weapons 

Center, China Lake, California, in late 1974. 

Developed a field modification kit to improve 

the reliability and performance of the agency’s Airport Surface Detection Equipment (ASDE-2) radars. 

The first of two kit modifications was installed at 11 

facilities to improve and activate the ASDE-2s at 

those sites. In addition to improving performance, 

the modifications improve reliability and reduce 

maintenance requirements. 

Developed and installed for evaluation at the 

John F. Kennedy International Airport a new 

86 
BRITE display for use with ASDEs. The display 

makes possible better viewing of targets, even under 

the brightest lighting. On the basis of these tests, 

the new BRITE displays have been ordered for 

installation and use at JFK, Chicago O’Hare, and 

San Francisco. 

e Significantly expanded the FAA’s program to 

eliminate, to the extent practicable, the effects of 

wind shear on approach/landing and takeoff of aircraft. Successful tests of ground-based remote sensing 

systems to measure wind shear were initiated at 

Denver, Boston, and New York airports. Plans were 

announced for early tests in 1976 of a ground-based 

sensing system at Dulles International Airport and 

an accelerated test program at O’Hare Airport to 

provide data on wind shear phenomena associated 

with the gust fronts of thunderstorms. Simulation 

facilities are being used to develop techniques to 

help train pilots in handling aircraft during wind 

shear occurrences. 

e Reduced the channel spacing of VHF air/ground 

communications by half, thereby approximately 

doubling the number of channels available. FAA 

will continue making assignments on 50 kHz unless 

frequency congestion necessitates use of 25 kHz. 

e Using an inertial navigation system in its KC135 aircraft, demonstrated and tested a satellitesupported oceanic ATC communications and surveillance system. The satellite used in the experiment 

was NASA’s Applications Technology Satellite 6, 

an experimental unmanned spacecraft designed for 

the conduct of meteorological, communications, 

scientific, and technological experiments. 

e Completed developmenst and specification of an 

initial National Airspace Data Interchange Network 

system capability. This is expected to modernize 

FAA’s data communications network for domestic 

flight movement information, providing increased 

data transfer and a faster response time. It is one 

part of the Integrated National Airspace Communications System, which will integrate all FAA-operated 

voice and data communication subsystems. Cost 

savings and operating efficiencies are expected from 

this system approach. 

e Began an operational evaluation of automated 

conflict alert for the en route system at the Kansas 

City ARTCC in February 1975. The conflict alert 

software operates initially for air traffic at high 

alti,tudes (7300 meters and above). The computer 

projects ahead from the aircraft’s current position 

for about two minutes to detect any potential conflicts and indicates the aircraft involved directly 

the controller’s radar scope. An additional display, 

identifying the aircraft, would also appear on one 

side of the scope, thereby further facilitating controller analysis of the situation. Nationwide implementation was completed in 1975. 

e Undertook a study of air navigation requirements for Alaska. The unique environmental problems of Alaska have in the past posed difficulties in 

selecting a cost-effective navigation system. 

Continued work to define a system for integrating weather data into the National Airspace System. 

The objective was the automatic transmission and 

display of weather data at appropriate ATC facilities. 

87 
XVI The Smithsonian Institution 

Introduction 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes directly 

to this nation’s aeronautics and space programs 

through the activities of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the National Air and Space 

Museum. 

During the past year, Smithsonian observers and 

research scientists used space techniques to gather 

data pertinent to geophysical and astrophysical research. Smithsonian experiments aboard high-altitude balloons and satellites measured radiation from 

distant energy sources screened from ground stations 

by the Earth’s atmosphere. Smithsonian laboratories 

analyzed both returned lunar samples and recovered 

meteorite specimens for new clues to the mystery 

of lunar and planetary evolution. And while Smithsonian laboratories and field stations increased man’s 

knowledge about the universe, its museums diffused 

and disseminated this knowledge to the public 

through exhibits, displays, and special programs. 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

Since 1973, the related research activities of the 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and the 

Harvard College Observatory have been coordinated 

under a single director. This cooperative venture 

combines the facilities of both observatories in a 

Center for Astrophysics at Cambridge, Massachusetts. The consolidated science program draws on 

the resources of both Harvard University and the 

Smithsonian Institution and engages more than 120 

scientists in a broad program of research encompassing most current interests in astronomy and including 

several programs in direct support of national space 

goals. 

Geoastronomy 

The Observatory operates a worldwide network of 

tracking stations to observe precise positions of artificial satellites (using optical telescopes and laser 

ranging) and employs the resulting data to extract 

information about the Earth‘s shape, gravitational 

88 

field, and upper atmosphere. 

The French Starlette satellite, orbited in March 

1975, and the Geos 3 satellite, launched in April 

1975, are among the dozen satellites now being 

tracked. Radar altimeter data from the latter satellite will be analyzed to determine the ocean geoid. 

The Observatory is also coordinating all international use of the Geos 3. 

Lageos, a satellite conceived by the Center, is 

expected to be launched in February 1976. Using 

laser ranging to its corner reflectors, it is hoped that 

2-centimeter range accuracy can be achieved. The 

data from such precise tracking will be used as part 

of NASA’s Earth and Ocean Physics Application Program, with a primary objective the definition of an 

operational Earthquake Hazard Assessment and Alleviation model and system by 1983. Secondary objectives are the refining of the global geoid model 

and establishment of the mean sea-surface topography. The program includes an integrated and 

balanced effort composed of several other activities, 

with emphasis on global plate teotonics, the global 

geoid, tides, tidal loading, postglacial rebound, rotation of the Earth, and formulation and evaluation 

of earthquake hazard assessment models. 

The Observatory has prepared an extremely precise hydrogen maser clock for flight to check Einstein’s prediction that such a clock will “tick” faster 

than an identical clock on Earth. This prediction, 

fundamental to the theory of relativity, has so far 

been verified at the one-percent level; this experiment should be one hundred times more accurate. 

An experiment was flown aboard the joint US.- 

U.S.S.R. Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July 1975. 

This experiment attempted to measure gravitational 

anomolies in the Earth by extremely precise monitoring of the distances between the US. and Soviet 

spacecraft. 

The 20-year Moonwatch program involving an 

international network of volunteer visual satellite observers was disbanded at the end of June 1975. Since 

the first observations of Sputnik I in 1957, the network has made approximately 400,000 observations 

of artificial satellites in support of the space program. 
High-Energy Astrophysics 

A major program of X-ray astronomy, using 

rocket and satellite-borne detectors, has discovered 

many stellar X-ray sources, which appear to be 

associated with collapsed stars (white dwarfs, neutron stars, or, in two cases, black holes) orbiting 

normal stellar companions. Extragalactic sources 

were also found, including many clusters of galaxies. 

An experiment aboard the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite detected increased X-ray activity in 

the object Cygnus X-1 between May 1 and May 5. 

This sparked a series of ground-based searches leading to detection of increased radio emissions by 

astronomers at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. The corresponding activity in two wavelengths confirms observations of dual intensity 

changes from Cygnus X-1 first seen four years earlier, 

supporting the contention that the object is a black 

hole and suggesting physical mechanisms unique to 

such stellar systems. 

The continuing X-ray program includes participation in the series of High-Energy Astronomy Observatories (HEAO) designed for flight before the 

end of this decade, with major effort going into 

the design of a large X-ray telescope on HEAO-B, 

which will have a resolution better than 2 arcseconds. 

Lunar and Planetary Sciences 

Several research programs involving lunar and 

meteorite samples are continuing, including mineralogical and petrological studies on a complex brecchia 

boulder from the Apollo 17 site and on particles from 

the Allende carbonaceous chondrite, as well as isotopic investigation of lunar material. In a related 

program, inexpensive detectors have been developed 

to determine the neutrino fluxes from various cosmic 

sources. The Prairie Network, a 10-year project to 

photograph bright meteors (fireballs) and to recover 

any resultant meteorites, is being discontinued. 

Solar and Stellar Physics 

Smithsonian scientists associated with the Harvard 

Solar Satellite Project are deeply involved in the 

analysis of the solar ultraviolet data gathered by 

Skylab. All the evidence points to strong magnetic 

control of the chromosphere and corona, demonstrated by prominent arch structures and bright 

points. Recent work has developed evidence for 

wave propagation from lower to upper layers; if 

expectations are fulfilled, the long-sought heating 

mechanism for the corona will be found. 

The ultraviolet data have been complemented by 

X-ray observations from the same spacecraft. Among 

the more striking findings is confirmation of the fact 

that “coronal holes,” regions where the coronal density and ‘temperature are low, appear to be the 

source of streams of solar wind. Further work concerns the high densities and temperatures along 

magnetic coronal arches. This work will lead to a 

better understanding of the solar corona and how the 

solar wind originates in it. 

Stellar research was carried out using orbiting 

ultraviolet telescopes aboard the satellite Copernicus. 

A recent finding is that Capella, a nearby star of 

solar type, may have a stellar wind. 

National Air and Space Museum 

Flight Experiments 

The Center for Earth and Planetary Studies COordinated the “Earth Observations and Photography” 

experiment on the Apollo-Soyuz mission, including 

the preflight training of the astronauts, planning of 

tasks, and the real-time science support during the 

mission. Support operations included coordination 

of research by ground-truth parties from NOAA and 

numerous academic and research organizations, including the Smithsonian’s own Center for ShortLived Phenomena, and the relay of information to 

the Apollo-Soyuz astronauts. Analysis of the acquired 

photographs and the verbal comments of the astronauts are being coordinated with experts in geology, 

oceanography, desert study, hydrology and snow 

mapping, meteorology, and environmental science. 

In related research, a desert study has been initiated to assign relative ages to desert regions based 

on their color as it appears on orbital photographs. 

Oxidation of iron makes older deserts appear redder 

than younger sands. It seems feasible to identify 

from space photos areas of young sand movements in 

drought zones. This study is being coordinated with 

ground-truth data collection in the part of the Western Desert of Egypt photographed by Apollo-Soyuz. 

Lunar Research 

Lunar research at the Center for Earth and Planetary Studies emphasized the synthesis of Apollo data, 

particularly the correlation of photogeological, geophysical, and geochemical data. The results of these 

correlations were published in two papers : “Surface 

Geology of the Moon” and “The Moon after Apollo.” 

In an effort to map and classify features other than 

craters on the Moon, maps were made of the long 

linear depressions called Rimae, and a map of the 

sinuous elevations called Dorsa is in progress. An 

atlas of lunar surface features as viewed by Apollo 

orbiting spacecraft was completed for publication by 

NASA. 

Center personnel also participated in activities 

rela.ted to the nomenclature of features on the Moon 
and planets through membership in the Task Group 

for Lunar Nomenclature of the International Astronomical Union, the NOmenclature Of the 

Lunar Photographic and Cartographic Committee, 

and the Advisory Committee on Extraterrestrial 

Features of the Board of Geographic Names. 

Exhibits 

Air and Space Museum on July 4, 1976, an “Apollo 

to the Moon” exhibit is being completed. This exhibit 

will convey the story of Apollo in a novel and interesting way and will include summaries of current 

lunar science centered on the displays of four lunar 

samples. At the new museum, the public will be 

In preparation for the opening of the new National able to touch one of the lunar rocks on display. 
XVII 

Introduction 

The United States Information Agency (USIA) 

is in the Executive Branch of Government, with 

posts, known as the U.S. Information Service 

(USIS), in 11 1 countries on six continents, and with 

press, radio, TV, and film facilities. In addition 

there are 247 information centers, reading rooms, 

and libraries abroad with over nine million visitors 

annually. The Agency’s mission is to support U.S. 

national interests by conveying an understanding of 

the United States as a nation and as a people; by 

explaining national policies and the reasons for them, 

and by advising the government on the implications 

of foreign opinion for the formulation and implementation of foreign policy. USIA provides liaison 

between U.S. and foreign universities, and administers abroad the Cultural and Educational Exchange 

program of the Department of State. Officers serving 

in posts abroad provide a person-to-person link with 

local opinion leaders and promote contact between 

American and local experts. In this mission space and 

aeronautics are of prime importance, crossing oceans 

and land barriers, and leading to bi-national and 

multi-na tional cooperation and understanding. 

1975 was a most successful year, particularly with 

NASA’s efforts in the first bi-national docking in 

space ( Apollo-Soyuz) , the first satellite TV broadcasts by the government of India (SITE), and the 

development of international interest in the Earth 

Resources satellites (Landsat) . Foreign correspondent 

facilities were extended to 12 countries for reports 

on subjects ranging from satellite weather forecasting 

(Turkey) to the economics of space spin-offs (Switzerland). In the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project the 

Agency assisted the coverage of many of the 151 

foreign correspondents at the Kennedy Space Center, 

and 205 at the Johnson Space Center. Analysis of 

foreign media showed extensive coverage of the event 

with banner headlines second only to the launch of 

Sputnik or the U.S. landing on the Moon. 

Radio 

USIA’s Voice of America operates 113 transmitters for a total of 775 hours per week in 35 languages. 

During 1975 aeronautical and space events were 

United States Information Agency 

covered daily and hourly in regular newscasts, and 

approximately 350 additional hours were filled with 

balanced and in-depth coverage of U.S. space developments. These reports featured Mariner, Pioneer, 

the two Viking probes to Mars, and the Helios satellite for solar research launched as a cooperative 

venture by the US. and the Federal Republic of 

Germany. The Apollo-Soyuz story began with the 

planning stages, and carried through the two 

launches, docking, splash-down, and the tours of 

the joint ASTP crew. Indicative of the weekly international audience of an estimated 50 million, a radio 

offer of Apollo-Soyuz souvenir postcards was responded to by thousands of listeners, many of whom 

were in the Soviet sector. The sixth anniversary of 

Armstrong’s first step on the Moon was used as an 

opportunity to review the significance and achievements of the entire Apollo program. 

The Voice of America emphasized the growing use 

of space technology by other countries, such as the 

new European Space Agency, the U.S. launching of 

the Franco-German communications satellite Symphonie 2, and Bangladesh’s entry into the Satellite 

Age. Among the more than 1100 feqtures and reports 

were many that highlighted the spin-off benefits for 

mankind in medicine, communications, agriculture, 

weather forecasting, mineral exploration, and education. Among these features VOA’s Burmese Service 

carried an interview of an official of Comsat Corporation with an account of Indonesia’s use of satellites 

and the possible interest to Burma, and the Hindi 

Service described the SITE broadcasts of TV to the 

villages as a demonstration of US. interest in the 

welfare of the Indian people. The Landsat satellite 

system was explained for its value in helping to 

locate the right land to cultivate, the danger areas 

threatened by crop disease and drought, and the 

potential reserves of water, oil, and mineral resources 

so needed for development. The capability of this 

system was covered effectively in the Spanish, Hindi, 

Bengali, and English-to-Africa language services. 

Press and Publications 

Developments in space exploration and technology 

continued to be used in the printed media in line with 

91 

208-257 0 - 76 - 7 
the Agency’s mission. Foreign press coverage in text 

and pictures of NASA’s launches and deep-space experiments is often based on material transmitted to 

USIS posts by radio-teletype known as the Agency 

Wireless File, and by illustrated information packages on current events. Magazines are circulated 

regularly in 3 1 principal languages, carrying survey 

articles on topics of significance to the U.S. by staff 

and internationally recognized guest writers. The 

editorial policy is based on the separate requirements of five geographical areas, with attention to 

requests from USIS posts for local needs in news 

and general subject matters. 

The immediate reporting over the Wireless File of 

aeronautical and space technology is best illustrated 

by some sample headlines-US. orbits second Earth 

Resources satellite-Mariner 10 verifies Mercury’s 

magnetic field-Report describes effect of aircraft on 

ozone in stratosphere-ATS-6 readied for international experiments-Apollo astronauts conducting 

Earth studies around globe-the global electronic 

village-Doctor in the sky-Dam-building along 

Parana-Paraguay rivers assisted by Apollo-Soyuz 

data collecting. 

Comprehensive stories were provided at the specific request of country posts on such topics as an 

African seminar on Landsat, the AID report on the 

development of the Sahel, an article for the Soviet 

magazine Technology and Youth on Apollo-Soyuz, 

and a comprehensive series of articles on “What we 

have learned from space.” 

Horizons USA, a bimonthly illustrated magazine 

in English, Spanish, and 12 other languages gave a 

preview of the Apollo-Soyuz mission and also an 

article on “Unsolved Mysteries in Space.” 

America Illustrated, the USIA monthly magazine 

in Russian, distributed in the U.S.S.R., covered Skylab I, Apollo-Soyuz, human interest stories on the 

astronauts and space artists, and a special article 

examining the far-reaching space explorations made 

over the years by Americans and Soviets. Topic 

magazine, published in French and English for subSahara Africa, ran stories on Robert McCall, the 

space artist; educational satellites; and a special article on the meaning of space flight to mankind. 

Dialogue, an intellectual eight-language quarterly, 

discussed the scientific understanding of the Moon’s 

structure. 

The Agency also produced eight magazines at 

major overseas posts and these used features on space 

obtained by the Special Projects Office, Washington, 

D.C. Tehran printed an article on satellite weather 

photography provided by Kodak and other sources, 

Jakarta used an article from Bell Aerospace; Hong 

Kong used “ATS, first teacher in space’’ from Martin 

Marietta. General-interest articles printed were by 

James Fletcher, Administrator of NASA; Wernher 

von Braun; Henry Simmons; Michael Collins, Director of the National Air and Space Museum; Isaac 

Asimov; Allen Hammond; Richard Lewis; and other 

well-known persons. 

Films and Television 

The television studios of the Agency produced 

video tape recordings (VTR) for showing on closedcircuit TV to selected audiences in USIS posts and 

TV networks in more than 100 countries. These 

items are in English and the principal foreign languages. In addition documentary films suitable to the 

Agency mission are acquired or produced under contract for showing on TV and in commercial cinema 

theaters abroad. Newsclips of current events in the 

US. are provided to foreign TV stations and many 

of these are transmitted via satellite relay. Foreign 

TV teams are assisted in the US. on assignments 

which include aeronautics and space, and the Washington studies of USIA are made available to them. 

The potential world audience is 100 million for film 

and 800 million for TV. 

Recognizing the impact of vision-plus-sound, USIA 

further increased the already successful TV programming in 1975. A news service with a Washington 

correspondent was established this year for seven 

selected USIS posts. The subject matter included 

weather satellites, Apollo-Soyuz, and the Viking 

mission to Mars. “Laporan Dari Amerika,” a monthly TV series for Indonesia, gave a history of communications satellites and a review of the forthcoming launch of Indonesia’s own communication 

and educational satellite, due in 1976. “Vision,” a 

monthly review televised in more than 60 countries, 

had a feature on the Westar satellite of the Western 

Union Co. “Science Report”, which issues two, wideaudience magazine programs each month, carried 

the highlights of space science in 1975. Produced in 

English, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Arabic, and in 

a non-verbal music-and-sound-effects version that 

can be adapted with script at the local station, 

“Science Report’’ is regularly telecast in some 80 

countries. 1975 topics included Apollo-Soyuz, the 

Pioneer probe to Jupiter, Mariner’s fly-by of comet 

Kohoutek on the way to Venus and Mercury, and 

Helios. 

Full-length USIA-produced documentaries included “The Age of Man in Space,” which was a 

prelude to Apollo-Soyuz, and “The Tiny World,’’ a 

dramatic introduction to the technology of miniaturization as it applies to satellites such as ATS-6. The 

latter film was edited and made into a 35mm version 

which was used in cinema circuits in more than 50 

countries. 

The very effective VTR system was used increasingly in 1975 for closed-circuit showing in USIS 

92 
posts and in program slots on foreign TV networks. 

Two special programs were made using and explaining Landsat images of California, Washington state, 

and West Africa. A set of four VTRs was made 

covering the future of space, and these were shown 

in total or in part at more than 150 posts. TV stations also use slides to illustrate news events in the 

U.S., and a package of 87 space and aeronautics 

pictures was distributed to more than 100 foreign 

stations. The set included the Space Shuttle, Kennedy and Johnson Space Centers, a deep-space view 

of the whole Earth, and similar subjects. 

Newsclips were distributed for multinational television usage on many space topics, including the 

launching of Apollo, the ATS educational satellite 

positioned for use by India, and the visit of astronauts Stafford, Slayton, and Brand with President 

Ford at the White House. The latter item received 

worldwide coverage. 

Satellite transmissions of events in the U.S. were 

supplied on request to Israel, Jordan, Latin America, 

Senegal, and the U.K. The film of the Cerro Tololo 

Observatory, funded by NSF, was offered to Europe, 

the Middle East, Asia, and Latin America. Other 

material and excerpts were supplied on request. 

The Agency facilitated the loan of NASA and 

other U.S. government films abroad; it certified educational, scientific, and cultural audio-visual material of U.S. origin for export; and was instrumental 

in the selection and entry of NASA and USIA films 

and TV productions in exhibitions and international 

film festivals. USIA’s “Age of Man in Space” was 

accepted at exhibitions in Australia, New Zealand, 

Lebanon, and Italy. 

Information Centers and Exhibits 

The 247 information centers of the Agency provide direct contact between US. experts and the 

corresponding specialists and officials of the host 

countries. In-depth seminars and conferences can be 

arranged, with augmentation by closed circuit TV, 

films, exhibits, and demonstration equipment. 

A seminar on remote sensing from satellites was 

arranged for African nations with a presentation in 

English in Accra, Ghana, and in French in Bamako, 

Mali. Fifty experts on natural resources from nine 

African nations discussed in Bamako the full utilization of the Landsat receiving station scheduled for 

completion in Kinshasa, Zaire, in late 1975. The U.S. 

ambassador to Mali praised resource satellites as 

“prime examples of the kind of benefits and cooperation envisioned by the drafters of the U.N. treaty 

on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.” The Mali 

Minister of Development called the conference an 

“indisputable and veritable success.” The seminar 

was repeated with equal success at Accra with 100 

African specialists from five nations in attendance. 

Following the seminars there was a lecture tour 

through Ghana, Ethiopia, Tanzania, and three cities 

in Nigeria on the social impact of space, science, and 

technology. 

USIA participated in a nine-day satellite communications seminar in Indonesia in July 1975, preparatory to the launching of that nation’s satellite. 

In connection with the seminar, the five U.S. participants gave lectures at universities and demonstrated 

educational methods using landline, short-wave radio, 

and satellite channels. The “Communications for 

Education” seminar was also given in Singapore, 

Malaysia, and Korea. 

Approximately 50 exhibits were produced and 

circulated through USIS posts in 1975 and three of 

these were devoted to aeronautics and space. “Satellites-Servants from the Sky” was a major exhibit 

with the underlying theme of the importance of a 

free flow of satellite information. A live demonstration was engineered, with visitor participation in 

communicating via ATS-6. This showing was part 

of the Third International Space Research Exhibition in Belgrade, September 6-14, 1975, covering 

communications, meteorology, and the Landsat system. It was scheduled for later showing in two other 

Yugoslav cities. Two exhibitions with the title 

“Treasures of Space” were produced and toured 

Latin America and Africa. The theme was on U.S. 

technological achievements in space exploration, and 

the application of acquired knowledge to the benefit 

of the world population. Lunar samples, other space 

artifacts, and models of space vehicles were in the 

exhibition. The Moon rock samples were also shown 

separately in The Hague, Singapore, Cairo, Dakar, 

and other cities. The number of visitors to USIA 

space exhibits in 1975 was more than 1.5 million, 

including high-ranking government officials and 

scientists. 

93 
Appendixes 

-\wt\ui\ 4-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

Earth escape Earth orbit Earth escape 

ear Succeba Failure Succes> Failure Year Success Failure Succe~ Failure 

Earth orbit 

1957 ............ (1 

1958 .............. 5 

1959 ........... 9 

I960 ........ Ih 

I961 .............. -75 

1961 ........... 55 

1963 .............. 6: 

1964 ............. 69 

1965 ........... 9 .; 

I966 ........... 94 

I 

X 

9 

I2 

I? 

I' 

II 

h 

12 

u 

0 

I 

I 

0 

4 

0 

4 

1 

7 

0 

4 

7 

7 

I 

0 

0 

I 

/I 

1967 .............. 7X J 10 0 

196X .............. 61 15 0 

1970 .............. 36 I 3 0 

1969 ............. 58 I i 1 

7 

1 

7 

-? 

1971 .............. 15 x 1 

1972 .............. .. ?? x 0 

1973 .............. 23 3 0 

1974 .............. 27 I 0 

1975 28 3 0 7 .............. 

lotal .......... X27 I24 67 I5 

1 This earth scape lailure did attain earth orbit and therelore is 

\art>: I he criterion of success or failure ubed I> the attainment ol' 

cart11 orhii or earth escape rather than a judgment olmission buccess . 

This tabulation includes spacecratt lrom cooperating countries 

"ESCWE" llightb include all that were intended to go to at least an 

included in the earth-orbit succebs totals . which were launched by L.S. launch \chicles. 

altitude equal to lunar distance troni Earth . 

'\PPE\I)I\ A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

.. .. 

linited Chinese 

Year states I.'. S.S. K . France Italy- Japan Peoples Lnited 

Republic Australia Kingdom 

1957 7 

195X ..................... 5 I ........................................................................ 

1959 ................... 10 3 ....................................................................... 

1960 ................... 16 3 ........................................................................ 

1961 .................... 29 6 ....................................................................... 

I962 .................. 52 '0 ........................................................................ 

1963 ................... 38 17 ........................................................................ 

1964 ................... 57 30 ........................................................................ 

1965 ................ 63 4K ........... I ............................................................ 

1966 ................... 73 44 ........... I ............................................................ 

I967 ............... 57 66 .......... 2 ........... I ................................... 1 ............ 

I96x ................... 45 74 ....................................................................... 

196 9 ................... 40 70 ..................................................................... 

1970 ................... 2X XI .......... 2 ...........I I........... I ........... I ....................... 

1971 ............... 70 x3 .......... 1 ...........I 2........... 2 ........... I ...................... 1 

I972 .................... 30 74 ....................... il ........... I .................................... 

1973 .................. 27 X6 ........................................................................ 

1974 .................. 22 XI ....................... ' z ........... I .................................... 

1975 .................. 27 x9 ........... 3 ........... I ........... 2 ........... 2 ........................ 

Total ............... 645 x7x .......... 10 ........... x ........... 7 ........... 5 ........... 1 ........... 1 

..................... .................................................................... 

Includes foreign .......... 01 c'.S. apacecralt 

94 

NoTt : This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than 

spacecraft . Some launches did successfully orbit multiple spacecraft . 
APPENDIX A-3 

S uc cessf u I U .S. La u n c h es-1975 

Feb. 6 

SMS-2 

11A 

Thorad-Del ta 

~~~ 

Apogee and 

perigee 

Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) 

Spacecraft name Period 

Cospar designation Spacecraft data (minutes) 

Launch vehicle Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Jan. 22 Obiective: To acquire sufficient multispectral 917 

Landsat 2 907 

4A improve remote sensing interpretive techniques 103.2 

imagery over the U.S. and foreign countries to 

cations of Landsat type data. 

Spacecraft: Basic structure and design similar to 

Nimbus satellites. 3.04-m high and 1.52-m diameter, 3.96-m with solar panels extended. Spacecraft consists of three major sections: 1.4-m torus 

ring forms base ; smaller hexagon-shaped housing, connected to ring by truss, houses attitude 

stabilization and control systems; two 0.9-m by 

1.5-m canted solar panels. Active 3-axis stabilization, Carries a four-channel multispectral 

scanner subsystem (MSS) , a three-camera re- turn beam vidicon (RBV) camera subsystem, a data collection subsystem (DCS) , two wideband 

video tape recorders (WBVTR), and a com- mandable orbit-adjust motor. Weight: 953 kg. 

chronous orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable 

the spacecraft to accomplish its operational requirements, conduct an in-orbit evaluation and 

checkout of the spacecraft and, upon completion 

of this evaluation, turn the operational control 

of the spacecraft over to NOAAINESS, to provide the regular and useful daytime and nighttime meteorological observations in support of 

the national operational meteorological satellite 

system. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 190.5-cm in diameter and 

344-cm long from the top of the magnetometer 

to the bottom of the apogee boost motor. TE364-4 apogee motor measures 90-cm high and is 

ejected after synchronous orbit is attained. 

Thrust tube located in cpnter supports radiqmeter/telescope instrument. Scanning mirror 

looks out through an opening in cylindrical solar 

array whose panels cover outer walls of spacecraft. Instrumentation consists of a visible infrared spin scan radiometer (VISSR) to provide high quality day/night cloud cover data and to 

measure radiance temperatures of the earth/ 

atmosphere system, a meteorological data collection and transmission system, and a space 

environmental monitor (SEM) system to meas- ure proton, electron, and solar x-ray fluxes and 

magnetic fields. Spin stabilized. Weight at 

launch: 628 kg. Weight in orbit: 272 kg. 

Thorad-Delta and to further demonstrate the practical appli- 99.0 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into a syn- 35,800 

35,780 

1436.3 

1 .o 

Mar. 10 Objective: Development of space flight techniques 39,338 Defense and technology. 295 

17A Spacecraft: Not announced. 7 02 

Titan IIIB-Agena 63.5 

Remarks 

~~~~ 

Launched successfully into circular, near-polar sun-synchronous 

orbit, spacecraft is companion to 

ERTS-1, launched in 1972. 

Provides contiguous images of 

earth once every 18 days which 

assist in managing earth's natural resources and protecting its 

environment. Data used by more than 40 states and over 40 

foreign countries. 

Second of a series of two operational prototypes developed and 

funded by NASA to meet the 

requirements of the Department 

of Commerce GOES (Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite) system. After 

successful launch into transfer 

orbit by NASA, apogee boost 

motor was fired Feb. 7 and 

spacecraft placed in synchronous 

orbit at 115" west longitude. 

Spacecraft turned over to NOAA 

Mar. 10 and was placed at 

135" west longitude (south of 

Alaska). In conjunction with 

SMS-1, was used for 24-hr 

coverage of Western Hemisphere, providing cloud cover 

pictures every 30 minutes to 

NOAA. To be used with Goes 1 

in future operational system. 

Still in orbit. 
APPE NDD( A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1975 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

ApogFe and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(deerees) 

Remarks 

Apr. 9 

Geos 3 

27A 

Thorad-Delta 

Apr. 18 

Defense 

32A 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

May 7 

Explorcr 53 (SAS) 

37A 

scout 

May 7 

Anik 3 

38A 

Thorad-Delta 

May 20 

DSCS 2-5. 2-6 

Objective: To perform an in-orbit satellite radar 

altimeter experiment to demonstrate the feasibility and utility of mapping the geometry of the 

sea surface and measuring wave height; to 

support the calibration and position determination of NASA and other agency C-band radar 

systems ; to perform a satellite-to-satellite tracking experiment with ATS-6 using an S-band 

transponder system. 

132-cm wide octahedron topped by a truncated pyramid for overall height of 81-cm. 

Eight trusses attached to 45.8-cm center tube 

support 16 solar cell panels. Gravity-gradient 

stabilization scissors boom assembly with an end mass of 45-kg is mounted in center tube near pyramid end and extends to 6.5-m in orbit. Subsystems include: radar altimeter, coherent Cband transponder, S-band instrumentation for 

satellite-to-satellite experiments, laser retroreflectors, doppler transmitters, non-coherent Cband transponder, and S-band instrumentation 

for earth tracking experiments. Weight: 340 kg. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Spacecraft: 

Objective: To measure the x-ray emission of 

discrete extragalactic sources; to monitor the 

intensity and spectra of- galactic x-ray sources 

from 1.0 kEV to 50 kEV and to monitor the 

x-ray intensity of Sco X-1. 

Spacecraft: Two sections, a four instrument x-ray 

experiment package atop a spacecraft control 

section, measure 145.2-cm high. Four foldable 

solar panels extend from control section in orbit 

and measure 470.3-cm tip-to-tip. Double deck 

aluminum honeycomb control section contains 

rechargeable nickel-cadmium battery; redundant 

tape recorders ; redundant command receivers 

and decoders ; telemetry system ; redundant VHF 

transmitters ; magnetometers, Sun sensors, and a star sensor; and a magnetically torqued com- mandable control system. Experiment package 

contains extragalactic experiment, galactic monitor experiment, Scorpio monitor experiment, 

and galactic absorption experiment. Spin stabilized. Weight: 196.7 kg. 

To provide transmission of television, 

voice, and other data throughout Canada. 

Cylindrical 1.8-m diameter and 3.4-m 

high. 1.5-m optically transparent antenna weighing 4.1-kg affixed to top of spacecraft remains 

stationary, pointed toward Canada as satellite 

revolves; spin stabilized. Provides 10 color TV 

channels or up to 9600 telephone circuits; 

23,000 solar cells. Weight at launch: 544 kg. 

Weight in orbit: 272 kg. 

Objective: 

Spacecraft: 

Objective: Communications (two payloads). 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

a48 

a39 

101.7 

114.9 

398 .~ ~ 

133 

89.8 

110.5 

516 

5 09 

94.9 

3.0 

35,789 

35,786 

1436.2 

0.0 

249 

150 

Geodynamics Experimental Ocean 

Satellite launched by NASA into 

circular orbit. Successfully demonstrated the feasibility and the 

utility of satellite altimeters for 

measuring precisely the geometry of the oceans and for 

mapping the topography of 

ocean surfaces. Also provided 

excellent results for land and 

ice tracking. Conducted success- ful satellite-to-satellite tracking 

experiment with ATS-6. Will 

contribute to fulfilling the 

oceanographic, geodetic, and 

radar calibration requirements 

of NASA and other agencies. 

Will continue to conduct localized and unique experiments for 

the duration of mission lifetime. 

Decayed June 5, 1975. 

Third in a series of NASA Small 

Astronomy Satellites launched 

into equatorial orbit from San 

Marco range by an Italian crew. Improved spacecraft has ex- tended spectral range and allows much longer, continuous 

observation of x-ray sources. 

During Aug. 1975, spacecraft 

established the position of the 

most powerful x-ray source ever 

detected and enabled ground observatories to optically identify 

it as transient nova in the con- stellation Orion. 

Launched by NASA for the Canadian Domestic Communications 

Satellite System into transfer orbit. Apogee kick motor fired by 

Canada May 10 and spacecraft 

placed in stationary orbit at 

119" west longitude. Last of a 

series of three communications 

satellites launched by NASA 

under a 1971 NASA-Canada 

agreement. 

Failed to separate and attain final 

orbit. Decayed May 26, 1975. 

40A 

Titan IIIC 

88.3 

28.6 

96 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1975 ~~ 

ApogFe and 

perigee 

Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) 

Spacecraft name Period 

Launch vehicle Inclination to 

Cospar designation Spacecraft data (minutes) Remarks 

equator 

(degrees) 

May 22 

Intelsat IV F-1 

42A 

Atlas-Centaur 

May 24 

Defense 

43A 

Thor-Burner IIA 

June 8 

Defense 

51A 

Titan IIID 

June 8 ssu-1 

51C 

Titan IIID 

June 12 

Nimbus 6 

52A 

Thorad-Del ta 

Objective: To provide equivalent of 3000 to 

9000 telephone circuits simultaneously or 12 

color TV channels or a combination of telephone, TV, and other forms of communications 

traffic. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 2.38-m diameter and 

5.28-m high ; spin stabilized ; 12 communications repeaters (transponders) ; 6 antennas (2 

global transmit antennas, 2 global receive an- tennas, and 2 steerable spot-beam antennas) ; 

45,012 solar cells. Weight at liftoff: 1387 kg. 

Weight after apogee motor fire: 700 kg. 

0b.iective: Development of space flight techniques and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of space flight techSpacecraft: Not announced. 

niques and technology. 

Objective : Development of space flight techniques and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

0b.iective: To make important early contributions 

to the Global Atmospheric Research Program 

by refining and extending the capability for 

vertically sounding the temperature and moisture structure of the atmosphere, particularly 

with regard to altitude resolution and with regard to the interfering effects of clouds by ac- quisition of synoptic data for a period of three 

months from either the High Resolution Infrared 

Sounder (HIRS) or the Scanning Microwave 

Spectrometer (SCAMS) or by determining the 

tropical circulation by obtaining three months 

of data from the Tropical Winds, Energy Conversion. and Reference Level Experiment 

(TWERLE). To provide experimental monitoring of environmental conditions such as sea ice cover and rainfall through three months of data 

obtained from the operation of the Electrically 

Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) or through the monitoring of the planetary radiation budget through data from the Earth Radiation Budget (ERB) experiment for a period 

of three months and through the demonstration 

and extension of the capability for vertically 

sounding the temperaturc structure or the water 

vapor and ozone concentrations of the atmosphere by the acquisition of three months of 

data from the Limb Radiance Inversion Radiometer (LRIR) or the Pressure Modulated 

Radiometer (PMR) . Spacecraft: Butterfly-shaped spacecraft 3-m high 

and 3.3-m wide with solar panels extended, con- sists of three major elements: a 1.5-m diameter 

torus ring forms the base and houses the major 

spacecraft electronics ; a smaller hexagon-shaped 

housing, connected to the ring by a truss, houses 

the attitude stabilization and control system; 

and two solar panels about 1-m by 2.5-m. Active 

3-axis stabilization : carries nine experiments. 

Solar cells provide 550 watts of Power and einht 

36,184 Launched by NASA for Comsat 

35,704 Corp., manager of Intelsat. 

1444.2 Seventh and last successfully 

orbited satellite in Intelsat IV 

series. Apogee motor fired by 

Comsat on May 24 and satellite 

stationed at 62.5" east longitude over Indian Ocean. Commercial 

operations began June 1975. 

0.5 

889 Still in orbit. 

814 

101.9 

98.9 

272 Decayed November 5, 1975. 

157 

88.7 

96.3 

1401 Still in orbit. 

1385 

113.6 

95.1 

1104 

1097 

107.2 

99.9 

Most sophisticated meteorologicd 

satellite yet developed. Sixth in 

Nimbus series, satellite was launched into circular, nearpolar orbit. All nine experiments provided useful information. Transmitted sensor, telemetry, and ranging signals to 

ATS-6. Data collected will assist 

development of numerical models of the atmosphere for the international Global Atmospheric 

Research Program (GARP) . 

nickel-cadmium batteries average 270 waits. 

Weight: 827 kg. 

97 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1975 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apog:e and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(demeesl .- I 

June 18 Obiective: Development of space flight techniques 40,800 

Defense and technology. 30,200 

55A Spacecraft: Not announced. 1422 

June 21 Obiective: To investigate the Sun’s lower corona, 560 

Thorad-Delta the transport of energy from the photosphere 32.9 

Atlas-Agena 9 

OSO-8 the chromosphere, and their interface in the 543 

57A ultraviolet spectral region to better understand 95.7 

into the corona. Spacecraft: Consists of two sections: a rotating 

polyhedron, called the wheel, carries non-pointing experiments ; a rectangular section mounted 

on top of the wheel, called the sail, consists of 

solar array and carries pointing experiments. 

324.6-cm high spacecraft is spin stabilized and 

wheel diameter is 152.4-cm. Carries eight ex- periments including cosmic x-ray telescopes and 

spectrometers; two nickel-cadmium batteries; 

data handling and telemetry system. Weight: 

1,088 kg. 

Obiective : To perform spacecraft rendezvous; to 230 

perform spacecraft docking and undocking; to 219 

conduct intervehicular crew transfer ; to demon- 89.0 

strate the interaction of U.S. and U.S.S.R. con- 51.8 

trol centers ; to demonstrate the interaction of 

U.S. and U.S.S.R. spacecraft crews. Apollo Block I1 command and service 

modules (CSM) modified for increased habitability needs of ASTP mission. Command module is conical, 3.9-m in diameter and 3.49-m 

high, and has a habitable volume of 5.94-m’. 

Service module is cylindrical, 3.9-m in diameter 

and 7.57-m long, with a 88.965-newton thrust 

main propulsion engine, redundant reaction 

control systems, fuel cells, oxygen, and radiators. 

Docking module (DM) is basically a 3.15-m 

long and 1.4-m diameter airlock with docking 

facilities on each end. Combined weight of 

CSM/DM at orbital insertion: 14,856 kg. 

Spacecraft: 

.wY 15 

Auollo ( ASTPI 

66A ’ 

Sitlrn IB 

Aug. 9 

COS-B 

7 2A 

Thorad-Del ta 

Objective : To study the extraterrestrial gamma 99,002 

radiation in the energy range from 25 MEV to 442 

1 GEV from a highly elliptical orbit and near- 2203.9 

polar inclination. 90.3 

121-cm high cylinder with a 140-cm 

diameter contains a central spark chamber 

mounted in a central tube. and. surrounded by 

equipment platforms, triggering telescopes, 

photomultipliers, upper and lower geiger coun- ters, and an energy calorimeter. Four monopole 

antennas extend 51.2-cm below bottom of 

cylindrical body for a total spacecraft height of 

172.2-cm. Outer surface of spacecraft is cov- ered with 9480 solar cells. Nitrogen cold-gas 

attitude control system maintains constant 

spacecraft spin. Weight: 277.5 kg. 

Spacecraft: 

Remarks 

Still in orbit. 

Eighth in .orbiting Solar Observatory series, spacecraft is larger 

and more sophisticated than 

previous OS0 spacecraft. Placed 

successfully into circular orbit, 

spacecraft is conducting studies 

of present minimum phase of 

solar cycle to compare with the 

intense solar activity expected 

during the 1980-82 peak. All 

eight experiments turned on; 

pointed experiments have con- ducted large scans of entire Sun. 

Apollo crew consisted of Thomas 

P. Stafford, commander; Vance 

D. Brand, command module 

pilot; Donald K. Slayton, docking module pilot. First international manned space flight. 

Apollo docked with passive 

Soyuz at 12:19 p.m. e.d.t. July 

17. Four crew transfers accomplished during near-two day 

ioint flight. Crew activity during docked flight included joint 

engineering and scientific ex- periments, TV from each spacecraft, and a joint press conference. Apollo undocked at 8:02 a.m. e.d.t. July 19. Soyuz deorbited July 21 and Apollo 

continued in orbit with crew 

conducting experiments. Apollo 

landed in Pacific at 5: 18 p.m. 

e.d.t. July 24, concluding final 

U.S. manned space flight until 

end-of-decade space shuttle missions. 

Satellite built by ESA (European 

Space Agency) and launched 

into hinhly elliptical, near-polar 

orbit by NASA. Astronomical 

observatory pointed initially toward the Crab Nebula and later 

reoriented toward x-ray source 

GX5-1. All spacecraft systems 

and experiments operating satisfactorily. 

98 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1975 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Aug. 20 

Viking 1 

75 A 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

Objective: To significantly advance the knowledge 

of the planet Mars by means of observations 

from Martian orbit and direct measurements in 

the atmosphere and on the surface during the 

1975 opportunity. Particular emphasis will be 

placed on obtaining biological, chemical, and 

environmental data relevant to the existence of 

life on the planet at this time, at some time in 

the past, or the possibility of life existing at a future date. 

Consists of a Viking Orbiter and a Viking Lander Capsule attached together during 

cruise flight. Orbiter body is an octagonal ring 

with 16 modular compartments. Measures 9.8-m across from the tips of the extended solar panels 

and 3.3-m high. Attached to outside body are the scan platform which supports the scientific 

instruments, propulsion system, four solar panels, 

and radio antennas. Orbiter instruments include a pair of high resolution, slow scan TV cameras, an infrared atmosphere water detector, and a hiKh resolution infrared thermal detector. Subsystems include a multistart engine, nitrogen 

attitude and control system, high gain S-band 

and X-band subsystem (Orbiter to earth), low 

gain S-band subsystem (Orbiter to earth), relay 

radio subsystem (Lander to Orbiter), four solar 

panels, and two nickel-cadmium batteries. 

Lander body is a hollow six-sided aluminum box 

46-cm deep and 150-cm wide enclosed by a top 

and bottom cover plate. The six sides are 109.2- cm and 55.9-cm alternately. Three 130-cm landing legs are attached to the three shorter sides. 

Clearance between the Lander bottom and the 

surface is 22.9-cm. Each leg has a main strut 

assembly and an A-frame assembly, to which 

is attached a circular 30.5-cm footpad. Lander 

scientific instruments include two cameras, a biology instrument, a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer, an x-ray fluorescence spectrometer, a meteorology instrument, and a seismometer. 

Two-piece dome bioshield encloses Lander and 

protects against contamination ; aeroshell consists of heatshield for Mars entry; parachute 

system assists during landing. Subsystems include three descent engines, S-band communications, landing radar, a guidance and control 

computer, and two SNAP 19-style 35-watt ra- dioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTG) . Also contains a 3.1-m retractable boom surface 

sampler with shovel-like head. Weight of 

Orbiter: 2339 kg; weight of Lander: 1184.1 

kg. Weight of combined spacecraft: 3523.1 kg. 

Spacecraft: 

TransMars 

Trajectory 

Launched successfully on transMars traiectory, spacecraft will 

take pictures of Mars and con- duct a detailed scientific ex- amination of the planet, including a search for life. After a year 

long, 815-million km journey, 

Lander will separate from Orbiter, enter Mars atmosphere, 

and land at Chryse (19.5" N) in 

the planet's equatorial region in 

early July 1976. From highly 

eccentric Mars synchronous or- bit, Orbiter will relay data 

from Lander to earth. Followon Viking 2 mission will conduct 

similar mission. Orbiters to 

operate for 144 days in Mars 

orbit with 62 days of concur- rent operation. Landers will 

operate serially for 128 days on Mars surface. By the end of 

1975, Viking 1 was 39.1 million 

km from Mars. 

99 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1975 

Launch date (G.m.t.1 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Aug. 27 

Symphonie 2 

77A 

Thorad-Delta 

Sept. 9 

Viking 2 

83A 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

Objective : To test and demonstrate communications equipment for TV, radio, telephone, telegraph, and data transmission; to provide 

voice channels, or 1200 telephone circuits 

equivalent of two color TV channels and eight 

between Europe, Africa, and South America. 

Spacecraft: Flat hexagonal cylinder 1.85-m in 

diameter and 0.5-m high. Three solar panel 

wings folded against satellite body are deployed 

in geosynchronous orbit and extend to a tip-totip diameter of 2.5-m in an arrangement 120" 

apart around the body periphery. Apogee motor 

engine and nozzle, super high frequency antenna 

feed and reflectors, reception horn, and solar sensors are mounted on spacecraft top; VHF 

antennas are on underside. Three axis stabilized 

by cold gas system; two nickel-cadmium batteries. Weight: 402 kg. 

Obiective: To significantly advance the knowledge 

of the planet Mars by means of observations 

from Martian orbit and direct measurements in 

the atmosphere and on the surface during the 

1975 opportunity. Particular emphasis will be 

placed on obtaining bioIogica1, chemical, and 

environmental data relevant to the existence of 

life on the planet at this time, at some time in 

the past, or the possibility of life existing at a future date. 

Spacecraft: Consists of a Viking Orbiter and a Viking Lander Capsule attached together during cruise flight. Orbiter body is an octagonal 

ring with 16 modular compartments. Measures 

9.8-m across from the tips of the extended solar 

panels and 3.3-m high. Attached to outside body are the scan platform which supports the scientific instruments, propulsion system, four solar 

panels, and radio antennas. Orbiter instruments 

include a pair of high resolution, slow scan TV 

cameras, an infrared atmosphere water detector, 

and a high resolution infrared thermal detector. 

Subsystems include a multistart engine, nitrogen 

attitude and control system, high gain S-band 

and X-band subsystem (Orbiter to earth), low 

gain S-band subsystem (Orbiter to earth), relay 

radio subsystem (Lander to Orbiter), four solar 

panels, and two nickel-cadmium batteries. 

Lander body is a hollow six-sided aluminum 

box 46-cm deep and 150-cm wide enclosed by a top and bottom cover plate. The six sides are 109.2-cm and 55.9-cm alternately. Three 130- cm landing legs are attached to the three shorter 

sides. Clearance between the Lander bottom and 

the surface is 22.9-cm. Each leg has a main 

strut assembly and an A-frame assembly, to 

which is attached a circular 30.5-cm footpad. 

Lander scientific instruments include two 

cameras, a biology instrument, a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer, an x-ray fluores- cence spectrometer, a meteorology instrument, 

and a seismometer. Two-piece dome bioshield 

encloses Lander and protects against contamination; aeroshell consists of heatshield for Mars 

entry; parachute system assists during landing. 

Subsystems include three descent engines, S35,870 

35,364 

1427.4 

0.0 

Second of two experimental com- munications satelIites developed 

by France and Germany. Launched successfully by NASA into 

transfer orbit. Apogee motor 

fired by Germany on Aug. 29 

and placed spacecraft in synchronous equatorial orbit at 

11.5" west longitude over the 

Atlantic off the west coast 

of Africa. All spacecraft systems 

functioning normally. 

TransMars 

Trajectory 

Second of two spacecraft launched 

successfully on trans-Mars trajectory, spacecraft will take pictures of Mars and conduct a detailed scientific examination 

of the planet, including a search 

for life. After a year long, 815- 

million km journey, Lander will 

separate from Orbiter, enter 

Mars atmosphere, and land at 

Cydonia (44.3" N) at southernmost extension of the northern 

polar hood in early September 

1976. From highly eccentric 

Mars synchronous orbit, Orbiter 

will relay data from Lander to 

earth. Viking 1 and 2 Orbiters 

to operate for 144 days in Mars 

orbit with 62 days concurrent 

operation. Landers will operate 

serially for 128 days on Mars 

surface. By the end of 1975, 

Viking 2 was 41.1 million km 

from Mars. 

100 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1975 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) Remarks 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) - 

band communications, landing radar, a guidance 

and control computer, and two SNAP 19-style 

35-watt radioistotope thermoelectric generators 

(RTG). Also contains a 3.1-m retractable boom 

surface sampler with shovel-like head. Weight 

of Orbiter: 2339 kg; Weight of Lander: 1182.7 

kg. Weight of combined spacecraft: 3521.7 kg. 

Sept. 26 Objective: To provide 6250 two-way voice cirIntelsat IVA F-1 cuits plus two television channels simultaneous91A ly or a combination of telephone, TV, and other 

Atlas-Centaur forms of communications traffic. 

Spacecraft: Overall height of 6.99-m and 2.38-m 

in diameter. Consists of two main elements: rotating cylinder covered with solar cells contains 

power subsystem, positioning and orientation 

subsystem, apogee motor, and despin control 

subsystem; despun earth-oriented platform atop 

rotating cylinder contains 20 communications 

repeaters (transponders), new antenna reflectors, 

and telemetry and command subsystems. Antenna reflectors are supported by a single tubular 

mast. 134.6-cm transmit and 88.9-cm receive 

quasi-square reflectors are constructed of a 

metallic mesh on an open web frame. Feed horn 

arrays and global horns are cantilevered from 

the base of the mast. Telemetry and command 

omni-directional bicone antenna is mounted on 

the mast tip. Weight at liftoff: 1515 kg. Weight 

after apogee motor fire: 825.5 kg. 

Oct. 6 Obiective : To investigate the chemical processes 

Explorer 54 (AE) and energy transfer mechanisms which control 

96A the structure and behavior of the earth’s 

Thorad-Delta atmosphere and ionosphere through the region 

of high solar energy absorption. 

Spacecraft: 16-sided cylindrical polyhedron with 

135-cm diameter and 115-cm high. Spacecraft 

surface, except for one end and instrument openings, is covered by solar cells. Scientific instruments are mounted on two baseplates attached 

to a center column which is the main structural 

support. Column extends through the two baseplates to support a 122-cm diameter momentum 

wheel, the principal component of the attitude 

control system. Omni-directional S-band antenna 

is mounted in the spacecraft equatorial plane. 

Hydrazine propulsion system has three thrusters. 

Three nickel-cadmium batteries. 12 scientific 

instruments. Weight: 675 kg. 

Oct. 9 Obiective : Development of space fliEht techniques 

Defense and technoloRy. 

98A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIIB-Agena 

Oct. 12 Objective: To test a developmental satellite proTransit Improvement viding improved operational characteristics for 

the Transit navigation system; to be integrated 99A into the operational Transit system. 

scout Spacecraft : Solar panels and accordian-like boom 

deploy after insertion into proper orbit; hydrazine fuel motor. Weight: 165 kg. 

Program (TIP) 2 

35,821 First of improved Intelsat IVA 

35,294 series has twice the communica1424.4 tions capacity of Intelsat IV 

0.1 series. Launched by NASA for 

Cornsat Corp., manager of Intelsat. Apogee motor fired Sept. 2! 

and satellite stationed at 21.5 

west longitude over Atlantic 

Ocean. To begin commercial 

operations in 1976. 

3816 

126.9 

Second of a series of three second154 generation spacecraft designed 

to extend knowledge of the at90.1 mosphere. Launched into elliptical polar orbit, spacecraft dips 

in and out of earth’s atmos. 

phere. All 12 science instruments functioning normally. 

357 Still in orbit. 

119 

89.3 

96.4 

699 Second of a series in US. Navy 

357 Transit Improvement Program. 

95.2 Launched into proper elliptical 

90.7 polar transfer orbit by NASA for 

U.S. Navy. Solar panels failed 

to deploy. Navy attempting to 

salvage mission. 

101 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1975 

Dec. 4 

Defense 

114A 

Titan IIID 

Dec. 4 

Defense 

114B 

Titan IIID 

Apogee and 

perigee 

1,aunch date (G.m.t.) (kilometers) 

Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Period 

Cospar designation (minutes) 

Launch vehicle Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Oct. 16 Obiective: To launch the spacecraft into a syn- 36,082 

Goes 1 chronous orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable 35,775 

1 OOA it to accomplish its operational mission require- 1443.4 

Thorad-Del ta ments, conduct an in-orbit evaluation and 1 .o 

checkout of the spacecraft, and, upon com- pletion of this evaluation, turn operational control over to NOAA/NESS, to provide regular 

and useful daytime and nighttime meteorological 

observations in support of the national operational meteorological satellite system. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 190.5-cm in diameter 

and 344-cm long from the top of the magnetometer to the bottom of the apogee boost motor. 

TE-364-4 apogee motor measures 90-cm high 

and is ejected after synchronous orbit is attained. Thrust tube located in center supports 

radiometer/telescope instrument. Scanning mirror looks out through an opening in cylindrical 

solar array whose panels cover outer walls of 

spacecraft. Instrumentation consists of a visible 

infrared spin scan radiometer (VISSR) to provide high quality day/night cloud cover data 

and to measure radiance temperatures of the 

earth/atmosphere system, a meteorological data 

collection and transmission system, and a space 

environmental monitor (SEM) system to meas- ure proton, electron, and solar x-ray fluxes and 

magnetic fields. Spin stabilized. Weight at 

launch: 628 kg. Weight in orbit: 272 kg. 

Nov. 20 objective: To investigate the chemical processes 3025 

Explorer 55 (AE) and energy transfer mechanisms which control 157 

107A the structure and behavior of the earth's 118 

Thorad-Delta atmosphere and ionosphere through the region 19.7 

of high solar energy absorption. 

Spacecraft: 16-sided polyhedron measures 1 15- 

cm high and 135-cm in diameter. Nearly entire 

spacecraft surface is covered by a solar array of 

2 x 2-cm N on P solar cells. Two baseplates are attached to center column and support scientific 

instruments; column also supports 122-cm 

diameter momentum wheel, the principal com- ponent of the attitude control system. Two re- dundant thrusters, fueled by 168 kg of hydrazine 

contained in six separate tanks, are mounted 

radially and provide the propulsion for altitude 

changes; a third yaw thruster changes spacecraft attitude. Spacecraft operates in either 

spinning or despun mode ; omnidirectional Sband antenna is mounted on spacecraft equatorial plane. Three nickel-cadmium batteries. 12 

scientific instruments include Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument (BUV) to measure atmospheric distribution of ozone in equatorial 

region. Weight: 720 kg. 

Obiective : Development of space flight techniques 241 

and technology. 157 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.5 

96.3 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques I555 

and techno1o.q. 234 

Spacecraft : Not announced. 102.9 

96.3 

Remarks 

First operational spacecraft of a series of Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites, 

launched by NASA for NOAA. 

After successful launch into 

transfer orbit, apogee boost motor was fired Oct. 17 and spacecraft was placed in synchronous 

orbit at 55" west longitude. 

Spacecraft turned over to NOAA 

Oct. 30 and was placed at 75" 

west longitude (over northern 

Brazil). Beginning Jan. 1976, 

will form operational system 

with SMS-2 to provide 24-hr 

coverage of Western Hemisphere, providing cloud cover pictures to NOAA every 30 

minutes. 

Last of a series of three secondgeneration spacecraft designed 

to extend knowledge of the atmosphere. Launched into elliptical equatorial orbit. spacecraft 

dips in and out of earth's 

atmosphere. All 12 scientific 

instruments performing satisfactorily. Will measure spatial 

distribution of ozone. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1 975 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name 

Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Dec. 13 Objective: To provide contiguous United States, 

RCA-Satcom-1 Hawaii, and Alaska with television, voice chan117A nels, and high-speed data transmissions; to 

Thorad-Del ta operate all 24 transponder channels at specified 

power throughout the minimum 8-year satellite 

lifetime, including eclipse periods. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped 1.2-m x 1.2-m x 1.6-m 

high with two rectangular solar panels extending 

out from spacecraft on short booms. Hydrazine 

propellant tanks protrude from both east and 

west panels of spacecraft body; the two remaining main body panels support communications 

transponders and housekeeping equipment. Each 

bifold solar array is 1.6-m x 2.3-m and provide a total of 6.96 sq m of silicon solar cells. The 

24-channel communications subsystem consists 

of a fixed, paraboloidal, four-reflector antenna 

assembly and a lightweight transponder of high 

efficiency; traveling-wave-tube-amplifiers (TWTA) ; and low-density microwave filters. Six 

feedhorns are used to provide both vertically 

and horizontally polarized beams to Alaska, 

Hawaii, and the contiguous United States. During transfer orbit phase, spacecraft is spin stabilized ; during operational phase, it is three-axis 

stabilized. Solid propellant apogee kick motor 

places spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit and 

hydrazine monopropellant reaction control system maintains correct position. Three nickelcadmium batteries. Weight at launch: 868 kg. 

Weight after apogee motor fire: 463 kg. 

Objective: Development of space flight techniques and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Dec. 14 

Defense 

118A 

Titan IIIC 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

36.085 

35325 

1439.7 

0.3 

35,785 

35,671 

1436 

3.0 

Remarks 

Launched into transfer orbit by 

NASA for RCA Corp. Apogee 

kick motor fired by RCA Dec. 

15 and spacecraft placed in 

stationary orbit at 119" west 

longitude over equator (due 

south of Los Angeles). First of a series of three RCA domestic 

comsats. Commercial operations 

to Liegin March 1976. 

Still in orbit. 

103 
APPthDIX 8-1 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1971 -1975 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

COMMUNICATIONS 

.Ian. 26. 1971 

Feh. 3. 1971 

Nov. 3. 1971 

Uec. 19. 1971 

Jan. 22. 1972 

June 13. 1972 

Oct. 15. 1972 

Nov. 9. 1972 

Apr. 20. 1973 

Aug. 24. 1973 

Dec. 13. 1973 

Jan. 19. 1974 

. 

Apr. 13. 1974 

May 30, 1974 

Oct. IO, 1974 

Nov. 21. 1974 

Nov. 23. 1974 

Dec. 19. 1974 

May 7. 1975 

May 22. 1975 

Aug.27. 1975 

Sep. 26. 1975 

Dec. 13. 1975 

lntelsat IV (F-2) 

NAT0SA.r-II 

DSCS 2-1.2 

(NA IO-B) 

lntelsat IV (F-3) 

lntelsat IV (F-4) 

lntelsat IV (F-5) 

Oscar VI 

Anik I (7-elcsat I) 

Anik 2 (Telesat 2) 

lntelsat IV (F-7) 

Skynet 2A 

DSCS 2-3.4 

Westar I 

ATS-6 

Westar 2 

lntelsat IV (F-8) 

Skynet 2B 

Symphonie 1 

Anik 3 (Telesat 3) 

lntelsat IV (F-I) 

Symphonie 2 

lntelsat IVA (F-I) 

RCA-Satcom-l 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (1 AT) 

l.itan lllC 

Atlas Centaur 

Atlas Centaur 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Titan lllC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan lllC 

'Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

First in lntelsat IV series of spacecraft; 3-9.000. 2-way voice 

Second NATO satellite. stationed over the Atlantic to carry 

Operational defense communications satellites launched as a 

circuits or l2color TV channels. Positioned over the Atlantic 

military traffic. 

pair to 24-hour synchronous orbits to provide high capacity 

voice. digital. and secure voice communications for military 

networks. 

Second in new highcapacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. 

Third in new high capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Fourth in new high capacity series. Positioned over Indian 

Amateur radio relay. 

Launched for Canada. 

Launched for Canada. 

Fifth in highcapacity series. Posjtioned over Atlantic. 

Follow-on to DSCS 2-1.2. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft failed to achieve 

the proper orbit. 

Launched for the Western Union Co. to establish a domestic 

communications link. 

Multipurpose experimental satellite especially designed for re- gional services in North America and later India, 

Launched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic 

communications links. 

Sixth in highcapacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft positioned over 

Ocean. . 

Indian Ocean. 

First of two experimental satellites for France and West Germany. Spacecraft positioned over Atlantic. 

Launched for Canada. 

Eighth in highcapacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Launched for France and West Germany. Positioned over the 

First of a new series double the capacity of its predecessors. 

Launched for RCA as first of their communication satellite 

Atlantic. 

Positioned over the Atlahtic. 

series. Positioned over the Pacific. 

104 
APPENDIX B-1 --Continued 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1971-1975 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 16, 1971 

Oct. 15, 1972 

Dec. 1 I, 1972 

Nov. 6, 1973 

May 17, 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

Feb. 6. 1975 

June 12, 1975 

Oct. 16. 1975 

July 23. 1972 

Jan. 22. 1975 

Apr. 9, 1975 

Sept. 2. 1972 

Oct. 30, 1973 

Jul. 14, 1974 

Oct. 12. 1975 

Eole (CAS-I) scout 

NOAA-2 (ITOS D) Thor-Delta 

Nimbus V Thor-Delta 

NOAA-3 (ITOS F) Thor-Delta 

SMS I Thor-Delta 

NOAA-4 (ITOS G) Thor-Delta 

SMS-2 Thor-Delta 

Nimbus 6 Thor-Delta 

Goes I Thor-Delta 

ERTS-I Thor-Delta 

Landsat 2 Thor-Delta 

Geos 3 Thor-Delta 

Triad 01-1 scout 

NavSat 0-20 Scout 

NTS I Atlas F 

Tip-2 scout 

WEATHER OBSERVATION* 

F-rench satellite to gather data from constant density surface 

balloons relaying meteorological data for the study of the 

characteristics and movements of air masses. New balloons are released daily from 3 sites in Argentina. for this cooperative French/ United States project. 

measurements through clouds. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Provided the first atmospheric vertical temperature profile 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

First full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Second full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

Io build numerical models for Global Atmospheric Rcscarch 

First fully operational synchronous weather satellite. 

Program. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving jeful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry 

resources, mineral and land resources, land use. water resources. marine resources, mapping and charting, and the 

environment. 

Second experimental Earth rcsource)r technology satellite 

GEODESY 

To measure geometry and topography ol ocean surface. 

NAVIGATION 

First experimental station keeping Transit navigation satellite. 

Navigation technology satellite. 

Transit Improvement Program. 

* Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identitied b) launch 
AIW \I)IY B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1971 -1975 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Kemarks 

Mar. 13. 1971 

Apr. I. 1971 

June 8, 1971 

June 8, 1971 

Aug. 7. 1971 

Aug. 7. 1971 

Aug. 7, 1971 

SeD. 29. 1971 

O&. 17. 1971 

Nov. 15, 1971 

Dec. II. 1971 

Jan. 31. 1972 

Mar. 12. 1972 

Aug. 13. 1972 

Aug. 21. 1972 

Sen. 23. 1972 

oc't. 2. 1972 

Oct. 2, 1972 

Nov. 15. 1972 

Nov. 22. 1972 

Dec. 16, 1972 

June IO. 1973 

Oct. 26. 1973 

Dec. 16. 1973 

Feb. 18. 1974 

Mar. 9. 1974 

June 3. 1974 

July 16, 1974 

Aug. 30, 1974 

Oct. 15, 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

May 7. 1975 

June 21. 1975 

Aug. 9. 1975 

Oct. 6, 1975 

Nov. 20. 1975 

IMP 8 (Explorer 43) Thor Delta 

lSlS 2 Thor Delta 

SESP I Thor Burner II 

Solrad IO scout 

ov 1-20 Atlas Satar 

ov 1-21 Atlas Satar 

AVL802 Atlas Satar os0 7 Thor Delta 

STP (SESP 71-2) Thor Agena 

SSS (Explorer 45) Scout 

Ariel 4 scout 

HEOS A-2 1-hor Delta 

TD-I Thor Delta 

MTS (Explorer 46) Scout 

OAO 3 Atlas Centah 

IMP 9 (Explorer 47) Thor Delta 

Radcat Atlas Burner II 

Radsat Atlas Burner I1 

SAS B (Explorer 48) Scout 

ESRO 4 scout 

Aeros I scout 

Radio Astronomy 2 1-hor Delta 

IMP IO (Explorer 50) 7-hor Delta 

Atmosphere Thor Delta 

San Marco 4 scout 

UK X-4 (Miranda) Scout 

(Explorer 44) 

(Explorer 49) 

(Explorer 5 I ) 

Hawkeye scout 

Aeros 2 scout 

ANS scout 

Ariel 5 scout 

INTASAT Thor Delta 

SAS-C (Explorer 53) Scout 

os04 Thor-Delta 

COS-B Thor-Delta 

Atmosphere Thor-Delta 

Atmosphere Thor-Delta 

(Explorer 52) 

(Explorer 54) 

(Explorer 55) 

Study 01' solar-lunar-terrestrial relationship in the radiiitioii cn- vironnient ol the intcrp1anct;iry magnetic tield. 

Electron production and loss. and large sc;ile ti-;insport 01 ionimtion. (C'anadian pa! load.) 

Defense scientitic experiments. 

Monitor sun's x-ra! and I\\' emissions. 

Iklensc xientitic experiment. 

1)elense scientitic experiment. 

Delense scientitic experiment. 

Ohserve active physical processes oii the sun. 

Delense scientitic experiments. 

Investigate ring current and magnetic stornis. accclctation 01 

Investigate inter;ictions iiniong the plasma. chai-gcd p;irticlc 

Investigate intcrpliinetury yxice and high latitude iixigiietoSeben ESKO experiments 

Meteoroid penetration rate study. 

Precise ;istronomical ohseniition lrom abo!e thc ;itniorphere. 

Study cislunar \pace rdiation entironment. plus ni;igiictic d;it;i. 

Iklense scientitic experiment. 

Iklensc scientitic experiment. 

Survey ol high cnerg! gamma radiation including point source\. 

Polar ionosphere \tudics (ESKO p;i>lo;id.) 

Study ol upper ;itmosphcre and ionosphetic t. ireyion. ((ici iniii~ 

Measure g;iInctic iind solar radio noiw \hielded ltt)in earth b! 

Stud! 01 interplanetary environment pai-tick and lucl interPhotochemical procehses in ahhorptioii 01' \oI;ir (I\' 

Diurnal tariations in equatorial neutral ;itmosplicre (Italian 

pa! loud and hunch.) 

Meawre densit) ol bun rctlecting particle\ ne;ir the \pii 

and test engineering systems. (United Kingdom payload.) 

Plasma properties of the magnetosphere oter the north polar cap. 

Measure aeronomic parameters of uppcr atmosphere and solar 

Study steller UV and x-ray sourceh. (Netherlands payload.) 

Study galactic and extragalactic x-ra\ \ourccs. (Ilnitcd KingMeasure ionospheric total electron contcnt. ionospheric irreguMeasure X-ray emission of discrete extragalactic sources. 

1 o study minimum phase ol solar cycle. 

Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies. (ESA European 

Photochemical processes in ahsorption ol solar energ!. 

Photochemical processes in absorption 01 solar cncrg! . Mcahure 

charged part icles ( I tit Iia n launched 1 

stream\. elcctroiniignctic \c;itcs (Iinited Kingdom pa! load.) 

sphere. (International cooperati\e payloxi.) 

( I ta 1i;i n lii unc hcd, ) 

payload. ) 

the moon. b! use ol lunar orbit. 

actions in the distant magneto tail. 

UV. (German payldad.) 

dom payload.) 

larities and scintillation. Spanish pavload. 

( Italian-launc hed. ) 

sate I I ite. ) 

spatial distribution of o/one. 

106 
APPtNDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1971 -1975 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

May 8. 1971 Mariner 8 Atlas Centaur 

May 30. 1971 Mariner 9 Atlas Centaur 

Mars orbital photographic mission. Launch failure. 

Mars orbital photographic mission. Entered orbit of Mars Sob. 13. 

1971. Returned 6.876 pictures and data on temperatures. elebations. 

and water vapor. 

Jupiter flyby mission, Passed Jupiter on Dec. 3. 1973. returned color 

pictures and data on radiation, temperatures. and magnetic fields. 

Accelerated toward solar system escape. 

Jupiter &by mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 2. 1974. returning pictures 

and data and headed for a similar pass by Saturn before accelerating 

out of the solar system. 

Venus and Mercury flyby mission. Passed Venus on Feb. 5. 1974. 

returning good quality pictures. Passed Mercury again on Sep. 21. 

1974. returning 500-600 good quality pictures. Will pass Mercury 

again on Mar. 16. 19715. Other data were also returned. 

lnvestigate properties of interstellar space close to Sun. W. German 

pay load. 

Mars lander and orbiter mission to arrire in mid-1976. 

Mars lander and orbiter mission ta arriw in mid-1976. 

Mar. 3. 1972 Pioneer IO Atlas Centaur 

Apr. 6. 1973 Pioneer I I Atlas Centaur 

No\. 3. I973 Mariner IO Atlas Centaur 

Dec. IO. 1974 Helios 1 

.4ug. 20. 1975 Viking I 

Sep. 9. 1975 Viking 2 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

.Titan I IIE-Centaur 

Titan IIIE-Centaur 

1 07 
APPENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok I 

MercuryMercuryVostok 2 

MercuryAtlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 

7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 

Mercury-Atlas 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod I 

Redstone 3 

Redstone 4 

8 

9 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini IO 

Gemini I I 

Gemini 12 

soyuz I 

Apollo 7 

Soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo IO 

Apollo I I 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21. 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24, 1962 

AUP. I I. 1962 

Aug. 12; 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May IS, 1963 

June 14, 1963 

June 16. 1963 

Oct. 12. 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23. 1965 

June 3, 1965 

Aug. 21, 1965 

Dec. 4, 1965 

Da. 15, 1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3. 1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12. 1966 

Nov. I I. 19% 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11. 1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15. 1969 

Mar. 3. 1969 

May 18, 1969 

July 16, 1969 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman S. Titov 

John H. Glenn. Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich Walter M. Schirrd. Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovsky Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, 2d 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra. Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford. 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad. Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra. Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgi Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Boris Volynov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin. Jr. 

I h 48 min. 

15 min. 

16 min. 

25 h 18 min. 

4 h 55 min. 

4 h 56 min. 

94 h 22 min. 

70 h 57 min. 

9 h 13 miR. 

34 h 20 min. 

119 h 6 min. 

70 h 50 min. 

24 h 17 min. 

26 h 2 min. 

4 h 53 min. 

97 h 56 min. 

190 h 55 min. 

330 h 35 min. 

25 h 51 rnin. 

IO h 41 min. 

72 h 21 min. 

70 h 47 min. 

71 h 17 min. 

94 h 35 min. 

26 h 37 min. 

260 h 9 min. 

94 h 51 min. 

147 h I min. 

71 h 23 min. 

72 h 56 min. 

241 h I min. 

192 h 3 min. 

195 h 19 min 

First manned Hight. 

First (1.5 flight: suborbital 

Suborbital: capsule sank alter landing 

First tlight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 250 mi lrom target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 4 mi of Vostok 3. 

Landed 5 mi from target. 

First long I1.S. IIight 

Second dual miwion (with Vostoh 6). 

First woman in space: within 3 mi. 01 l'ti\ttih 

First 3-man crew 5. 

First extravehicular nctibit) (l.eono\. IO 

First U.S. 2-man Hight: tirst manual ma21-min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longestduration manned Hight to date 

Longest-duration manned Hight to date 

Rende7vous within I ft of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting sp;icccralt (Gem 

ini 8 with Agena target rocket). Extravehicular activity: rendei\oiis. 

First dual rendeivous (Gemini IO aith 

Agena IO. then Agena X). 

First initial rcndeibouh; tirst tethered 

Hight: highest Earth-orhit altitude (XS2 

mi). 

I.ongest ,cxtra\ehicular ;icti\ ity to date (Aldrin. 5 h 37 min). 

Cosmonaut killed in rccntr! iiccrdcnt. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

min). 

neuvers in orbit. 

ManeuLered near unmanned So! ui 2. 

First manned orbit(s) of Moon: lirst manned 

departure from Earth's sphcrc til' intlucnce: 

highest speed ever attaincd in manned 

flight. 

Soyui 4 and 5 docked and translerred 2 

Cosmonauts from Soyu7 5 to Soyui 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation 

of lunar module to landing and takeotf lrom 

lunar surface and rqioining with comnund module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 47.000 

ft from the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surfocc and 

safe return to Earth. First return 01 rock 

and soil samples to Earth. and manned deployment of experiments on !un;ir surlacc. 

108 
ApptNI>lX C Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Soyu7 6 

soyu7 7 

soyu7 8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

0 

I 

Oct. I I. 1969 

Oct. 12. 1969 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy Kuhasov 

Anatoliy Filipchcnko 

Vladislav VolkoL, 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Vladimir Shatiilov 

Aleksey Ycliseyev 

Charles Conrad. Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon. Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell. Jr 

Fred W. Haise. Jr. 

John L. Swigert. Jr. 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianot 

Alan B. Shepard. Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Timofeyevich 

Dobrovolskiy 

Vlad islov N i kolayevich 

Volkov 

Viktor lvanovich Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James Bensen Irwin 

I IX h 42 min. 

I IX h 41 min. 

Soyu7 6. 7 and X operated ;is ;I groiip tlight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments. including \\elding and 

Earth and celestial observations. 

Oct. 13. 1969 

Nov. 14, 1969 

I IX h 50 min. 

244 hr,Y min. Second manned lunar landing!. Contiiiucd 

manned exploration and retric\cd piirts 01 

Surveyor Ill sp;icecIalt which landcd in 

Ocean 01 Storms on Apr. 19. 1967. 

Mission aborted due to cuplosioii in thc 

service module. Ship circled Moon. mith crew using LEM ;is "lilchoqt" until 1iibt 

prior to reentry. 

1.ongest manned space tlight to date. lasting 

17 days 16 h 59 min. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission dcinonstrated pin-point landing capiihilit! and 

continued manned explorat.ion. 

Docked with Salyut I. hut crew did not 

board space station launched Apr. 19. 

Crew recovered Apr. 24. 1971. 

Docked with Salyut I and Soyu/ I I crcw occupied space station for 22 day.;. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyui I I 

capsule recovery on June 30. 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and tirst 

Apollo "J" series mission which carry the 

Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden's in-flight 

EVA of.38 min 12 s was perlormed during 

return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing. with Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing. with roving vehicle, 

Docked with Skylab I for 28 days. Repairqd 

damaged station. 

Docked with Skylab I lor over 59 days. 

Apr. II, 1970 142 h. 55 min. 

June I. 1970 

Jan. 31. 1971 

424 h 59 min. 

216 h 2 min. 

soyuz Apr. 22, 1971 47 h 46 min. 

soyuz June 6. 1971 570 h 22 min. 

Apollo 15 July 26. 1971 295 h 12 min. 

Apollo 16 Apr. 16. 1972 John W. Young 

Charls M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly. II 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr Klimuk 

Valentin Lebedev 

Pave1 Popovich 

Yuriy Artyukhin 

Gennadiy Sarafanov 

Lev Demin 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Nikolai Rukavishni kov 

Aleksey Gubarev 

Georgiy Grechko 

Vasiley Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Petr Ktimuk 

Vitaliy Sevastyanov 

Aleksey Leonov 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

265 h 51 min. 

Apollo 17 Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25, 1973 

301 hr 52 min. 

Skylab 2 627 h 50 min. 

Skylab 3 July 28. 1973 1.427 h 9 min. 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26, 1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Jan. IO. 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15. 1975 

July 15, 1975 

47 h 16 min. 

2,017 h 16 min 

Checkout of improved Soyui. 

Docked with Skylab I in continuing long 

duration mission. 

Astrophysical. biological. and Eiirth resources experiments. 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyw 14 crew occupied space station lor over 14 days. 

Rendezvoused hut did not dock with SalTest of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupicd \tiition 

Soyw stages failed to separate: crtx rcDocked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

larget lor Apollo in docking ;ind liiiiit 

Ihckcd with Soqui 19 in .ioiiit c\pcriiiiciits 

yut 3. 

during a 29day Right. 

covered after abort. 

during a 63day mission. 

experiments AS I P mission. 

of AS I I' mission. 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo 

188 h 55 min. 

377 h 30 min. 

48 h I2 min. 

142 h 24 min. 

709 h 20 min. 

20 min. 

1511 h 20 min. 

142 h 31 min. 

2 I7 h 28 min. 

109 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Vehicle Stages 

Thrust 

(in thou- Max. 

Propellant * sands of dia. 

lbs) (ft) 

Scout ................... 1. Algol IIIA ................. Solid ..................... 108.3 3.67 

2. Castor IIA ................. Solid ..................... 63.2 

3. Antares IIB ............... Solid ..................... 28.5 

4. Altair I11 ................... Solid ..................... 5.9 

Thor-Delta 2900 1. Thor ulus LOX/RP-1 ........... 205 8 ......... nine-TX 354-5 ...... Solid ..................... 99' 

10.3 

15 

2. Delta (DSV-3) ......... Nz04/Aerozine ..... 

3. TE 364-4 ................... Solid ..................... Atlas F/TE 364-4 ...... 1. Atlas booster and 

sustainer 

10 

2. TE 364-4 ................... Solid 

Atlas-Agena ................. 1. Atlas booster and 

sustainer 

(SLV/3A) ............... LOX/RP-1 ........... 503 10 

Titan IIIB-Agena ....... 1. LR-87 ......................... Nz04/Aerozine ..... 520 10 

2. Agena ......................... IRFNA/UDMH.. 16 

Titan IIIC ................. 1. Two 5-segment 

120-in diameter ....... Solid.. ..... 2,600 10x30 

2. LR-87 .......................... NzOr/ ..... 520 

3. LR-91 .......................... Nz04/Aerozine ..... 4. Transtage .................... Nz04/Aerozine ..... 100 

16 

Titan IIID ................. 1. Two 5-segment 

2,600 10x30 

LR-87 ......................... Nz04/Aerozine ..... 520 

LR-91 ......................... Nn04/Aerozine ..... 100 

2. 

3. 

Titan IIIE-Centaur ... 1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

Atlas-Centaur .............. 1. 

n L. 

Saturn IB .................... 1. 

2. 

Max. Payload (lb) 

Height 300NM First 

(ft) orbit Escape launch 

72.0 410' 85' 1972(60) 

116 3,900' 1,050' 1973(60) 

85 3,300' 

133 6,000' 1,000' 1968(60) 

159 7,100' 1,500' 1966 

133 26,500' 7,000' 1965 

154 6,500' 1971 

Two 5-segment 

LR-87 ......................... Nz04/Aerozind ..... 520 

LR-91 .......................... NzOJAerozine ..... 102 

120-in diameter ....... Solid ..................... 2,600 10x30 160 1 1,300 ' 1974 

Centaur (Two 

RL-10) .................... LOX/LH ............. 30 

Atlas booster . 

Centaur (Two 

S-IB (eight H-1) ...... LOX/RP .............. 1,640 21.6 181 34,000' 1966 

S-IVB (one 5-2) ......... LOX/LH ............. 

and sustainer ............ LOX/RP ............. 503 10 131 10,300' 2,500' 1967(62) 

RL-10) .................... LOX/LH .............. 30 

25V 

' The date of first launch applies to this latest modification Solid; Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical 

with a date in parentheses for the initial version. Dimethylhydrazine-IRFNA/UDMH ; Nitrogen Tetroxide 

'Set of 3. and UDMH/N2H4-N,0'/Aerozine ; Liquid Oxygen and Liq- a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows : Liquid ui! Hydrogen-LOX/LH. 

Oxygen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP; Solid pro- Due east launch. 

pellant combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer- ' Polar launch. 

110 
APPENDIX E-I 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

[%YEAR BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

[In millions of dollars] 

NASA Department Total 

Total Space’ of Defense ERDA Commerce Interior Agriculture NSF space 

1959 . . . . . . . . . . 

1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

1969 ...... . ... ... ...... . 1970 ................ 

4,967.6 

3,990.9 

..... ... ... .. 3,306.6 

1974. . . . . . . . . . . 

1977 Est. ... .. . ... ...... 3,695.0 

235.4 

461.5 

926.0 

1,796.8 

3,626.0 

5,046.3 

5,167.6 

5,094.5 

4,862.2 

4,452.5 

3,822.0 

3,547.0 

3,101.3 

3,071 .O 

3,093.2 

2,758.5 

2,915.3 

3,229.6 

852.4 

3,330.7 

I Excludes amounts for air transportation. 2 T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. 

,ILLIONS OF 

DOLLARS 

489.5 34.3.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

-1 

813.9 67.7 ................... .6 

1,298.2 147.8 50.7 1.3 

1,549.9 213.9 1.5 

1,599.3 210.0 3.0 

1,573.9 228.6 3.2 

1,688.8 186.8 3.2 

1,663.6 183.6 2.8 

1,921.8 145.1 28.1 0.2 0.5 3.2 

2,013.0 118.0 20.0 0.2 0.7 1.9 

1,678.4 102.8 8.0 1.1 ’ 0.8 2.4 

1,512.3 94.8 27.4 I .9 0.8 2.4 

1,407.0 55.2 31.3 5.8 1.6 2.8 

1,623.0 54.2 39.7 10.3 1.9 2.6 

1,766.0 41.7 60.2 9.0 3.1 1.8 

1,892.4 29.6 64.4 8.3 2.3 2.0 

1,985.1 34.1 70.9 10.4 3.9 2.4 

44&3 8.4 21.9 2.6 1 .o 0.6 

2,336.3 3’4.2 89.8 8.4 4.7 2.4 

........................... 

43.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

26.5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

759.2 

1,065.8 

1,808.2 

3,294.8 

5,434.5 

6,861.4 

6,985.5 

6,999.8 

6,741.5 

635 1.4 

5,975.8 

5,340.5 

4,740.9 

4,574.7 

4,824.8 

4,640.3 

4,914.3 

5,336.4 

1,335.2 

5,806.5 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority-1966-1977 

[May not add due to rounding] 

FISCAL YEAR WT.Q. -. TRANSITIONAL QUARTER 

*EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR AIR TRANSPORTATION 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 
Space Activities Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority Outlays 

1975 1976 T.Q.' 1977 1975 1976 T.Q.' 1977 

Actual Est. Est. Est. Actual Est. Est. Est. 

Federal space programs: .................... 2915.3 3229.6 852.2 3330.7 2950.9 3187.4 828.3 3336.8 ................ 1892.4 1985.1 448.3 2336.3 1831.1 1962.0 525.6 2132.0 

ERDA ............................ 29.6 34.1 8.4 34.2 34.3 34.3 9.6 32.3 

Commerce ........................................ 64.4 70.9 21.9 89.8 63.6 71.3 21.9 89.8 

Interior ........................ 8.3 10.4 2.6 8.4 7.4 10.3 2.7 8.4 

NSF ................................................ 2.0 2.4 0.6 2.4 1.8 1.8 0.5 1.9 

Agriculture ............ 2.3 3.9 1.0 4.7 1.7 3.7 1 .o 4.6 

4914.3 5336.4 1335.0 5806.5 4890.8 5271.7 1389.6 5605.8 

Manned space flight ........................ 1510.3 1790.5 468.2 1891.0 1534.7 1734.7 468.5 1864.8 

Space science, applications and technology ................ 1077.1 1120.0 296.7 1086.9 1084.2 1117.6 280.5 1124.7 

Air transportation ............................ 313.8 323.2 79.5 364.3 315.8 329.8 80.4 339.2 

Supporting operations ........... 329.8 321.4 87.8 354.8 334.0 337.3 79.6 349.3 

TotalNASA ................................ 3229.1 3552.8 931.7 3695.0 3266.7 3517.2 908.7 3676.0 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

Less receipts ............................ -2.0 -2.2 -0.4 -2.0 -2.0 -2.2 -0.4 -2.0 

1 T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. 2 Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

Aeronautics Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

Budget Authority 

1975 1976 T.Q.1 1977 

Actual Est. Est. Est. 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

NASA2 ........................ ............................ 313.8 323.2 79.5 364.3 

Department of Defense ......................... 1627.0 1940.4 447.8 2273.4 

Department of Transportation 4 ............ 74.0 82.9 21.8 94.2 

Total __._ ........................................ 2014.8 2346.5 549.1 2731.9 

1 T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. 3 Research, Development, Testing, and Equipment of 

2 Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, 4 Office of Secretary of Transportation and Federal AviaSource: Office of Management and Budget. 

aircraft and related equipment. 

tion Administration Research and Development. 

Research and Program Management. 

112 

U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1976 0 - 209-257