Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1981 Activities 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1981 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Con tents 

Page 

Summary ................................ 1 

Communications ...................... 1 

Earth’s Resources and Environment ...... 2 

Space Science ........................ 3 

Space Transportation .................. 4 

International Activities ................ 5 

Aeronautics .......................... 6 

Administration ..................... 8 

Applications to the Earth ............... 8 

Science .............................. 13 

Space Transportation .................. 19 

Space Research and Technology ......... 23 

Space Tracking and Data Services ........ 25 

Aeronautical Research and Technology ... 26 

Department of Defense ..................... 29 

Space Activities ....................... 29 

Aeronautical Activities ................. 33 

Relations with NASA .................. 36 

Department of Commerce .................. 38 

Space Systems ........................ 38 

Other Uses of Satellites ................. 45 

Space Support Activities ................ 47 

Space and Atmospheric Research ........ 48 

Aeronautical Programs ................ 49 

Department of Energy ..................... 50 

Space Applications of Nuclear Power ..... 50 

Nuclear Waste Disposal ................ 51 

Remote Sensing of the Earth ............ 51 

Nuclear Test Detection ................ 51 

Department of the Interior ................. 52 

Earth Resources Observation ............ 52 

Monitoring the Environment ............ 53 

National Aeronautics and Space 

Geology ............................. 55 

Cartography ......................... 55 

International Activities ................ 56 

Department of Agriculture ................. Federal Communications Commission ........ Communications Satellites .............. Experiments and Studies ............... Department of Transportation .............. Aviation Safety ....................... Environmental Research ............... Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control ... Environmental Protection Agency ........... National Science Foundation ................ Smithsonian Institution .................... Spacesciences ........................ Lunar Research ...................... Planetary Research .................... International Communication Agency ........ 

Appendixes 

A.1 . U.S. Spacecraft Record ............... A.2 . World Record of Space Launchings 

Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or 

Beyond ........................... A.3 . Successful U.S. Launchings- 1981 ...... B.1 . U.S.-Launched Applications Satellites, 

B.2 . U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 

B.3 . U.S.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1981 . C . U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 

D . U.S. Space Launch Vehicles ............ E.1 . Space Activities of the U.S. Government: 

Historical Budget SummaryBudget Authority .................. E.2 . Space Activities Budget ............... E.3 . Aeronautics Budget .................. 

1976-1981 ........................ 

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iii 
A ,erospace Events 

of 1981 

A new era in space: the Space Shuttle Columbia (above) rises on its maiden flight into orbit, carrying astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen from Kennedy Space Center on 12 April 1981 

to test the Shuttle systems before landing for launch again. Below center, Columbia glides 

toward Edwards Air Force Base, California, for a smooth landing (bottom) after completing its 

second flight into space, 12-14 November, piloted by Joe Engle and Richard Truly. Below right, 

the OSTA 1 pallet, carrying remote earth-sensing experiments, is cradled in the Shuttle's cargo 

bay for that second flight. The crew quarters are ahead, and the remote manipulator arm lies at 

left along the side of the bay awaiting its first testing in orbit. 
Spacecraft continued to explore the 

planets and monitor Earth. Voyager 2 

took the high-resolution picture of 

Saturn’s rings, upper right, 22 August 

from 4 million km away. Sclentists are 

studying “spoke” features in the B ring 

for clues to their origins. Above left, 

an image from a Dynamics Explorer, 

launched in August to study energy 

exchanges between the magnetosphere and ionosphere and the causes 

of auroras, includes the first picture of 

Earth’s entire auroral oval (the smaller 

circular feature), taken 15 September ._ ^^. , I?+, L 11-1. A& irom 22 Km aDove tne nortn role. AL 

right, an image sent back by the Goes 

4 environmental satellite in the spring 

of 1981 and an enhanced infrared image (far right) show thunderstorms. 

HiMAT no. 2 (highly maneuverable aircraft technology research aircraft), 

below left, rests on the dry lakebed near Dryden Flight Research Facility 

poised for flight to test high-risk technology for future fighter aircraft in a 

NASA-Air Force program. During 1981, flights pushed toward transonic 

speeds, reaching mach 0.95. Below right, the NASA-Army RSRA rotor 

systems research aircraft takes off from Ames Research Center at Moffett 

Field as a “flying wind tunnel” to investigate advanced helicopter systems. 
Surnrnarv 

The United States space program opened a new era 

in 1981 with two orbital flights of the Space Shuttle 

Columbia-the first spacecraft to lift off into space, 

return after its mission, and lift off to orbit the earth 

again. Even as Columbia prepared for a third orbital 

test flight and the goal of flexible, routine access to 

space came nearer, other spacecraft made discoveries 

about the solar system, the universe, and the interactions of the sun with the earth’s environment. 

Voyager 2, flying past Saturn in August, returned 

finely detailed closeup photos and scientific data that 

added to and also brought new insights into the information Voyager 1 had returned in 1980. New theories 

about the planet’s complex ring structure and surveys 

of nearly all of Saturn’s 17 moons occupied scientists as 

Voyager 2 flew on toward a January 1986 encounter 

with Uranus (and later, possibly, with Neptune). Two 

Dynamics Explorers and a Solar Mesosphere Explorer 

satellite began studying the effects of solar emissions 

on Earth. 

The year’s 18 launches - 2 Shuttle flights plus 16 out 

of 17 attempts with expendable launch vehicles -orbited 20 spacecraft, most of them for daily service to 

dwellers on the earth. Besides the Shuttle flights and 

the three NASA scientific satellites, six privately or internationally owned satellites were added to growing 

communications networks, two to continuous weather 

services, and six to navigation and defense systems. A 

small scientific satellite was launched for radio 

amateurs and schools as a secondary payload with a 

NASA satellite. 

Remote-sensing satellites, sounding rockets, aircraft, and balloons, as well as instruments on the Shuttle, returned information on the earth’s resources and 

atmosphere for increasing use by numerous nations. 

Research and development advanced spacecraft concepts, new technology for military and civilian aircraft 

and airways, and use of wind, nuclear, and solar 

energy. 

This summary chapter surveys 1981 achievements in 

the US. aeronautics and space program by function. 

The following chapters present the work of individual 

agencies in more detail. 

Communications 

More than half NASA’s launches in 1981 - 6 out of 

11 -orbited communications satellites, 5 for the 

rapidly expanding international and domestic industry and 1 for the Department of Defense network 

for command and control of U.S. military forces. 

Operational Space Systems 

INTELSAT. Launch of the second and third Intelsat V satellites -each capable of transmitting 

12 000 voice conversations and 2 TV channels-upgraded the global service of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization. 

INTELSAT planned up to 6 more Intelsat V launches 

in the next two years, followed by 6 improved Intelsat 

V-As, to meet expected doubling of international traffic demands in the next four years. Evaluation of industry proposals for the advanced Intelsat VI series 

also began in 1981. 

Domestic Communications Satellites. Three commercial domestic satellites were launched in 1981 : 

Comsat General Corporation’s Comstar 0-4, RCA 

American Communications’ RCA-Satcom 3, and 

Satellite Business Systems’ SBS 2. At the end of the 

year, 11 domestic communications satellites were in 

operation, 3 in the RCA system, 3 in Western Union’s 

Westar system, 3 in ATBrT’s Comstar system, and 2 

operated by SBS. More than 5000 ground stations 

were licensed for satellite digital, TV, and voice 

service. 

Eight companies were preparing 28 satellites to 

replace or add to those already in service. Among 

them, the Space Communications Company scheduled 

the first Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) for 

Shuttle launch early in 1983. The first and second 

satellites in the TDRS System- Advanced Westar 

System will provide service to the government; a third 

(the first advanced Westar) will provide commercial 

service; and a fourth, both TDRSS (leased to government) and commercial service. 

The Federal Communications Commission in 

November requested comments from industry and the 

public on costs and benefits of reducing to 2O the spacing in orbit for the next generation of communications 

satellites, to accommodate increased numbers. Comments were being received before FCC made final orbital assignments in 1982. 

Military Communications Satellites. The fifth of 

DoD’s Fleet Satellite Communications System satellites 

1 
was launched in August, but structural damage 

limited its operations. The constellation of four 

satellites already in orbit continued to provide highpriority global communications for the Navy, the 

military commands, and the strategic forces. Equipment for secure voice communications had been installed on 431 ships by the end of 1981. The Navy 

revised plans for its LEASAT satellites -eventually to 

replace the FLTSATCOM satellites-to fit‘ Space 

Shuttle availability, planning the first launch for 1984. 

The Army continued to upgrade ground terminals 

for strategic and tactical communications. The 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, Army, 

and Navy advanced technologies for airborne and 

ground terminals and also for laser communications 

from space to submarines. Advanced development 

models were delivered to DoD for testing an airborne 

satellite terminal for secure communications between 

aircraft and missiles under severe jamming. 

Martiat. During 1981, the Marisat system managed 

by Comsat General Corp. almost doubled its commercial maritime service, reaching 950 ships by the end of 

the year. In February 1982, the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) will take 

over and expand service still further, expecting 2000 

ship terminals in use by 1985 and at least 5000 by 

1990. 

Militay Navzgation Satellites. Nova 1, a new 

longer-life satellite, was launched in May to expand 

the Navy’s Navigation Satellite System, TRANSIT, as 

that system completed its 16th year of operation. Fullscale development continued on the Global Positioning System (GPS), already providing the Army, Navy, 

and Air Force up to six hours a day of accurate positioning with five Navstar satellites. Designed to improve weapon delivery and rapid force deployment, 

GPS will also aid in mapping and geodesy. Landsat-D, 

to be launched in 1982, will use GPS to determine 

satellite positions for correlation of earth photography. 

Space Communications Experiments 

Experimental Satellites. NASA’s ATS 1 and 3 applications satellites continued emergency public communication service and educational experiments into 

their 14th and 15th years. NOAA-E, the first satellite 

equipped to participate in the planned interagency 

and international SARSAT satellite-aided search and 

rescue system, was being prepared for early 1983 

launch. 

Communications Research. NASA called for 

designs from industry and pursued technology 

development in 1981 to study the use of the 30- to 

20-gigahertz frequency band, for relief of future congestion in geostationary orbit. DoD developed a conceptual design for a new worldwide, jam-resistant, 

military communications system, MILSTAR, to 

operate at extremely high frequency and link all 

military forces. 

Communications Negotiations. The FCC Advisory 

Committee established in 1981 met on policy issues 

and planning for the World Administrative Radio 

Conference (Space WARC) to be held in July 1985, 

with a second session in 1987. The conference will 

seek to guarantee all countries equitable access to the 

geostationary satellite orbit and service frequencies. 

Direct Broadcast Satellites. FCC proposed, and 

received comments on, interim rules and frequencies 

for direct broadcast satellites. Final rules for planned 

interim systems were to be adopted in 1982. FCC tentatively accepted eight applications to provide direct 

broadcast service, and studies continued in preparation for the Region 2 Administrative Radio Conference in June 1983. 

Earth’s Resources and Environment 

Remote-sensing instruments surveying the earth’s 

surface from newly launched and already orbiting 

satellites, from the Space Shuttle, and from aircraft 

and balloons returned information on mineral and oil 

deposits, land and water use, crop conditions, 

geodynamics, marine conditions, weather, pollution, 

and atmospheric constituents and changes. 

Inventorying and Monitoring 

Earth Resources. The imaging radar (SIR-A) and the 

multispectral infrared radiometer (SMIRR) flown on 

the Space Shuttle in November showed earth terrain 

features not previously mapped from space, returning 

data on rock distribution, faults, and other geologic 

features. The joint NASA-industry Geosat Test Case 

Project showed that remote sensing can provide 

geologic information not commonly obtained from 

field mapping-such as location of clays associated 

with specific mineral deposits. The Department of the 

Interior found that data from NASA’s HCMM (Heat 

Capacity Mapping Mission) launched in 1978 may aid 

in finding oil and gas deposits. 

Landsat-D development progressed toward a summer 1982 launch, as Landsat 2 and 3 earth resources 

satellites continued during 1981 to provide worldwide 

multispectral imagery of many kinds of resources for 

commercial and government users in the United States 

and other countries. Landsat-D’s thematic mapper 

will extend spectral range and improve resolution and 

accuracy. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration of the Department of Commerce 

prepared to assume operation of the land-observing 

satellite system from NASA, taking operational control of Landsat-D in 1983. NOAA also will develop a 

management system to ensure eventual smooth 

transfer to the private sector. 

2 
Among users in 1981, the Department of the Interior applied Landsat data to mapping land cover, 

identifying vegetation for planning land use and fire 

control, and monitoring mining and water use. DO1 

trained 240 U.S. and foreign scientists and technicians 

in remote sensing during 1981. Sales of remotely 

sensed data totaled $4.3 million. 

In the multi-agency AgRISTARS program, tests 

showed that remote scnsing can provide data to help 

prepare accurate preharvest crop estimates, warning 

of changes in soil moisture, and improved resources 

management. Accuracy and efficiency in classifying 

crops improved. Continuing for its second year, the 

program used data gathered by satellites and aircraft 

in developing estimates of precipitation, solar radiation, temperatures, snowcover, and vegetation. 

Monitoring the Seas. Analysis of data received 

earlier from the Semut remote-sensing satellite improved accuracy of the marine geoid and knowledge of 

sea surface temperatures, currents, wind, and waves. 

Nimbus 7, orbiting since October 1978, demonstrated 

that chlorophyll measured from space could be used to 

assess marine productivity. The National Marine 

Fisheries Service used Landsat data to quantify 

changes in productivity, biomass, and areas of principal coastal-zone habitats. 

Enmronmental Analysis and Protection 

Weather Satellite Operations. The Goes 5 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite and Noaa 

7, launched in May and June 1981, joined Goes 4 and 

Noaa 6 to make up the Department of Commerce’s 

four operational environmental satellites, taking over 

from SMS 2 and Tiros-N. The polar-orbiting NOAA 

satellites observe the entire earth four times a day, providing data to more than 120 countries. The geostationary Goes 4 and 5 observe most of the Western 

Hemisphere. Continuous satellite observations of 

severe storms continued to aid the National Weather 

Service in weather prediction and warning, reducipg 

severity of effects of natural disasters on life and property. Global daia improved the accuracy of five-day 

and one-week forecasts in 1981, and the experimental 

VISSR atmospheric sounder (VAS) on Goes 4 and 5 

proved that atmospheric temperature and moisture 

can be mapped from space to improve storm predictions. VAS data aided detection of jet streams, storm 

systems developing in the upper atmosphere, and hur - ricanes . Some 120 countries received NOAA data directly, 

with medium-resolution images going to some 890 

locations: high-resolution data go to 25 countries. 

Weather facsimile broadcasts from geostationary 

satellites go to 30 Western Hemisphere countries, 

Australia, and New Zealand. Foreign governments 

also contribute instruments to the polar-orbiting 

spacecraft. 

Atmospheric Research. Nearly global satellite data, 

as well as aircraft and balloon data, contributed to 

analyses of stratospheric constituents and dynamics 

and also advanced the understanding of the chemistry 

of the lower atmosphere. Nimbus 7observations of the 

stratosphere will aid understanding of the earth’s 

radiation balance. In addition, findings made with a. 

climate model developed by the Goddard Laboratory 

for Atmospheric Sciences may have important effects 

on medium-range weather forecasting. 

Space Science 

Space science programs use spacecraft, suborbital 

vehicles, and ground facilities to investigate the origin 

and evolution of life, the earth, the solar system, and 

the universe. Most immediately, they investigate processes affecting the earth’s environment, including interactions of emissions from the sun with the layers of 

the earth’s environmental shell. 

Sun - Eart h Studies 

NASA’s two Dynamics Explorer satellites - DE 1 

and 2 launched in August 1981-began studying interactions of the earth’s magnetosphere and 

ionosphere, and in October the Solar Mesosphere Explorer SME began examining changes in the 

mesosphere ozone densities caused by solar ultraviolet 

flux. The three International Sun-Earth Explorers 

launched in 1978 continued to add information on interactions of the solar wind and outer limits of the atmosphere, which control the earth’s near-space environment. 

NASA and the Federal Republic of Germany began 

work on two cooperative Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorers (AMPTB), for a dual launch to 

study sun-earth interactions through active chemical 

release. The Explorers will examine the motions and 

energization of ions outside and inside the 

magnetosphere. 

Study of the Planets 

Saturn. Voyager 2’s August 1981 encounter with 

Saturn sent back more spectacular photos and new 

scientific detail on the giant planet, its ring structure, 

and moons-adding to the rich harvest returned by 

Voyager 1 in 1980 and possibly revising conclusions. 

The new observations from Voyager 2 suggest that 

areas of Saturn’s rings thought to consist of thousands 

of individual ringlets are alternating bands of material 

at increased and decreased densities. Pressure waves 

set up by resonances between Saturn and its satellites 

are being considered as possible reasons for these 

structures. The surfaces of nearly all the 17 moons of 

Saturn were examined in detail. 

3 
At the year’s end, Voyager 2 continued toward a 

January 1986 meeting with Uranus and then possibly 

an encounter with Neptune, two planets of which we 

know little because of their great distances from Earth. 

Voyager 1 flew toward the outer solar system, its instruments studying the interplanetary environment. 

Jupiter. Some flight hardware was in production for 

NASA’s Galileo orbiter and probe mission to Jupiter, 

scheduled for launch in the mid-1980s. The orbiter is 

to fly as close as 200 kilometers from Jupiter’s satellites, 

and the probe is to descend into the planet’s atmosphere for detailed measurements. 

Mars. Viking Lander 1 continued scientific observations in its sixth (Earth) year on the surface of Mars. 

Analysis of data sent back earlier by the orbiters and 

landers of the Viking 1 and 2 missions, as well as 

Earth-based radar measurements, has revealed much 

about the present state of Mars and its past history. 

Layers in the North polar cap hold the key to 

understanding the climate changes on that planet as 

they do on Earth, while measurements indicate surface 

water to be stored globally as ground ice. 

At the National Air and Space Museum’s Center for 

Earth and Planetary Studies, investigations of the 

ridges on Mars added to the knowledge of Martian tectonics and indicated the timing of geologic events in 

regions surrqFnding the Tharsis region. 

Venus. The Pioneer- Venus orbiter, circling Venus 

into its fourth Venusian year, continued to return data 

on the atmosphere of that neighbor of Earth and on 

the solar wind. Venus was found to have two different 

cloud states, alternating in dominance. Meanwhile, 

NASA continued to define a proposed mission for the 

Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar (VOIR) to map the 

entire surface of Venus. 

Interplanetary Space. Interplanetary probes 

Pioneer 6 to 11, launched in earlier years, continued 

to function well. Pioneer 10, which flew by Jupiter in 

1973, and Pioneer 11, which flew past Jupiter in 1974 

and Saturn in 1979, journeyed through the outer solar 

system, measuring solar and galactic phenomena. 

Pioneer 10, 3.7 billion km from the sun in July, revealed that the solar wind ends (the boundary of the 

heliopause) farther from the sun than predicted. 

Pioneer 6, launched in 1965, also was still providing 

information on the solar wind. 

Ground-Based Research and Analysti. The Infrared 

Telescope Facility in Hawaii obtained data on Uranus 

and searched for a ring system around Neptune. The 

telescope found spectral evidence of propane on Titan 

and water on Iapetus, both moons of Saturn. 

Study of the Universe 

Research with Spacecraft. The last two HEAO 

spacecraft in a highly successful series ended operations in 1981. The x-ray telescope on Heao 2 (Einstein) brought revisions in almost every area of highenergy astrophysics. Heao 3 findings suggest the 

possibility of a massive black hole at the center of our 

galaxy. 

The International Ultraviolet Explorer IUE 

operated well in its third year, making ultraviolet spectroscopic measurements of supernova remnants, the 

interstellar medium, and cataclysmic variables. 

Smithsonian studies of mass loss in cool stars, using 

IUE data, indicated a consistent and continuous 

evolution of coronas, wind characteristics, and massloss rates, varying from the hot, fast winds and low 

mass-loss rate of the sun to the slow, cool winds and 

high mass-loss rate of the coolest giant and supergiant 

stars. 

Another international Explorer, the NASA-United 

Kingdom-Netherlands Infrared Astronomical Satellite IRAS, was being prepared to carry a cryogenically 

cooled telescope into orbit in 1983. Construction of 

NASA’s Space Telescope progressed toward a 1985 

launch, and highly sensitive instruments were selected 

for the future Gamma Ray Observatory GRO. 

Research from Suborbital Vehicles. Sounding 

rockets, balloons, and high-flying aircraft continued 

to make new observations. A joint sounding-rocket experiment, by the Smithsonian and France, measured 

the soft x-ray spectrum of the North Polar Spur. 

Research from the Ground. National Science Foundationsupported scientists -using the Kitt Peak National and Lick Observatories -identified two galaxies 

receding so rapidly that they are thought to be 10 

billion light-years from Earth, indicating that 

astronomers have now looked more than halfway back 

to the believed moment of the creation of the universe. 

Lfe Sciences 

NASA made significant achievements in research to 

maintain the health of man in space, developing 

several countermeasures to cardiovascular deconditioning and testing new drugs for motion sickness. 

Biomedical experiments were being defined to support 

this and other research for the first Spacelab mission 

dedicated to life sciences. Research also identified a 

technique for purifying waste water for reuse during 

manned missions and the technology for spacesuits 

that can operate at higher internal pressures. In exobiology, Voyager observations at Saturn’s moon Titan 

confirmed the presence of special organic molecules 

that provide additional evidence that the chemistry 

preceding life is widely distributed beyond Earth. 

Space Transportation 

Halfway through its test program after two orbital 

flights in 1981, the reusable Space Transportation 

System moved toward operational status, as expendable vehicles continued to orbit satellites for numerous 

4 
customers. Research and testing in other programs 

continued to improve space vehicles. 

Space Transportation System 

Designed to provide economical, flexible access to 

space for NASA, DoD, and other domestic and international users, the Space Transportation System will 

carry 29 500 kilograms of payload into orbit. NASA’s 

reusable Space Shuttle will orbit satellites, experiments, and laboratories for commercial applications, scientific investigations, and defense needs. The 

European Space Agency is developing the laboratory 

modules and instrument pallets making up Spacelab, 

to fly in the Shuttle’s cargo bay. DoD and industry are 

developing additional rocket stages to boost payloads 

from the Shuttle into higher orbits. 

Space Shuttle. The Shuttle -first spacecraft to orbit 

the earth and return for relaunch-made its maiden 

orbital flight in April 1981 and a second orbital test 

flight in November. Piloted by a two-man crew and 

powered by three main engines firing simultaneously 

with two reusable solid-fueled rocket boosters, the orbiter Columbia lifted off from Kennedy Space Center. 

After jettisoning recoverable boosters and the expendable external tank, Columbia orbited the earth for two 

days, verifying systems and performance, before returning to land like an aircraft at Edwards Air Force 

Base. Refurbished for STS 2, Columbia again flew a 

two-day mission, carrying a second crew, experiments, 

and a Canadian-furnished remote manipulator arm. 

The Shuttle met its major test objectives on both 

flights, although failure of a fuel cell shortened the 

second flight from the planned five days. The missions 

confirmed the reusability of orbiter and boosters and 

the performance of the engines. Astronauts exercised 

the manipulator arm and the cargo bay doors, and experiments returned good data. 

At the end of the year, Columbia was being 

prepared for its third flight, scheduled for March 

1982. After the fourth test flight, the Space Transportation System would fly its first operational mission, 

STS 5, planned for late 1982. Work on Challenger, 

Discovery, and Atlantis- the remaining orbiters in 

production - continued, with Challenger’s first flight 

scheduled for early 1983. 

Planning for Operations. With operational flights 

to begin in 1982, space on Shuttle flights is being sold 

out through 1986. Launch service agreements had 

been signed with 5 users and deposits made by 14 

others by the end of 1981. In addition, the first agreement for launching a small, self-contained payload 

was signed, to fly experiments for five educational institutions on STS 4. Beginning in 1985, Shuttle missions will be launched from Vandenberg AFB as well 

as Kennedy. 

Spacelab. The first science and applications 

payload, OSTA 1, flew on the Shuttle in November. 

Mounted on an engineering-model pallet from the 

European Space Agency’s Spacelab program, instruments gathered information on earth resources, 

the oceans, and technology for future instruments. 

The March 1982 flight will carry a corresponding 

space science payload, OSS 1, for research in physics, 

astronomy, and space technology. NASA and the 

Federal Republic of Germany were preparing OSTA 

2, with experiments in materials processing, for 

launch in early 1983. A suitcase-sized processing experiment was planned for early 1982 flight and on 

three other missions. 

ESA delivered the first Spacelab flight unit, a long 

module with one pallet, to Kennedy in 1981. The first 

Spacelab mission, a test of the pressurized laboratory 

module, is scheduled to carry NASA and ESA experiments in late 1983. Production of the second 

Spacelab proceeded in Europe. 

Inertial Upper Stage. A test launch with the solidpropellant IUS, being developed by DoD to boost 

payloads from the Shuttle into higher orbits, is 

scheduled on a Titan launch vehicle in 1982. First 

launch from the Shuttle is scheduled to place a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite in orbit in early 1983. 

Spinning Solid Upper Stage. Development progressed on two sizes of the aerospace industry’s solidfueled SSUS-the Delta-class SSUS-D and the AtlasCentaur-class SSUS-A -which will launch smaller 

spacecraft into geosynchronous-transfer orbit from the 

Shuttle in low earth orbit. 

Advanced Programs. NASA studied concepts for 

free-flying reusable platforms to be deployed in space 

and serviced by the Shuttle orbiters. For example, it 

investigated tools to place, retrieve, and repair 

satellites in orbit. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

The United States launched 18 satellites on 16 expendable vehicles during 1981. For the fifth time in its 

23-year history, NASA had a perfect launch vehicle 

record: 11 for 11. The agency orbited dual payloads 

on two Delta vehicles for a total of 13 payloads for the 

year -all but 3 for other users. Fltsatcom 5, launched 

for DoD, was damaged on entering orbit. DoD orbited 

5 satellites for defense objectives, in 6 launch attempts. 

(See table of 1981 launches in appendix A-3.) 

International Activities 

In addition to cooperative space programs with 

other countries in space transportation, communications, applications, and science, U.S. agencies - the 

Department of State, NASA, NOAA, DoD, AID, and 

others-prepared for U.S. participation in the U.N. 

Conference on Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space (UNISPACE ’82), scheduled for August 1982 in 

Vienna. The conference offers opportunity for 

5 
demonstrating U.S. contributions to space science and 

technology, especially in satellite communications and 

remote sensing for the developing world - the theme of 

the conference. 

The United States also continued its leading role in 

the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of 

Outer Space. The committee considered draft principles governing direct television broadcasting by 

satellites, draft principles for remote sensing of the 

earth, definition of outer space, use of nuclear power 

sources in space, and use of the geostationary-geosynchronous satellite orbit. 

Aeronautics 

Operational Systems 

Aeronautical development programs, both military 

and civilian, made advances in 1981 in improving the 

nation’s operational airborne and airway systems. 

Airborne Systems. The Department of Defense-responsible for U.S. operational airborne systems --continued to develop new vehicles and improve existing 

ones. 

BOMBER AIRCRAFT. President Reagan’s strategic 

program announced in October 1981 included modernization of the U.S. bomber force, deploying 100 B-1B 

multirole bombers, with initial operational capability 

by 1986. The B-lB, an improved variant of the B-1 

already prototype-flight-tested, is to be able to carry 

out tactical and strategic missions of a conventional 

bomber, launch cruise missiles, and deliver nuclear 

weapons. Concurrently, a research and development 

program will seek to develop advanced-technology 

bombers (ATBs)-now in very early stages of design 

and concept development-by the early 199Os, to ensure that U.S. bombers will be able to penetrate enemy 

air defenses into the next century. 

TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT. DoD selected the prime 

contractor in 1981 for full-scale development of the 

C-17 aircraft, for transporting outsize equipment over 

intercontinental distances to austere airfields. 

HELICOPTERS. The Army neared a production decision on the advanced attack helicopter (AAH), following operational tests in 1981. In modernization of the 

CH-47 helicopter fleet, two prototype CH-47D 

medium-lift helicopters had flown some 1740 hours of 

testing by the end of the year. The Army also had contracted for 337 UH-GOA Black Hawk helicopters and 

accepted delivery of 191. The Air Force planned fullscale development beginning in 1982 of a derivative, 

the HH-GOD, to modernize its combat helicopter fleet. 

REMOTELY PILOTED VEHICLE (RPV). The Army 

scheduled the first flight of its unmanned RPV for 

mid-1982. Controlled from the ground, the small air 

vehicle will carry out missions for target acquisition, 

laser designation, aerial reconnaissance, and artillery 

adjustment. 

CRUISE MISSILES. The air-launched cruise missile 

(ALCM) was in concurrent full production, final 

development, and follow-on operational testing at the 

end of 1981, with 705 missiles under contract. A 1982 

contract for 440 more missiles was being reviewed. Initial operational capability in December 1982 was 

scheduled for an entire squadron of B-52G aircraft, 

each equipped with 12 ALCMs, which are designed 

for greater accuracy, flexible routing, reduced exposure, and saturation of enemy defenses. The first 

modified B-52G was ready for alert with external 

ALCMs in September 1981. 

Airway Systems. The Department of Transportation’s Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) -responsible for the nation’s airways - continued develop - ment programs to improve the safety of the airways 

and airports, increase efficiency of air navigation and 

traffic control, and ensure compatibility of air operations with the environment. 

AIR SAFETY. Efforts continued to develop new 

technology and procedures to enhance the safety of 

aircraft. For example, FAA, NASA and DoD formed a 

national task force in 1981 to decide what test facilities 

are needed for research into aircraft icing, and FAA 

participated in a report by the NATO Advisory Group 

for Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) 

assessing R&D in helicopter icing. 

AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL. Among important activities, FAA evaluated advanced Mode S radar sensors 

and transponders for gradual replacement of the existing air traffic control radar beacons. A new, airborne traffic -alert and collision-avoidance system 

(TCAS) was also designed, to operate independently of 

the existing ATC system. 

Aeronautical Research 

NASA - the agency primarily responsible for 

advancing aeronautical technology - and DoD continued R&D programs to maintain U.S. leadership in 

world air transport and military aeronautics. 

Engines. NASA made substantial progress in 

advancing technology to improve fuel efficiency of 

commercial, high-bypass-ratio, turbofan engines by as 

much as 20 percent over present engines. In 1981, fullscale tests of components reached the performance 

goals. 

Aerodynamics. Advancing the use of high-speed 

computers to predict aerodynamic behavior of aircraft, NASA discovered an algorithm that speeds up 

computations tenfold in calculating forces and flow 

fields around wings, airfoils, and bodies. NASA’s 

HiMAT (for highly maneuverable aircraft technology) 

remotely piloted research vehicle continued experimenting with aeroelastically tailored composite 

wings for aircraft for the 1990s with major improve- 
ment over the turning capability of today’s most advanced fighter aircraft. 

Structures. The Air Force and the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency began a program to 

design, build, and flight-test an experimental 

forward-swept-wing aircraft using new composite 

materials to control wing bending, thereby reducing 

transonic drag and increasing lift at high angles of attack. 

NASA focused on developing advanced computer 

software and hardware for structural analysis. A new 

prototype system for data-b’ase management -known 

as RIM, for relational information management -combined many diverse analysis, design, and 

manufacturing programs into one system using a common data base. RIM h& high potential for designing 

and evaluating new aircraft concepts faster and at 

significantly lower cost than do present methods using 

models and wind tunnels. A new class of resins for 

composite structures was developed in another program. These materials are thermoplastic polimides 

that have excellent high-temperature, damagetolerance, and processability characteristics. Also in 

1981, advanced graphite-fiber-reinforced, secondary 

and medium-primary structural components on the 

L-1011, DC-IO, and B-727 transport aircraft proved 

savings of up to 25 percent in weight. 

Rotor Research. The NASA-Army-Navy XV-15 tiltrotor research aircraft completed proof-of-concept 

demonstration flights, with aircraft performance 

meeting or exceeding estimates, and concept evaluation began. NASA demonstrated during the year, with 

an Army OH-6 helicopter, that rotor vibration levels 

could be dramatically reduced. Two NASA-Army 

rotor systems research aircraft also continued testing 

main rotor systems, flying as pure helicopters or in the 

compound mode with auxiliary thrust engines and 

variable incidence wings. 

Avionics. The Army was to award a contract in 1982 

to develop technology for automated, low-level, 

terrain-following flight. Advanced development continued on the joint, tactical microwave landing 

system, with hardware flight testing by all three services planned for 1982. 

Environmental Research. In 1981, FAA studied effects of aircraft emissions at high altitudes, methods of 

controlling emissions at low altitudes and on the 

ground, and ways of handling polychlorinated 

biphenyl (PCB), a chemical determined to be carcinogenic. The High-Altitude Pollution Program 

(HAPP) resolved earlier uncertainties in its findings, 

finally concluding that large-scale operations of supersonic transport fleets would deplete atmospheric 

ozone, potentially harming the environment -but that 

subsonic operations would generate ozone, at least 

partially if not fully offsetting the SST effects. The 

degree of change in the ozone would depend on the 

relative sizes of the fleets. 

7 
National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) plans, directs, and conducts civil 

research and development in space and aeronautics. 

Other federal, state, local, and foreign governments 

and agencies share in these activities. The Department 

of Defense (DoD) conducts space activities that are 

solely military; NASA supports DoD with research and 

test data in aeronautics. 

NASA’s goals in space are to develop technology to 

make operations more effective; to enlarge the range 

of practical applications of space technology and data; 

and to investigate the earth and its immediate surroundings, the natural bodies in our solar system, and 

the origins and physical processes of the universe. In 

aeronautics, NASA seeks to improve aerodynamics, 

structures, engines, and overall performance of aircraft, to make them more efficient, more compatible 

with the environment, and safer. 

Applications to the Earth 

NASA programs to apply space research and 

technology to national and world needs in 1981 emphasized improving technology for satellite communications, assessing the earth’s environment and 

resources, and exploring the possibilities of processing 

materials in space. 

Communications 

Relieving congestion in communications satellite or - bits and frequencies, in ways that will support the 

competitive position of U.S. industry in world 

markets, continued to be a primary objective of NASA 

communications research and development. 

Advanced Research and Development. Satellite 

communications using present technology may 

possibly, in the next decade, saturate the capacity of 

the geostationary arc viewing North America. NASA 

therefore conducted a series of traffic forecasts, called 

for system designs by all the US. commercial satellite 

manufacturers, and pursued “proof-of-concept’’ component development for advanced satellites in the 

30- to 20-gigahertz band. The program will complete 

development of several major technologies during 

1982, providing some of the basic techniques and components industry needs for commercial satellite 

systems in the next decade. 

Public Sem‘ce Communications. ATS 1 and ATS 3 

satellites, launched in 1966 and 1967, continued to 

provide experimental public service communications 

in 1981. ATS 3 was used for emergency communications in the United States, including disaster relief, 

search and rescue, emergency medical services, and 

drug law enforcement. A TS 1 was used in the Pacific 

basin for similar applications and also for education 

experiments. 

Search and Rescue. The satellite-aided search and 

rescue program, SARSAT, has as its goal the detection 

and location, within two to five kilometers, of 

emergency transmitters on crashed aircraft or vessels 

in distress. Experiments will be conducted at 121.5 

and 243 megahertz, the aeronautical distress frequencies. In addition, experiments will be conducted using 

a new emergency transmitter operating at 406 MHz, 

which has been designed to operate in conjunction 

with a satellite. 

SARSAT has generated extraordinary U.S. and international interest. The U.S. team includes, in addition to NASA, the U.S. Coast Guard, the U.S. Air 

Force, and NOAA. Internationally, the United States 

is cooperating with Canada and France to fly the instruments on a NOAA spacecraft and with the Soviet 

Union, which will fly additional COSPAS satellites 

designed to be interoperable with the SARSAT 

satellite and ground stations. Norway and perhaps 

Japan and Great Britain will participate as investigators. NASA planned to launch NOAA-E, the 

first satellite equipped to detect distress transmitters, 

in early 1983. The Soviet Union is expected to launch 

Cospas 1 nearly simultaneously. 

International and National Regulatory Organizations. NASA’s technical consultation and support program participated in revising national radio regulations to meet decisions of the 1979 World Administrative Radio Conference. NASA also continued 

preliminary studies and support toward thin-route 

narrow-band services, particularly mobile com8 
munications, by satellite. The proposed commercial 

system, augmenting terrestrial land-mobile communications in the 806-MHz band, could meet many 

public- and private-sector thin-route communication 

needs. 

Data Systems. In-house pilot projects were developing common system approaches to cataloging and 

managing space applications and related data, 

developing transportable data-handling software 

systems for multidisciplinary research, and evolving 

standards. In 1981, a new effort was begun to modify 

the growing costs of processing data from the newer 

high-volume, high-data-rate sensors. 

Environmental Observations 

Upper Atmosphere. Chemical kinetic and photochemistry data were reevaluated for stratospheric 

models that predict ozone depletion due to chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). In 1979, ozone depletion of 15 

to 19 percent by the year 2050 was predicted. Most recent models predict only 5 to 9 percent, from CFC-11 

and CFC-12 (Freon-11 and -12). With this reevaluation, the expected present ozone depletion is also 

reduced to about one-third-that is, to 0.5 to 0.7 percent-and is now consistent with the long-term record 

of observed global ozone concentration. 

The ability to measure stratospheric constituents 

has improved significantly. Instruments on the Nimbus 7 and Sage satellites launched earlier collected 

nearly global information on ozone, aerosols, and 

other factors. The data have been validated and archived and are available to the scientific community 

for analysis. Sage, operating past its one-year design 

life, relayed data into November. At the end of the 

year a data-processing problem was being assessed. 

Nimbus 7 continued to operate at full capacity in its 

third year, and several years of data will be available 

for highly accurate determination of stratospheric 

trends. 

Specific experiments in 1981 sought better 

understanding of the dynamics of and photochemical 

processes in the stratosphere. An aircraft experiment 

in the tropics provided data on troposphericstratospheric transport mechanisms, particularly 

transport of water vapor into the stratosphere. 

Balloons carrying sophisticated lidar and infrared 

spectrometers measured key stratospheric constituents 

simultaneously. The measurements are important in 

validating photochemical models that predict ozone 

depletion. 

Lower Atmosphere. NASA’s tropospheric airquality program made significant advances in 1981 

toward understanding the chemistry of the lower atmosphere on regional to global scales. Laboratory and 

field measurements and modeling all have found that 

lightning is much less important as a source of 

nitrogen oxides globally than previously supposed and 

that man-made contributions are more important. 

Evidence was also discovered that methane may be increasing in the lower atmosphere. The source is still a 

mystery, but the increasing concentration has implications for both atmospheric chemistry and climate, the 

former because of methane’s interactions with free 

radicals of trace constituents in the troposphere that 

determine the residence time of many gases in the atmosphere, and the latter because methane is an 

infrared-active, “greenhouse effect” producer. 

NASA research and development also demonstrated 

that the ultraviolet differential absorption lidar (UVDIAL) is a powerful tool for mapping regional concentrations of ozone and aerosols as they vary with 

altitude. The technique also provides data on mixinglayer height, which is a crucial parameter in regional 

air-quality models. Even though the application of 

space techniques to tropospheric air-quality observations is still rudimentary, the potential has been 

demonstrated by using visible-wavelength imagery 

from geosynchronous satellites to track heavily 

polluted air masses across large distances. 

Global Weather. The one-year observing phase of 

the Global Weather Experiment, completed in 

December 1979 in the Global Atmospheric Research 

Program (GARP), provided an unprecedented set of 

global observations of the atmosphere. These data 

were used in model experiments to extend weather 

prediction, define an operational global observing 

system, and test understanding of atmospheric 

dynamics. They were also used to diagnose structure, 

variability, and mechanisms of atmospheric circulation for that year. 

During 1981, addition of global data gathered by 

satellites to forecast models consistently improved the 

accuracy of the five-day forecast, as compared to that 

based on conventional data alone. Use of satellite data 

also extended the capability for making useful forecasts to one week. Further, global satellite data permitted observations of energetic air masses that move 

from the tropics into middle latitudes after three to 

four days. Inclusion of tropical data significantly improved the accuracy of three-day or longer forecasts at 

middle latitudes. Finally, comparison of forecasts 

based on satellite data alone with forecasts based on all 

data, indicated that a satellite-based observing system 

may someday replace large segments of the conventional, ground-based system. 

Flight of visible-infrared, spin-scan-radiometer, atmospheric sounders on the Goes 4 and Goes 5 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 

launched in September 1980 and May 1981 proved 

that atmospheric temperature and moisture can be 

mapped from geosynchronous orbit, These 

capabilities for persistent observation over one area of 

the globe should improve predictions of weather, 

especially severe storms. The U.S. -Japanese 

Cooperative Space Applications Research Program 

9 
succeeded in synchronizing the dissimilar weather 

satellites of the two countries. The resulting stereo 

observations of clouds over the Pacific Ocean provide 

measurements of cloud height. 

Joint NASA-NOAA-NSF experiments with an aircraft-mounted doppler lidar instrument showed that 

remote measurements of wind speed and direction can 

be made in clear air by using laser light scattered by 

aerosols. 

The Centralized Storm Information System at the 

National Severe Storms Forecast Center in Kansas City 

demonstrated during 1981 that valuable weather forecasting guidance can be derived from real-time collection and display of satellite and conventional data. 

Also, weather analysis tools can be developed by using 

advanced processing techniques such as simulated 

stereo images. 

Oceanic Processes. Preliminary analysis of the data 

set from Seasat, the first satellite dedicated to remote 

sensing of the ocean surface, was completed in 1981. 

Despite its brief life -cut short by an electrical failure 

in October 1978 after 3% months of operationSeasat provided significant data. The information, 

now catalogued and archived in the Environmental 

Data and Information Service of the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration, is available for further research in oceanography and meteorology. 

Several major research accomplishments were 

achieved by using these data. Accuracy of the marine 

geoid was improved from three meters to one meter 

with measurements by the radar altimeter. Ocean surface cl-vacteristics similar to the familiar high- and 

low -pressure systems displayed on conventional 

weather maps were determined by the radar altimeter, 

providing for the first time a surface expression of the 

variability of ocean currents. The microwave radiometer measured sea surface temperature with an accuracy approaching 1OC. The microwave radar scatterometer made a three-month global record of wind 

speed and direction at the ocean surface. The 

synthetic-aperture radar provided very high resolution 

images of both open and ice-covered ocean, showing 

distribution of surface wave height and direction. 

The technical feasibility of quantitatively measuring 

ocean chlorophyll pigment and suspended particle 

concentrations from space (using the Nimbw 7 

coastal-zone color scanner) and from the air (using the 

airborne oceanographic lidar) was demonstrated and 

documented in the scientific literature. In combination with a productivity-index model, satellite-derived 

chlorophyll values were used to measure the rate of 

change in primary productivity over two weeks for the 

entire Southern California Bight. Both the standing 

crop of phytoplankton and the primary productivity of 

the region decreased to half. Significant changes in 

global marine primary productivity, due to climate 

and other causes, and assessment of the rate at which 

the marine biosphere takes up carbon dioxide from 

oxidized fossil fuels can now be documented. 

Climate. The stratospheric aerosol measurement 

(SAM 11) satellite experiment, designed to study the 

climatology of stratospheric aerosols at latitudes above 

64O, recently discovered recurrent massive clouds in 

the arctic and antarctic stratosphere. SAM I1 was 

launched aboard the Nimbus 7 research satellite in 

October 1978. Data from the first year of operation, 

now analyzed, include observations of numerous 

stratospheric clouds at altitudes of 12 to 23 kilometers 

with peak extinction (of solar radiation) approximately 50 to 100 times that of the normal background level. 

Twelve such clouds were observed in the arctic 

stratosphere and 538 in the antarctic, all during local 

winter. Such clouds have seldom been seen before. 

Their occurrence appears strongly correlated with low 

temperature. They are much more prevalent in the 

antarctic stratosphere during the colder austral winter 

and persist for up to two months. They could possibly 

represent a major sink for stratospheric water vapor 

and be important to the earth’s radiation balance. 

Several significant results were obtained during 

1981 from studies made with the Goddard Laboratory 

for Atmospheric Sciences (GLAS) climate model. One 

finding was that the space and time averages for some 

atmospheric motions can be predicted for a month or 

longer. Planetary wave motions, calculated from the 

GLAS model, were found to retain their identities for 

up to 45 days-about three times longer than the 

calculated predictability for synoptic scale waves. The 

finding may have important consequences in mediumrange weather forecasting. 

Resource Observations 

Renewable Resources: AgRISTARS. The interagency Agricultural and Resources Inventory 

Survey through Aerospace Remote Sensing 

(AgRISTARS) is developing and testing the utility of 

remote sensing for providing timely information to the 

Department of Agriculture. Research emphasizes 

developing information-extraction techniques for the 

multispectral scanner and thematic mapper flown on 

the Landsat satellites. Both accuracy and efficiency of 

classification techniques for small grains, corn, and 

soybeans were improved in 1981. Tests in the U.S. 

corn belt and in the US.-Canada small-grains region 

verified that accurate and efficient preharvest crop 

forecasts are possible. During 1981, automated procedures that could reduce analyst time to one-sixth 

that formerly required were developed and tested. 

Remote-sensing techniques were developed to produce county-level crop statistics using an existing 

ground survey for ground truth. Comparison tests of 

the remote-sensing system against the conventional 

system showed a variance reduction that averaged 

more than 50 percent. This technology apparently 

10 
would permit estimates of equal accuracy at a lower 

cost or higher accuracy at the same cost. Other 

research modeled and measured soil moisture to a 

depth of five centimeters while accounting for surface 

roughness and canopy variation. This work used both 

passive and active microwave instruments. 

In 1980, the most comprehensive set of correlated 

satellite, aircraft-sensor, and ground data yet obtained 

was developed. During 1981, this data set was 

augmented and made available to both NASA and 

non-NASA AgRISTARS-supported investigators for 

analysis. 

Renewable Resources: AR&DA. NASA’s Applied 

Research and Data Analysis program for renewable 

resources increases understanding of the remotesensing process and develops and evaluates multispectral and multisensor information-extraction techniques for improved classification and measurement of 

land cover. In applied research, the emphasis has been 

to develop simulated thematic mapper and microwave 

information-extraction techniques. A joint remotesensing research project was continued with Japan to 

model snowmelt runoff, using Landsat data, and 

monitor snowpack properties, using microwave data. 

These experimental data are being exchanged for use 

in comparable test sites in the United States and 

Japan. 

In technique testing, the approach is to conduct 

multiyear joint tests with major users in representative 

application areas. Two technical outreach conferences 

were held in 1981 as the culmination of successful 

testing of techniques in developing the forest resources 

information system and a wildlife vegetation resource 

inventory system. Testing was completed on an 

automated cotton-acreage inventory system. Technique testing is continuing in irrigated lands assessment for water management, monitoring insect 

defoliation of hardwood forests, crop classification 

employing soils data, and digital mapping of irrigated 

cropland. 

Nonrenewable Resources. During 1981, work was 

completed on the NASA-Geosat Test Case Project, a 

joint research endeavor with private industry to 

evaluate remote-sensing techniques for geologic mapping. The project collected and analyzed remotesensing data over a series of experimental sites containing known deposits of copper, uranium, oil, and,gas. 

It was judged highly successful by both NASA and the 

industrial members of the Geosat Committee. Results 

indicated that analysis of remote-sensing measurements can yield geological information not commonly 

obtained by conventional field mapping. In particular, the project defined the potential utility of 

thematic-mapper-scanner data for mapping certain 

clays commonly associated with specific mineral 

deposits. Several companies are upgrading their inhouse remote-sensing capabilities in anticipation of 

the launch of Landsat-D in 1982. 

Parallel research during 1981 concentrated on 

geological applications of radar remote-sensing 

techniques. New image processing methods were 

developed to co-register and merge radar data obtained by Seasat and multispectral scanner data acquired by Landsat satellites. Preliminary results indicate that information on kinds of rock derived from 

the combined data is significantly more accurate than 

that from either set alone. Research is also under way 

to develop new methods of measuring and using textural information in remote-sensing imagery, , 

specifically radar imagery. Studies of Seasat radar imagery acquired over the Patrick Draw oil field in 

Wyoming showed that textural parameters can identify boundaries between rock units that cannot be easily separated by their spectral signatures. 

The Magsat satellite made the first global survey of 

the earth’s vector magnetic field from November 1979 

to June 1980. Data reduction was completed in August 

1981, and the products were distributed to Magsat 

principal investigators. The accuracy of the final data 

exceeded original mission goals by approximately 20 

percent. Magsat data were used to develop a global 

model of the earth’s magnetic field that was recently 

adopted as a standard worldwide reference field by the 

International Association for Geomagnetism and 

Aeronomy. Preliminary maps of crustal magneticfield strength were also produced. These maps are 

used in developing regional models of crustal structure 

and composition for evaluation of nonrenewable 

resources. 

On its second test flight, in November, the Space 

Shuttle carried the first science and applications 

payload into orbit, with two experiments directly 

related to geological mapping. Shuttle imaging radar 

A (SIR-A) data delineate faults and other geological 

features. SIR-A imagery will be directly compared 

with Seasat radar data to determine the radar viewing 

geometry best suited to geological mapping. The other 

experiment flown was the Shuttle multispectral infrared radiometer (SMIRR). Data provided by this instrument are being used to identify different kinds of 

rock by the reflectances in the infrared region of the 

spectrum. This information will be correlated with 

ground data to determine the effectiveness of the 

SMIRR spectral bands. Analysis will continue through 

1982 and will aid in selecting spectral bands for future 

spaceborne systems. 

Landsat Operations. Landsat 2 and 3 continued to 

provide worldwide multispectral imagery for applications in agriculture, hydrology, coastal zone management, land use, and mineral and petroleum exploration. The data are used by both commercial and local 

government agencies and by foreign countries. 

Development of Landsat-D progressed toward a 

scheduled summer 1982 launch. The Landsat-D 

thematic mapper will provide multispectral imagery 

with extended spectral range, improved spectral and 

11 
spatial resolution, and improved radiometric ac - 

curacy. To familiarize potential users, simulated 

thematic mapper data have been acquired from aircraft platforms in vegetated and nonvegetated test 

sites in urban, rural, coastal, forest, and degraded 

land areas. 

Geodynamics. NASA's geodynamics program contributes to understanding the solid earth, in particular 

the long-term crustal processes associated with natural 

hazards and resources, and the structure and internal 

composition of the earth. It also facilitates new 

geodynamics measurement capabilities requiring 

precise position determination. The program includes 

research in modeling of crustal processes, earth rotational dynamics, and the geopotential field. The principal space techniques available for precise 

measurements of crustal motion and deformation, 

polar motion, and earth rotation are very-longbaseline interferometry (VLBI) -using signals from 

extragalactic radio sources or from satellites -and 

laser ranging to the moon and to man-made satellites 

such as Lageos. 

The Crustal Dynamics Project was begun in 1981, 

and NASA, U.S. Geological Survey, National Science 

Foundation, Defense Mapping Agency, and NOAA's 

National Geodetic Survey signed an agreement establishing a coordinated federal program for applying 

space technology to geodynamics. The transportable 

laser-ranging station, designed and built by the 

University of Texas at Austin, was completed and 

deployed to the Jet Propulsion Laboratory for baseline 

comparisons with VLBI. The station will facilitate the 

measurement of crustal deformation in the western 

U.S. Fifty -nine independent baselines were measured 

in 1980 using both laser ranging and VLBI, besides 

those measured using European stations, and the 

Crustal Dynamics Project added 124 by the end of 

1981. Comparison of determinations at observatory 

sites in New England, Texas, and California showed 

agreement between VLBI and laser ranging to better 

than five centimeters. Analysis of laser-ranging observations at Quincy and Otay Mountain, California -continuing measurements acquired by the San 

Andreas Fault experiment since 1972 -showed good 

agreement with past measurements, strengthening the 

conclusion that the distance between these two sites is 

decreasing by about eight centimeters a year. The 

decrease is consistent with contemporary theory of tectonic plate movement as to direction, but larger than 

predicted. 

The International Council of Scientific Unions approved a request from the International Union of 

Geodesy and Geophysics and the International Union 

of Geological Sciences to establish a successor project 

to the highly successful International Geodynamics 

Project of 1971-1980. The new International 

Lithosphere Project will be conducted through 1989 

by the Inter-Union Commission on the Lithosphere. 

Two of its five scientific objectives require 

measurements from space of plate movement and 

deformation. The International Association of 

Geodesy established a Commission on International 

Coordination of Space Techniques for Geodesy and 

Geodynamics. 

A panel, established under the auspices of the 

Satellite Geodesy Applications Board, developed a 

plan for joint -agency participation in the planned 

Gravity Satellite mission. A brassboard model was 

completed of the Gravsat satellite-to-satellite tracking 

system, required to make gravity measurements and 

for simulation of the drag-free system. Recent tests 

confirmed that the required tracking accuracies are 

feasible. Computer simulations show that the Gravsat 

mission as configured can improve the accuracy of 

gravity field models by two to three orders of 

magnitude. 

Matenals Processing in Space 

NASA continued to investigate the feasibility and 

benefits of materials processing in low gravity. The 

agency seeks to improve processing methods, to identify materials of technological interest, and to enter arrangements with companies that would promote the 

early commercialization of space processing. 

The processing of materials in the fluid state is often 

tied to the influences of gravity. Convection, sedimentation, buoyancy, body forces, and the need for a container are among the consequences of gravity that may 

aid or hinder terrestrial processing of materials. The 

research program establishing a theoretical and experimental data base on the role of gravity emphasized 

containerless technology and containerless science 

during 1981. Levitation and positioning devices, 

which will be necessary to achieve long processing 

times in spacecraft, are being developed that use 

acoustic, electromagnetic, or electrostatic forces. 

Acoustic devices now available can, in earth's gravity, 

levitate lightweight samples that are as hot as 5OO0C, 

while simultaneously spinning or oscillating 

them-steps that are important in many processing 

procedures. Containerless science investigated 

solidification, supercooling (below the normal freezing 

point), and glass formation. Using a 30-meter drop 

tube to achieve 2.3 seconds of containerless, lowgravity processing time, for example, the supercooling 

of several metals and alloys by as much as 500° to 

700OC was found to be accompanied by changes in 

superconducting properties. 

Ground-based research examined crystal growth, 

solidification, chemical and fluid processes, biological 

separations, combustion science, and cloud physics in 

1981. Experiments on board an aircraft during 

30-second low-gravity parabolas showed that the 

casting structure for alloys solidified in low gravity indeed differs from that obtained on the ground. Ex12 
periments seek to determine what changes will occur 

with low-gravity processing in the structure, properties, and quality of a wide range of technological 

materials, including semiconductor crystals (for infrared and nuclear detection), magnetic composites, 

new glasses, and laser fusion target shells. Two sounding rockets launched in 1980 and one in 1981 provided 

up to five minutes of low-gravity experimentation in 

these areas. 

The first Space Shuttle flight opportunity for 

materials processing will be in March 1982, with a 

mid-deck experiment on the formation of monodisperse (uniformly sized) latex spheres. The materials 

experiment assembly, housing three experiments, will 

be flown in late 1982 and provide the first long-term 

low-gravity experimentation for new glass formation, 

vapor crystal growth, and immiscible metal solidification. 

Commercial activities increased in 1980 and 1981. 

The first two joint -endeavor agreements with NASA 

were signed - the first one by McDonnell Douglas Corporation for the separation in space of pharmaceuticals for treating human and animal diseases. 

A joint-endeavor agreement reduces investment risk 

and is intended to stimulate the commercialization of 

space processing; NASA provides free transportation 

and the company receives limited exclusivity and data 

rights during precommercialization trials. The first of 

six mid-deck experiments under the agreement will be 

carried out in mid-1982, with pilot-plant testing expected in 1985 - 1986. The second joint -endeavor 

agreement was signed with GTI Corporation for lowgravity solidification services, and NASA was reviewing a third proposal, for production of semiconductor 

crystals. 

The first technical exchange agreement was signed 

in mid-1981, with the John Deere Corporation to study 

convection effects on cast iron structure. Under this 

agreement, an industry not yet ready to commit itself 

to a joint endeavor can investigate low-gravity processing by sharing information and ground-based experimental facilities. Two additional technical exchange agreements, directed toward catalyst formation and electroplating studies, were also signed. No 

funds are exchanged between NASA and the private 

partner in any of these cooperative activities. 

Technology Transfer 

NASA’s technology transfer program assists federal, 

state, and local governments and private sectors of the 

economy to use remote-sensing technology emerging 

from NASA’s R&D program and provides guidance to 

future R&D efforts. 

Jointly conducted applications projects were completed in 1981 with the National Park Service and with 

the Pacific Northwest Regional Commission. In pilot 

areas of Olympic and Shenandoah National Parks and 

Death Valley National Monument, Park Service personnel tested the use of Landsat land-cover data in 

forest-fire management, in wildlife-habitat assessment, in forest and vegetation mapping, and as a 

source for other land-cover information required for 

park management. Sixteen states have acquired equipment for analyzing Landsat data and comparable 

capabilities are under development in another eight to 

ten states. 

Private sector activities continued in 1981 with 

Pacific Gas and Electric Company in California. 

NASA’s Ames Research Center began work in 1980 on 

a joint application project with PG&E to use Landsat 

data, integrated into a geobased information system, 

to map power-line corridors, project energy demand, 

assess environmental impacts, and identify future 

facility sites. 

In the technology utilization program, NASA completed several projects in 1981 applying aerospace 

technology to medical uses, facilities for the handicapped, agricultural productivity, low-cost systems for 

processing waste water, and archaeology. An 

automatic implantable defibrillator incorporating 

several aspects of NASA-derived technologies may aid 

many of the more than one million persons who suffer 

heart attacks each year. In 1981, 28 defibrillators were 

implanted in patients under the clinical evaluation 

program sponsored by the National Institutes of 

Health. The Intec Corporation of Pittsburgh 

manufactures the defibrillators. 

Science 

Space science aims at an understanding of the origin 

and continuing evolution of the cosmos, the origin and 

evolution of the solar system, the origin and distribution of life in the universe, and the dynamic processes 

that shape the terrestrial environment. Space science 

also uses space technology and the space environment 

to further knowledge in medicine and biology. 

Study of the Sun and Its Earth Effects 

In its solar-terrestrial program, NASA cames investigations above the atmosphere to study the sun as a 

star and its effects on space near the earth. By observing the surface of the sun and its corona, by following 

the flow of particles from the solar wind, and by 

measuring the effect of the earth’s electric and 

magnetic fields on trapped particles, NASA seeks to 

understand the solar-terrestrial system and ultimately 

to predict conditions in the near-space environment 

through which all spacecraft must pass and at the 

earth. 

Solar Maximum Mission. The SMM spacecraft 

launched early in 1980 was placed in a spinning mode 

because of the partial failure of its pointing system in 

13 
November 1980. Three of the seven experiments were 

unaffected by this problem and continued to return 

high-quality data. At the end of 1981, plans were being developed for a possible repair of the pointing 

system in orbit, to reestablish the full capability for 

studying solar flares and other solar activity. 

Explorers. Two Explorer missions in 1981 began investigating the transport of matter and energy into 

and out of the magnetosphere. On 3 August 1981, the 

two spacecraft of the Dynamics Explorer (DE) mission 

were launched on a single Delta launch vehicle-one 

into a high-apogee orbit, the other into a low-apogee 

orbit. The mission is studying the interactions between 

the magnetosphere and the ionosphere, particularly 

the exchange of energy between these two regions, the 

acceleration of particles, and the processes that lead to 

auroras. 

The Solar Mesosphere Explorer SME was launched 

6 October from the Western Space and Missile Center 

to supply specific knowledge on the nature and 

magnitude of changes in the mesospheric ozone densities caused by changes in solar ultraviolet flux. A 

basic mission lifetime of one year was planned. 

The three spacecraft launched in 1978 in the International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE) mission continued 

to increase our understanding of the interactions between the fluctuating solar wind and the outer limits 

of the magnetosphere that controls the earth’s nearspace environment. 

The Active Magnetospheric Particle Tracer Explorer (AMPTE) project was begun in 1981 as a dual 

spacecraft project in cooperation with the Federal 

Republic of Germany. The Ion Release Module will 

eject chemicals at very high altitudes, first sunward 

and outside the magnetosphere and later at the flanks 

of the magnetosphere and deep in the magnetospheric 

tail. When the chemicals are ejected, the Charge 

Composition Explorer will attempt to detect the 

released particles from inside the magnetosphere. 

Scientists will then trace the motion of the ions and investigate their energization. 

International Solar Polar Mission. During 1981, the 

U.S. spacecraft in the planned two-spacecraft International Solar Polar Mission (ISPM) was deleted because 

of the need to maintain priority programs in a 

restrained spending environment. The European 

Space Agency spacecraft, with its complement of 

European and U.S. experiments, is scheduled to visit 

hitherto unexplored parts of space out of the plane of 

the planetary orbits in the late 1980s. 

Suborbital Observutions. Sounding rockets and 

balloons continued to serve as important platforms for 

the development and flight test of new instruments 

while investigating phenomena just above the atmosphere. As part of a program to study electrodynamic 

interactions with the ionosphere, the first successful 

coordinated study of thunderstorms using an aircraft, 

sounding rockets, and balloons was conducted in 

1981. Three sounding rocket payloads at altitudes of 

150, 90, and 60 kilometers measured the electric 

fields over a thunderstorm at the same time as the 

fields were measured by a balloon at 32 kilometers. 

Weather radar mapped the thunderstorm region. 

Study of the Planets 

In 1981, another major advance in the U.S. exploration of the solar system was achieved by Voyager 

2’s nearly perfect encounter with Saturn. The program 

also acquired significant new information at Venus 

and Mars and in interplanetary space. The data pertain to many disciplines, including basic plasma 

physics, climatology, and planetary volcanism. 

Voyager 1 and 2. The very successful Voyager 

spacecraft, launched in 1977, continue their investigations of the outer regions of the solar system. After its 

historic encounter with Saturn in November 1980, 

Voyager 1 was deflected up out of the ecliptic plane on 

a trajectory headed toward the solar apex- the direction the sun is moving in the galaxy. This spacecraft is 

to be tracked as its instruments investigate the outer 

solar system environment and interactions of the solar 

wind with interstellar material. 

Voguger 2’s encounter with Saturn and its satellites 

in August 1981 obtained new scientific data about this 

giant planet, its rings, and its satellites. The 

spacecraft’s trajectory permitted images to be taken 

that could not be obtained by the earlier passage of 

Voyager 1. New information was obtained on the 

generation and circulation of storms in Saturn’s atmosphere. Observing the rings as they occulted a 

bright star, Voyager 2 found that gaps between 

ringlets are far from empty. Instead of being hundreds 

of individual rings, it now appears that there are just a 

few distinct rings around Saturn with bands of increased density that appear as ringlets. One new 

theory is that the ringlets are actually tightly wound, 

spiral density waves stimulated by resonances with the 

outer large satellites. Images of the rings and radio 

science data also show variations in the distribution of 

particle sizes and possible variations in composition. 

Among the satellites of Saturn, Hyperion was 

revealed to be an irregularly shaped satellite with 

numerous impact craters, probably a fragment of 

something larger that broke up. Images of Iapetus 

show promise of explaining the great contrast between 

the dark and bright icy sides of this satellite. Highresolution images of Tethys and Enceladus show that 

their surfaces have undergone great changes. Part of 

the surface of Tethys is clearly less cratered than other 

parts, like those of Rhea and Dione observed by 

Voyager 1. New images of Tethys show that its large 

trench girdles nearly three-fourths of the body. At 

least five distinct geological surfaces were observed on 

Enceladus. Saturn’s outermost satellite, Phoebe, 

which orbits in the opposite direction of the other 

14 
satellites, was observed to be spherical. The shape was 

a surprise, since it had been thought to be a captured 

fragment rather than an accretionary object. It origin 

remains unsolved. 

Analysis of the Saturn data from both Voyagers is 

just beginning. Numerous new puzzles have been identified, and many accepted theories of planetary formation must be modified. 

Voyager 2 was deflected by Saturn onto a trajectory 

toward Uranus, as planned. Late in September, a propulsive maneuver ensured it will reach the vicinity of 

Uranus in January 1986. If it can continue to operate 

for another five years, we should learn much about 

this unusual, tilted, gaseous planet with rings and five 

satellites. After that, Voyager 2 possibly can be 

directed onward to Neptune, 19 times as far from the 

sun as Earth is. Because of the great distances of 

Uranus and Neptune from Earth, little is known about 

these planets, and changes in our present knowledge 

comparable to that resulting from the Saturn flyby can 

be expected. 

Viking. Viking lander 1 has continued active scientific investigations on the surface of Mars for almost six 

years. The lander is programmed to allow periodic interrogations to retrieve imaging, meteorology, radio 

science, and engineering data until December 1994. 

Of the transmissions during the first year in a monitoring mission mode, 89 percent have produced excellent 

scientific information. The data are currently acquired at low cost. Considerable analysis of data also 

continues from the period when four Vikings were 

operational. 

In a ceremony on 7 January 1981, the NASA administrator accepted the first contributions from the 

Viking Fund. The fund was established by the San 

Francisco Chapter of the American Astronautical 

Society to enable private citizens to contribute to continued operation of Viking and analysis of data. During the ceremony, the administrator designated Viking lander 1 the Thomas A. Mutch Memorial Station 

(MMS) in memory of the Viking imaging team leader 

and later NASA associate administrator for space 

science. Dr. Mutch was injured and then disappeared 

during a mountain-climbing expedition in the 

Himalayas in 1980. 

Pioneer- Venw. During 1981, Pioneer orbiter operations continued into the fourth Venusian year, providing valuable new scientific data on the time-variable 

atmosphere of Venus. Data acquired daily permitted 

study of previously inaccessible areas and extended 

temporal coverage. 

Of particular importance are measurements of the 

solar wind and its interaction with the ionosphere and 

upper atmosphere of Venus. Because of natural variations in the spacecraft’s orbit, new regions of the foreshock, bow shock, magnetosheath, ionopause, and 

ionosphere were sampled each day, contributing 

toward a complete spatial “map” of these features. 

Several more years of data gathering and analysis will 

be required to understand fully the complex spatial 

and temporal variations of these interactions. 

Ultraviolet images collected daily revealed much 

about the lower levels of the Venusian atmosphere, including the time-variable features in the cloud deck. 

These data are vital to understand the global circulation pattern. 

In 1986, the altitude of the spacecraft periapsis 

(lowest point of the orbit) will start decreasing. By 

1991, the latitude change will permit the radar instrument to map portions of the southern hemisphere surface not previously visible. Thus, natural gravitational 

forces will permit new segments of the planet’s 

geography to become known, which otherwise would 

have required an additional mission to achieve. 

The Pioneer-Venw orbiter is expected to operate 

until 1992, when gravitational forces will pull it into 

the lower atmosphere, where it will bum up. 

Pioneer 10 and 11. Both spacecraft continued their 

journeys through the outer reaches of our solar system 

during 1981. On 26 July, Pioneer 10 was 25 astronomical units (3.7 billion km) from the sun. The 

major technical achievement is also significant for 

discovery that the boundary of the heliopause, where 

the solar wind effectively stops and the interstellar 

medium begins, is farther from our sun than had been 

predicted. By the end of 1981, Pioneer 10 was at 26.2 

AU (3.9 billion km), closing on the orbit of Neptune. 

Pioneer 11, moving out of the solar system in the opposite direction, by the end of 1981 reached 11.25 AU 

(1.7 billion km) from the sun. Both spacecraft continued to measure solar and galactic phenomena in interplanetary space. A statistical study of measurements from 1 to 20 AU showed that the solar wind 

moves in a radial direction with a surprisingly constant 

velocity. Its temperature is consistently greater than 

predicted, indicating an additional heating 

mechanism in space. The nature of the mechanism 

was being investigated by several scientific groups. 

Data reduction continued on the vast amount of 

scientific information acquired in previous years during Jupiter and Saturn encounters. New findings include a cross-flow electrical current on Jupiter’s frontside magnetosphere. Magnetic field measurements at 

Saturn indicate a simple spin-axis-aligned dipole with 

a one-tenth Saturn radius offset, plus a ring current. 

And radiation intensity profiles measured in Saturn’s 

inner magnetosphere are not consistent with conventional theory. For this last phenomenon, alternate 

sources of radiation were being investigated. 

Both spacecraft were expected to be tracked and interrogated for 8 to 10 more years, until spacecraft 

voltage is insufficient to power communications. 

Galileo. Designed to study the Jovian system in great 

detail, the Galileo mission was in the development 

stage during 1981. An orbiter and probe were scheduled to be launched in the mid-1980s and to arrive at 

15 
Jupiter in the late 1980s. Plans were for the orbiter to 

send back imaging, remote-sensing, and magnetospheric information about the planet and its satellites 

for 20 months, with flybys of the satellites as close as 

200 km. On amval at Jupiter, the probe would descend into the atmosphere and make detailed measurements of chemical and physical properties to a 

pressure equivalent to 10 Earth atmospheres. 

Galileo completed development hardware testing in 

1981 and passed the critical design review in November. All subsystem designs for the orbiter were complete, with some flight hardware in production, including the retropropulsion module contributed by 

the Federal Republic of Germany. Major contracts 

were renegotiated according to the new launch 

schedule. 

Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar (VOIR). Plans for a 

mission to map the surface of Venus in mid- to late 

1980s with a synthetic-aperture radar instrument on a 

spacecraft in low circular orbit were being considered, 

Venus is a twin planet to Earth, but its evolutionary 

history is largely unknown because its cloud-shrouded 

surface has never been observed. Scientific 

measurements from the proposed mission would provide accurate altimetry (topographic readings) for the 

planet and would map 90 percent of it by radar images 

at very high spatial resolution. 

Research and Analysis. The research and analysis 

program continued to study data from Viking 1 and 2 

and Pioneer- Venus missions. Of particular note was 

the finding that interactions between the Martian atmosphere and surface, implied by Viking orbiter and 

lander measurements and Earth-based radar returns, 

indicate the presence of water on Mars in the form of 

ground ice. Volcanic surfaces also have been classified, and estimates are that, because of the long igneous history of Mars, 1 to 10 percent of the surface 

could be granite. In other work, a theoretical study 

found that Venus may be just enough smaller than 

Earth that a solid metallic core cannot develop in its 

molten interior. Lack of an inner core could explain 

why Venus has no intrinsic magnetic field. 

Collection of extraterrestrial particles, thought to be 

dust particles from comets, was extended significantly. 

A new collection system was tested on high-flying aircraft, sampling a greater column of dust than in all 

previous attempts combined and returning a generous 

supply of particles for analysis. Another source of extraterrestrial materials, the Antarctic Meteorite Collecting Expedition, returned with 103 meteorites. 

Study of a small iron meteorite collected on an earlier 

expedition revealed it to contain small diamond 

crystals. These are thought to have been formed by 

impact with another meteorite. Other meteorites with 

unusual intergrowths of graphite and magnetite contain isotopes that indicate they are ancient, perhaps 

primordial. Studies of another, rare group of 

meteorites known as shergottites reveal them to be of 

such a young age that volcanism on Mars has been suggested as a possible origin. 

The new Infrared Telescope Facility in Hawaii obtained spectral data on a satellite of Uranus and 

searched for a Neptunian ring system. It also obtained 

spectral evidence of propane on Titan and water on 

Iapetus, both Saturnian satellites, adding validity to 

the Voyager mission results. Measurements made by 

another telescope facility revealed methane in the at - mosphere of Pluto. 

An International Halley Watch (IHW) has been 

established to encourage and coordinate scientific 

observations of Halley’s Comet throughout its 

1985-1986 appearance. An IHW Steering Committee, 

an international group, has been established. All data, 

including that from the cometary spacecraft as well as 

from astronomical observations, will be assembled and 

archived under IHW direction. 

Studies of the Universe 

The objective of astrophysics research at NASA is to 

investigate, from orbital and suborbital missions, the 

nature of the universe. In 1981, major advances in our 

understanding came from the High Energy Astronomy 

Observatory and the International Ultraviolet Explorer missions, and significant progress was made on 

developing missions to be launched starting in 1982. 

High Energy Astronomy Obsemtoy. Operations 

for the last two HEAO satellites ended in 1981. The 

highly successful series exceeded all expectations. The 

supply of control gas on HEAO 2, launched in 

November 1978, was depleted in April 1981. It carried 

the largest focusing x-ray telescope ever flown, and its 

results have precipitated important and still incomplete revisions in almost every area of high-energy 

astrophysics. 

The third spacecraft in the HEAO series was 

launched in September 1979. Its gamma-ray spectroscopy experiment depleted its supply of cryogenic 

coolant in May 1980, but its cosmic-ray experiments 

continued to gather data until the summer of 1981. 

One of the major results from Heao 3 was to confirm 

the presence of gamma-ray emission at energies 

characteristic of the annihilation of anti-electrons 

from a direction of the galactic center. A decrease was 

observed between the fall 1979 and spring 1980 scans 

of the source, ruling out diffuse sources of antielectrons and suggesting that the emission may be 

from a massive black hole at the center of our galaxy. 

Space Telescope. The Space Telescope, a cooperative project with the European Space Agency and 

scheduled for launch by the Space Shuttle in the first 

half of 1985, will greatly improve our ability to observe 

the universe at optical and near-ultraviolet 

wavelengths. During 1981, the 2.4-meter primary mirror was polished and coated. The secondary mirror 

also has been polished and coated; and the main ring, 

16 
focal plane structure, and metering truss structure 

have been assembled. 

Gamma Ray Observatory. GRO will make the first 

comprehensive survey of the sky over the entire spectrum of gamma-ray energies. Four scientific instruments, each more than 10 times more sensitive 

than any similar instruments previously flown, were 

selected in 1981 for flight on GRO: a high-energy 

gamma-ray telescope, a gamma-ray burst locator and 

spectrometer, a medium-energy gamma-ray telescope 

that operates on the principles of Compton scattering, 

and a broadband gamma-ray spectrometer. 

Explorers. The International Ultraviolet Explorer 

ZUE, launched in 1978 into a geosynchronous orbit, 

was still operating well at the end of 1981. Another international Explorer, the Infrared Astronomical Satellite Ira, was in preparation as the first satellite designed to study the cold-infrared universe. In 1981, the 

telescope system was integrated with the Zras 

spacecraft in the Netherlands and was returned to the 

United States for final testing. The cooperative project 

with the Netherlands and the United Kingdom is 

scheduled to place the “first of its kind,” cryogenically 

cooled telescope system in orbit in 1985. 

Suborbital Obsennations. The development and 

flight-testing of new instruments from sounding 

rockets, balloons, and high-flying aircraft continued 

to bring discoveries about the universe that surrounds 

us. In 1981, instruments aboard the Kuiper Airborne 

Obselvatoy detected, for the first time, radiation at 

far-infrared wavelengths from a quasar, 3C545. Measurement shows that the bulk of the radiation from the 

quasar is being emitted at infrared wavelengths. From 

a NASA balloon, a microwave radiometer observed 

the first intrinsic distortions, a quadrupole anisotropy, 

in the cosmic 3-kelvin (-270OC) background radiation thought to be left from the “big bang” at the formation of the universe. 

Lfe Sciences 

The life sciences flight and ground-based research 

programs focus on understanding the effects of the 

space environment on living organisms, providing 

medical selection standards and health maintenance 

for astronauts. Programs develop life support technology and seek to understand the origin and distribution of life in the universe. 

Operational Medicine. Preventive medicine for 

astronauts, including medical support to the first 

Space Shuttle flight, was the highlight of operational 

medicine activities in 1981. Medical concepts and 

systems for the mature STS era were being developed 

and tested. 

Gravity forces experienced by astronauts returning 

in the Shuttle are quite different in magnitude and 

direction (relative to the astronaut’s position) from 

previous U.S. and USSR manned flights. This change 

may increase postflight orthostatic intolerance 

(tendency toward fainting) during the early phases of 

Shuttle landing operations. Men and women 25 to 65 

years old were studied in simulated weightlessness and 

different Shuttle reentry profiles to determine the 

variability of individual cardiovascular response. 

Although older males tended to tolerate centrifuge 

runs following bedrest better than females or younger 

males, most subjects experienced orthostatic intolerance of 2 g or higher. NASA’s antigravity suit offered good protection to all the tested subjects. Since 

fluid loss in flight contributes to the postflight tendency to faint, a countermeasure of giving drinking fluids 

and applying negative pressure to the legs was being 

tested. A lightweight, stowable, lower-body negativepressure suit was devised. 

Biomedical Research. Ground-based researched continued close scrutiny of cardiovascular deconditioning 

and motion sickness through simulating symptoms met 

in spaceflight. Short-term, head-down, bedrest studies, 

designed to decondition the body, have been followed 

by procedures to provoke illness and then by countermeasures including drugs and special exercises. 

Motion sickness has been induced in parabolic flight 

in aircraft and by motion-producing environments on 

the ground. New drugs against the resulting nausea 

and preventive biofeedback techniques have been 

tested. Researchers continued to trace the complex 

neural pathways that mediate the development of motion sickness in animals. 

Workers concerned with the bone softening ob - served in long spaceflights have been somewhat 

encouraged by recent reports from Soviet investigations. The US/USSR Joint Working Group in Space 

Biology and Medicine learned that cosmonauts completing 175- and 185-day flights lost less bone mass 

than predicted. U.S. and USSR investigations were 

seeking to verify these findings with more refined 

measurement procedures. 

Space Biology. Investigations of the combined influence of gravity and light on direction-finding and 

tropistic response (movement) in plants have indicated 

a commonality and interaction of the response mechanisms. Experiments with monochromatic light permitted separation and dissection of the mechanisms 

dealing with plant rhythmic motions and growthgravitropism and phototropism - and to show how 

they are related and how they differ. Recent research 

indicated light and gravity can control plant growth 

through a common calcium-dependent biochemical 

reaction. This research should lead to methods of 

cultivating plants in a gravity-free environment. 

Ex0 biology. Recent discoveries greatly expanded 

our models for the origin, evolution, and distribution 

of life and life-related molecules on Earth and 

throughout the universe. The Voyager observations at 

Titan confirmed the presence of smalI organic 

molecules, some of them critical for the synthesis of 

17 
other molecules essential for life. These findings provide additional evidence that the chemistry preceding 

life is widely distributed beyond Earth. Scientists have 

synthesized small catalysts (proto-enzymes) under 

conditions believed to have been prevalent on 

primitive Earth, This synthesis would have been a 

necessary step in the development of biological 

systems. Samples of the oldest rocks on Earth have 

been found to contain well-preserved microfossils of 

primitive bacteria, pushing back the time for the 

origin of life on Earth to a point earlier than 3.5 

billion years ago. These and other studies provide further evidence that chemical evolution and the origin of 

life parallel the development and evolution of 

planetary systems. 

' Biological Systems Research. Research on 

regenerative life support systems in 1981 identified a 

technique that can be used to purify waste water in a 

manned spacecraft, without requiring distillation or 

expendable chemicals. Based on the principle of oxidation in water at high temperatures and pressures, 

the process works on human wastes as well as wash 

water; its products are sterile water, carbon dioxide, 

nitrogen, and precipitated mineral salts. Progress has 

also been made in the development of spacesuits that 

can operate with higher internal pressures and in 

research on methods for regenerating food, air, and 

water in closed life support systems. 

Flight Programs. Life sciences flight experiments in 

Spacelab will provide objective, quantifiable data to 

answer many questions raised in the Skylab program. 

The most immediate problem is space motion sickness, 

which affected about half of the astronauts during the 

first one to four days of flight. The STS crew and 

payload scientists could, if similarly affected, lose a 

substantial amount of productive time. Additional 

problems concern fluid and electrolyte balance, sensory deprivation, diurnal rhythm changes, cardiovascular deconditioning, circulation impairment, and 

muscle atrophy. 

During 1981, panels of non-NASA scientists 

evaluated some 90 proposals for life-science experiments to fly in Spacelab, while NASA analyzed 

engineering, costs, and mission compatibility. The 

proposals were found to be scientifically and technically sound, and the majority were funded for further 

definition. After the number was narrowed to 30 or 

40, a payload was selected in September for a mission 

dedicated to life sciences, planned for Spacelab 4. 

Work continued, meanwhile, on experiment hardware 

for Spacelab 1, 2, and 3. 

Spacelab Flight Program 

The operational phase of the Spacelab flight program began in 1981 with the launch of the first space 

science and applications payload, OSTA 1, on the second flight of the Space Shuttle, STS 2, in November. 

OSTA 1 was the first to use a Spacelab pallet, an 

engineering model of equipment developed by the 

European Space Agency to accommodate payloads 

and instruments that stay with the Shuttle during 

flight. 

OSTA 1 gathered data on renewable and nonrenewable earth resources, on the oceans, and on technology 

for future instrument development. In addition, the 

mission demonstrated the capability of the Space 

Shuttle to serve as a platform for scientific investigation. The next Shuttle flight, STS 3 scheduled for 

spring 1982, will carry OSS 1, which has objectives in 

physics, astronomy, and space technology. OSS 1 completed payload integration at Goddard Space Flight 

Center and was shipped to Kennedy Space Center in 

September 1981 for integration into the Space Shuttle. 

Final preparations for launch were proceeding on 

schedule. 

Test flights of Spacelab, developed by the European 

Space Agency, will carry scientific payloads. Spacelab 

mission 1 (SL l), intended to test the pressurized 

module configuration, was being readied in 1981 for 

late 1983 launch. The scientific portion of the mission 

is multidisciplinary and a cooperative venture between 

NASA and ESA. The ESA-provided instruments were 

being delivered to an integration site in Europe for 

final tests before delivery to Kennedy. Some NASAsponsored investigations had been delivered, and the 

rest were completing environmental testing. The instruments will be integrated with the first Spacelab 

flight unit, which was delivered to Kennedy in 

December 1981. 

SL 2 will test the pallet-only configuration of 

Spacelab while conducting investigations in physics 

and astronomy. Most of the instruments had completed critical design reviews and were being 

'fabricated. Acceptance tests began in late summer 

1981 and were to extend through 1982. 

The first operational Spacelab mission, SL 3, will 

conduct experiments in materials processing, life 

sciences, and technology research requiring very low 

gravity. Critical design reviews of all experiments had 

been completed and fabrication was under way. 

Development of two instruments, the atmospheric 

trace molecule spectroscopy instrument and the 

geophysical fluid-flow cell, was completed. 

OSTA 2, a cooperative venture in materials processing with the Federal Republic of Germany, was proceeding on schedule for launch in the Shuttle in late 

1982. Fabrication of the experiment carrier was completed during the third quarter of 1981, critical design 

reviews were held for the NASA and German experiments, and the cargo integration review for the 

STS 5 launch was held during the fourth quarter. A 

demonstration of lightweight solar-array technology 

and solar-cell calibration techniques was planned for 

the Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology mission OAST 1, scheduled for 1985. The initial design 

18 
evaluation was completed, allowing detailed engineering and design to proceed. The monodisperse latex 

reactor (MLR), a suitcase-size payload for materials 

processing research on board the Shuttle, was 

delivered to Kennedy in November for integration into 

the orbiter. It was to be carried aloft on four Shuttle 

missions, the first scheduled for March 1982. 

Studies were completed for OSTA 3, a follow-up 

mission to OSTA 1 for earth observations in mid-1984. 

A cluster of three telescopes was approved for flight on 

OSS 9 to make astronomical observations in the 

ultraviolet. Mission definition studies for OSS 3 were 

completed in 1981, and development of the telescopes 

was begun. Studies were under way to assess the 

possibility of using the same instruments for synoptic 

observations of Halley’s Comet from low earth orbit in 

1985 and 1986. OSS 2, planned for x-ray and cosmicray astronomy studies, has been deferred until later. 

Mission feasibility studies were completed and definition activities begun for a 1985 launch of Spacelab 4, 

the first dedicated life science laboratory on the Shuttle. 

The new payload processing facility at Kennedy 

Space Center was activated in 1981 to process OSTA 1 

and future payloads. 

Procurement activities began for the solar optical 

telescope (SOT), in preparation for a first flight on the 

Shuttle in 1987. This major facility-class instrument is 

planned to provide unparalleled capability for highresolution solar imagery and spectroscopy well into the 

1990s. Focal-plane instruments for SOT were selected 

and detailed system definition is proceeding. 

Concept studies for the Shuttle infrared telescope 

facility (SIRTF) were completed. Planned for first 

flight in 1988, SIRTF will be an enormous gain in sensitivity and will permit the first detailed studies of 

many faint infrared sources. The engineering model of 

the attitude gimbal system (AGS), for precision pointing of Spacelab instruments at celestial and terrestrial 

objects, was completed and being tested. 

The concept of a Space Platform to support space 

science and applications investigations received wide 

acceptance in prospective user communities and was 

being studied further. An extension of the “Spacelab 

approach” for longer duration missions, the proposed 

Shuttle-tended facility in space would support a variety of temporary payloads in succession. The Shuttle 

would attach payloads to the platform to operate for 

six months to a year and then retrieve them. 

national users of space. Providing efficient, economical access to space with increased mission flexibility 

will permit new and improved space operations while 

costing less than comparable expendable launch 

systems. 

The Space Shuttle made its first two orbital flights 

in 1981, the first in April and the second in November, 

each manned by two astronauts. All major objectives 

were met on both test flights. After the first two-day 

flight, the orbiter Columbia was refurbished and 

launched again, carrying the first experimental 

payload as well as the remote manipulator system 

(RMS) contributed by Canada. The second flight also 

lasted just over two days. Two more test flights will be 

launched before the Shuttle becomes operational late 

in 1982. 

Orbiter. All systems of the Space Shuttle orbiter, 

which returns from orbit to land like an aircraft, 

operated satisfactorily and no major problems were 

reported during its first mission. Minor damage to the 

thermal protection tiles and difficulties with two awiliary power unit heaters and a flight-test instrumentation recorder did not affect the orbiter’s overall excellent performance. 

Following landing and deservicing at Edwards Air 

Force Base, the orbiter was ferried to Kennedy Space 

Center by 747 carrier aircraft for preparation for its 

next flight, STS 2. Delayed a month when oxydizer for 

the reaction control system spilled during loading and 

damaged thermal tiles, STS 2 was launched in November. The flight was shortened from five days to two 

after failure of one of the electrical power system’s 

three fuel cells. Despite a shorter mission, STS 2-designed to test the orbiter systems further, including the 

remote manipulator system -was also successful. Returned to KSC on 25 November, Columbia at the end 

of the year was being prepared for its third flight, 

scheduled for March 1982. 

Main Engine. The three high-pressure hydrogenoxygen main engines in the Shuttle orbiter’s aft 

fuselage each have a rated vacuum thrust of 2000 

kilonewtons (470 000 pounds). A major advance in 

propulsion technology, the engines have a long 

operating life (7.5 hours, 55 starts) and the thrust can 

be throttled over a wide range (65 to 109 percent of 

rated power level). 

The built-in electronic digital controller - the first 

to be used in a rocket engine-accepts commands 

from the orbiter for engine start, shutdown, and throttle change and monitors engine operation. It will 

automatically take action to correct a problem or shut 

down the engine safely if a failure should occur. 

The engines performed flawlessly during both 

flights of Columbia, and postflight inspection revealed 

no significant discrepancies. A higher thrust version 

of the engine (109 percent of the present rated power 

level) was under development in 1981, and more than 

14 000 seconds of engine test time had been accumuSpace Transportation 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle system, based on the first 

reusable earth-to-orbit vehicle, is designed to meet the 

needs of NASA, DoD, and other domestic and inter19 
lated by the end of the year. After flight-certification 

testing, scheduled for completion by February 1983, 

this engine will be introduced into the orbiter fleet. 

External Tank. The external tank, the structural 

backbone of the Space Shuttle during launch operations and ascent, contains 700 000 kilograms (2 

million liters) of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen 

propellants for the orbiter’s three main engines. The 

tank, 46.8 meters long and 8.4 meters in diameter, is 

composed of a large hydrogen tank and a smaller oxygen tank joined by an intertank structure. The external tank is protected thermally by superlight ablator in 

areas of high aerodynamic heating and spray-on foam 

insulation on other areas. The spray-on foam also 

prevents ice or frost formation, prevents air liquefaction, and reduces propellant boiloff. The only 

nonreusable portion of the Space Shuttle system, the 

tank is separated from the orbiter after main engine 

cutoff - before orbit insertion -and breaks up during 

descent over a remote ocean area. 

The first and second flight tanks were successfully 

flown in 1981. The third was delivered to KSC in early 

October 1981. Three other tanks of the same design 

are in various stages of manufacture. Major welding 

and structural assembly have been completed on the 

first production version of a lightweight tank. At the 

end of the year, it was on schedule for delivery to KSC 

in September 1982. 

Solid Rocket Booster. The solid-fueled rocket booster 

is the first designed to be reused. Standing 45.5 meters 

high, each with a solid-fueled rocket motor, two 

boosters provide a combined thrust of 23 575 

kilonewtons (5.3 million pounds) at Shuttle liftoff. 

During 1981, the first two Shuttle development flights 

verified not only the capabilities of the Shuttle system 

to perform adequately during the missions, but also 

the reusability of the orbiter and the solid rocket 

boosters. Assembly of the boosters for flights STS 3 

through STS 5 was in process during 1981, along with 

refurbishment of those used on the first two missions. 

Also under way were design of a lightweight booster 

case, design of a high-performance motor, and studies 

for performance enhancement. 

STS 1 and 2 flights indicated some redesign was 

necessary for the booster aft skirts. Redesigns were in 

process, and repairs were begun to refurbish the STS 1 

skirts. A series of production readiness reviews begun 

in 1981 will continue in 1982. 

Launch and Landing. To serve both NASA and 

DoD needs for projected payloads, Space Shuttle 

flights will be launched from Kennedy Space Center in 

Florida and beginning in late 1985 from Vandenberg 

Air Force Base in California. Construction and activation of launch and landing facilities continued at both 

sites throughout 1981. The first line of processing 

facilities at KSC was completed and supported the first 

two Shuttle launches. 

Flight Test Support. The mission control center and 

Shuttle mission simulators supported the two Shuttle 

orbital flight tests in 1981 and at the end of the year 

were being configured to support a third R&D flight. 

Long-duration simulations were conducted and 

shorter simulations of ascent, orbit, entry, and approach and landing were being done. Payload operations were included in 1981; this activity will increase 

as the Shuttle reaches maturity. With the planned increase in the rate of Shuttle flights, mission simulators 

have been augmented for additional crew training and 

simulator software development. Using actual flight 

results, systems and procedures were being refined to 

streamline mission control, simulation, and training 

activities. 

Follow- On Production. Building the remaining orbiters for a national fleet of four continued in 1981. 

The DDThE (design, development, test, and evaluation) structural test article, being modified to become 

the second flight orbiter (orbiter 099) progressed 

substantially. Major structural elements were mated, 

final systems were being installed, and two-thirds of 

the required 30 800 thermal tiles were installed. This 

vehicle, named Challenger, is scheduled to be 

delivered in June 1982. Orbiter 103, Discovery, also 

progressed in 1981, with long-lead-time primary structures being fabricated and assembled. It is scheduled 

for delivery in September 1983. Long-lead procurement and parts fabrication continued for the fourth 

orbiter, Atlantis. 

In the main engine program, production of fullpower-level engines for development and certification 

testing and flight use continued. Engines 2008 and 

2009 have been delivered. Engine 2010 was completed 

in September, but required modification of the main 

injector before the start of certification testing in 

December. 

Construction of the second line of processing 

facilities at KSC continued on schedule for activation 

of the second Orbiter Processing Facility bay, mobile 

launch platform, and firing room in 1982 and other 

stations later. NASA also supported similar construction at Vandenberg. Procurement of crew equipment, 

flight spares for orbiter and main engine, and spares 

for ground support equipment continued as planned. 

Upper Stages. Several upper stages were being 

developed for use with the Space Shuttle. 

INERTIAL UPPER STAGE (IUS). The Department of 

Defense continued full-scale development of the IUS, 

designed to extend the reach of the Shuttle into higher 

earth orbits. The solid-propellant IUS and its payload 

will be deployed from the orbiter in low earth orbit, 

and the IUS will boost the payload to a higher energy 

orbit. NASA and DoD will use the IUS primarily to 

achieve geosynchronous orbit. NASA was coordinating non-DoD requirements into the DoD IUS 

program to ensure its utility for NASA and commercial applications. Hardware development was proceeding on a schedule for a 1982 launch on the Titan 
launch vehicle and an early 1983 launch of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite from the Space Shuttle. 

CENTAUR/STS. NASA contractors were studying 

modifications of the Centaur upper stage for possible 

use with the Space Transportation System for 

planetary and heavier geosynchronous missions. The 

modifications would increase the size of the propellant 

tanks to add about 50 percent more propellant capacity and make the stage compatible with the Shuttle. 

SPINNING SOLID UPPER STAGE (SSUS). Qualification continued for the two sizes of the SSUS being 

developed by members of the U.S. aerospace industry, 

at their own expense, for launching smaller spacecraft 

into geosynchronous-transfer orbit. SSUS-D is configured for satellites that have been using the Delta 

expendable launch vehicle, and SSUS-A for those 

using the Atlas-Centaur. Many components and subsystems had been qualified, and integrated system 

testing was under way. Production and assembly of 

flight hardware continued. NASA has ordered the 

SSUS-A for Intelsat V missions, and commercial users 

are buying the SSUS-D from the developer and 

through suppliers. The first two flights of the SSUS-D 

on Delta vehicles launched the Satellite Business 

Systems satellite SBS I into orbit in November 1980 

and SBS 2 in September 1981. RCA-Satcom 3-R was 

also launched on a Delta/SSUS-D in November 1981. 

The first flight of the SSUS-D on the Shuttle will be in 

November 1982. 

Advanced Programs 

Systems to extend orbiter power and time in orbit, 

as well as free-flying platform systems to be deployed 

and serviced by the orbiter, were investigated in 1981. 

Studies included innovative equipment and tools to 

place, retrieve, and maintain or repair satellites in orbit; retrieve unstable satellites and space debris; and 

reduce cost of operations. Advanced development of 

improved crew systems and life support equipment 

continued. 

Definition of the power extension package, which 

would provide the orbiter additional electric power by 

a solar array deployed from the remote manipulator, 

was completed. Concept studies of the solar electric 

propulsion system (SEPS) were completed. Two parallel definition studies were begun for the Space Platform, planned as a free-flying, Shuttle-tended, 

reusable spacecraft. The Space Platform will combine 

the 25-kilowatt power system and the Science and Applications Space Platform begun earlier. 

Parallel concept-evolution studies for a space station 

began at the Marshall Space Flight Center and 

Johnson Space Center. The Marshall approach is a 

minimum space station evolving from the Space Platform and emphasizing science and applications uses. 

The Johnson study focuses on space operations in orbit. Concept studies of the reusable Orbit Transfer 

Vehicle (OTV), to be based aboard the Shuttle or the 

space station, were continued in 1981. 

Long-range planning toward future systems included extensive user analysis studies, space-station 

mission-model definition, and advanced operations 

techniques, particularly multiple-use geosynchronous 

platforms, large structures, and tethered satellites. A 

space station symposium of NASA organizations 

studying the space station was held at Michoud 

Assembly Facility in November 1981. 

Studies began on advanced launch vehicle concepts 

emphasizing unmanned derivatives of the Space Shuttle. In one, a large unmanned payload carrier replaces 

the orbiter. In another, an unmanned launch vehicle 

uses clusters of the Shuttle solid-fueled motors with 

liquid-fueled upper stages. 

Operation of the Space Transportation System 

The Space Shuttle, scheduled to begin operational 

flights in November 1982, will begin an era of greatly 

increased R&D and commercial, industrial, and military uses of space. The Shuttle introduces a wide range 

of innovative launch and in-orbit services: multiplepayload launches; payload deployment, retrieval, and 

in-orbit servicing; manned laboratory research; 

routine, scheduled access to space; and opportunity 

for customers to charter a launch. The demand for the 

Space Transportation System now exceeds the capacity of the system. At the end of 1981, Shuttle flights 

were essentially sold out through 1986. 

Policies and Procedures. Development and refinement of the policies governing use of the Space 

Transportation System continued throughout 1981. 

The policy for reimbursement of Spacelab services was 

undergoing a final revision before being published as a 

rule in the Federal Register. A policy to offer payload 

services in the orbiter mid-deck cabin area was being 

developed. In addition, issues were being identified to 

develop a policy for reimbursable operations at 

Western Space and Missile Center. 

NASA had completed negotiations and signed 

launch service agreements with five users: 

INTELSAT, Satellite Business Systems, the governments of India and Indonesia, and the West German 

corporation Messerschmitt-Bulkow-Blohm GmbH. 

Additional negotiations were in process with 14 other 

users, all making payments or deposits toward STS 

flights. These payloads, NASA’s own payloads, and 

firm commitments from DoD and other U.S. government agencies, will almost saturate STS operations 

through fiscal 1986. 

The first launch service agreement for a small selfcontained payload was signed in mid-1981, and the 

first small payload was scheduled to fly on STS 4. This 

payload, provided by five educational institutions, will 

include experiments on algae and duckweed growth in 

21 
space and also genetic studies of fruit flies and brine 

shrimp. 

The price for Shuttle flights during the first three 

years of operations (1982-1985) was set in 1977 at 

$18.3 million (1975 dollars, subject to escalation) plus 

a use fee of $4.3 million (current dollars, not subject to 

escalation). The revised price applicable to flights in 

the fourth year of operations must be in place three 

years in advance. In keeping with this policy, NASA is 

in the process of establishing a new price for flights in 

1986. At the same time, a full review of the policy is 

under way. Although the new price is expected to 

represent a significant increase over the existing price, 

the new price is expected to continue to be competitive 

with alternative methods of space transportation. 

Spacela b 

The Spacelab program, a joint endeavor by NASA 

and the European Space Agency (ESA), provides both 

a pressurized shirtsleeve laboratory (module) and unpressurized pallets to carry experiments and instru - 

ments into space in the cargo bay of the Shuttle orbiter. Spacelab can service a variety of experiments in 

one or many science disciplines and can be reused for 

as many as 50 flights. Under the 1973 agreement, ESA 

is responsible for the design, development, manufacture, and delivery to NASA of the first Spacelab flight 

unit, an engineering model, two sets of ground support equipment, and spares to support the first two 

Spacelab missions. The estimated ESA cost is about 

$900 million. NASA is responsible for Spacelab operations and for peripheral equipment, such as the crew 

tunnel between the orbiter cabin and the Spacelab 

module. In addition, NASA agreed to procure at least 

one Spacelab production unit from ESA. 

In 1981, ESA delivered the first Spacelab flight unit 

(long module and one pallet) and one set of electrical 

ground support equipment to Kennedy Space Center. 

This unit will be flown in the cargo bay of the orbiter 

in the latter part of 1983. 

An engineering-model pallet, delivered by ESA in 

1980, carried the OSTA 1 payload on the second Shuttle flight in November 1981. The Spacelab engineering-model module, also delivered in 1980, was 

reassembled at KSC and was being used to validate 

electrical ground support equipment and facilities. 

Production of the second Spacelab (follow-on procurement) was in process, with deliveries to KSC scheduled 

to start in the first part of 1982 and continue through 

1984. 

ERN0 -European prime contractor for Spacelab 

development, in Bremen, West Germany - was integrating and testing the Spacelab hardware (pallets and 

an “igloo” to house subsystems) that will be flown on 

the Shuttle on the second Spacelab verification mission. Plans were to deliver this hardware to NASA by 

mid-1982. 

Dornier Systems in Friedrichhafen, Germany, is 

building the Spacelab instrument pointing system 

(IPS) for ESA. The system, to be mounted on a Spacelab pallet, is being designed to point scientific instruments with an accuracy of 1 arcsec. A preliminary 

design review was completed in September 1981. The 

first instrument pointing system was expected to be 

delivered to KSC in December 1983 and to be flown on 

the second Spacelab mission. 

The critical design review of the Spacelab Mission 

Simulator at Johnson Space Center was completed in 

May 1981. The simulator will be ready for training 

Spacelab crews by March 1983. The critical design 

review of the utility kits was also completed in 1981, 

and, in addition, all the ground Spacelab demultiplexers were delivered to NASA. Four sections of the 

crew tunnel were delivered to Kennedy Space Center. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles 

NASA launched missions on 11 expendable launch 

vehicles in 1981; 1 Scout; 5 Deltas, 2 with dual 

payloads; 4 Atlas-Centaurs; and 1 Atlas E/F (see 

launch table in appendix A-3). All but two were reimbursable launches for other agencies or commercial 

customers. 

The smallest vehicle, Scout, launched a DoD navigation satellite, Nom 1. In five launches, Delta, 

NASA’s most used launch vehicle, orbited seven satellites. Two of these launches put NASA scientific Explorer satellites into orbit: Dynamics Explorer 1 and 2 

on one Delta and the Solar Mesosphere Explorer 

(along with UOSAT for the University of Surrey, 

England) on the other -both launched from the Western Space and Missile Center in California. The other 

three Delta launches were for paying customers, including the Goes 5 weather satellite for NOAA and 

two communications satellites, one for Satellite 

Business Systems and one for RCA. These were 

launched from the Eastern Space and Missile Center in 

Florida. 

Altas-Centaur, the largest expendable launch vehicle being used by NASA, launched four missions this 

year: Comstar 0-4, a domestic communications 

satellite for Comsat Corporation; two Intelsat V communications satellites for INTELSAT; and the last in 

the current series of FLTSATCOM communications 

satellites for DoD. 

Atlas E/F, a DoD-managed vehicle, launched the 

Noaa 7 weather satellite for NOAA. 

In addition, expendable launch vehicles continued 

to provide backup support to customers listed on Shuttle manifests during this early development and transition phase of the STS system. This backup capability 

will continue through at least 1985 to ensure a U.S. 

civil launch capability. 

22 
Space Research and Technology 

The NASA space research and technology program 

develops a technology base for new or improved space 

capabilities. The program encompasses fundamental, 

discipline-oriented work and systems-oriented, focused 

technology programs. 

Fundamental Research and Technology 

Fundamental research and technology includes the 

key disciplines of chemical propulsion, electronics and 

automation, materials and structures, space power 

and electric propulsion, and aerothermodynamics. 

Chemical Propulsion. Technology to extend the 

operational life of reusable rocket engines continued 

to show progress with the demonstration of longer-life 

“hybrid” bearings for cryogenic propellant service. In 

tests, these combination ball-bearing and hydrostaticbearing designs demonstrated lifetimes several times 

that of conventional ball bearings. 

Electronics and Automation. A special-purpose 

“pipe-line” processor designed for robotic vision applications was demonstrated for the first time in the 

laboratory. The device will make possible visual tracking of objects at a rate of 30 video frames per second, 

adequate to provide robotic-system-control response 

comparable to human performance in many applica - 

tions. Vision is the most valuable sensory feedback to 

the control of robotic devices, necessary for automated 

satellite servicing as well as space assembly and construction. The demonstration was a major step toward 

a control-oriented computer vision system for space 

robotics. 

An experimental computer program for automatically planning and scheduling spacecraft action sequences was developed. The program combines, for 

the first time, artificial-intelligence technology with 

operations research and discrete-event simulation 

techniques to perform automatically tasks that usually 

require a cadre of mission operations personnel. 

A technology with potential impact almost equivalent to the integrated circuit is fiber optics and optical 

signal processing. During 1981, a light-emitting-diode 

(LED) laser was switched on and off with a light pulse 

width of several tens of picoseconds (trillionths of a 

second). Technological ramifications are sweeping 

and will permit gigabit data rates on fiber-optic data 

lines, laser ranging to within millimGAters, and an application called “optical time-domain reflectometry,” 

in which single defects in fiber optic systems can be 

detected within millimeters rather than meters. 

Materials and Structures. Development of advanced 

ceramic tile progressed for the thermal protection 

system of the Space Shuttle orbiter. New materialfibrous, refractory, composite insulation (FRCI) -offers lower-cost, more durable protection. Addition of 

aluminum borosilicate fibers to the silica fiber now in 

use formed a new material with unique physical, 

mechanical, and thermal properties. It has higher 

strength and greater resistance to impact damage and 

is expected to save some 500 kilograms in the weight of 

each orbiter, while increasing the designed safety 

margin. 

Space Power and Electric Propulsion. Progress also 

was made in the space nuclear-reactor power system, 

which will make possible exploration of the outer 

planets and other missions requiring high power independent of sunlight. During 1981, NASA and the 

Department of Energy established a jointly funded 

and managed program in the critical barrier 

technologies for space reactor power systems. The 

most difficult outer planetary missions can be accomplished using a 120-kilowatt uranium-oxidefueled reactor and silicon-germanium thermoelectric 

converters. System design for the entire nuclearreactor power subsystem is in progress. Emphasis is on 

evaluating important alternatives such as the heatsource converter interface (conduction vs. radiation) 

and the working fluid of heat pipes. The component 

technologies may be ready for system demonstration 

on the ground in the middle to late 1980s. 

The first automated space power subsystem was successfully demonstrated during 1981. This work provided the first concrete measures of cost and benefits 

that can be expected of future automation. To support high-power uses of space platforms, NASA investigated interactions between high-voltage 

spacecraft systems and the ambient space plasma. 

Substantial progress was made toward developing an 

analytic computer model as a design tool for future 

power platforms in geosynchronous orbit or low earth 

orbit. 

Aerothermodynamics. An important molecular 

transition was experimentally confirmed for the carbon C, molecule. A portion of this molecule’s 

ultraviolet-absorption spectrum previously reported in 

the scientific literature was erroneously attributed to 

another hydrocarbon molecule. The absorption properties of carbon species are critical in determining the 

extent to which gases given off by carbon heatshields 

are successful in protecting a planetary entry probe 

released from the proposed Galileo spacecraft entering 

the Jovian atmosphere. The new ultraviolet molecularabsorption spectrum for C, reduces the predicted 

heating about seven percent - a significant reduction 

for this probe. 

A new computational technique was developed for 

analyzing the hypersonic, three-dimensional flow field 

around “shuttlelike” space transportation vehicles. 

Until the present development, no solutions were 

possible for these configurations at large angles of attack. The new technique will greatly assist analysis of 

flight data obtained from the Shuttle orbiter during 

reentry. It also can be used as a design tool for advanced space transportation systems. 

23 
Systems Research and Technology 

The systems research and technology program exploits the basic understanding of physical principles 

derived from discipline-oriented effort and focuses 

work on advanced subsystem and system applications. 

Principal areas of activity include transportation, 

spacecraft, and information systems. Significant progress was made in all areas. 

Transportation Systems. The aerodynamic-coefficient identification package (ACIP) provided unique 

research data on the entry aerodynamics of the first 

and second Space Shuttle flights. The precise 

measurements substantially aided verification of entry 

performance and will provide designers of future 

vehicles with validated design and performance 

criteria. 

Spacecraft Systems. Two technology experiments, 

the feature identification and location experiment 

(FILE) and the induced environmental-contamination 

monitor (IECM), were flown on the November Shuttle 

flight. IECM gave NASA its first look at the Shuttle 

particulate and molecular environment and provided 

initial data for assessing the effect of the environment 

in the Shuttle bay on future payloads. FILE classified 

ground features such as water, bare land, and vegetation in real-time. In the future, the FILE system will 

be expanded to include identification and tracking of 

clouds, snow, and ice. 

Information ‘Systems. The traveling-wave tube is 

used as a microwave power amplifier because of its 

ability to achieve high-power gain over a wide band, 

but application of this technology to space systems has 

been limited by high secondary electron emissions 

generated by tube electrode materials. In 1981, new 

collector material was developed that decreases the 

secondary electron emission to one-fourth. This 

unique material is ion-beam-textured pyrolytic 

graphite, whose surface is characterized by densely 

packed micron-sized spires. Initial tests of the first 

traveling-wave tube with a pyrolytic graphite collector 

substantiated a significant increase in efficiency and 

lifetime of space tubes. 

An interim, digital, synthetic-aperture-radar (SAR) 

processor was developed in 1979 by JPL to process 

limited amounts of Seasat SAR data. An upgraded 

system developed in 1981 employs three floatingpoint, system-array processors working simultaneously 

on different parts of the process -to reduce processing 

time for a 100- by 100-kilometer SAR image from 10 

hours to 2.6 hours. 

The ability to make planetary observations over different spectral regions with sufficient sensitivity to obtain useful data from low-emission sources will greatly 

enhance knowledge of our planetary system. During 

1981, a 20-element infrared-imaging array tested on 

the 155-centimeter Mount Lemmon, Arizona, 

telescope demonstrated the first astronomical application of this technology by imaging two stars. 

Lasers show great promise as spaceborne ranging instruments to determine orbits precisely, study the 

earth’s gravitational field, measure tectonic plate motion, and determine crustal deformation. Use of lasers, 

however, has been limited by the capability of 

available components. During 1981, two essential 

components, under development for several years, 

reached the demonstration stage. A compact, yttriumaluminum-garnet laser transmitter achieved singlepulse energy of six millijoules with a pulse length of 

200 picoseconds (200 trillionths of a second). The 

other component, a new ranging receiver, has singlephotoelectron sensitivity and 17-picosecond resolution. Over a one-kilometer path, this new transmitterreceiver combination reduced range uncertainty to 

four to six millimeters. 

NASA Energy Programs 

NASA supports the Department of Energy and 

other agencies, on a reimbursable basis, by developing 

energy technology. In 1981, progress was made in 

automotive research and development, overseas application of wind energy, terrestrial solar-cell development, and overseas application of solar energy. 

Automotive Research and Development. NASA’s 

support of DOE’S vehicle and engine R&D programs 

includes development of gas turbines, the Stirling 

engine, and electric and hybrid vehicle-propulsion 

systems. In the Stirling engine project, the team of 

Mechanical Technology, Inc., and United Stirling of 

Sweden demonstrated an intermediate-temperature 

experimental engine with efficiency equal to that of 

automotive diesel engines and with emissions less than 

EPA research goals. 

Research continued in the development of advanced 

AC and DC electric vehicle-propulsion systems and 

components. The first experimental AC propulsion 

system was extensively tested in 1981, yielding an 

overall predicted efficiency of 82 percent, equal to the 

demonstrated efficiency of a previously tested DC 

system. Boch systems appear to have great potential 

for improving performance and lowering the initial 

cost of electric vehicles. Progress has also been made in 

reducing the weight of DC traction motors. Tests by 

Garret and Virginia Polytechnic Institute of electronically commutated experimental motors -onefifth to one-half the weight of conventional 

motors - indicated an efficiency comparable to that of 

a conventional motor and controller. 

Wind Energy. The nation‘s first “wind farm,” consisting of three of the largest advanced wind turbines 

developed by NASA and DOE, began operation at 

Goodnoe Hills, Washington, during 1981. Each wind 

turbine has a two-bladed rotor, 92 meters from blade 

tip to blade tip, and can produce 2500 kilowatts of 

24 
power. If the turbines are produced in quantities of 

100 a year or more, units following the first 100 could 

produce energy at an estimated five cents per kilowatthour. This price is competitive with conventional oilfired electric power in many areas of the country. In 

ititial operation of all three machines, interaction of 

the large units operating close to each other- 150 to 

900 meters apart -caused no problems. Electrical output has been at the predicted level. 

The four intermediate-size (200 kW) wind turbines-at Clayton, New Mexico; Culebra, Puerto 

Rico; Block Island, Rhode Island; and Oahu, 

Hawaii-had operated for more than 30 000 hours 

and generated more than 3 million kilowatt-hours of 

power by the end of 1981. Experience with these increasingly reliable machines, each operated by a local 

utility, aids evaluation of new components and improved systems and investigations of utility interface 

problems. Original 38-meter (tip to tip) aluminum 

rotor blades were replaced with blades of laminated 

wood or fiberglass. So far, operation of the new blades 

has been excellent. 

Terrestrial Solar- Cell Development. Technology for 

producing low-cost, single-crystal silicon material was 

advanced by improved methods for purifying silicon 

and for producing thin silicon sheet by ribbon-crystalgrowth processes. Encapsulation system designs were 

developed to meet stringent durability and low-cost requirements. Advanced automation technology was 

used to assemble solar cells into encapsulated modules. 

Overseas Applications of Solar Energy. NASA supported DOE in planning the installation of standardized solar-cell systems for health service, water, education, and public lighting in four villages in Gabon, 

Africa. Development of solar-cell-powered 

refrigerators and freezers continued, jointly funded by 

DOE and the Center for Disease Control, for cold 

storage of vaccines in remote medical posts. The first 

was installed at the Bhoorboral Health Clinic in India. 

Others are scheduled for the Maldive Islands, Gambia, Ivory Coast, Colombia, and Peru. 

NASA also continued technical support to the 

Agency for International Development (AID). The 

solar-cell system for pumping water and grinding 

grain in Upper Volta was doubled in power to 3.6 

kilowatts with modules supplied by DOE. Responding 

to a need of the international health assistance community, standard solar-cell packages are being 

developed to provide basic electrical service to rural 

health clinics in Ecuador, Guyana, Zimbabwe, and 

' Kenya. A project was begun with Tunisia to 

demonstrate the ability of solar energy to supply the 

minimum services necessary in the village of Hamman 

Biadha and in rural agricultural settings. Planning 

assistance was also provided for a possible project in 

Egypt for solar-cell power generation, wind power 

generation, solar heating and cooling, and solar process heat. 

Space Tracking and Data Services 

NASA tracking, command, telemetry, and data acquisition supports earth-orbital science and application missions, planetary missions, sounding rockets, 

research aircraft, and all phases of the Space Shuttle 

flight program. Two worldwide tracking networks, 

one-for deep space missions and one for earth-orbital, 

provide this support. A global communications 

system links tracking sites, control centers, and data 

processing facilities, for both real-time and more 

routine data processing. 

Network Operations 

During 1981, the tracking work load remained 

high, supporting some 45 missions, including the first 

two Space Shuttle flights and the launch and orbit 

phase of low earth-orbital missions such as the Solar 

Mesosphere Explorer SME and Dynamic Explorers DE 

1 and 2. Both launch and in-orbit support were also 

provided for missions of foreign countries, other 

government agencies, and commercial firms. For 

Space Shuttle missions, three new sites for UHF air-toground voice operated in Senegal, Botswana, and 

Australia, as well as three Shuttle-unique stations in 

Florida, California, and New Mexico. DoD tracking 

and telemetry elements also supported Shuttle flights. 

The outstanding accomplishment of the Deep Space 

Network (DSN) during 1981 was its support of 

Voyager 2's encounter with Saturn and its rings and 

satellites during August. At each of the deep space stations - Goldstone, California; Madrid; and Canberra, 

Australia - the DSN's 64- and 34-meter antennas communicated with Voyager 2, performing almost 

flawlessly. Some 99 percent of the imaging data 

transmitted by the spacecraft was received. The return 

from the radio science system was equally successful, 

with no known data gaps. During 1981, the DSN also 

supported Voyager 1, Pioneer 6 through 12, Helios 1, 

and the Viking lander on Mars. 

The 26-meter antenna at each of the three stations 

was closed down on 1 December, for a substantial saving. The 34- and 64-meter antennas will continue to 

support deep space missions. 

Data Systems and Control Centers 

Six NASA control centers supported requirements 

for 20 to 25 spacecraft during 1981. One of the six was 

closed with the termination of Orbiting Astronomical 

Observatory (OAO) support. A new center was being 

prepared for the upcoming Space Telescope mission. 

Control centers (1) issue commands to operate the 

spacecraft and their sensors and (2) monitor power 

status and thermal conditions. Computers calculate 

the spacecraft orbit, compute the attitude of the craft 

25 
to assist in maneuvers, and manage command 

memory. 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) 

The TDRSS, a leased service system of two datarelay satellites, is to take over tracking and data acquisition for low earth-orbiting spacecraft in 1984. 

TDRSS will permit station closings, network consolidation, and automation of some operations, 

enhancing capability and economic operation. NASA 

has entered a 10-year contract for this service. NASA 

continued development of software for the Network 

Control Center. Launch of the first satellite, TDRS-A, 

was planned for a Space Shuttle flight in January 

1983. 

Work was under way to consolidate the three remaining Spaceflight Tracking and Data Network stations - also in Goldstone, Madrid, and Australia - 

with the Deep Space Network facilities under Jet Propulsion Laboratory management by the mid-1980s. 

The combined network will continue support for high 

elliptical, synchronous, and deep space missions at 

significant cost savings, after TDRSS takes over the 

low earth-orbit missions. 

Aeronautical Research and Technology 

NASA’s aeronautical research improves the performance, efficiency, and safety of existing aircraft and 

develops a base of advanced technology for the next 

generation of civil and military aircraft. Objectives include maintaining a strong technological base, improving aircraft safety, and providing technical support for the military. 

Maintaining a Strong Technology Base 

NASA’s aeronautical research and technology program includes disciplines broadly categorized as 

aerodynamics, materials and structures, propulsion, 

and electronics and human factors. 

Aerodynamics. Important advances were made in 

using high-speed computers to predict aerodynamic 

behavior. An algorithm was discovered that permits a 

tenfold increase in computational speed when 

calculating forces and flow velocities over airfoils, 

wings, and bodies. The new procedure has been independently checked and is being adopted by researchers all over the world. 

Until recently the friction drag associated with turbulent flow on surfaces of aircraft and missiles has 

been considered to be fixed by natural laws and hence 

not subject to reduction. However, new data have 

shown the possibility of reducing friction 20 percent or 

more by attaching devices that break up large eddies. 

Test data are being verified in several different test 

facilities, after which the devices will be tested in 

flight. Reducing friction drag 20 percent would be 

economically important, and the devices may be appropriate for retrofitting aircraft already in service. 

Matenuls and Structures. Development of advanced 

computer software and hardware continued to be important in structural analysis. Development of general 

computer-aided design (CAD) systems, critical to improving productivity, continued. A newly developed 

prototype for managing a data base, called relational 

information management (RIM), was released to 

NASA centers and industry for evaluation. It can efficiently tie together many different analysis, design, 

and manufacturing programs into a cohesive general 

system using a common data base. Preliminary results 

with RIM indicate that it has high potential for 

designing and evaluating new aircraft concepts much 

more quickly and cheaply than previously available 

methods using models, wind tunnels, etc. 

In composite primary structures for airframes and 

engines, a new class of resins was developed in 1981. 

The resins hold promise for greater damage tolerance 

and greater processibility, which should expand the 

use of composites. The new materials, thermoplastic 

polyimides, can be used as a composite matrix resin 

and for fibers, films, and adhesives. Their hightemperature capability should lead to use in aircraft 

engine structures, saving considerable weight over 

present materials. 

Rofiulsion. During 1981, a major step toward improved fuel efficiency in commercial high-bypass-ratio 

turbofan engines was achieved in the energy-efficient 

engine program. Performance goals were demonstrated in component rig tests of the fan, high-pressure 

compressor, combustor, low-pressure turbine, and the 

exhaust gas mixer. Of special note, the high-pressure 

compressor achieved a pressure ratio of 23:l in only 10 

stages of compression while maintaining excellent efficiency levels. The technology developed will provide 

fuel savings in advanced turbofan engines of up to 20 

percent over today’s most efficient engines. 

Transmission research focused on evolutionary improvement in gears, bearings, lubricants, and traction 

drive systems, as well as verification of new transmission concepts that provide long-life, reliable, lightweight, and quiet transfer of mechanical power for 

rotorcraft and turboprops. During 1981, efficiency 

testing demonstrated that proper selection of lubricant 

chemistry can reduce transmission power losses by as 

much as 25 percent. NASA-developed analytical codes ’ 

for bearings also optimized the design of high-speed, 

tapered roller bearings that increased speed capability 

30 percent over that permitted by existing bearings. 

Electronics and Human Factors. During 1981, 

NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration jointly developed human factor guidelines for advanced 

information-display concepts that promise to permit 

aircraft to fly closer together with no decrease in safety. Head-up display (HUD) and cockpit-display-of26 
traffic-information (CDTI) concepts were evaluated. 

HUD research assessed two major alternatives, 

delineated the errors, and prescribed methods of 

minimizing those errors. CDTI simulation studies 

evaluated the ability of pilots to use a cockpit display 

of nearby traffic to perform merging, spacing, and 

other maneuvers in instrument flight conditions that 

now can be performed only with airspeed and vector 

commands from Air Traffic Control. 

Modern flight-control-system designs employing 

digital computers incorporate an independent backup 

computer. Recent research has focused on a technique 

of embedding backup software within the primary 

control system computers, thus eliminating the need 

for additional hardware. Laboratory tests demonstrated the effectiveness of this technique in reducing 

cost and complexity of future digital flight-control 

systems. 

Reducing Energy Consumption 

In 1981, NASA continued to develop technology 

toward the goal of 50-percent improvement of energy 

efficiency in derivative and future subsonic, commercial transport aircraft. 

Engine Systems. Investigation of fuel-saving improvements in existing or derivative JTsD, JTSD, and 

CF-6 turbofan engines were completed. Of the 16 

engine components or system modifications tested for 

performance improvement, 13 are likely to be put into 

service with subsequent recoupment of government investment. Fuel savings for the individual improvements range from 0.1 to 1.8 percent. Engine 

diagnostic investigations identified sources of performance deterioration and showed the effects of 

aerodynamic nacelle loads on engine clearances and 

seal wear. Major benefits will accrue in new engine 

designs. 

Advanced high-speed turboprop technology was 

further explored during 1981 through extensive experiments and analyses. Wind-tunnel tests of subscale 

propeller models established flutter -free design conditions and confirmed the attainability of high efficiency. Predicted noise levels were confirmed in flight, and 

measurements of wing-installation drag revealed ways 

of tailoring local wing and nacelle contours to 

eliminate interference. Predicted noise reduction from 

fuselage wall concepts was validated by large-scale 

ground tests. 

Aerodynamics Systems. NASA aeronautics research 

and management of contracts with the civil transport 

industry focused on energy efficient concepts for one 

of the nation’s top export items, commercial transports. 

Reduced-static stability components, expected to 

save 4 percent in fuel, were bench-tested and flighttested on an L-1011 transport in 1981. And aerodynamic research on high-aspect-ratio, sailplanelike supercritical wings at NASA and Douglas Aircraft 

Company showed that such wings on new transports 

can save 10 to 15 percent in fuel. Flight-research 

evaluation of the aerodynamics and inertia loading on 

the B-747 nacelles was completed. The data will be 

used to develop theoretical design codes to tailor the 

nacelle and pylon shapes and to optimize the design 

technique for engine mounting. 

Structural Systems. Three programs researching 

graphite-fiber-reinforced composites for secondary 

structures on transport aircraft were completed in 

1981. These components, with medium-primary structural components being developed in three other programs, are expected to save 25 percent in weight, leading to 3-percent fuel savings in transports. 

FAA certified the Lockheed L-1011 composite 

aileron, which will soon join the Douglas DC-10 rudder and the Boeing B-727 elevator in flight service. 

Design, fabrication, and structural testing of the Boeing B-737 horizontal stabilizer, a medium-primary 

composite component, progressed well. The tests and 

analyses required by FAA for certification, which is 

expected in early 1982, were completed. Airlines have 

already accepted two sets for delivery on operational 

aircraft next spring. 

Improving A ircra ft Safety 

Progress was made in 1981 in defining atmospheric 

hazards and advancing fire-safety technology. To protect advanced electronic and composite structures, aircraft designers need a definition of lightning hazards. 

The 1980 data base of direct lightning strikes on the 

F-106 research aircraft was doubled during 1981. 

In cooperation with FAA, NASA continued 

development of advanced, fireworthy , lightweight 

materials to reduce the threat of fire in aircraft cabins. 

Substantial progress was made in increasing fire 

resistance and decreasing toxicity of seat cushions and 

panels, the major combustible and toxic materials. In 

addition, comprehensive studies of worldwide 

transport accidents identified structures requiring 

research to improve occupant survivability in crashes. 

Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircraft 

NASA continued to develop technology for efficient, economical, safe, reliable, and environmentally 

compatible long-haul and short-haul aircraft. Considerable progress was made in research for generalaviation aircraft. 

Full-scale, experimental, aircraft crash data 

validated improved methods for dynamic testing of 

seats. The methods will assist the FAA in developing 

certification procedures. A major computer program 

for dynamic analysis of nonlinear structures under 

crash conditions was also verified. 

27 
Research to reduce general-aviation-aircraft drag 

emphasized developing and maintaining natural 

laminar flow on wings. Laminar-flow airfoils were investigated during full-scale flight tests completed in 

1981. Evaluation, on four aircraft, of transition sensitivity to real-world effects such as airfoil manufacturing imperfections, insect residue on surfaces, and rain 

confirmed wind-tunnel data and theoretical predictions. 

Research on intermittent-combustion engines emphasized improved fuel economy and multifuel 

capability. Modifications in a standard generalaviation, air-cooled, gasoline-fueled, reciprocating 

engine decreased fuel consumption 10 to SO percent 

during ground and flight tests. Research emphasis is 

shifting to unconventional internal-combustion 

engines that can bum jet engine fuel, to relieve 

dependency on scarce and expensive aviation gasoline. 

Engine configurations include rotary combustion and 

diesel designs. Efforts to reduce propeller noise led to 

the development of noise-prediction techniques, which 

were confirmed by tests. 

Research in avionics, controls, sensors, and human 

factors for general aviation focused on improving 

single-pilot operations under instrument flight rules. 

Flight of the experimental, demonstration advancedavionics system substantiated for the first time the 

basic concept of integrated and pilot-interactive electronic displays for many navigation and flight 

management functions. Flight-simulator research 

showed the potential of a simple, automated terminalapproach system for single-pilot operation, as well as 

an electronic display for visual reference and guidance 

both en route and in the terminal area. 

Technical Support for the Military 

Broad-based technology for future military aircraft 

is one goal of NASA's aeronautical research. 

Highly Maneuverable Aircraft Technology 

(HiMA T). The HiMAT remotely piloted research 

vehicle investigates advanced high-risk technology for 

high-performance fighter aircraft. During 1981, 

flights concentrated on reaching high transonic and 

supersonic speeds. The flight envelope was expanded 

to mach 0.95, and the vehicle achieved a more than 

'7-g load factor in the stable configuration. 

Tilt-Rotor Research Aircraft. The full flight 

envelope of the NASA XV-15 was demonstrated in 

1981, completing the proof-of-concept phase. The second phase, concept evaluation, was begun with one 

aircraft flying to gather detailed engineering flight 

data to document performance, flight dynamics, and 

stability and control characteristics. The second aircraft began mission task demonstrations for the Navy 

and Army. It was also exhibited - to great interest -at 

the 1981 Paris Air Show. 

Rotorcraft. Full-scale rotor activity centered on 

completing documentation of characteristics of the 

bearingless main rotor (BMR), the XH-59 advancingblade-concept aircraft, and the X-wing high-speed 

demonstrator. A rotor for higher harmonic control 

(HHC), which has potential for dramatically reducing 

vibration, was flight-tested in October 1981 on an 

Army OH-6. The predicted vibration levels were confirmed. 

Small-scale testing in NASA tunnels helped determine the optimal tip shapes for reducing loads, noise, 

and interference aerodynamics on advanced rotor 

blades for the UH-1. Associated analysis in acoustics, 

aeroelasticity , and performance was confirmed by 

wind-tunnel results, which suggested further tests of 

more optimized configurations. 

V/STOL Aircraft Technology. The first phase of 

the cooperative program with the Navy and industry 

to develop aerodynamic technology for V/STOL 

fighter-attack aircraft was completed. Four contractors studied six twin-cruise-engine concepts, which 

were tested in NASA wind tunnels over a speed range 

of mach 0.2 to 2.5 with angles of attack up to 90'. A 

similar joint program was begun to define the most 

promising concepts for a single-cruise-engine 

V/STOL fighter. 

The program to demonstrate a vented-thrust 

deflected nozzle coupled with a high bypass-ratio turbofan engine was completed. Good performance was 

achieved with no adverse ground effects. Neither hightemperature materials nor cooling air will be required 

for this nozzle; hence cost and weight will be reduced. 

28 
Department of Defense 

To maintain the security of the United States, the 

Department of Defense (DoD) pursues advances in 

space communications, navigation, meteorology, 

surveillance, and aeronautics. Cooperation with 

NASA and other federal agencies also produces civil 

benefits. 

In 1981, DoD continued to expand and upgrade 

satellite communications, including a design for a new 

worldwide system, MILSTAR. The first Nova satellite 

was launched in May to add a longer-life spacecraft to 

the Navy’s worldwide Navigation Satellite System, 

TRANSIT; and full-scale development of the Global 

Positioning System continued. Research in infrared 

technology made progress for missile surveillance and 

warning. DoD preparations anticipated broadened 

capabilities with more nearly routine operations in 

space as the reusable Space Shuttle completed its first 

two orbital test flights. The DoD-developed inertial 

upper stage that will boost payloads from the Shuttle 

into higher orbits was scheduled for first launches on 

the Titan launch vehicle in 1982 and the Shuttle in 

1983. The department also made progress in developing new aircraft structures, concepts, and designs, including the multirole B-1B bomber. 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Communications 

The Department of Defense has identified three 

categories of military satellite communications requirements: (1) high-capacity worldwide communications for fixed and transportable users, (2) mediumcapacity worldwide communications for mobile users, 

and (3) low-capacity communications for command 

and control of nuclear-capable strategic and tactical 

mobile forces. Military satellite communications 

systems must be hardened against nuclear effects, 

made resistant to jamming, encrypted, and protected 

against antisatellite weaponry. The Defense Satellite 

Communications System (DSCS), designed to serve 

high-data-rate users, consists of four active satellites 

and two on-orbit spares. Mobile users are supported by 

the Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FLTSATCOM), consisting of four FLTSATCOM 

satellites and leased tactical service provided by commercial Maritime Satellite System (Marisat) satellites. 

This system may be enhanced with the launch of additional FLTSATCOM satellites and commercially 

leased LEASAT satellites. Nuclear-capable forces are 

supported by the Air Force Satellite Communications 

System (AFSATCOM), which consists of transponders 

on FLTSATCOM, the Satellite Data System (SDS) 

spacecraft, and other host satellites. 

MILSTAR. DoD developed a conceptual design in 

1981 for a new military satellite communications 

system, MILSTAR, to operate at extremely high frequency (EHF) for jam-resistant communications. 

Satellite cross links will permit worldwide interconnection of all military forces. The system will be 

used by the U.S. Army, Navy, and Air Force. A 

common-terminal development program will ensure 

interoperability . Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSA TCOM). Providing moderate-capacity, mobile-user 

service in a worldwide communications system, 

FLTSATCOM satisfies the most urgent tactical-peacetime and crisis-management communications requirements of the Navy and commanders-in-chief of 

the unified and specified commands, as well as communications requirements of the strategic forces. The 

fifth FLTSATCOM satellite was launched August 

1981, but structural damage during orbit insertion 

permitted only limited communication operations. Installation of fleet broadcast receivers was virtually 

completed. Equipment for reliable, long-range, secure 

voice operation was installed in 431 ships by the end of 

1981. Shipboard terminal equipment will operate with 

both Marisat and FLTSATCOM systems. 

Navy Satellite Communications Activities. The 

LEASAT arrangement was revised to make it compatible with Space Shuttle availability. The first 

LEASAT launch was expected in 1984. The EHF communications ship terminal to operate with MILSTAR 

was defined and ready for full-scale development. 

During 1981, the DSCS I1 terminal aboard U.S.S. Kitty Hawk completed operational evaluation, and 

United Kingdom submarines began receiving 

FLTSATCOM/SSIXS submarine communication terminals. 

Army Satellite Communications Activities. The Army develops, procures, and supports ground terminals 

for strategic and tactical satellite communications. 

Two major projects are the Defense Satellite Com29 
munications System (DSCS) Phase I1 and the Ground 

Mobile Forces Tactical Satellite Communications 

(GMF-TACSATCOM). Another conducts exploratory 

development to support the two major Army projects 

and other space programs being developed by DoD. 

Nineteen additional, medium, satellite terminals 

were approved for procurement for the DSCS. These 

AN/GSC-39 terminals will be upgraded to include the 

latest technology and, with the 21 previously approved, will replace the obsolete AN/TSC-54 and 

AN/MSC-46 terminals. The real-time adaptivecontrol subsystem begun in 1980 will, when completed 

in 1985, provide the DSCS a computerized and fully 

automated system to control the DSCS I11 satellites 

and their communications. The 35 digital subsystems 

shipped to the field were being phased into operation 

at the end of 1981. Delivery of the new spreadspectrum, multiple-access AN/USC-28 units began in 

November 1981; all 51 were scheduled to be incorporated into the system by mid-1983. A contract for 32 

jam-resistant, secure-communication terminals 

(AN/GSC-49) for the Worldwide Military Command 

and Control Systems Program was awarded, with 

deliveries to begin in January 1983. 

Tactical Satellite Communications 

(TACSA TCOM). First deliveries of 227 additional 

multichannel, superhigh-frequency (SHF) tactical terminals-following on the first purchase of 31 terminals -were scheduled for 1982. Contract negotiations were completed for production of 174 UHF manpack terminals, with delivery to begin in 1983. 

Development of an EHF, single-channel terminal 

(SCOTT) for ground-mobile forces was under way, for 

operation with MILSTAR. The terminals should 

reach the field in the late 1980s. 

Advanced Space Communications Technology. A 

program developing and demonstrating advanced 

technologies for spacecraft and for airborne and 

ground terminals meets evolving DoD needs for 

military satellite communications. In 1981, advanced 

development models of the command-post modemprocessor and small SHF-EHF airborne terminal were 

delivered for testing. Tests are to demonstrate 

feasibility of an airborne satellite terminal to provide 

secure voice and teletype communications between 

airborne command posts and bombers and missiles 

under severe jamming. A system will be developed to 

operate with MILSTAR. 

Submarine Laser Communications. The joint 

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and 

Navy Submarine Laser Communications (SLC) Program is developing the technology to communicate 

from space, using a blue-green laser beam, through 

clouds and water to submarines at operational depths 

without compromising their security or limiting their 

flexibility. While early tactical SLC capabilities are 

expected from an airborne system to cover limited 

areas, a space SLC system is highly desirable for global 

coverage, survivability, and flexibility in both tactical 

and strategic operations. In early 1981, technology advances in optical receivers permitted experimental 

verification of SLC communications from aircraft 

through clouds and water to a submerged submarine. 

While not an operational demonstration, the test validated performance predictions. 

Nu viga tzon 

The Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT) 

completed 16 years of operation in 1981. TRANSIT 

provides worldwide positional data for strategicballistic-missile submarines and many other military 

and commercial users. The first Nova satellite, designed for longer life than previous TRANSIT 

satellites, was launched in May 1981. 

The developmental NAVSTAR Global Positioning 

System (GPS) continued in 1981 to provide up to six 

hours a day of accurate positioning worldwide with 

five of its six satellites in space (one was not operating 

and a December launch was aborted when the Atlas 

launch vehicle failed). A joint program of the Air 

Force, Army, Navy, and Defense Mapping Agency, 

GPS also has representatives from the Department of 

Transportation and nine North Atlantic Treaty 

Organization (NATO) countries. It will improve 

weapon delivery and worldwide, rapid force deployment with continuous, precise, three-dimensional 

positioning and navigation. By late 1988 the operational 18-satellite constellation will be able to provide 

positioning information accurate to 16 meters, velocity 

accurate to 0.1 meter per second, and time synchronized to within 0.1 microsecond. DoD users 

benefit from the common positioning grid, superior 

accuracy, and global coverage of NAVSTAR. The 

reliability of a system unaffected by weather and concealed by passive operation (users do not radiate any 

energy) also improves weapon delivery, intelligence, 

and reconnaissance capabilities. 

Full-scale development of GPS began in July 1979. 

Because of the wide range of requirements, uniqueuser equipment was being developed to satisfy the 

needs of the Army, Navy, and Air Force. F-4 bombing 

and helicopter rendezvous were demonstrated with excellent results. In addition, a low-cost prototype 

receiver navigated a United Kingdom aircraft over the 

North Pole. Terrain-following tests with a helicopter 

equipped with a GPS set were successful, and a 

receiver was used on a French maritime patrol aircraft. The Landsat-D satellite, to be launched in 1982, 

will use GPS to determine satellite positions in space 

for correlation with earth photography. The Defense 

Mapping Agency is developing geodetic user equipment to exploit GPS in support of many mapping, 

charting and geodesy missions. 
Meteorology 

The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program 

(DMSP)-supporting DoD’s strategic and tactical 

needs for weather information - requires at least two 

satellites operating continuously in orbit to obtain information from all points on the earth at least four 

times each day. Global weather data are stored on the 

satellites and later transmitted to the Air Force Global 

Weather Center or to the Navy Fleet Numerical 

Oceanography Center. Regional weather data, 

transmitted in real-time to transportable read-out stations at key locations worldwide, also support Army, 

Navy, and Air Force tactical operations. 

Surveillance and Warning 

Early Warning Satellites. Satellites provide early 

warning data to the National Command Authorities, 

the Strategic Air Command, and the North American 

Air Defense Command. In 198 1, design improvements 

to increase survivability were begun, modifying 

ground terminal equipment as well as the spacecraft. 

Space and Missile Surveillance Research. Research 

programs continued to develop sensors and collect 

data on backgrounds for application of infrared 

technology to surveillance and warning missions. In 

missile surveillance technology, new infraredmeasurement hardware was purchased during 1981 to 

improve the accuracy and effectiveness of rocket and 

balloon flights planned for 1982. Infrared data on 

earth backgrounds and rocket engine plumes will 

make a major contribution to system design for a 

space-based missile-surveillance system. In space 

surveillance technology, the space infrared sensor was 

completed and awaits a decision to launch. Four 

sounding rocket probes measured infrared 

background in 1981. 

The Navy, Air Force, and DARPA in 1981 accelerated development of advanced concepts and 

technology for strategic and tactical surveillance from 

space. Programs to demonstrate these technologies in 

system-level proof-of-concept experiments continued. 

A joint technology-development program for improved strategic infrared surveillance has been 

planned and budgeted. 

Development of infrared-mosaic-detector arrays, 

onboard signal processing, cryogenic refrigerators, 

large optics, and structure technology for surveillance 

continued. Preparation of the Teal Ruby experiment 

to qualify first-generation infrared-mosaic detectors in 

space continued toward Space Shuttle launch in 1983. 

Development of components and concepts continued 

for space-based radar, including transceiver modules; 

large, lightweight, phased-array antennas; and onboard signal-processing components. DARPA continued analysis for the Talon Gold experiment to 

develop space technologies for precision acquisition, 

tracking, and pointing at long range. The Navy initiated the integrated tactical-surveillance system 

(ITSS) program to optimize the role of aerospace platforms and sensors working with other surveillance and 

command, control, and communications systems in 

support of offensive and defensive fleet operations. 

Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BME WS). 

Studies begun in 1980 to identify ways to upgrade or 

replace the Distant Early Warning (DEW) Line and 

BMEWS-which make up the U.S. atmospheric tactical warning system, constructed in the 1950s-continued in 1981. Both space- and ground-based alternatives were under consideration, including near-term 

and far-term multimission space-based proposals. 

Detection from Space - Advanced Microwave 

Technology. Development continued on miniature, 

low-cost , radar transceiver modules using integrated 

circuits. Low cost-to-weight ratio and high efficiency 

of the modules are key factors in determining use in 

space-borne radars, as well as other phased-array 

radar and communication applications in airborne 

and surface systems. A silicon-on-sapphire MOSFET 

power amplifier has been demonstrated. Improved 

designs for low-noise amplifiers, phase shifters, and 

passive transmit-and-receive switches were soon to be 

evaluated. Fabrication and testing of fully integrated 

modules were planned for late 1982. Similar critical 

components in gallium arsenide technology have been 

demonstrated, and improved designs will be evaluated 

in 1982. Work continued to demonstrate antenna pattern performance of candidate space-borne, phasedarray-radar membrane structures. 

Space Transportation 

Expendable Launch Vehicles. The U.S. space program’s total of 16 successes in 17 launches on expendable launch vehicles in 1981 included 5 by DoD and 2 

DoD satellites launched by NASA. Launches used 

Atlas-Centaur, Atlas F, Scout, and Titan I11 vehicles. 

Space Shuttle. The successful demonstration of the 

Space Shuttle in its second flight inaugurated a new 

era in space operations-the era of reusable launch 

vehicles. After two more test flights, the Space Shuttle, 

developed under NASA responsibility, is scheduled to 

begin operational flights in September 1982. At its full 

performance, the Shuttle will be able to launch 29 500 

kg into low-inclination orbits from Kennedy Space 

Center (by early 1985) and 15 000 kg into highinclination orbits from Vandenberg Air Force Base (by 

late 1985). This weight capacity and the larger 

payload-bay volume (4.6-meter diameter by 18 meters 

long) will permit a wide variety of payloads to be carried -including multiple payloads in one launch. The 

payload capacity coupled with the routine and continuing presence of man in orbit will greatly expand DoD 

abilities and opportunities in space. 

In the past, payloads worth tens of millions of 

dollars have been lost when post-launch malfunctions 

31 
studied for potential use with the Space Transportation System for planetary and heavier geosynchronous 

missions beginning in early 1985. Preliminary designs 

would increase the size of the propellant tanks to add 

50 percent more capacity (Wide-Body Centaur) and to 

make the stage compatible with the Shuttle. 

Spinning Solid Upper Stage (SSUS). The SSUS was 

being developed to launch smaller spacecraft from the 

Shuttle into geosynchronous-transfer orbit. One version, the SSUS-D, can be used on both the Shuttle and 

the Delta expendable launch vehicle. In 1981, the 

SSUS-D on the Delta launched two satellites: RCA Satcorn 3-R and Satellite Business Systems' SBS 1. 

Spacecraft Charging Technology. The Air Force 

Space Test Program's Spacecraft Charging at High 

Altitude (Scatha, launched into orbit in 1979) continued to produce relevant data on spacecraft electrical charging. In 1981, significant correlation was 

noted between solar events, such as flares, and events 

recorded by Scatha instruments. 

could not be rectified by redundant systems on board 

or by commands from ground control centers. In 

situations ranging from catastrophic failure to the normal exhaustion of propellants or power, the satellites 

have been lost. The Shuttle will provide additional options. The operability of a spacecraft can be reconfirmed after launch and before it is deployed from the 

Shuttle. Malfunctioning spacecraft that are within 

reach of the Shuttle can be repaired in orbit or returned to earth for more extensive work. Spacelab, the 

modular laboratory developed by our European partners to fly in the Shuttle, will permit routine, repetitive 

experimentation and subsystem testing in space, 

Most important, the Space Shuttle is the first step 

toward future routine operations in space. Over the 

next few years, it will become the workhorse for space, 

and emphasis will shift from developing a means to get 

into space toward the many activities we need to pursue in space. 

Space Vehicle Subsystems. The Air Force continued 

to develop advanced guidance, navigation, power, 

and propulsion subsystems for further space programs. 

The space sextant, providing autonomous navigation 

and attitude reference, will be test-flown on the Space 

Shuttle orbiter in 1982. A complementary strapdown, 

multimission, autonomous, navigation and attitudedetermination (MADAN) system also was being 

developed. Efforts in power systems include development of high-efficiency, radiation-hardened, solar 

cells and high-density, metal-gas battery cells. Future 

efforts will integrate and test the solar cells in large 

panels and the metal-gas cells in higher density batteries. A pulsed plasma thruster has been developed to 

provide propulsion for station-keeping of synchronous 

communications satellites. Spaceflight testing of the 

pulsed plasma thruster was planned for the near 

future. A military space systems technology model was 

being developed to provide a graphic method for 

determining future needs and for tracking progress 

toward goals. 

Cryogenic-Infrared-Radiance Instrumentation for 

Shuttle (CIRRIS). The CIRRIS program examined 

earth-limb and atmospheric backgrounds for an in; 

creasing number of applications using infrared 

technology, as well as studying a number of Shuttle 

payload contamination issues. In 1981 the CIRRIS 

payload was integrated with the experiment support 

system, a platform to provide power and other 

housekeeping functions for experimental payloads. 

Inertial Upper Stage. The DoD-developed, solidpropellant, two-stage IUS - to be deployed from the 

Shuttle orbiter into low earth orbit-will be used 

primarily to boost DoD and NASA payloads into 

geosynchronous orbits. Development was proceeding 

on a schedule for 1982 launch from the Titan launch 

vehicle and an early 1983 launch of the first Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite from the Space Shuttle. 

Centaur. The Centaur upper stage was being 

Space Support 

Eustern Space and Missile Center (ESMC). During 

1981, ESMC conducted 41 major test operations to 

support launches and data acquisition in DoD space 

and ballistic-missile operations, NASA space programs, and commercial and international satellite 

launches under NASA sponsorship. The ESMC range 

control center directed DoD radar-tracking-network 

support of the Space Shuttle during the April and 

November orbital flight tests. 

Western Space and Missile Center (WSMC). WSMC 

provides range-tracking, data-acquisition, and flightsafety support for DoD ballistic-missile and NASA and 

DoD space launches, as well as aeronautical tests at 

'Vandenberg AFB. Some 52 major test operations were 

conducted during 1981. Cruise missile programs 

dominated the aeronautical testing. Construction of 

the Space Shuttle Launch Control Center and MX Integrated Test Facility was completed during 1981. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF). The Air Force's network of seven remote tracking sites and the Satellite 

Test Center (STC) at Sunnyvale, California, control 

DoD's orbiting spacecraft. During 1981, the SCF supported 11 launches, including 7 DoD orbital missions, 

2 NASA orbital missions, and 1 ballistic flight test. It 

made 86 137 contacts totaling 72 428 hours of support 

in DoD satellite programs. The production contract in 

the data-system modernization project was awarded in 

December 1980, with operations to begin in early 

1985. This project will centralize data processing at 

the Satellite Test Center, reducing operating costs of 

the remote tracking sites and increasing network 

capability. SCF supported the November 1981 orbital 

flight of the Shuttle, providing Indian Ocean coverage 

from the tracking station in the Seychelles. 

32 
Consolidated Space Operations Center (CSOC). 

CSOC will augment satellite control operations of the 

Satellite Test Center and provide dedicated DoD 

Shuttle-control capability. CSOC will eliminate 

dependence on single critical control elements for both 

satellites and Shuttle and provide the management 

and control needed for military space operations after 

1986. During 1981, the environmental impact analysis 

was completed, and Colorado Springs was selected as 

the CSOC site. Designing began, and construction was 

scheduled to begin in 1983. 

White Sands Mksile Range (WSMR). White Sands 

supported DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs, including the Space Shuttle, upper atmospheric sounding by rockets and balloons, and 

astronomical test programs. Launch, flight, and 

recovery services included both ground and flight safety, range surveillance, command and control, and 

data acquisition and analysis. Space Shuttle activities 

at WSMR included qualification tests of the orbital 

maneuvering system and forward and aft reaction control systems, evaluation of Shuttle spacecraft 

materials, training of astronauts to land the Shuttle, 

preparation of a satellite system to track and relay 

Shuttle data back to the earth, and Shuttle flight support. The range continued preparation for Shuttle 

landings, including training chase-aircraft pilots and 

testing tracking acquisition, data transmission, and 

support systems. 

Kwajalein Missile Range (KMR). The Kwajalein 

Missile Range, operated by the U.S. Army, is the major test range for U.S. strategic missile forces, both offensive and defensive. With the MX advanced intercontinental ballistic missile approaching testing and 

the pace increasing in the development of ballisticmissile defense, activity at KMR is expected to increase 

significantly. The facility collects signature data on 

objects outside the atmosphere, records missile reentry 

when required, and transmits near-real-time data to 

mission sponsors. Data collected on missiles fired into 

the range meet needs of both the strategic offensive 

and defensive communities. The result is the mutual 

accomplishment of test objectives and continuous interchange of data among all developmental programs. 

Arnold Engineering Deuelopment Center (AEDC). 

AEDC provides facilities for testing developmental 

aeronautical and space systems in support of virtually 

every major U.S. aerospace program. More than 

50 000 test hours were accumulated in the various test 

cells in support of projects such as the MX missile, advanced ballistic reentry system (ABRES), advanced 

surveillance devices, cruise missiles, air -launched 

missiles, and Space Shuttle. 

4950th Test Wing. The 4950th Test Wing, an Air 

Force Systems Command unit based at WrightPatterson AFB, Ohio, continued to support national 

space testing programs. The advanced rangeinstrumentation aircraft (ARIA) provided most of this 

support. Programs supported in 1981 or scheduled for 

support included the MX, Trident, Space Shuttle, 

Global Positioning System, Defense Meteorological 

Satellite, and airborne space-laser communication 

system. A modernization program was in progress to 

replace outdated, unreliable equipment and install 

more modern tracking, data-acquisition, and related 

equipment. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Helicopter Programs 

Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH). Full-scale 

engineering development continued on the advanced 

attack helicopter in 1981, with emphasis on integrating and testing the subsystems. The Army’s 

operational test I1 at Fort Hunter-Liggett, California, 

June-August 1981, assessed operational effectiveness, 

reliability, availability, maintainability, supportability, and survivability. The test also evaluated deployment capability and adequacy of the training programs. Army personnel conducted the test in three 

phases: force-on-force tests with near-real-time casualty assessment; firing of Hellfire missiles, 30 mm cannon, and 70 mm rockets; and side experiments. The 

Army was preparing for a production decision in 

March 1982. 

CH-47 Modernization. Engineering development 

for CH-47 modernization began in 1976 to give the 

Army a medium-lift helicopter beyond the year 2000. 

Three prototype CH-47D models incorporate eight 

modernized systems: rotor, drive, engines, hydraulic, 

electrical, advanced-flight-control, cargo-handling, 

and an auxiliary power unit. These changes should 

improve performance, maintenance, and safety; 

reduce vulnerability; and produce one standard 

CH-47 configuration, facilitating logistics and 

maintenance. The first production contract for nine 

helicopters was signed in late 1980. By the end of 

1981, two CH-47D prototypes had flown more than 

1740 hours of testing. A 1982 contract was planned for 

modernization of the next 19 helicopters. Modernization of the entire fleet of 436 CH-47A, B, and C 

helicopters was planned, and the first complete unit of 

24 CH-47D helicopters was to enter service in early 

1984. 

UH-60 Black Hawk. In 1976, Sikorsky Aircraft was 

awarded the first production contract for the Army’s 

Black Hawk helicopter, and General Electric was given 

the contract for the engine. By the end of 1981, 337 

UH-6OAs had been placed on contract and the Army 

had accepted 191. The Black Hawk was in service with 

the lOlst Airborne Division (Airmobile) at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, and other high-priority Army Forces 

Command units. It can carry a combat-equipped 

squad of 11 men, or comparable cargo, in all weather, 

33 
day or night, in all operational environments. It has 

met all user requirements in the field. 

The Air Force has decided to modernize its combat 

helicopter fleet with a derivative of the Army's Black 

Hawk. The aircraft, to be designated the HH-GOD, 

will have extended range and the capability for operations at night and in adverse weather. Full-scale 

development was scheduled to begin in 1982 with first 

deliveries in 1986. 

Cobra/TO W. Modification of existing Cobra 

helicopters and purchase of new aircraft with the 

highly effective tube-launched, optically tracked, 

wire-guided (TOW) missile, continued. Deliveries of 

the retrofitted Cobra helicopters, begun in June 1975, 

will be completed in February 1984. Upgraded engine, 

transmission, and dynamic components to improve 

maneuverability were incorporated in new aircraft 

starting with deliveries in March 1977. The Army 

planned to upgrade the secondary armament and survivability of the Cobra/TOW to a fully modernized 

AH- 1s helicopter. The modernization program also 

includes addition of forward-looking infrared (FLIR) 

to its TOW missile system and making that system 

capable of firing all three kinds of TOW missile. 

Advanced Digital- Optical Control System 

(ADOCS). The ADOCS will increase mission effectiveness of Army helicopters while reducing cost and 

weight. Redundant digital-optical hardware will provide protection on the battlefield from ballistic 

weapons, lightning, electromagnetic pulse, and 

nuclear radiation. Optics, immune to electrical interference, will provide protection even with the newer 

composite structures that offer only limited electrical 

shielding. 

Since 1979, the program has developed components 

and technology for a 1984 flight-demonstration program. Two control media-mechanization programs 

were completed in 1981, providing data on optimum 

control media paths and information on additional 

testing necessary to ensure safe use. Six digital-optical 

transducer programs begun in 1980 completed design 

and entered fabrication. Design data will be available 

to the ADOCS flight-demonstration contractor for 

preliminary system design. Fabrication of the optical 

servovalve began. A 24-month contract for the advanced controller and advanced flight control system 

(AFCS) was awarded in late 1980. During 1981, initial 

literature review, analyses, and simulations were completed. A 15-month contract for an advanced rotoractuation concept was awarded in late 1980. All 

technical work under this contract was completed in 

1981 and includes preliminary designs of small and 

medium-size helicopter rotor-actuation concepts. The 

ADOCS flight-demonstration contract was awarded in 

late 1981, with a planned 52-month period of performance. 

Fixed- Wing Programs 

Remotely A'loted Vehicles (RPV). First flight of the 

Army's remotely piloted vehicle was scheduled for 

mid-1982. The RPV will perform target-acquisition, 

laser-designation, aerial-reconnaissance, and artilleryadjustment missions. The small, unmanned air vehicle 

and its mission payload are controlled from a ground 

station, and video imagery and target -location information are returned via a jam-resistant data link. A 

contract awarded Lockheed Missiles and Space Company in 1979 for full-scale engineering development 

calls for 22 vehicles, 18 mission payload subsystems, 4 

ground control stations, and 3 launcher and 3 recovery 

subsystems. 

Advanced Fighter Technology Integration (AFTZ). 

The Air Force AFI'I program completed modification 

of an F-16 aircraft in 1981. The test aircraft integrates 

a triple-redundant, digital flight-control system with 

canard control surfaces to achieve independent sixdegree-of-freedom control, improving agility and flexibility. During later phases of the program, the advanced system will be integrated with a fire control 

system to achieve highly accurate maneuvering attack 

capability. Technology demonstrated in the AFI'I 

program will be used to improve the performance of 

future fighter aircraft. 

Forward Swept Wing. A joint DARPA-USAF 

demonstration program was begun in 1981 to design, 

build, and flight-test an experimental aircraft with a 

forward swept wing. The program will demonstrate 

the feasibility of using advanced composite materials 

to control wing bending in this configuration. The 

theoretical advantages include reduced transonic drag 

and increased lift at high angles of attack. The program will investigate these potential advantages and 

will further define engineering considerations. 

Transport Aircraft. Douglas Aircraft Company was 

selected as the prime contractor for the C-17. This aircraft will be capable of transporting the outsize equipment of a modern army over intercontinental ranges 

directly into austere airfields in the deployment area. 

Full-scale development was being considered for early 

1982. 

Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The ALCM 

is a key element in the U.S. bomber force. It provides 

greater weapon accuracy, flexible routing and 

targeting, reduced exposure to enemy defenses, and 

saturation of defenses. Initially, B-52G aircraft will 

carry 12 ALCMs loaded on two external pylons, while 

retaining the capability to deliver internally carried 

short-range attack missiles and gravity weapons 

through 1986. 

Beginning in 1986, ALCMs will be loaded externally on B-52H aircraft, and still later plans include internal loading of cruise missiles on the B-52Hs for a total 

of 20 missiles each. The B-1B and the advanced34 
technology bomber will also be capable of carrying the 

cruise missiles. 

At the end of 1981, the ALCM program was concurrently in full production, final development, and 

follow-on operational test and evaluation. A total of 

705 ALCMs were under contract in 1981. A 1982 contract for 440 missiles was in review, and a 20-flight test 

program that began in June 1980 was scheduled for 

completion in mid-1982. The capability to put the 

first modified B-52G aircraft on alert with external 

ALCMs was achieved in September 1981 at Griffiss 

AFB, New York. Initial operational capability of an 

entire B-52G squadron, with each aircraft equipped 

with 12 external ALCMs, was scheduled for December 

1982. 

Bomber Development. On 8 September 1980, Congress directed the Department of Defense to pursue 

full-scale engineering development of a multirole 

bomber, maximizing range, payload, and the ability 

to perform both tactical and strategic missions of a 

conventional bomber, cruise-missile launch platform, 

and nuclear-weapon delivery system. 

On 2 October 1981, President Reagan announced 

his new strategic program, which included a comprehensive plan to modernize the bomber force. This 

plan will deploy 100 B-1 variants (B-lBs), with an initial operational capability in 1986. Concurrent with 

deployment of the B-1Bs will be a research and 

development program designed to deploy advanced - technology bombers (ATBs) in the early 1990s. The 

previous administration had planned to rely on B-52s 

throughout the 1980s and to deploy the ATB in the 

1990s. The present administration believes that the 

B-1B is necessary to bolster the strategic forces during 

the 1980s and 199Os, and the ATB is needed to provide high confidence that US. bombers will be able to 

penetrate enemy air defenses into the next century. 

The new B-1B will provide additional force during a 

period when the United States must depend heavily on 

bombers while taking steps to strengthen land-based 

missiles. The aircraft is expected to be able to 

penetrate enemy defenses well into the 1990s; later, 

when the B-52’s ability as a cruise-missile carrier 

becomes questionable and as new ATBs enter the 

force in numbers, the B-1Bs can carry a greater share 

of the cruise missiles, eventually replacing the B-52s in 

this role. The B-1B will then serve as a standoff cruisemissile carrier and conventional bomber well into the 

next century. 

This time-phased modernization program permits 

orderly development of an advanced technology 

bomber. The ATB is now in the very early stages of 

design and concept development. The technologies 

are promising, but the major advances required indicate that concentrating solely on an ATB would entail high risk. However, the ATB will serve as an essential element of a mixed force of penetrating bombers 

and cruise missiles sufficient to deter an enemy 

through the 1990s and into the next century. The 

ATB will be needed to supplement the B- 1 force in the 

early 1990s to ensure continuing capability against 

heavily defended, mobile or superhardened targets. A 

mixed force of this nature will permit a wide variety of 

tactical actions and present a difficult problem to a 

sophisticated enemy defense. 

Aeronautical Research 

Circulation Control Rotor. Redesign and engineering to correct control problems in the circulationcontrol rotorcraft being developed by the Navy continued during 1981. The rotor’s potential increased 

hover-lift capability should significantly increase cargo 

or troop lift capacity for vertical replenishment and 

marine assault. Basically a shaft-driven rotor system 

with boundary-layer control, it employs a unique airblowing technique. Tangential blowing through a 

hollow blade over a rounded trailing edge generates 

high lift, and blowing modulation provides cyclic control and higher harmonic control, eliminating many 

conventional helicopter components. Whirl-tower 

tests have demonstrated a lift capability of more than 

7700 kilograms on the 13.5-meter-diameter rotor. 

Wind-tunnel tests at NASA’s Ames Research Center 

showed the rotor capable of trimmed flight of 260 

kilometers per hour. The first hover flight was made in 

September 1979. 

Synthetic Flight Training. The Army negotiated a 

multiyear production contract in April 1981 for five 

flight simulators for the Army AH-1 helicopter, with 

deliveries scheduled through 1984. Providing realistic 

visual display by closed-circuit TV and a threedimensional terrain-model board, it is the first Army 

simulator for both qualification of aerial weapons and 

proficiency training. A prototype was in use at Fort 

Rucker, Alabama, in 1980 and 1981. 

Developmental and operational testing of the 

Army’s prototype flight simulator for the UH-GOA 

Black Hawk helicopter continued in 1981. One of the 

prototype’s two cockpit training stations uses closedcircuit TV and the other, computer images. 

Computer-image generation will be evaluated in 

operational testing to determine the best visionics for 

the final production unit. 

The Army’s CH-47 simulator program was proceeding on schedule. A multiyear contract provides for 

an initial purchase of three production CH-47C 

models and an option for two CH-47D simulators. The 

first production model completed in-plant acceptance 

testing in November 1981; it was expected to be ready 

for use at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, by June 1982. 

Air Mobility Research Program. The Army does 

basic research in the aerodynamics of rotor systems, 

rotary wing and V/STOL aircraft, and advanced propulsion systems, as well as developing materials, structures, and aviation electronics for future aircraft. 

35 
Noteworthy achievements in 1981 were made in 

aeromechanics, propulsion, structures, mathematics, 

and electronics. Four composite components (baggage 

door, forward fairing, litter door, and vertical fin) 

were installed on a testbed helicopter for high-flighttime service evaluation. 

Aeronautical Technology Program. The Army also 

carries out exploratory development and expands 

scientific knowledge in aeronautical technology. It exploits this knowledge to increase operational effectiveness of helicopters, reduce life-cycle costs, decrease 

dependence on mechanical components, and improve 

helicopter-analysis system integration and flight 

simulation, using both in-house and contract research. 

In 1981, simulator studies of control-display interaction continued, with emphasis on control system aids 

for possible application to attack helicopter tasks, including hover and bob-up performance. The program 

studied effects of engine response on helicopter handling, completed the aeroelastic analysis of an elasticgimbal rotor system, and designed and tested the 

major joint and attachments on an all-composite 

helicopter. Research began on a high-pressure-ratio 

compressor and a supersonic turbine and continued on 

adaptive fuel control to improve aircraft handling. 

Studies determined optimum combinations of centrifugal and axial compressors for a range of airflows 

and pressure ratios. A program established the 

feasibility of a helicopter-mounted smoke-aerosol 

system to counter visual rangefinders. 

Flight -demonstration hardware for simplified cargo 

handling was designed and fabricated. Some 2000 advanced design concepts for helicopter improvements 

were evaluated. Abrasion-resistant coatings for windshields showed significant improvements. Battledamage repair methods were identified for structures. 

Development of a new diagnostics method, LOGMOD, was completed. An ice-phobic coating for main 

and tail rotors was flight-tested. Architectural design 

began for the second-generation, comprehensive, 

helicopter analysis system (ZGCHAS). New software 

and apparatus for man-machine research were also 

developed. Development of SPURS-A, a hybrid 

analog computer and program for rotor mathematical 

modeling, continued. 

Avionics. In 1981, the Small Business Administration released the entire nap-of-the-earth (NOE) program from its pilot program. NOE was to develop 

technology to permit automated, low-level, terrainfollowing flight. The Army’s Communications Electronics Command (CECOM) resolicited contractors 

for the program and will announce the contract award 

by mid- 1982. In addition, advanced development 

work continued on the joint tactical microwave landing system, toward production of hardware for flight 

testing by all three services in 1982. Finally, integrating of overall aircraft electronic systems continued. Field testing was completed on integrated 

avionics controls within the cockpit. Analysis of ways 

to combine engine and airframe sensors was under 

way, as well as interface studies to permit avionics to 

use a lightweight data-bus system in place of individually dedicated copper wires. These projects 

should eventually provide lighter weight, lower cost 

aircraft electronics that are less susceptible to combat 

damage. 

Advanced Composite Airframe Program (ACAP). 

The objective of ACAP is to develop and demonstrate 

helicopter airframes made of composite materials that 

will reduce weight by 22 percent and cost by 17 percent, reduce radar cross-section, improve crashworthiness, reduce maintenance, and lengthen life. The 

program aims to establish industry and Army confidence in composites for primary airframe structures, 

leading toward the early introduction of composite 

structures into operational helicopters. Resulting 

technology will be applicable to all future Army aircraft systems as well as the present helicopter fleet. 

Preliminary design work by Kaman, Sikorsky, Bell, 

Hughes, and Boeing Vertol was completed in May 

1980. Contracts for phase I (detailed design and fullscale fabrication) with an option for phase I1 

(laboratory tests and flight demonstration) were 

awarded to Bell and Sikorsky on 31 March 1981. Phase 

I work began in April, with detailed designs and windtunnel tests during the second half of 1981. The tests 

indicated that the static stability of the airframe was 

adequate and airframe and landing-gear drag was 

close to that predicted. 

Relations with NASA 

Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) deals with major policy issues of 

mutual DoD and NASA interest. During 1981, in addition to continuing activities of the AACB panels, the 

board reviewed NASA-DoD work toward future alternatives for IUS and Centaur upper stages for the Space 

Shuttle, reviewed the development status of the Space 

Transportation System in preparation for the first 

manned orbital flight in April 1981, and reviewed STS 

improvements, STS operations, and DoD STS activities. The board also initiated a NASA-DoD study of 

technology and facility needs to support future DoD 

aircraft requirements. 

Cooperative Programs 

Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA). Two 

research aircraft -designed for inflight tests of full - 

scale main rotor systems with two to six blades-continued to serve as “flying wind tunnels” at NASA’s 

Ames Research Center in a joint Army-NASA 

helicopter research program. The design also permits 
addition of fixed wings and thrusting engines to test 

rotors at speeds up to 555 kilometers per hour. One of 

the aircraft earlier flew tests as a pure helicopter, as a 

compound vehicle with thrusting engines, and as a 

compound vehicle with thrusting engines and lift - augmenting wings. 

X V-15 Tilt-Rotor Research. The tilt-rotor research 

aircraft program continued rapid progress in 1981, 

testing experimental aircraft that can take off and 

land like helicopters and can tilt engines and rotors 

90° to cruise in flight like conventional aircraft. Aircraft no. 2 (N703NA) was accepted by the government 

in October 1980 after shakedown tests by the contractor. Government flight testing began with a NASAArmy team at Dryden Flight Research Facility, exploring high-risk areas of the flight envelope. Performance 

met or exceeded estimates, with no adverse aeroelastic 

trends noted. Exploration of the flight envelope continued at Ames Research Center from May 1981, as 

well as studies of aircraft performance in short takeoffs 

and landings and steep approaches. 

Following restoration from wind-tunnel configuration to flightworthy status, aircraft no. 1 (N702NA) 

began contractor flight tests to check performance 

against that of aircraft no. 2. Tests with Navy support 

evaluated downwash and ground wash at a variety of 

rotor-tip speeds, power levels, and heights from the 

ground. The tests also obtained data on acoustics and 

pilot work-load in a precision hover task at various 

heights. 

In the spring, aircraft no. 1 participated in the Paris 

Air Show, flying demonstrations daily and arousing 

great interest. The tilt-rotor team also briefed NATO 

officials. Returned to Ames, the aircraft was back in 

flight status at the end of 1981. Tests of the XV-15 at 

Fort Huachuca and Nellis AFB were planned for 1982. 

Satellite Communications. NASA and the Air Force 

were cooperating in a program to develop components 

and subsystems for satellite communications in the 

20- and 30-GHz bands, including solid-state replacements for uplink and downlink repeaters and terminals. 

37 
Department of Commerce 

Four agencies in the Department of Commerce contribute directly to the nation’s aeronautics and space 

programs: the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Bureau of Standards (NBS), the National Telecommunications and 

Information Administration (NTIA), and the Bureau 

of the Census (BOC). 

NOAA’s long-range goal is to improve the safety 

and quality of life through better understanding of the 

earth’s environment and more efficient use of its 

resources. NOAA manages and operates the nation’s 

civil, operational, environmental satellite systems. It 

provides satellite data to assess the effect of natural 

and human factors on global food and fuel supplies 

and on environmental quality. It uses satellite and 

aerial data to observe and forecast weather cond;:ions, 

issue warnings of severe weather and floods, and assist 

communities in preparing for weather-related 

disasters; to prepare charts and coastal maps and for 

geodetic research; and to assess and conserve marine 

life. NOAA archives and disseminates satellite data to 

meet the needs of public and private users and incorporates it into research programs to improve the nation’s environmental services. 

NBS develops and maintains the national standards 

of measurement for government, industry, and 

academia. It provides measurement support services 

for space systems, atmospheric and space research, 

and aeronautical programs. 

NTIA, the principal communications adviser to the 

president, develops and coordinates executive branch 

policy in telecommunications and information. NTIA 

manages the radio spectrum assigned for federal use, 

provides technical assistance to federal agencies, 

and develops telecommunications applications. 

BOC uses satellite data to improve information on 

population trends, urban growth, and the internal 

structure of national land areas. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

Polar- Orbiting Satellites. At the beginning of 1981, 

Tiros-N and Noaa 6 were the active polar-orbiting 

satellites operated by the National Earth Satellite Service (NESS). After failure of the power supply on 

Tiros-N in February, NESS operated a one-polarsatellite system until Noaa 7, launched 23 June 1981, 

became operational on 24 August. Noaa 6 and 7, in 

sun-synchronous orbits, provided environmental observations of the entire earth four times each day. 

Noaa 6 crosses the equator southward at 7:30 a.m. 

local time, and Noaa 7 crosses the equator northward 

at 2:30 p.m. 

These satellites carry four primary instruments: the 

advanced very-high-resolution radiometer, the TIR OS 

operational vertical sounder, the Argos data-collection 

and platform-location system, and the space environment monitor. 

Geostationary Satellites. At the end of 1981, Goes 4 

and 5 were the operational satellites in NOAA’s 

Geostationary Operational Environment Satellite 

(GOES) system, the successor to NASA’s prototype 

Synchronous Meteorological Satellites (SMS). Goes 4, 

launched in September 1980, replaced Goes 3 as the 

western operational satellite on 5 March 1981, because 

of deterioration of the Goes 3 visible-infrared spinscan radiometer (VISSR). Goes 5 was launched 22 

May 1981 and replaced SMS 2 as the eastern satellite 5 

August, when the SMS VISSR failed. Of three satellites on standby-SMS 1, Goes 1, and Goes 2, providing limited operational weather support for weather 

facsimile and data collection - SMS 1 was deactivated 

29 January 1981 after nearly seven years’ service. For 

the first time, a U.S. geostationary satellite was 

boosted up and out of orbit to alleviate cluttering at 

the geostationary altitude. 

In orbit at 35 000 kilometers, Goes 4 and 5 are 

equipped with the VISSR atmospheric sounder (VAS). 

In addition to the traditional images of the earth’s surface and cloud cover, the VAS records atmospheric 

temperatures and water vapor content at various 

altitudes. It has a multispectral imaging capability 

with 12 infrared channels and can derive temperature 

and moisture data over selected areas. First results of 

the VAS demonstration program showed promise, and 

planning was begun for a ground system to use the full 

VAS capability, to improve operational forecasting. 

GOES satellites also carry a space environment 

monitor, a data-collection system, and weather facsimile broadcast service. 

Land Satellites. NOAA, directed to prepare for 

management of an operational land satellite system 

38 
based on the Landsat-D and -D’ satellites being constructed by NASA, expects to assume operational 

responsibility for the first of these satellites early in 

1983, after NASA has launched and tested Landsat-D. 

NOAA will operate the two satellites and supporting 

services for data users until the private sector can take 

over the land-remote-sensing program. During 1981, 

NOAA worked with federal agencies and the user 

community to ensure smooth management of the 

system and to determine the appropriate institutional 

framework for private sector takeover. 

The Program Board on Civil Operational Land 

Remote Sensing from Space, established by the 

secretary of commerce with members from 11 federal 

agencies and departments, coordinates federal matters 

related to the operational system. For interested 

nonfederal groups, the secretary established the Land 

Remote Sensing Satellite Advisory Committee. Its 15 

members will begin regular meetings in 1982, advising 

on system management and private sector activities. 

NOAA conducted five general conferences in 1981 

to inform nonfederal interests of plans and to seek advice about system management and future commercialization. It held three other meetings, specifically 

directed to commercialization questions. NOAA used 

information from these meetings and others in Africa, 

Asia, and South America to refine management 

preparations, to develop recommendations for administration proposals for legislation, and to facilitate 

planning for the future transfer. 

Satellite Data Services 

Data Distribution. Images from the European 

weather satellite Meteosat 2 were first received by 

NOAA on 16 September 1981 and became an operational product available to GOES-Tap users during 

October. These visible, thermal-infrared, and atmospheric water -vapor data provide excellent weather 

information for aviation and shipping in the eastern 

Atlantic, Europe, Africa, western Asia, and western 

Indian Ocean. Received at NASA’s Goddard Space 

Flight Center, the data are relayed directly to NOAA 

for nationwide distribution. 

The GOES-Tap system, which became operational 

in 1975 to disseminate weather satellite images by 

geographic sectors over standard telephone circuits, 

continued to expand. NESS began hardware modifications to permit more than 400 direct GOES-Tap 

connections through the Satellite Field Services Stations. The original 50 Weather Service Forecast 

Office-Taps increased by the end of 1981 to some 200 

taps for a multitude of users, including the National 

Weather Service, military facilities, private 

meteorological firms, TV stations, and universities. 

Secondary taps off these 200 totaled more than 400. 

During 1981, NESS eliminated its last “wet” 

photographic laboratory, at the Honolulu station. 

NESS now uses dry-paper, image-processing devices 

for satellite image display at all field locations. To 

reduce operating costs further and increase services, 

installation of an electronic animation system (EAS) at 

each field station was begun in 1981; devices were installed in Washington, Miami, and Honolulu during 

the year. The EAS will provide cloud animation previously provided by movie loops. The microprocessorcontrolled, video disc system uses a TV camera to store 

satellite images sequentially on the disc. Images are 

played back electronically to display animated cloud 

motion. Versatility of the EAS permits simultaneous 

display of two independent “loops” on TV monitors, 

and meteorologists can control each loop separately 

for detailed analysis. The first phase of the improvement program -photo lab elimination and animation 

upgrading - neared completion. Engineering for the 

second phase, digital transmission of data, began in 

late 1981. Stations now transmit and receive satellite 

image data in an analog (facsimile) format. Computer 

processing and inherent hardware limitations slightly 

delay the transmission of facsimile images, and they 

cannot be used for precise quantitative analysis. 

Digital transmission will provide more timely and 

quantitative information. A microcomputer system 

will be developed to transmit digital infrared data in 

near real-time on the existing communication system, 

and a similar microcomputer system at field stations 

will permit more detailed analysis of regional weather 

and ocean systems. 

GOES weather facsimile (WEFAX) broadcast 

schedules were expanded on both the central and the 

west GOES satellites, so that 198 satellite sectors and 

66 weather charts can be broadcast each day. Some 

150 national and international WEFAX users include 

more than 40 U.S. government stations. During April 

1981, the first WEFAX Users Conference was held in 

Washington, D.C., with 130 attendees including 

representatives from several foreign meteorological 

agencies, academia, industry, and amateur radio enthusiasts. 

The GOES Data Collection System (DCS) at the end 

of 1981 had more than 2500 data-collection platforms 

(a 100-percent increase in the past year) operated by 

58 national and international users. There were 13 

operational direct-readout stations with 2 more expected to become operational next year. A revised 

DCS Users Interface Manual reflected major changes 

put into effect with the automatic monitoring system 

that keeps watch on the quality of radio performance 

of the DCS platforms. Also, a major reply-channel 

realignment will ensure a three-kilohertz separation 

between channels on the same spacecraft, reducing 

chances of interference and allocating segments of the 

frequency bank for specific operations, such as random reporting and interrogation. Improvements in 

data distribution from the NESS DCS Center at Camp 

39 
Springs also included addition of a rotary direct-dialin system. 

On 24 August 1981, NOAA opened its seventh 

Satellite Field Services Station -at Slidell, Louisiana - and began 24-hour satellite observation of the 

Gulf Coast and the Gulf of Mexico weather and ocean 

conditions. The new station, colocated with the National Weather Service Forecast Office, will assist 

NWS in expanding forecasting and warning services 

for coastal and offshore areas from Mexico to Florida. 

Special attention will be paid to conditions affecting 

small craft and helicopter traffic supporting offshore 

oil platforms. 

The Environmental Data and Information Service 

(EDIS) completed a functional design for an electronic 

catalog service. Implementation of the basic system 

was planned for late 1982, to provide elements of the 

US. climate program a comprehensive catalog of 

satellite data and products. A computerized interactive service with remote access (supplemented by hard 

copy) will provide “one-stop’’ service for information 

about the availability, characterisitics, and source of 

data and products from all satellite data archives. 

Ultimately the user will be able to place an order electronically. 

In 1981 EDIS also completed studies and began procurement for a system to collect and store fullresolution GOES digital data, produce statistical summaries, and provide photographic and digital data or 

summary products by late 1982 or early 1983. Meanwhile, the University of Wisconsin was archiving these 

data for the period beginning with the first GARP 

Global Experiment (December 1978) until the new 

system is operating. 

Data Support. EDIS provided central information 

exchange, archival, and data-dissemination services 

for the international Solar Maximum Year program 

during 1981. It also provided preliminary information 

exchange and participated in planning for the Middle 

Atmosphere Program scheduled for 1982 to 1985. 

Using energetic particle data from the Tiros-N and 

Noaa 6 satellites, EDIS developed a computer program to identify the equatorward boundary of the 

auroral oval. The results will support tests of a new 

U.S. Air Force over-the-horizon radar system. Precipitation estimates from Tiros-N and GOES satellite 

images supported the Agency for International 

Development’s disaster assistance effort, in evaluation 

of weather effects on crops in developing nations. During 1981, EDIS provided weather data to 50 countries 

in Africa, and also to Central and South America and 

Asia. 

National Weather Service support to the 1981 Space 

Shuttle flights was aided by GOES satellite images, 

particularly in monitoring weather conditions near 

preselected recovery sites around the world. Weather 

criteria for recovery or landing were stringent, and the 

high-resolution images provided information not 

available from other sources. 

NWS also established special ocean service units in 

New Orleans and Washington to expand services to 

the marine community. Satellite data will be used to 

monitor sea surface temperatures, ocean color 

changes, ocean current intensity and migration, sea 

ice and sea fog, sea state, and other factors affecting 

fishing, marine transportation, offshore drilling, and 

other marine activities. 

In 1981, NOAA began to plan experiments and 

tests for a variety of techniques for weather forecasting 

and warnings using data obtained from the VISSR atmospheric sounder (VAS) on the Goes 4 and 5 

satellites. The capability of these instruments to 

monitor variations of atmospheric temperature and 

moisture was demonstrated. During September and 

October 1981, a hurricane research support operation 

used GOES-East (at 75” west longitude). Eight 

30-minute atmospheric temperature soundings over 

Atlantic hurricanes were made each day. Also, the 

GOES-West (135OW) satellite produced two water 

vapor images each day. These images were available to 

users through the GOES-Tap, and moisture images 

were used to locate high-altitude low-pressure areas 

and jet streams. These atmospheric temperature and 

moisture profiles are expected to improve central 

guidance products, severe local storm forecasting, 

tropical storm analysis and forecasting, and mesoscale 

weather event detection. Additionally, the VAS has 

the potential to improve sea surface temperature 

measurements and forecasts of clear-air turbulence, 

thunderstorm formation, and minimum temperatures. 

In 1980, NASA and NOAA demonstrated a Centralized Storm Information System in the operational 

environment of the National Severe Storms Forecast 

Center in Kansas City. During 1981, preliminary 

evaluation was completed. The system is designed to 

increase flexibility in displaying satellite data and 

superimposing conventional meteorological information on the satellite images. The new technology provided field forecasters with improved mesoscale 

analyses and guidance. Satellite interpretation 

messages discussed phenomena such as rapidly 

developing thunderstorms, intersecting small-scale 

boundaries where convection often develops, and lowlevel wind-shear boundaries. In addition, greater emphasis was placed on weather situations that affect aircraft operations, such as areas where fog and stratus 

are forming, moving, and dissipating and areas of 

adverse winds aloft. Rapidly transmitted information 

permitted air controllers to assess pending air-traffic 

problems better and to improve terminal forecasts. 

During 1981, NOAA supported several climate 

research programs using the Argos data-collection and 

platform-location system on NOAA satellites to 
monitor and track drifting buoys. The Argos system 

offers precise platform-location data (within 5 

kilometers), critical for investigating ocean currents 

and ice-field movement, and affords reliable and 

economical data collection from remotely deployed 

surface and subsurface sensors. More than 75 buoys 

collected oceanographic, meteorological, and location 

data to support several studies: The Equatorial Pacific 

Ocean Climate Studies (EPOCS) are testing the 

hypothesis that interannual variability of the 

equatorial sea surface temperature is a fundamental 

driving force for interannual atmospheric variability. 

The Arctic Basin Buoy Program was designed to 

measure and archive data on fields of pressure, 

temperature, and ice velocity and their year-to-year 

variations: determine relationships between atmospheric variables and ice behavior: determine ice 

export from the basin; and improve real-time highlatitude pressure maps and forecasts of weather and 

ice conditions. The Observations of the Equatorial 

Surface Jet program examines the spatial extent of the 

equatorial surface jet stream in the Indian Ocean, using drifting buoys deployed at regular intervals. 

Satellite Data Uses 

Winds and Temperatures. NESS studies 

demonstrated that satellite sounding data can depict 

the horizontal and vertical temperature structure of 

the atmosphere in both tropical and extratropical 

regions. The temperature structure, associated with 

the low-level jet stream over the eastern Atlantic 

Ocean and western Africa, was established using only 

satellite data and vertical cross-sections in midlatitude frontal zones; results compared closely to 

those determined from radiosonde measurements. 

Also, a joint experiment was begun with the Israel 

Meteorological Service and Tel Aviv University to 

evaluate the effects of satellite soundings and cloudvector winds on operational numerical weather forecasting models. 

During three weeks of March 1981, in Denver, 

simultaneous radiometric and radar data from the 

NOAA Wave Propagation Laboratory's ground-based 

profiler were processed to yield vertical temperature 

profiles for comparison with profiles derived from the 

Noaa 6 satellite. Except within about 1500 meters of 

the earth's surface, where the satellite measurements 

are poor, the ground-based and satellite profile agreed 

to within 2'C. 

The hardware feasibility study of a Space Shuttlelaunched Windsat, a satellite to measure global winds 

with an onboard, pulsed-doppler lidar (laser light 

detection and ranging), was extended to include experiments in detecting water vapor, temperature, 

aerosols, and atmospheric constituents. With only 

minor changes, the Windsat feasibility experiment accommodated a number of experiments originally proposed for other lasers. An analysis of the preliminary 

design of Wandsat showed that it could perform with a 

satellite weight of less than 1000 kilograms and power 

less than one kilowatt. 

NESS developed an objective analysis technique to 

measure low-level winds around hurricanes from cloud 

motions derived from geostationary satellite images. 

The satellite-derived measurements compared favorably with wind measurements by NOAA reconnaissance aircraft. 

During 1981, alternatives for deriving high-altitude 

wind measurements were evaluated to replace the cost - ly film-loop method, which requires expensive photo 

processing. The two methods tested were an automatic 

computer-generated product and an interactivecomputer method controlled by a meteorologist. Although testing and evaluation are not complete, NESS 

began using the interactive method in late 1981, to 

benefit from the cost savings until the testing was completed. 

High-resolution multispectral data, obtained from 

the Noaa 6 and 7 advanced very-high-resolution 

radiometers, were used to test new methods for measuring sea surface temperatures globally from space. 

Preliminary results indicated that significant improvements could be made and that more high-quality 

temperature measurements were being obtained than 

with the method already in use. Operational use of the 

new technique began in November 1981. 

A sea-surface-temperature composite chart, using 

visible and infrared digital data from GOES satellites, 

was made operational during 1981. The composite 

uses digital data at different observation times to form 

a more cloud-free sea-surface field of thermal-infrared 

temperatures. The composite field is used mainly for 

detecting ocean thermal fronts and eddies, and their 

movements, in high-gradient ocean and coastal zone 

areas of the United States. It is produced once a day 

for preselected areas of the coastal zone 

Global Radiation. NESS research made considerable progress in the Nimbus 7 Earth Radiation 

Budget program. Two complete years of solar data 

have yielded a mean solar constant of 1375.6 watts 

per square meter with a standard deviation of 0.97 

watts per sq m. Variations exceeding 0.2 percent over 

five to seven days were observed and were independently verified by an instrument on the Solar Maximum MLssion satellite. A preliminary set of models for 

the angular distribution of reflected and emitted 

radiation appears to be an improvement on existing 

models. 

A 67-month data set comprising mean monthly 

radiation budget estimates (albedo, outgoing radiation, absorbed solar energy) was extended with Noaa 6 

and 7 data. These data have been extensively used by 

the Climate Analysis Center in diagnosing climatic 

conditions and by NESS in studying the radiation 

balance during the first GARP global experiment. 

41 
Enmkonmental Warning. NOAA’s National Hurricane Research Laboratory (NHRL) continued to use 

satellite and other remote-sensing data to support its 

hurricane research. Aircraft-borne microwave instruments measured wind speeds in Hurricane Greta 

and Ella in 1978, and measurements were compared 

with Seasat scatterometer-derived figures. Seasatderived winds were mostly within 10 percent of the 

aircraft-measured winds. The exception was near the 

region of maximum winds, where Semat underestimated aircraft -measured winds by 20 percent 

because of poor spatial resolution. In a similar experiment during Hurricane Allen in 1980, satellite-derived 

winds were within 10 percent of the aircraft-measured 

winds up to 240 kilometers per hour and were of high 

spatial resolution-demonstrating that hurricaneforce winds can be remotely measured. 

NESS studied satellite images to improve warning 

services. The Miami Satellite Field Services Station continued to monitor Atlantic Ocean hurricanes for the 

NWS National Hurricane Center. The locations and 

maximum sustained winds for all hurricanes and other 

tropical disturbances were determined from satellite 

data, which were often the only information available. 

Hurricanes were located with an average accuracy of 

32 km, and maximum sustained winds were estimated 

with an average accuracy of 18.5 km per hour. Center 

forecasters prepared advisories for the public, marine, 

and military interests. Similar information is provided 

by the San Francisco station for the eastern Pacific 

Ocean, by the Honolulu station for the central Pacific 

Ocean, and by NESS’S Synoptic Analysis Branch for 

the western Pacific and Indian Oceans. 

In support of NHRL’s study to detect large cumulonimbus clouds called “supercells,” NHRL used 

rapid-scan images from the GOES-East satellite to 

document the evolution and structure of these cells in 

developing tropical storms. The satellite images permitted interpretation of simultaneously obtained aircraft measurements. 

Using GOES digital infrared images in other 

research, NOAA’s Office of Weather Research and 

Modification estimated rainfall from convective clouds 

over the central United States for one month. The 

technique was tested under mesoscale conditions to 

develop streamflow models. Satellite rain estimates 

compared favorably with rain-gauge and radar data. 

NASA and NOAA investigated the Florida sea-breeze 

regime. Rainfall computed for six study days showed 

that the rainfall patterns of the convergence zones in a 

sea-breeze model were similar to rainfall estimates 

from the satellite data. 

NESS now routinely uses GOES images to estimate 

the amount of rainfall from thunderstorms, helping 

meteorologists and hydrologists predict floods. During 

1981, NESS experimentally modified the technique to 

take into account unusual or more-difficult-to-predict 

thunderstorms - those occurring in dry environments, 

with high bases, or with warm tops. NESS also 

developed several automated experiments that use 

GOES data to analyze precipitation from tropical and 

extratropical storms, and improved techniques to 

estimate precipitation from enhanced nonconvective 

cloud images, for more accurate predictions in the 

western United States. Precipitation estimates were 

also attempted for the first time on winter storms 

along the West Coast. 

NESS improved its operational satellite support to 

the National Weather Service Flash Flood Program by 

acquisition of the interactive flash-flood analyzer, to 

replace the time-consuming manual method of determining precipitation amounts from GOES data. The 

more rapid, more accurate analyzer can also 

disseminate products to NWS and other users 

simultaneously - a significant improvement, as flash 

floods occur with little advance warning, endangering 

lives and property. It is scheduled to become fully 

operational by 1 March 1983, replacing the costly 

photographic medium by cheaper, computer-driven, 

electronic data-display and analysis. 

The Prototype Regional Observing and Forecasting 

Service continued to test techniques combining 

satellite, radar, and surface observations and groundbased atmospheric sounding data for improved shortterm (up to 12-hour) metropolitan-area forecasts. First 

applications to severe storms and flash-flood warnings, 

using data collected during the spring and summer of 

1981, showed great promise. 

Satellite data aided fire fighters in the western 

United States and Alaska. “Hot spots” were found to 

be detectable by comparing bands three and four of 

the advanced very-high-resolution radiometer carried 

on Noaa 6 and 7. Images from these two bands were 

used to find forest fires, active volcanoes, and wastegas flows from oil wells and steel plants. 

The eruption of the Pavlof and the Shishaldin 

volcanoes in the Aleutians in September 1981 was first 

discovered by meteorologists at the Anchorage field 

station. Information about ash plume height, movement, and area coverage was provided to the U.S. 

Geological Survey and the Federal Aviation Administration Air Route Traffic Control Center. NESS also 

provided the Smithsonian Scientific Event Alert Network with timely information on new eruptions. The 

satellite data often are the first or only information the 

Smithsonian receives on eruptions. 

During 1981, the U.S. Navy-NOAA Ice Center provided special satellite analyses of ice conditions to the 

U.S. Coast Guard for the visit of the ice breaker Polar 

Sea to Alaska’s north slope. Satellite ice observations 

also remained important in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service’s study of the migration of marine mammals 

(walrus, whales, seals, and polar bears). Further 

satellite studies of ice patterns in Cook Inlet suggest a 

two-year light-ice and heavy-ice cycle. This information is particularly important for engineering and con42 
structing dock facilities for transportation of coal from 

Alaska. 

Devastating downslope winds have hit Anchorage, 

Alaska, half a dozen times in the last two years, causing more than $50 million worth of property damage. 

Studies of satellite and conventional data for these 

events have led to development of a technique that 

uses satellite images to alert National Weather Service 

forecasters of potential high-wind situations 24 hours 

in advance. 

The Miami station expanded support to commercial 

fishermen and marine shippers by making available 

via automatic telecopier its regional analyses of thermal fronts defining the location of the Gulf of Mexico 

Loop Current and the Gulf Stream between Cape Hatteras and the central Gulf of Mexico. These analyses, 

prepared three times each week, now are widely used 

by marine shipping companies, who report fuel savings of as much as $8000 per day per ship. Large savings in fuel and time, and much improved catches, 

have been reported by commercial fishermen, who 

now go directly to thermal fronts that mark the preferred fishing areas. The information also is broadcast 

via the NOAA Weather Radio from all NWS Weather 

Service offices along the Florida coast from Jacksonville to Key West. 

Oceanography. NESS conducted several studies of 

oceanic circulation using satellite infrared 

measurements. In a joint investigation with the 

Lamont-Doherty Geophysical Observatory, aided by 

Argentinean ship hydrographic surveys, a large 

number of warm-core eddies were found south of the 

Brazil Current. A survey of currents off the coasts of 

Australia, made in cooperation with Australia, confirmed earlier hypotheses from biological indicators 

that a southward-flowing current exists along the 

western shore; the current turns eastward along the 

southern coast. In a collaborative study with Texas 

A&M University, a low-frequency counterclockwise 

precession of a cold-core Gulf Stream ring was 

discovered by combining satellite infrared. data with 

hydrographic observations. Analysis of five years of 

geostationary satellite infrared images showed the 

recurrence and variability of very long (1000-km 

wavelength) waves at the eastern equatorial Pacific 

thermal front. These results are used to test numerical 

models of ocean circulation. 

Analysis of Defense Meteorological Satellite images 

of the Sulu Sea showed propagation characteristics of 

large-amplitude, nonlinear internal waves and how 

they are affected by bathymetry and the earth’s rotation. Surface effects of the internal wave field appear 

as striations in the sunglint pattern. The internal 

waves occur in packets that originate in the Sulu Archipelago, travel northward over 400 km to Palawan 

Island, and disappear. They are characterized by 

wavelengths of 5 to 10 km, crest lengths in excess of 

200 km, and phase velocities of 250 cm per second, 

making them among the largest and fastest internal 

waves ever observed. An intensive field experiment in 

the Sulu Sea examined the generation, propagation, 

and dissipation mechanisms that govern these waves. 

Fifteen packets of internal waves were documented 

with vertical amplitudes of 30 to 100 m and periods of 

30 to 55 minutes. Each packet evolved from a broad 

thermocline depression generated by a tidally induced 

hydraulic flow over the Pearl Bank sill. The field data 

supported the interpretation based on satellite images. 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory processed data from the 

100 days of Seasat observations in 1978 to provide the 

first global maps of mean wind speed and wave height 

measured from satellites. Some 3.5 million observations were averaged into 2.5O-latitude by 

7.5’-longitude areas, demonstrating the potentia: for 

providing synoptic-scale, global sea-state information 

useful to oceanographers, meteorologists, and 

climatologists. 

Global measurements of atmospheric water vapor 

by the Seasat scanning, multichannel, microwave 

radiometer (SMMR) also were shown. The estimates 

were used to make path length and attenuation corrections in the active microwave radiometers: the 

altimeter, which provided estimates of windspeed and 

significant wave height at nadir; and the scatterometer, which gave estimates of the vector wind 

field near the surface. Global estimates of water vapor 

would be useful in climatological studies of the 

variability of the latent heat of vaporization that is 

transferred from ocean to the atmosphere. 

Sea surface temperatures derived from the Seasat 

SMMR were compared with conventional data observed at the surface. In the tropical Pacific Ocean, 

the SMMR-derived temperatures were inferior to ship 

measurements in absolute accuracy, comparable in 

relative accuracy, and superior in uniformity of spatial 

coverage. With improved computer programs, the 

SMMR measurements are expected to be better than 

those from ships. 

NESS processed data from the coastal -zone color 

scanner on Nimbus 7 to develop computer programs 

for deriving phytoplankton pigment in the northwest 

Atlantic Ocean, where ships collected extensive 

biological and optical data. Agreement between data 

from the scanner and from the surface observations 

was excellent. Development of good atmospheric corrections for the scanner data produced images showing 

detailed phytoplankton patterns associated with largescale oceanic features such as currents and warm-core 

rings. 

NOAA’s Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory 

also compared scanner data over the North Pacific 

Ocean with shipboard measurements of chlorophyll 

and particle concentrations. The objective is to use 

satellite data to monitor ocean productivity and its effect on the carbon dioxide atmosphere-ocean exchange rate. 
Hydrology. Snowcover data from 50 western U.S. 

river basins during the 1980-1981 snow season were 

given to the Soil Conservation Service, Water and 

Power Resources Administration, U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, U.S. Forest Service, National Weather 

Service, Department of Energy, U .S . Geological 

Survey, and California State Department of Water 

Resources. More than 600 satellite determinations of 

snowcover were made between November 1980 and 

July 1981. Snowpacks were well below average 

throughout most of this region, reflecting a seasonlong drought. Automation of snowmapping techniques using the NESS interactive systems was the subject of two pilot test reports released in June 1981. As a 

result, automated snowmapping for six Rocky Mountain river basins became operational at the Kansas 

City Satellite Field Services Station 1 December 1981. 

During 1981, software was developed to produce a 

Northern Hemisphere digital snow map by analyzing 

polar stereographic satellite images on a NESS interactive system. The derived tapes are then sent to the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture and the Johnson Space 

Center for early warning of winter wheat kill in highlatitude regions. 

Agriculture. Information on global crop production 

is required for effective response to fluctuations in the 

world food supply. This information is useful to all 

sectors of the agricultural community, including individual farmers and ranchers, commodity analysts, 

agribusiness, and agricultural policy makers. 

In the interagency Agriculture and Resources Inventory Surveys through Aerospace Remote Sensing 

(AgRISTARS; see NASA and Department of 

Agriculture chapters), NESS is developing products 

from operational environmental satellite data that will 

supplement conventional weather observations and 

improve the accuracy of the Department of 

Agriculture's forecasts of crop production. During 

1981, computer programs were developed to estimate 

precipitation, solar radiation, maximum and 

minimum temperatures, snowcover, and vegetative in-. 

dex from satellite data. Plans are to test the programs 

in an operational environment. Precipitation and 

solar radiation estimates were delivered to Agriculture 

on a test basis in 1981. 

Since May 1981, NOAA polar-orbiting satellites 

have been making infrared observations over regions 

designated by Agriculture's Crop Commodity Assessment Division. The satellite data are used to produce a 

vegetative index. Coverage varies from one to nine 

days. On average, four sets of the infrared data are 

sent each morning to the Johnson Space Center for 

operational use. The NOUU 7 satellite, with its high 

sun-angle afternoon orbit, permits monitoring of 

high-latitude crops year around. NOAA and NASA 

are making a priority. study of the Nile Delta crop 

region to develop scan-angle and atmosphericattenuation corrections for the satellite data. The 

Agency for International Development, the Central 

Intelligence Agency, and the United Nations Food and 

Agriculture Organization also use these data. Additional applications are terrain classification and 

monitoring of deforestation and the spreading of 

deserts. Polar-satellite infrared data also provided 

valuable information on the variation of soil 

temperatures in the Alaskan interior during the summer. 

Fisheries. A weekly, mesoscale, Alaskan sea surface 

temperature chart, prepared from polar-satellite infrared data, is distributed to some 200 government 

and private users. Additionally, it is transmitted over 

the National Weather Service Radiofacsimile Broadcast Service from Kodiak, Alaska, to vessel operators 

needing information on superstructure icing conditions and to commercial fishermen and fisheries 

researchers concerned with the arrival of commercial 

fish in Alaskan waters. Herring arrive at 4°C and red 

salmon at 7°C in Bristol Bay, silver salmon at 

1lo-13"C in southeast Alaska, and pink salmon at 

11 "C near Kodiak Island. The charts save travel time 

and reduce labor and fuel costs. The information also 

is used for local fish inventory and migration studies, 

for fish harvest forecasting, and for environmental impact studies and engineering specifications by oil companies, the Bureau of Land Management Outer Continental Shelf Program Office, and many other groups 

concerned with oil and gas lease sales. 

The National Marine Fisheries Service's first system 

for satellite data processing and analysis was installed 

at its Bay St. Louis, Mississippi, facility of the 

Southeast Fisheries Center in cooperation with NASA. 

Software, originally designed for Landsat data, was 

updated to process Nimbus 7 coastal-zone color scan- 

'ner, GOES, and NOAA temperature data. The system 

already has been used in a fisheries study by the 

University of Michigan and will be used in cooperative 

studies with the Northeast and Southwest Fisheries 

Centers, the state of Louisiana, U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service, and NASA. 

A study was begun in 1981 to establish relationships 

between the extent and character of coastal wetland 

ecosystems and the health and productivity of recreationally and commercially valuable living marine 

resources. Conducted by the Northeast and Southeast 

Fisheries Centers, NASA, and the state of Louisiana, 

the study will use Landsat data to monitor changes in 

wetland ecosystems in marsh areas of Louisiana. 

Operational products were developed using Seusut 

wind data as input to a Gulf of Mexico surfacetransport model. Examples are the inventory of 

available data, the display of wind vectors, and the 

derivation of wind-induced properties of ocean circulation in the gulf. Model products such as winddriven currents and transport and upwelling areas are 

useful for fisheries, particularly in studying the dispersal mechanisms for plankton. Ocean current data 

44 
show trajectories and establish times required for 

passive life stages to drift from one location to another. 

Seasat provided new technology to monitor, model, 

and predict pathways by which offshore spawn of 

estuarine-dependent shellfish and finfish find their 

way into coastal nursery grounds. 

During 1982, the Fisheries Services will use ocean 

color and thermal data from the Nimbus 7 coastalzone color scanner. Scanner indications of chlorophyll 

concentrations combined with temperature data may 

provide more insight into the large-scale distribution, 

abundance, and migration patterns of large pelagic 

fish such as bluefin tuna, billfish, and sharks. 

An objective of the Fisheries Service is to achieve a 

zero net loss of habitat and productivity for critical 

marine estuaries and anadromous species by 1985. Using Landsat data, the Northeast Fisheries Center 

developed the Coastal Habitat Assessment and 

Research program to quantify changes in productivity, biomass, and areas of principal coastal-zone 

habitats from North Carolina to Maine. The program 

will proceed in three phases: phase 1 will determine 

how many acres of wetlands exist and what vegetation 

types they contain; phase 2 will determine how many 

acres of wetlands have been lost or gained in the past 

10 years; and phase 3 will determine how the value 

and quality of coastal habitat is changing, from 

biomass and other properties. 

The center also participated with the NASA 

Langley Research Center in the Nantucket Shoals experiment and in planning the National Science Foundation warm-core-ring studies. The Nantucket Shoals 

experiment used shipboard, in situ, and aircraft and 

satellite remote-sensing techniques to investigate the 

distribution and abundance of phytoplankton on the 

shoals in relation to rates of nutrient supply, growth, 

vertical mixing, and advective processes. The warmcore-ring studies seek to understand physical, 

chemical, and biological processes related to Gulf 

Stream warm core rings. The Fisheries Service is 

augmenting this experiment by studying the shelfslope interface and is building a high-resolution picture transmission system in cooperation with NASA's 

Goddard Space Flight Center. 

The application of satellite observations in marine 

fisheries research and management was being 

evaluated in studies at the Southwest Fisheries Center. 

Using satellite thermal-infrared images and extensive 

sampling of northern anchovy eggs and adults, one 

study found that no spawning occurred over large 

areas off California during the peak spawning period. 

In this study, only satellite data provided fishery scientists with a synoptic picture of the large-scale 

oceanographic events over the entire anchovy area 

during the peak season. Ocean color images from the 

Nimbus 7 color scanner assisted in describing habitats 

for coastal marine mammals in another study. The 

center also participated in an experimental, satelliteoriented, observation program for commercial 

fisheries sponsored by Jet Propulsion Laboratory and 

the National Weather Service. 

Other Uses of Satellites 

International Activities 

Two foreign governments contribute instruments to 

the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites. The French National Center for Space Studies provides the Argos 

satellite data-collection system; the British Meteorological Office provides the stratospheric sounding unit, a component of the TIROS operational vertical sounder. Fourteen countries operate 275 platforms through the Argos system. The majority of the 

platforms must be periodically replaced, and more 

than 2000 have been used since its inauguration. The 

U .S. -funded processing agreement as of 1981 supported 145 platform-years. The telephone communications system at Suitland, Maryland, which 

allows users direct access to their disc files in Toulouse, 

France, was being used by 27 subscribers. 

Some 120 countries received images and digital data 

directly from satellites operated by NOAA. Mediumresolution images are received in some 890 locations 

globally and high-resolution data in 25 countries. 

Geostationary satellites provide weather facsimile 

broadcasts to nearly 30 countries in the Western 

Hemisphere and to Australia and New Zealand; 3 nations other than the United States also received highresolution images. The GOES Data-Collection System 

also is used by several countries in the Western 

Hemisphere for relaying environmental data from 

remote platforms. 

NOAA participates in an informal group known as 

Coordination on Geostationary Meteorological 

Satellites (CGMS), through which technical managers 

planning national geostationary meteorological 

satellites discuss common interests in design, operation, and use of their spacecraft. The European Space 

Agency (ESA), Japan, the Soviet Union, and India 

also participate. There are four operating satellites-two launched by the U.S. and one each by ESA 

and Japan. While independently designed and 

developed, they have met common meteorological 

mission objectives and have produced certain compati - 

ble products for worldwide users. 

Present and prospective operators of national, landremote-sensing satellites have established a similar 

group known as Coordination of Land Observation 

Satellites. This group-in which NOAA, NASA, and 

representatives from France and Japan participate - is 

considering coordination and harmonization of data 

products, satellite-to-ground telemetry, and spacecraft orbits to ensure maximum compatibility. During 

1981, NOAA also coordinated U.S. participation in 

regional meetings in Africa, Asia, and South America 
to inform foreign users of products and services that 

will be available from the planned land-remotesensing satellites. 

Domestic Activities 

During 1981, the Census Bureau completed a 

NASA-sponsored applications test program evaluating 

Landsat images as a resource for identifying new 

development on the periphery of urbanized areas. 

Landsat image interpretations of five cities were compared with results from aircraft photography. For 

some test sites, Landsat images depicted the development patterns very clearly; results from other areas 

were more difficult to interpret. High-resolution images from future spacecraft and other sensor systems 

will be considered as a possible data source in preparation for future decennial censuses. 

Training 

In 1981, the NESS Applications Laboratory instructed some 270 persons in satellite image interpretation. Two regional workshops for forecasters 

were held in Raleigh, North Carolina, and Slidell, 

Louisiana. Four classes at the National Weather Service Training Center were trained to estimate rainfall 

amounts from satellite images. In addition, training 

for Department of Defense meteorologists continued 

in 1981. Four classes at Offutt Air Force Base used 

satellite images to observe aviation weather problems 

and illustrate techniques of severe weather analysis. 

NESS held one extensive training session for Naval 

reservists. 

Application of Space Technology to Geodesy and 

Geodyna mics 

The National Geodetic Survey, a component of the 

National Ocean Survey, continued to work with NASA 

to apply space technology to geodesy and 

geodynamics. Development of a new-generation polarmotion and universal-time-monitoring network continued. The network will consist of three radio 

astronomy observatories, equipped with the most advanced instrumentation for very-long-baseline interferometry (VLBI) and a data-reduction and 

analysis center. Two stations are now operational -in 

Fort Davis, Texas, and Westford, Massachusettsmaking weekly observations. Detailed comparisons 

with satellite laser-ranging determinations indicate 

that the network is achieving its design goal of IO-cm 

accuracy in determining pole positions. This level of 

accuracy was achieved with observing times of 24 

hours or less. Other techniques (satellite laser, satellite 

doppler, and optical techniques) require days to weeks 

of observing to achieve comparable accuracy. 

Development of Global Positioning System geodetic 

receivers -in the coordinated approach agreed on by 

NASA, the U.S. Geological Survey, and the Defense 

Mapping Agency - continued toward a goal of deploying prototypes by the end of 1983. And NASA and 

NOAA’s National Geodetic Survey established the 

Crustal Dynamics Project to apply space technology to 

understanding earth dynamics. The project supports 

the national program in earthquake hazard reduction, 

as well as national and international research in global 

geodynamics. 

Altimetry data from the Geos 3 Geodynamics Experimental Ocean Satellite were used to determine the 

mesoscale variability of the sea surface height in the 

western North Atlantic Ocean in and around the Gulf 

Stream meander region. The results agreed quantitatively with results obtained by conventional oceangoing research ships - demonstrating the potential of 

satellite data to supplement ship observations. Seasat 

and Geos 3 radar-altimeter determinations of tidal 

constituents and mean sea surface height in the Atlantic also showed reasonably good agreement with each 

other, as did comparison of the tidal data with deepsea tide-gauge measurements. 

The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) began 

studies to determine accurately the orbits of DoD’s 

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites 

after all 18 satellites are operating. With determination of the horizontal coordinates of GPS satellites to 

within about 20 cm, GPS signals could be used to 

measure crustal movements in tectonic areas and to 

determine orbits accurately for other satellites. 

Satellite Time Service 

NBS is part of a NASA-led team to provide 

worldwide time and frequency transfer at very precise 

accuracies, by integrating newest technology into the 

Space Shuttle time and frequency transfer system. The 

system will include a space-borne hydrogen-maser 

clock and both a laser-ranging and a microwave 

doppler-cancellation system at appropriate timing 

centers. NBS constructed a prototype GPS receiver 

specifically designed for international time and frequency transfer and conducted preliminary experiments with the U.S. Naval Observatory, where a 

similar receiver is placed. Simultaneous viewing of the 

same satellite yielded measurements of time and frequency differences with accuracies better than 10 

nanoseconds. 

Jet Propulsion Laboratory and NBS are working to 

keep frequency standards at the Deep Space Network 

(DSN) sites in Australia, California, and Spain within 

very precise limits of each other, for tracking deep 

space probes. The method now used is difficult and 

costly. NBS has demonstrated that simultaneous viewing using GPS satellites may greatly increase DSN synchronization accuracy at no greater cost. 

46 
Satellite Communications 

The National Telecommunications and Information Administration’s Institute for Telecommunication Sciences continued technical studies in preparation for the International Telecommunications 

Union’s 1983 Regional Administrative Radio Conference on broadcasting-satellite service. Studies were 

to assist in determining orbit-spectrum capacity and 

how it might be shared with other Western Hemisphere countries. To assist in forming a U.S. position 

on direct-broadcast satellites (DBS) before the conference, NTIA reviewed applications filed with the 

Federal Communications Commission for construction 

of experimental DBS systems for home delivery of 

subscription television. 

The first satellite in the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization’s Intelsat V series 

was launched in late 1980 and entered service over the 

Atlantic Ocean in 1981. Two more Intelsat Vs followed in 1981. Each can transmit 12 000 voice conversations and 2 television channels. Newly installed 

ground stations in Saipan and American Samoa are 

bringing the advantages of the global system to those 

isolated islands. A new station also is being constructed in Palau. The recently activated International Maritime Satellite Organization was expected to 

begin service early in 1982 using U.S. Marisat satellites 

and European and INTELSAT satellites. 

Space Support Activities 

Measurement and Calibration Services 

Spectrometer Calibration. Operating the large 

spectrometer-calibration chamber at its Synchroton 

Ultraviolet Radiation Facility, the National Bureau of 

Standards calibrated a rocket payload from the 

California Institute of Technology, several instrument 

packages from Goddard Space Flight Center, and a 

Space Shuttle experiment from Naval Research 

Laboratories. The last will be flown on the spring 1982 

Shuttle mission as a solar ultraviolet spectral irradiance monitor (SUSIM). An unusual feature is an inflight recalibration capability; an NBS-calibrated 

deuterium lamp will fly as part of the SUSIM instrument package. 

Ozone Measurements. NBS is overseeing NASA 

contractor plans for calibrating and operating a solar 

back-scatter, ultraviolet-radiation instrument to be 

flown on a NOAA polar-orbiting satellite. The device 

will measure the density and thickness of the earth’s 

ozone layer on a global scale and detect any significant 

time and spatial variations of the layer. Using a new 

procedure for measuring ultraviolet absorption, NBS 

also designed a new photometer for calibrating ozonemonitoring instruments. An instrument was being 

constructed to improve stability, sensitivity, and accuracy in the measurements. After performance is 

validated, it will supplement the NBS primary, threemeter-long photometer and will serve a calibration 

network for laboratories concerned with accurate 

ozone measurements. 

Aluminum Alloys. NBS continued measuring the 

effect of changes in heat treatment on the microstructures and mechanical properties of aluminum alloys 

used in the Space Shuttle. It also measured deformation and fracture properties of two candidate 

materials for the scintillator in the planned Gamma 

Ray Observatory, GRO. Avoidance of creep is important for scintillator stability, and internal cracking 

would scatter light excessively within the scintillator. 

Instrument Fabrication. NBS fabricated precision 

parts of the planetary mass spectrometer system for 

NASA’s Galileo project. Fabrication required machining complex shapes to close tolerances and quality 

finishes in materials such as titanium, stainless steel, 

and ceramics. 

Spectrometer Design. NBS advised NASA contractors on design, instrument calibration, and computer 

software for the high-resolution spectrograph experiment scheduled to fly on the Space Telescope in 1985. 

The bureau advised on choice of detectors and 

gratings, plans for preflight and in-orbit photometric 

calibrations, and software for command, operation, 

and analysis of data. 

Robotics. A NASA-supported research associate 

worked in the NBS automation program in development of high-level languages, standards, and interfaces for sensory feedback control of robots. NASA’s 

interest is in remote manipulators in space. From its 

work in robotics in machine-tool-based manufacturing, NBS was preparing a report for NASA on the 

state of the art in robotics and a five-year projection. 

Electromagnetic Radiation Detectors. NBS was 

characterizing the response and principal mechanisms 

of operation of small-area superconducting tunnel 

junctions, electronic devices which, used as heterodyne 

receivers, are sensitive detectors of electromagnetic 

radiation. The thin-film devices of low-transition 

temperature superconductors are fabricated in an 

NBS facility, cooled below the transition temperature 

with dilution refrigerators, and tested at microwave 

frequencies. 

Solar Activity 

Solar Flares. NBS continued to work with the Solar 

Maximum Mission team on analysis of data from solar 

flares. The data were taken with flat and curved 

crystal spectrometers whose radiometric and diffraction properties were measured at NBS. Crystal calibration techniques developed in this work were made 

available to the x-ray astronomy and plasma physics 

communities. 

47 
Solar Convection. In a study of solar convection and 

the associated transport of mechanical energy, observations of doppler velocity with the diode-array instrument at Sacramento Peak Observatory led to detection 

of an intermediate-scale, steady, filamentary-like motion in the solar photosphere and chromosphere, 

called mesogranulation. The amplitudes, lifetimes, 

and horizontal scales of these mesogranular flows suggest that they may be the result of convective overshooting into the stable atmosphere. In addition, the 

ultraviolet spectrometer and polarimeter experiment 

on the Solar Maximum Mission satellite observed 

steady flows in the solar transition region. 

Warnings and Forecasts 

The NOAA- and USAF-operated Space Environment Services Center is the national and world warning agency for disturbances on the sun, in interplanetary space, in the upper atmosphere, and in the 

earth’s magnetic field. A major portion of the realtime data comes from space environment monitors on 

NOAA’s polar-orbiting and geostationary environmental satellites. In 1981, a significant improvement in short-term warning capability used new data 

from NASA’s third International Sun-Earth Explorer 

satellite. The technique permits an accurate 25- to 

50-minute advance warning of the beginning of 

geomagnetic storms. Warnings of radiation hazards 

from solar activity for the Space Shuttle began with its 

first flight in April 1981. 

NOAA polar-orbiting satellites measure the total 

energy deposited by ionized particles precipitating 

downward into the earth’s atmosphere in the auroral 

regions. Processing routines were completed sufficient - 

ly during 1981 to permit the first extensive access to 

the data and to make data available for real-time use 

in the center. A new computer system being procured 

will assemble, store, display, and distribute these space 

environment data. 

Space and Atmospheric Research 

Space and Atmospheric Physics 

Magnetospheric Physics. NOAA’s Space Environmental Laboratory developed sophisticated 

techniques for displaying data from experiments 

aboard the International Sun-Earth Explorer (ISEE) 

satellites. The techniques have been applied to the 

complete ISEE 1 data set, and processing of ISEE 2 

data was under way. Analysis of observed characteristics of energetic particles in the geomagnetic tail permitted laboratory scientists to model a physically selfconsistent mechanism for acceleration of charged particles in the geomagnetic tail and their deposition in 

the earth’s auroral regions. This mechanism represents 

a significant source for energization of magnetospheric 

particles. 

Planetary Atmospheres. NBS continued its longterm effort to determine the far-infrared spectra of 

significant gaseous constituents of the outer planets. 

New measurements of hydrogen, hydrogen-helium 

mixtures, and ammonia at various pressures and 

temperatures were being used to formulate analytical 

representations for the study of planetary atmospheres. 

Laboratory investigations continued into rate constants, mechanisms, and photochemistry of chemical 

species prevalent in the atmospheres of the planets and 

their satellites. Study results were used in part to 

predict the presence of new chemical species, which 

have been subsequently observed. Experimentally, 

NBS completed the measurement of rate constants of 

the primary photofragment of acetylene with 

hydrocarbons. 

NBS made laboratory measurements of the absorption cross-sections, as they vary with temperature, of 

molecular species known to be present in the atmospheres of Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn. In the most 

recent measurements -made of sulfur dioxide - the 

absorption spectrum from 200 to 240 nanometers was 

recorded in great detail at SO0 and 210 kelvins. Reduction of these data will provide improved cross-section 

values for more accurate analyses of planetary atmospheres. 

Stellar Atmospheres. NBS compiled critical data on 

atomic energy levels for predicting and interpreting 

spectra of astrophysical sources, in the far-ultravioletwavelength region accessible only with instruments in 

space. The data are needed for research on the atmosphere of the sun and other stars. In 1981, NBS 

completed compilations for all 26 spectra of the 

astrophysically important element iron (neutral-atom 

and all ion stages) and for the element silicon in six 

ionization stages. The data permit wavelength predictions of spectral lines in solar flares, hot stars, and 

other astronomical plasmas and are needed for 

calculations and diagnostics of these plasmas. 

During 1981, the International Ultraviolet Explorer 

(WE) and Einstein x-ray observatory satellites helped 

to determine which types of stars have hot outer atmospheres similar to the sun and which show no 

evidence for either hot coronas or hot winds. The two 

types can be distinguished given the threshold sensitivities of the two spacecraft. NBS also observed 

flares in the ultraviolet and x-ray spectra from certain 

collapsed and twin stars. These data are consistent 

with cooling by radiation. Also, flares in the close 

binary systems may result from magnetic field reconnection as large magnetic loops of both stars interact. 

Earth’s Atmosphere. NBS laboratory measurements 

support NASA’s upper atmospheric programs making 

measurements from the ground, aircraft and balloons, 

or spacecraft. High-resolution infrared spectra pro- 
vide reliable parameters for measuring the distribution of molecular species in the upper atmosphere. 

The measurements contribute to understanding the 

long-term effects human activities may have on the 

earth’s weather and on the protective ozone layer. 

During 1981, NBS made accurate measurements of 

the spectrum of chlorine monoxide, important to the 

chemistry of ozone and a product of the breakdown of 

halocarbons (freons) in the atmosphere. The 

measurements were needed for designing upperatmospheric measurement devices; they also showed 

that some earlier atmospheric measurements were in 

error. The Air Force Geophysical Laboratory was incorporating similar measurements of several other 

pollutant molecules into a file of spectroscopic 

parameters for atmospheric studies. 

Atmospheric Chemistry 

Halocarbon Analysis. NBS was developing halocarbon (Freon-11) standards of concentration at the partper-trillion (ppt) level. Since the halocarbon 

evaporates at room temperature, NBS developed a 

microgravimetric-dilution technique for producing‘ 

accurate gas mixtures containing vapors of such 

volatile liquids. This technique is accurate to about 

0.1 percent and, to achieve ppt levels, a halocarbonair mixture is again diluted. Spectroscopic techniques 

using the new correct value of the absorption-band intensity of the halocarbon, which has first been 

measured, will provide independent verification. 

Ozone Cross-Section Measurement. Determination 

of the dependence on temperature of the ozone 

ultraviolet-absorption cross-section is of particular importance to accurate stratospheric measurements and 

modeling. NBS measured the complete spectrum between 240 and 340 nanometers at 298 and 243 kelvins, 

making measurements in steps of 0.05 nanometers 

with a spectral resolution 

nanometers. 

Aeronautical 

Aeronautical Charting 

of approximately 0.02 

Programs 

The National Ocean Survey produces air navigation 

charts to meet civilian and certain military requirements. The responsibility includes the timely collection and compilation of flight data to keep pace with, 

the increasing demand created by advanced technology, new electronic aids to navigation, and changes 

in air traffic control regulations. Substantial progress 

was made during 1981 in evaluating Landsat images 

for delineating cultural and hydrographic features to 

update visual aeronautical charts. 

Radar Techniques 

NOAA’s National Severe Storms Laboratory in Norman, Oklahoma, in 1981 was combining observations 

made using a dual-doppler weather radar system, 

444-m meteorologically instrumented TV tower, surface observation network, and instrumented aircraft 

to expand doppler radar’s potential. The detection of 

aviation weather hazards such as gust fronts and turbulence is possible by doppler radar. A joint program 

with the multiagency Next Generation Radar Joint 

System Program Office investigated techniques for acquiring, processing, and displaying the pertinent data. 

These comprehensive studies are to improve guidance 

to aircraft near severe weather and for public warnings. A cooperative study with the Federal Aviation 

Administration in the validation of the firstgeneration, airborne, doppler weather radars is included in the program. 

49 
Department of Energy 

The U.S. Department of Energy supports civilian 

and military use of space through development of a 

range of nuclear-power systems. Nuclear power provided the electrical energy for NASA Pioneer, Viking, 

and Voyager missions as well as earlier earth-orbital 

and lunar missions. In 1981, DOE was developing 

radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) for the 

NASA Galileo mission and International Solar Polar 

Mission. 

The unique characteristics of nuclear-powered electric generators-compact size, light weight, and long 

life -make possible operation of the sensing, 

analytical, and communication systems of spacecraft, 

satellites, and other remotely located devices for long 

periods without external sources of energy. Nuclear 

research and development in the DOE-sponsored 

space and terrestrial applications program delivers environmentally acceptable, operationally safe, and 

technically qualified energy systems to federal agencies 

for earth-orbital and interplanetary space missions, as 

well as for terrestrial applications. 

Space Applications of Nuclear Power 

The recent spectacular flights past Jupiter and 

Saturn by NASA's Voyager and Pioneer spacecraft 

also marked additional milestones in the continuing 

use of nuclear electric power in outer space. Since 

1961, the United States has launched 22 NASA and 

military spacecraft whose power requirements were 

supplied, all or in part, by nuclear sources. Twentyone were powered by RTGs and one by a nuclear reactor. Electric power output per individual nuclear 

source ranged from 2.7 watts for SNAP-SA to 500 for 

SNAP-1OA. Their history has demonstrated that they 

can be safely and reliably built and launched to meet a 

variety of mission objectives. 

Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators 

Development continued on an advanced silicongermanium generator for NASA's Galileo mission, 

which is to send an orbiter spacecraft with atmospheric probe to Jupiter, and for the International 

Solar Polar Mission to collect scientific data on the sun 

and solar wind from high heliographic latitudes. This 

general-purpose heat-source radioisotope thermoelectric generator (GPHS-RTG) is designed to provide a 

minimum of 285 watts of electrical power under initial 

space operational conditions with a fuel loading of 

4410 thermal watts. It has a mass of 55.5 kilograms. 

During 1981, enough GPHS modules were manufactured and tested to fuel and test the qualification 

unit in 1982. Production included fuel, iridium, and 

graphite components. Key components of the RTG 

Assembly and Testing Facility were completed, providing a secure facility for testing fueled generators. 

Multihundred-watt heat-source production and component fabrication of the Galileo radioisotope heater 

units were also completed. 

The Savannah River Plant supplied the encapsulated isotope hardware for the program. The 

Mound Facility will support assembly of the isotopefueled modules into a heat source, loading of the heat 

source into the thermoelectric converter, and testing 

of the fueled power unit to qualification or flight acceptance levels. Fueling and testing of both the 

qualification converter and the first flight converter 

were planned for fiscal 1983. 

Advances in Supporting Technology 

DOE prepared a new RTG design taking advantage 

of new materials, fabrication techniques, and design 

concepts, to analyze the potential for a more advanced, much lighter weight RTG for future space 

missions. The design of this modular isotopic thermoelectric generator (MITG) permits changing the 

power level. Except for its end sections, the generator 

consists of a number of identical slices of standard 

design, each producing approximately 24 watts at 28 

volts. The basic design is adaptable to many uses, since 

the output power can be scaled in 24-watt steps by 

varying the number of standard generator slices, 

usually without other design changes. In addition, any 

intermediate power level can be provided by minor 

modification of the radiator fin dimensions. In the 

earlier multihundred-watt generator, changing the 

power level required a major redesign and requalification of the heat source. And even in the GPHS 

generator, which uses the same modular heat source as 

the MITG, changing the power level would usually require major changes in the thermoelectric couples and 

circuit. 
The MITG also promises a substantially higher 

specific power than present-generation RTGs. The increase is achieved without any reduction in safety and 

probably with increased reliability, because of the 

ability to check the performance of individual thermoelectric modules in the assembled converter and - 

if necessary-to replace deficient ones. In the long 

run, the MITG should be more economical, because 

of the modularity, scalability, and greater flexibility in 

matching the payload’s voltage requirements. 

During 1981, DOE continued development of advanced thermoelectric materials and power modules. 

It continued space power and engineering analyses, 

conceptual design, quality-assurance inspection 

review, and reliability assessment. 

Space Reactor Technology 

Nuclear reactors are another power source for 

generating electricity on spacecraft. Like the RTGs, 

reactor power plants are basically heat engines; they 

convert the heat from the fissioning of uranium-238 

into electricity through either static (e.g., 

thermoelectric-element) or dynamic (e.g., rotaryshaft) subsystems. The reactor power system has 

growth potential because of the greater energy release 

available in the fission process (almost 200 million 

electron volts per fission of uranium-238 versus about 

5.5 MeV per alpha emission from plutonium-238). 

From a weight standpoint, a space reactor becomes 

competitive with other power sources at levels above 25 

electrical kilowatts, but the choice of nuclear power 

source depends on the needs of the spacecraft mission. 

During 1981, the Los Alamos National Laboratory 

completed the engineering design layout of a space 

reactor and its shield assembly, analyzed water immersion effects on reactor criticality, and tested performance of reactor-core heat pipes and compatibility of 

the material with the working fluids. An interagency 

agreement was initiated with NASA for component 

technology development of an SP-100 space power 

nuclear reactor targeted for potential use in the 1990s. 

Nuclear Waste Disposal 

Concepts were being evaluated in 1981 for using the 

Space Shuttle to place nuclear wastes in space as a 

method for permanent disposal. The method would 

supplement but not replace terrestrial methods. The 

principal terrestrial method being developed was use 

of repositories in deep geologic formations. 

Remote Sensing of the Earth 

Satellite sensing and analysis continued to prove 

useful in geologic and environmental research applications. This research was conducted for DOE under 

contract with the national or dedicated laboratories 

and with universities. The department also continued 

to be represented on the interagency Program Board 

on Civil Operational Land Remote Sensing from 

Space. 

Nuclear Test Detection 

DOE’S predecessor, the Atomic Energy Commission, 

was responsible for developing nuclear-test-detection 

instrumentation for the DoD-managed Vela satellites. 

Six pairs of Velas were launched from 1963 to 1970 to 

monitor nuclear tests in the atmosphere and space 

after the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty forbade 

testing in these regimes. Although the last Vela 

satellites are now severely degraded, some continued 

to function during 1981. 

This surveillance mission is now incorporated into 

other multimission DoD satellite programs. DOE is 

responsible for sensor design, fabrication, test, 

calibration, and some launch and operational support. DoD manages spacecraft procurement, sensor 

integration, launch schedules and costs, and satellite 

operations. 

DOE research and development improves existing 

capabilities and supports new detection requirements. 

DOE research also seeks a better understanding of the 

space environment in which satellites operate. Theoretical modeling, sensor development, and flight 

testing on NASA and DoD space systems provide data 

to designers and astrophysicists, leading to improved 

surveillance instrumentation and enhanced under - standing of the radiation environment of space. 

51 
Department of the Interior 

The U.S. Department of the Interior is responsible 

for the management, conservation, and development 

of the natural resources on the nation’s public lands 

and is specifically designated caretaker for more than 

2 million square kilometers of these lands. In the inventory, management, and monitoring of vast and 

often inaccessible areas, the department frequently 

relies on data acquired by airborne sensing systems. In 

the past 10 years, data acquired by sensing systems 

carried aboard satellites, particularly the Landsat 

series, have also been used experimentally for mineral 

and energy resource exploration as well as for monitoring the environment. Effective management has been 

facilitated by conducting research in digital data 

analysis and by the development of new applications of 

Landsat and other remotely sensed data and related 

technologies. 

Bureaus and agencies of the Department of the Interior participating in remote-sensing studies during 

1981 included the Bureau of Land Management 

(BLM), Bureau of Reclamation, Office of Surface 

Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service, and U.S. Geological Survey’s Earth 

Resources Observation Systems (EROS) Office, 

Geologic Division, National Mapping Division, and 

Water Resources Division. Also working with Interior 

were the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the 

Department of Labor’s Mine Safety and Health Administration. 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Program 

The mission of the EROS Office is to develop, 

demonstrate, and encourage the practical use of 

remotely sensed data acquired by aircraft and 

spacecraft. EROS develops basic criteria for the 

remote sensing of features of the earth and coordinates 

data requirements, system configurations, and product formats with other agencies. It conducts, sponsors, 

and coordinates research applying remotely sensed 

data to mapping, geography, and mineral, land, and 

water resources. It also sells and distributes data and 

provides specialized training and assistance in their 

use. 

The EROS Data Center near Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota, is the primary archive and distribution center 

for remotely sensed data. It also supports training, 

research, and engineering development activities. In 

1981, 240 scientists and technicians from Interior, 

other federal and state agencies, and foreign countries 

received training in remote sensing at the center. Sales 

of remotely sensed data totaled more than $4.3 million 

($2.5 million in Landsat-related sales and $1.8 million 

in other sales, primarily aerial photographs). 

Applications and Research 

The department, particularly the U.S. Geological 

Survey, has been evaluating several remote-sensing 

systems for potential multidisciplinary applications. 

The information derived is also useful for designing 

and developing future aircraft and satellite remotesensing system parameters. 

Mineral Resource Surveys. With NASA funding, 

EROS made a preliminary analysis of global magnetic 

anomalies. The NASA Magsat satellite, launched in 

1979, has provided the first worldwide set of geomagnetic data of high, uniform standard. Together with 

information on known mineral deposits, these data 

may improve understanding of resource origin, 

distribution, and regional potential. 

In cooperation with NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and other NASA offices, the Geologic Division 

prepared for the Space Shuttle test flight of the Shuttle 

multispectral infrared radiometer (SMIRR). The new 

device operates on 10 channels in the spectral region of 

0.6 to 2.5 micrometers and may detect altered ground 

indicative of mineral deposits. In November, the second flight of Shuttle orbiter Columbia recorded 186 

minutes of SMIRR data over desert regions of Mexico, 

Spain, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Morocco, Egypt, and 

Saudi Arabia. Unfortunately, test areas in the United 

States and Australia were covered by clouds. Data will 

be studied to evaluate the spectral bands chosen for 

geologic mapping and to aid in designing future scanners. 

Land and Land-Cover Surveys. EROS and the National Mapping Division continued to fund studies 

jointly with NASA’s Wallops Flight Center to evaluate 

land applications of the Seasat satellite’s radar 

altimeter. The altimeter has proved of value in accurately determining elevations in areas that are 

relatively flat. Tests over the Bonneville Salt Flats in 
the Great Salt Lake Desert provided new elevation information in a detail not usual in standard mapping 

programs. Use in areas of subsidence due to 

withdrawal of ground water or petroleum -such as the 

San Joaquin Valley; Eloy area, Arizona; and 

Houston-was tested to an accuracy of 20 centimeters. The altimeter was also tested over tropical 

regions such as the Florida Everglades, where detailed 

wave-form studies demonstrated that the radar reflections from the tops of trees and swamp grass can be accurately distinguished. 

Seasat L-band synthetic-aperture radar imagery 

discriminated flooded wetland forest from other surrounding forest. Analysis was most effective in the 

nearly level areas of the Atlantic and Gulf coastal 

plains. The Geologic Division tested Seasat digital 

data for geologic mapping in heavily vegetated areas. 

L-band radar imagery and the radar altimeter also 

mapped snow and ice features and surface elevations 

of major ice sheets. These studies defined not only the 

applications of the abundant data acquired in the 

Seasat experiment, but also the parameters for a new 

radar altimeter that could be flown on a future 

stereomapping satellite. 

Congress specified in the Department of the Interior’s fiscal 1980 appropriations act that the Geological 

Survey should “begin the use of side-looking airborne 

radar imagery for topographic and geological mapping and geologic resource surveys in promising areas, 

particularly Alaska. ” Radar imagery acquired and 

analyzed in response indicated tentatively that radar 

images can supplement other data sources or substitute for aerial photographs in persistently cloudcovered areas in some geologic, hydrologic, and carto - graphic applications. Radar data, however, are more 

expensive to acquire than Landsat images and aerial 

photographs. Results of this research and recommendations were presented to the Congress at the end of 

1981. 

Energy Resource Surueys. The Geologic Division 

completed an investigation for NASA on geologic applications of thermal-infrared satellite data received 

from the HCMM Heat Capacity Mapping Mission 

launched in 1978. In test areas in Arizona and Wyoming, even at 500-meter resolution, thermal-inertia images permitted discrimination of some rock types, 

delineation of structural features, and subtle 

anomalies possibly related to deeply bu-;ed oil and gas 

deposits. New computer models for handling thermalinfrared data on a regional scale were also developed. 

Pollution and Resource Surveys. The Geological 

‘Survey and NASA cosponsored a workshop on applications of luminescence techniques to earth resources 

studies. Attendees from the federal government, industry, and universities reviewed results previously 

achieved with the Fraunhofer line discriminator 

(FLD), an optical-mechanical device for measuring, 

from aircraft, extremely low levels of luminescence of 

materials on the earth’s surface. Luminescent material 

detected included marine oil seeps, sedimentary 

phosphate- and uranium-bearing rocks, stressed 

vegetation, and industrial pollutants. The group 

recommended that an improved imaging FLD be built 

to continue aircraft work and for experimental use 

aboard the Space Shuttle. 

Data Handling 

EROS and the National Mapping Division made 

significant progress during 1981 in computer-aided information handling and data processing of geographic 

and remotely sensed data. EROS developed techniques for integrating and merging disparate digital 

data sets to produce spatial data bases on natural 

resources for analysis, planning, and management. 

For example, a cooperative EROS and Bureau of 

Land Management project was evaluating the 

feasibility of merging Landsat multispectral-scanner 

data and soils data to expedite the bureau’s soilvegetation-inventory method of mapping ecologically 

significant zones. 

The National Mapping Division sponsored research 

at the University of Arizona that demonstrated the 

data rate of multispectral digital image data might be 

decreased without a corresponding loss of information, by recording one dominant band at high resolution and the others at lower resolution. This concept is 

important to the design of an operational earthsensing system. 

Remote Image Processing 

EROS undertook a project to define the specifications of a remote image processing station (RIPS) 

designed to extend the use of Landsat and other 

remotely sensed data. Electronic enhancement to 

select and amplify specific data from Landsat images 

is now done in sophisticated, expensive computer 

laboratories. The RIPS project is investigating the use 

of small, inexpensive computers in field offices to perform similar functions independently for some tasks 

and through communication with a large “host” computer for other tasks. In 1981, a workshop discussed 

the numerous processing functions and interface 

capabilities of RIPS that will enable it to analyze 

geographically referenced data from several sources, 

such as Landsat, meteorological, topographic, and 

cartographic data. 

Monitoring the Environment 

Aircraft and satellite sensor data are routinely used 

by the bureaus and agencies of the Department of the 

Interior and other federal agencies to monitor all 

aspects of the environment, from the atmosphere to 

the earth’s surface. 

53 
Land-Cover Inventories 

The National Mapping Division used Landsat 

digital data to map land cover in the National 

Petroleum Reserve area in Alaska. Efforts in 1981 included the Prudhoe Bay Region and, in cooperation 

with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Preliminary products of the 

digital analyses were provided to cooperating agencies. 

The Bureau of Land Management used the data with 

digital terrain data to assess potential impacts of lease 

sales. 

High -altitude color -infrared photographs were 

studied to determine whether cropland could be differentiated from pasture in three Louisiana parishes. 

Field verification revealed an interpretive accuracy 

level of 74 percent (Geological Survey’s accuracy 

standard is 85 percent), suggesting that separation of 

cropland from pasture on such imagery should not be 

a standard practice. 

In 1981, BLM, EROS, and NASA completed a 

three-year project developing techniques for using 

Landsat digital data to identify vegetation in three 

areas typical of BLM’s management responsibility - 

northern spruce-tundras in Alaska, ephemeral desert 

ranges in Arizona, and intermontane sagebrushgrassland in Idaho. Satellite technology saved more 

than $20 per square kilometer over costs of laborintensive ground surveys. To capitalize on this 

technology, BLM established and equipped its own 

laboratory at the Denver Service Center to process 

Landsat digital data. 

Land-cover classification techniques were used to 

inventory vegetation on 48 000 sq km in Arizona, New 

Mexico, Idaho, and Alaska. The computerized landcover base is merged with additional digitized data 

such as that on roads, land ownership, elevation, 

slope, soils, and water sources to provide a broad base 

of information for planning and assessing land use. 

Forest Fuels Mapping and Fire Control 

For various areas of responsibility in Alaska, BLM 

prepared fuel-load maps from Landsat images for use 

with automatic lightning detectors for rapid assessment of potential fire risk. Similar fuel-load maps 

were prepared for 4000 sq km in the Vail, Oregon, 

district. 

Water Resource Analysis 

Data acquired by an airborne multispectral scanner 

were being used by the Bureau of Reclamation to 

measure the trophic state of lakes and reservoirs in the 

western United States. Landsat multispectral-scanner 

data were also being tested for this purpose. Surface 

measurements were taken from the water bodies at the 

time of satellite overpass to develop correlations for 

these studies. The ultimate purpose is to reduce the 

need for extensive and costly ground surveys to 

measure water quality. 

Using digital Landsat, terrain, and other data, the 

Water Resources Division mapped numerous terrain 

classes in drainage basins in Tennessee, New Mexico, 

and Nevada. Land cover (related to streamflow) in the 

basin was mapped to evaluate runoff and predict 

future water conditions, such as low, mean, and peak 

streamflow. The Bureau of Reclamation was using 

thermal-infrared imagery acquired by aircraft to 

locate thermal springs near the proposed site for 

Roosevelt Dam on the Salt River in Arizona. The integrity and safety of major dams and water conveyance 

structures in the western United States were studied by 

interpreting geostructural features with the aid of 

computer-enhanced satellite imagery. 

Irrigation Analysis 

In cooperation with the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, Portland District, EROS developed and 

tested techniques using Landsat and geographic data 

to evaluate irrigation agriculture in the 6500-sq-km 

Umatilla River basin in Oregon. Landsat data were 

manually interpreted to map the growth of irrigation 

from 1973 to 1979 and then digitally analyzed to identify crops under irrigation in 1979. The crop data were 

used with historical agricultural data and digitized 

topographic and hydrographic data to estimate water 

and power use in 1979. A composite map of land 

suitability for irrigation development was produced 

from Landsat-derived land-cover information and 

data on land ownership, soil irrigability, slope gradient, and potential energy cost. 

The National Mapping and Water Resource Divisions continued investigations in the High Plains. 

Methods for mapping irrigated cropland by digital 

analysis of Landsat data were evaluated, and maps 

were used to estimate ground-water withdrawal. A 

total of 59 Landsat scenes were prepared for a digital 

model of the Ogallala aquifer, the main groundwater-bearing formation underlying the High Plains. 

The data will be used to calculate the total amount of 

water pumped from the aquifer for irrigation. 

Weat her Monitoring 

The Bureau of Reclamation uses aircraft for data 

collection, cfnud seeding, and observation in 

Skywater, a project designed to accelerate development of reliable and efficient techniques for increasing 

rainfall from summer showers and snowfall from 

winter orographic storms. The GOES Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellites operated by the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 

collect cloud imagery in near real-time. 

Meteorological satellite data help forecast and control 

experimental activities on all Project Skywater field 

projects. 

54 
The bureau was also using GOES digital data to 

observe summertime convective cloud activity for the 

High Plains Cooperative Program (HIPLEX) in Montana and Texas and to observe wintertime extratropical storm systems for the Sierra Cooperative 

Pilot Project (SCPP) in California and the Colorado 

River Augmentation Demonstration Program 

(CRADP) in a five-state region of the Rocky Mountains. The HIPLEX observations seek to determine the 

frequency, distribution, and size of clouds that produce precipitation. SCPP observations are to determine the extent to which cloudtop temperatures can 

be monitored from geosynchronous altitudes. In 

CRADP, analyses of cloudtop temperatures and 

mesoscale features will produce a climatology of 

wintertime storm conditions in six subbasins in the 

Colorado River basin. 

In 1979 the bureau contracted for development of a 

solar -powered portable, remote-observation-ofenvironment (PROBE) station. By the end of 1981, 

150 PROBE stations had been constructed and some 

125 were operating. Each station measures and reports 

wind speed and direction, temperatures, relative 

humidity, barometric pressure, precipitation, and the 

status of the unit’s power-package battery. Measurements are transmitted hourly by radio to a satellite. 

The system can record up to 240 stations per hour and 

disseminates the data to project sites, providing scientists near real-time information. 

Mine Development and Safqty Monitoring 

Mine-related features in low-altitude aerial 

photographs assist in inspection of permit compliance 

and enforcement of regulations in the Appalachian 

states. Aerial photography and imagery also help 

evaluate mining impact, review mine plans, and 

analyze problems in active or abandoned mines. The 

Office of Surface Mining is developing the capability 

to monitor mining with high-altitude aircraft and 

Landsat data. BLM has successfully monitored albedo 

change on temporal Landsat images to identify mine 

trespass in Florida and Alabama. 

The Mine Safety and Health Administration, 

Department of Labor, used Landsat imagery and 

high-altitude photography obtained through the 

Geological Survey to improve safety for miners. The 

data were interpreted to delineate geologic weakness 

that might reduce mine stability. Return-beam-vidicon (RBV) imagery proved especially useful in detecting geologic discontinuities in the earth’s crust. Finding such areas in advance of actual mining reduces the 

potential for rock falls and cave-ins, a leading category 

of mine accidents. 

Geology 

Structure and Alteration 

Using improved computer techniques in Landsat 

studies, the Geologic Division continued to define new 

relationships between structural features (many not 

previously mapped) and alteration related to 

mineralizing processes. Other Landsat studies clarified 

structural settings of prospective radioactive-waste 

isolation areas of the Paradox basin, Utah, and the 

Cascade Range zone of active volcanism. 

Lineament Analysis 

Rock fractures, faults, and joints-frequently indicative of ground water, minerals, and petroleum-are evidenced by lineaments on Landsat images. EROS developed a procedure to produce lineament maps based on objective digital processing, for 

use by geologists. 

Cartography 

Image Maps 

After more than 10 years of study and experimentation, the National Mapping Division succeeded in the 

conceptual definition of a candidate operational 

earth-sensing satellite system that combines stereocoverage, improved resolution and geometry, and 

multispectral capability with simple, cost-effective 

operation. Multicolor image maps at scales as large as 

1 :50 000 with 20-meter topographic contour intervals 

are envisioned as one of the products of the system. A 

study by the industrial team of Itek and TRW indicated that the Mapsat satellite concept is technically 

feasible and could make an operational system 

economical and practical. 

A 1:lOO 000-scale map of Cape Cod and vicinity was 

prepared by making a mosaic of Landsat 3 returnbeam-vidicon images. It will provide an image base for 

a geologic map and an intermediate-scale planimetric 

map. A 1:250 000-scale map of the Ikpikpuk River 

quadrangle in Alaska was also compiled from RBV 

images. 

Index Maps 

A set of 26 map sheets titled the “Worldwide 

Reference System” (WRS) was designed for cataloging 

Landsat images. The WRS consists of a global network of 251 paths and 119 rows whose intersections 

correspond to geographic locations over which Landsat “nominal scene” centers are located. A single RBV 

image from Landsat 1 or 2, a set of four RBV 

subscenes from Landsat 3, or a single multispectral 

scanner image from all three Landsats covers a 

55 
nominal scene. Several index sheets were printed and 

the rest scheduled for late January 1982. Some 2500 

Landsat nominal scene centers have been identified 

and their quality indicated for an “Index Map to Optimum Landsat Images of Antarctica.” The 

1 :5 000 000-scale base map will also include a tabular 

presentation of image identification and related information. 

Landsat Receiving-Station Map 

A graphic outline was prepared of the receptionradius areas over which Landsat 1, 2, and 3 and the 

planned Landsat-D and -D‘ data can be received in 

real-time by ground stations throughout the world. 

Data acquired over areas outside this coverage must be 

tape-recorded from Landsat 1, 2, and 3, or be received through the planned Tracking Data and Relay 

Satellite System (TDRSS) for Landsat-D and -D‘. 

International Activities 

International activities of the Department of the Interior are conducted largely on behalf of the U.S. 

Department of State. Technical assistance programs 

to aid developing countries in using remote-sensing 

technology are conducted under the Agency for International Development (AID) in accordance with the 

U.S. Foreign Assistance Act. Bilateral scientific 

cooperation is sponsored by the participating agencies 

and governments. Multilateral activities are carried 

out under the United Nations. 

During 1981, U.S. Geological Survey scientists held 

two, month-long remote-sensing workshops for a total 

of 34 scientists from 21 countries at the EROS Data 

Center. Three advanced remote-sensing courses were 

held at the Geological Survey’s Center for Astrogeologic Studies in Flagstaff, Arizona, for 12 scientists 

from 9 countries. The Organization of American 

States sponsored a course on “Applications of Remote 

Sensing in Hydrology,” conducted by Geological 

Survey scientists for the Comisich Nacional de Investigacidnes Espaciales in Argentina. 

In 1981, technical expertise on interpretation of 

remotely sensed data and preparation of Landsat image mosaics was provided in cooperative projects with 

Greece, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, 

and Thailand. The International Atomic Energy 

Agency and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development sponsored Survey -conducted 

Landsat studies on the relationship of structural 

features and alteration to uranium mineralization for 

test areas in France, England, Canada, Australia, 

Sweden, Norway, Greenland, Turkey, and the United 

States. In a satellite glaciology project, the Survey 

undertook-with 55 scientists from 30 US., foreign, 

and international organizations - to prepare a 

satellite-image atlas of glaciers of the world. Emphasis 

during 1981 was placed on analysis of Landsat 

multispectral scanner images of Antarctica. A 

technology transfer project sponsored by AID was conducted for Tunisia. 

The Survey continued as lead agency for the International Geological Correlation Program’s Project 143 

on Remote Sensing and Mineral Exploration, jointly 

sponsored by the United Nations’ Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and the International 

Union of Geological Sciences. 

56 
Department of Agriculture 

Continued development of remotely sensed data as a 

source of information for research and operational 

programs was the focus of space activities in the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture (USDA) during 1981. 

The department entered the second year of the 

AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resource Inventory 

Surveys through Aerospace Remote Sensing) program - a multiyear, multiagency research program 

designed to determine applications of aerospace 

technology to agriculture and renewable resources. 

With direct participation and assistance from NASA 

and the Departments of Commerce and the Interior, 

and with the Agency for International Development 

participating in an advisory role, the USDA-led program stimulated experimental use of aerospace remote 

sensing for agriculture. 

Although the AgRISTARS program is focused on 

longer-term research objectives, interim milestones 

were reached and individual research projects within 

the broad program reported specific achievements. 

For example, the Early Warning/Crop Assessment 

project continued developing and testing soil-water 

models to assess crop stress due to lack of moisture and 

assisted in interpreting related data from environmental satellites. It also aided transfer of evaluation procedures and techniques to operational use. 

The Domestic Crops and Land Cover project, 

developing procedures to identify and measure land 

cover (including major crops), used data from Landsat 

satellites to improve accuracy of data classification at 

local and state levels. Significant research accomplishments included improved estimates for wheat in Kansas, corn and soybeans in Iowa, and rice in Arkansas. 

First steps were taken toward integration of Landsatderived data with ground-based acquisition and processing at state agricultural statistical offices. 

The objective of the Soil Moisture project is to 

develop ways to estimate moisture content using sensors in space, as well as aircraft and ground sensors. 

Better information about soil moisture will improve 

early warning alerts of changes that affect crop production and quality and therefore estimates of crop 

yields. Research during 1981 sought a better understanding of the effects of environmental factors -such 

as soil types, terrain roughness, and vegetative 

cover -on moisture determination using remote senThe Renewable Resources Inventory project 

develops and tests new ways to collect, display, and use 

remotely sensed data for forest and rangeland planning and management. Landsat technology is being 

evaluated as a tool in resource inventories and planning. Other areas include improving the capability to 

monitor and measure changes in forests and rangeland 

and to map natural and managed habitats. Research 

to date indicates that use of Landsat data in conjunction with geographic information can improve resource inventories. 

The Conservation/Pollution project improved accuracy in predicting runoff from a watershed, using 

satellite observations of snow cover. Other significant 

accomplishments included determining relationships 

between microwave data and snow depth and estimating amounts of sediment suspended at the surface of 

bodies of water by observing reflected solar radiation. 

Automation of Landsat data for identification and 

measurement of crop acreage was improved in the 

Foreign Commodity Production Forecasting project. 

The NASA-led activity develops methods for using 

aerospace remote-sensing technology for objective, 

timely, and reliable forecasts of foreign crop production. 

The Supporting Research project develops procedures to extract information from Landsat data to 

be tested in other projects. Research emphasis was on 

spectral analysis of crops to determine crop conditions, 

as well as development of techniques to delineate crop 

acreage and stages of growth. 

Research in the Yield Model Development project 

develops mathematical models, or equations, incorporating data on plant growth characteristics, soils, 

weather, and other environmental factors, to represent the yield potential of different crops. 

Specialists in the Foreign Agricultural Service extended crop-stress detection techniques and combined 

satellite-derived information with weather data and 

ground-based information to improve crop assessment 

capabilities. During 1981, some 100 assessment 

reports, covering 10 major countries or regions, were 

produced. 

sors. 

57 
Federal Communications Commission 

Demand for satellite communication services continued to grow in 1981; programs expanded to serve 

both international and domestic traffic increases. The 

12-satellite global and domestic service of the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization 

(INTELSAT) was upgraded by launches of the second 

and third Intelsat V satellites, and proposals for the 

advanced Intelsat VI series were being evaluated. 

Eleven U.S. domestic commercial satellites were in 

service at the end of the year, with six additional 

satellites scheduled for launch in 1982. The International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) 

was preparing to begin commercial maritime service 

early in 1982. Plans for direct broadcast satellites 

(DBS) were being formulated to permit direct-tohome program distribution. 

Communications Satellites 

INTELSA T 

Satellites in service in INTELSAT’s global communications system at the end of 1981 were two Intelsat IV-A satellites, one Intelsat IV, and one Intelsat 

V in the Atlantic Ocean region; two Intelsat IV-A 

satellites in the Indian Ocean region; and one Intelsat 

IV in the Pacific region-plus four in-orbit contingency and leased-domestic-service satellites. First transfer 

of traffic to a high-capacity Intelsat V began in 1981. 

The third Intelsat V, launched in December 1981, will 

go into service over the Atlantic in early 1982, while 

the second, launched in May 1981, will move from the 

Atlantic to the Indian Ocean region. The first, 

launched in December 1980, will remain an in-orbit 

spare over the Atlantic. Intelsat Vs operate in both 6-4 

and 14-11 gigahertz (GHz) frequency bands, along 

with a cross-strap mode (up on 6 GHZ and down on 

11, up on 14 GHz and down on 4). 

INTELSAT planned launches of up to six more Vs 

in the next two years, followed by six improved Intelsat 

V-As in 1984 and 1985, to meet international traffic 

demands-expected to double in the next four 

years-as well as providing regional and domestic services to its member nations. The last four Intelsat Vs 

will be able to provide maritime services and are expected to be leased by INMARSAT. INTELSAT approved introduction of time-division multiple access 

(TDMA) - a transmission technique that will markedly increase the capacity of its satellites. Industry proposals for Intelsat VI were being reviewed, and a contract award was scheduled for early 1982. 

Madime 

Commercial maritime, mobile-satellite service also 

continued its expansion. At the end of 1981, service 

through the Marisat system (managed by Comsat 

General Corp.) was provided in the Atlantic, Pacific, 

and Indian Ocean areas to some 950 ships-almost 

double the number served in 1980. Beginning 1 

February 1982, INMARSAT will take over and expand the Marisat services still further. The increased 

capabilities will be provided by a combination of existing Marisat satellites, European Space Agency 

Marec satellites, and Intelsat V satellites. INMARSAT 

estimates that 2000 ship terminals will be in use by 

1985 and 5000 by 1990-or even more if low-cost, 

data-only terminals are introduced. Planning continued for a future global maritime distress and safety 

system expected to be put into operation by about 

1990. It will rely heavily on satellite communications 

for distress alerting and for search and rescue coordination. 

Domestic Commercial Communications Satellites 

The commission in December 1980 authorized construction of 25 new domestic satellites and launch of 

20 of these or previously built satellites. In October 

1981, it authorized construction of two additional 

satellites. The new satellites are scheduled to replace 

those now nearing the end of their operational lifetimes, to provide for new entrants into the domestic 

market, and to expand the facilities of existing carriers. At the end of 1981, Hughes Communications, 

Inc., was constructing three Galaxy satellites to 

operate in the 4-6 GHz bands. Galaxy-A was scheduled to be launched in June 1983 and Galaxy-B in 

September 1983. 

Southern Pacific Communications Company was 

constructing four Spacenet satellites to operate in the 

4-6 and 12-14 GHz bands. The first two were to be 

launched in February and October 1984. 

58 
Comsat General Corp.’s Comstar 0-4 was launched 

in February 1981 and parked at 127.25’ west 

longitude. Comstar D-1 was relocated from 127.5O to 

95O W., where it operates with Comstar 0-2 as a composite satellite. Comstar 0-3 was at 87’ W. 

American Telephone & Telegraph Company was 

constructing three Telstar satellites to operate in the 

4-6 GHz bands. Telstar-A was scheduled to be 

launched in July 1983 and Telstar-B in May 1984, to 

replace Comstar satellites. 

RCA American Communications, Inc., was constructing six additional Satcom satellites to operate in 

the 4-6 GHz bands. RCA-Satcom 3-R (replacement 

for RCA-Satcom 3, which was lost in space in late 

1979) was launched in November 1981 and parked at 

131O W. RCA-Satcom 4 was to be launched in January 

1982, RCA-Satcom 5 in October 1982, 1-R (replacement for RCA-Satcom 1) in March 1983, and 2-R in 

August 1983. The sixth satellite will be an on-ground 

spare. RCA-Satcom 1 was parked at 135O and RCASatcom 2 at 119O W. 

The Western Union Telegraph Company was constructing three additional Westar satellites to operate 

in the 4-6 GHz bands. Westar 4 was to be launched in 

February 1982 to replace Westar 1, and Westar 5 to be 

launched later in 1982 to replace Westar 2. Westar 6 

was also under construction. Westar 1 was parked at 

123O, Westar 2 at 99O, and Westar 3 at 9l0 W. 

Space Communications Company (Spacecom) - a 

partnership of Western Union (50 percent), Fairchild 

Space Communications, Inc. (25 percent), and Contel 

Space Corp. (25 percent) -will construct and operate 

the TDRSS/Advanced Westar system of four in-orbit 

space stations and a ground spare. The first two 

satellites will be used exclusively for Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) service in 

government frequency bands, the third exclusively for 

commercial domestic satellite services in the 4-6 and 

12-14 GHz bands, and the fourth for both TDRSS and 

commercial services. Spacecom is also authorized to 

construct and operate the associated tracking, telemetry, and command ground station at White Sands, 

New Mexico. Western Union will lease 50 percent of 

Advanced Westar, and American Satellite the other 

50 percent. The first Advanced Westar satellite was 

scheduled for launch by NASA’s Space Transportation 

System (STS) in January 1984 and the second in May 

1984. 

GTE Satellite Corporation (GSAT) was building 

three satellites to operate in the 12-14 GHz bands. 

The GSAT system will be operated separately from the 

joint AT&T-GSAT operation. GSTAR-A was scheduled to be launched in March 1984 and GSTAR-B in 

September 1984. 

Satellite Business Systems (SBS) was constructing 

two additional satellites to operate in the 12-14 GHz 

bands. SBS began its commercial satellite operations 

in March 1981 with a satellite at 100’ W. A second 

SBS satellite was launched in September 1981 and 

parked at 97O W. 

At the end of 1981, nine domestic communication 

satellites were operating in the 4-6 GHz bands and two 

in the 12-14 GHz. Of the nine in the 4-6 GHz bands, 

three were part of RCA American Communications’ 

Satcom system, three in Western Union Telegraph’s 

Westar system, and three in AT&T’s Comstar system. 

These satellites provide message toll service, television 

distribution, and both single channel per carrier and 

multiple channels per carrier for voice, data, TV, and 

digital data. More than 5000 ground stations were 

licensed for these services. Many stations use 4.5-meter 

antennas to receive and distribute video and audio 

signals. The two satellites in the 12-14 GHz bands 

were operated by SBS to provide a wideband, 

switched, private communication network to large industrial and government users on a commercial basis, 

using 5- or 7-meter-antenna ground stations. Voice, 

data, and image traffic is assembled into a digital 

stream and all the digital carriers use TDMA to the 

satellite’s transponder. 

The commission initiated a Notice of Inquiry and 

Proposed Rulemaking in November 1981 to consider 

the cost and benefits of reducing orbital spacings to 2O 

and associated orbital location-assignment policies for 

the next generation of domestic satellites. Reduced 

spacing will provide additional orbital locations to accommodate entry of new satellite systems into the 

market place and permit expansion of existing 

systems. Reduced orbital spacing for satellites 

operated in the 4-6 and 12-14 GHz bands may be 

achieved by adhering to coordinated design practices 

and using ground stations with antennas of improved 

sidelobe and cross-polarization discrimination performance. The commission’s staff made a detailed 

technical examination of the feasibility of reduced 

satellite spacing. Comments were being requested 

from the public and the satellite industry before final 

orbital assignments in 1982. 

Experiments and Studies 

Experiments in emergency communications using 

Applications Technology Satellites ATS 1 and ATS 3 

continued (see the NASA chapter), as well as collection and relay of environmental data by the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites (see 

the Department of Commerce and NASA chapters). 

Studies and planning for international regulations for 

communications satellites and for direct-broadcast 

satellites made progress. 

Communications Studies 

US. preparations continued toward the World Administrative Radio Conference (Space WARC), which 

will seek to guarantee in practice for all countries 
equitable access to the geostationary satellite orbit and 

the frequency bands allocated to space services. The 

first session of this conference, scheduled for six weeks 

beginning in July 1985, will decide on space services 

and frequency bands and establish the principles, 

technical parameters, and criteria for the planning; 

establish guidelines for regulatory procedures for those 

services and bands where sharing is not appropriate; 

and consider other approaches to guarantee equitable 

access to the geostationary orbit. 

The second session of this conference, scheduled for 

six weeks beginning in September 1987, will implement results of the first session. 

In December 1980, the commission released a first 

notice of inquiry requesting public comment on commission preparation for the Space WARC. Comments 

on policy issues and planning approaches were received in early 1981. Additionally, the commission 

established the FCC Advisory Committee to bring the 

nongovernment sector into the decision-making proc - 

ess for the Space WARC. The Advisory Committee 

held its first meeting in September 1981. A second 

notice of inquiry was released in late 1981. 

Direct-Broadcast Satellites (DBS) 

Proposed direct -broadcast satellites would be placed 

in geostationary orbit to beam programs to individual 

homes without the intermediary of local television stations or cable systems. The home receiver-a small 

antenna (parabolic "dish") and circuitry inside the 

home to process the received signal -would be connected to an existing TV receiver. Service areas in the 

United States are expected to receive at least three 

channels from a single satellite, and many satellites 

could serve a given service area. The downlink frequency will be in the 12-GHz band and the uplink in 

the 17-GHz band. 

In 1981, the commission issued a Notice of Proposed 

Policy Statement and Rulemaking proposing interim 

rules and frequency allocations for DBS and received 

comments. The proposed rules would impose only the 

minimum requirements necessary to ensure that DBS 

systems operated in conformity with the Communications Act and international agreements. Final rules for 

interim systems were to be adopted early in 1982. FCC 

tentatively accepted eight applications requesting 

authority to provide DBS service to the continental 

U.S., Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin 

Islands. Decisions on applications were expected in 

early 1982. 

Planning with 52 Western Hemisphere administrations was under way for DBS spectrum requirements in 

Region 2. Studies continued on service areas, orbital 

locations, and channel assignments for countries in 

Region 2-North America, Central America, the 

Caribbean, and South America-in preparation for 

the Regional Administrative Radio Conference in 

Geneva in June 1985. Several notices of inquiry have 

brought numerous comments. 

60 
Department of Transportation 

The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the 

U.S. Department of Transportation’s aviation component, operates under authority of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958 (as amended), a statutory charter that 

has aviation safety as its principal objective. FAA 

regulates air commerce to promote its safety and development, fosters civil aeronautics at home and 

abroad, develops and operates a common system of air 

navigation and traffic control for civil and military 

aviation, fosters development of a national airport 

system, regulates airport safety, promotes aviation 

security, and ensures that civil aviation operations 

damage the environment as little as possible. 

FAA research, development, and engineering programs fall into three principal categories: enhancing 

aviation safety, protecting the environment, and increasing the safety and efficiency of air navigation and 

traffic control. While FAA contractors conduct most 

of these activities, a substantial number are accomplished in concert with DOT’S Transportation Systems 

Center, NASA, the Department of Defense, and, as 

opportunity affords, with agencies of friendly foreign 

governments. In addition, FAA’s Technical Center in 

Atlantic City tests and evaluates systems, and FAA’s 

Civil Aeromedical Institute in Oklahoma City engages 

in aeromedical research. 

Aviation Safety 

Recent Initiatives 

During 1981, FAA 

Conducted with the Canadian government’s National Aeronautics Establishment airworthiness 

tests basic to the certification of helicopters for 

operations under instrument flight rules (IFR). 

Began collecting information on engine failures 

in wide-bodied aircraft caused by bird strikes, to 

assist in establishing technical criteria for preventing such failures. 

Joined NASA and DoD in forming a national task 

force to determine the test facilities needed for research and development in icing, especially as 

related to certification. 

Participated in a NATO Advisory Group for 

Aerospace Research and Development (AGARD) 

report that assessed the state of the art on helicopter icing and recommended future RBD. 

Supported the Southwest Region effort to certify 

the Bell 412 helicopter, the first civil helicopter 

designed for flight in known icing conditions, by 

preparing guidelines for its certification. 

Analyzed helicopter operational experience and 

identified actions that might reduce pilot -caused 

accidents. 

Fire Safety 

The Special Aviation Fire and Explosion Reduction 

(SAFER) Advisory Committee established by FAA in 

mid-1978 to review its fire safety research program reported to the FAA administrator in the fall of 1980. It 

recommended development of an antimisting kerosene 

(AMK) technology as the most effective action the 

FAA could take in reducing postcrash jet transport 

fires, which occur when fuel tanks rupture and the released fuel, in the form of a fine mist of combustible 

vapor, spontaneously ignites. 

The FAA for some 10 years had been working with 

NASA and the British Royal Aircraft Establishment 

(RAE) in developing FM-9, a kerosene jet-fuel additive 

of British origin. In November 1980, RAE and FAA 

conferees agreed that the additive was technically 

feasible and that, if it could be produced at reasonable 

cost and incorporated into existing jet fuel systems, it 

would significantly reduce fire hazards. In February 

1981, a conference of NASA, RAE, industry, and 

public representatives concluded that adding FM-9, or 

a similar substance, was the best way to inhibit formation of the postcrash fireball. Conferees also concluded 

that much work remained to be done in ensuring production of the additive at reasonable cost; determining 

the concentration in which it could best be used; devising means for its storage and handling, especially at 

airports; and adapting it to existing jet fuel systems. In 

September 1981, FAA sent its only four-engine jet, a 

Boeing 720, to NASA’s Dryden Flight Research Facility in California to test the additive under operational 

conditions. The final step in the research, scheduled 

for some time in 1984, is to crash the 720 in the Mojave 

Desert under carefully controlled conditions. 

61 
Aviation Secun’ty 

To supplement its passenger screening program for 

deterring terrorism and sabotage aboard passenger 

aircraft, FAA conducts a comprehensive program to 

develop automatic detection of explosives hidden in 

lockers, checked baggage, and aircraft cargo holds. 

The principal technologies include x-ray absorption, 

thermal neutron activation, nuclear magnetic resonance, and vapor explosive detection. A new project 

was begun in 1981 for automatic detection of hidden 

explosives carried by persons walking past the detection instrument. Research also began toward counteracting the use of incendiary material as a highjacking 

weapon. 

X-ray Absorption. The absorption technique employs an automatic computer-based analysis of the 

size, shape, and x-ray density of the checked baggage. 

Two prototypes of the system were modified during 

1981 for operational use. One prototype, installed at 

Dulles International Airport, processed 65 000 pieces 

of baggage with satisfactory results. The other, delivered to the FAA Technical Center during the year, 

was in the midst of a two-year test using advanced 

computer programming techniques. 

Thermal Neutron Activation. A device that detects 

explosives by the thermal neutron reactions peculiar to 

them was tested at the Pittsburgh and Boston International Airports and found promising. A more detailed testing program was planned. 

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. The resonance 

system relies on detecting the characteristic response of 

explosive molecules when subjected to magnetic and 

pulsed radio-frequency fields. At the end of 1981, it 

showed sufficient promise to justify converting the 

laboratory model into an operational system, to be 

ready for evaluation in 1982. 

Explosives Vapor Detection. The first phase of a 

program for identifying vapors unique to different explosives was completed, and the vapor emission rates 

from various kinds of baggage determined. Specifications were being prepared for the development of a 

detector. 

Walk- by Explosives Detector. Working with FAA, 

the DOT Transportation Systems Center in Cambridge began developing equipment to detect hidden 

explosives carried past it. A device was expected to be 

ready for laboratory test and evaluation by early 1982. 

Countering Incendiary Liquids. The FAA Technical Center began a program to meet threats like those 

posed by Cuban highjackers in 1980 who threatened to 

ignite gasoline they brought aboard aircraft. One 

recommendation was the use of advanced fire extinguishers, particularly the Halon 121 1. The center produced for loan to the airlines a 12-minute video tape 

showing the proper use of hand-held fire extinguishers 

including the Halon 121 1. 

A eromedical Research 

Although a certain amount of FAA’s medical safety 

research is done under contract, the bulk of it is done 

by the Office of Aviation Medicine in FAA headquarters and by the Civil Aeromedical Institute in 

Oklahoma City. This research identifies human factors that cause accidents, devises ways of preventing 

future accidents, and seeks to ensure that passengers 

can survive accidents that do occur. 

The Neurological and Neurosurgical Report. A 

report prepared for the Office of Aviation Medicine by 

the American Medical Association in collaboration 

with the American Academy of Neurology and the 

American Association of Neurological Surgeons presented the “status and knowledge of neurological and 

neurosurgical conditions associated with aviation safety.” The report alerted medical examiners to conditions that prima facie disqualified airmen from flying 

and indicated what to look for in permitting airmen to 

remain on or go back to flying status. 

Air- Traffic-Controller Applicant Testing. FAA developed, validated, and put into use two new, customized, job-related tests for screening air-traffic-controller applicants. The multiplex controller-aptitude 

test teaches applicants a simplified version of the air 

traffic control rules, pictures simulated air traffic 

crossing a controller’s display, and measures how well 

the applicants control that traffic in a time stress situation. Since most applicants have prior experience in 

aviation, some even as military air traffic controllers, 

FAA developed also an ATC test that measures important aspects of such knowledge. The tests were 

given students at both military and FAA air traffic 

controller schools, and performance was measured as 

students progressed through training and worked at 

operational sites. The new tests, which consistently 

produced higher correlations with success than did 

older testing devices, are expected to reduce greatly 

the percentage of controllers who fail training and improve the quality of those who pass. The tests were administered to some 125 000 applicants following the 

dismissal by President Reagan, in August, of 11 400 

striking controllers. 

Airport Pavement 

In 1981, as in earlier years, roughly half the government funds allotted by FAA to the nation’s airports 

under the Airport Development Aid Program (ADAP) 

went for airport pavement construction. FAA continued research to ensure the optimum condition of 

those pavements. Three principal research projects in 

1981 were (1) establishing newer, more realistic construction criteria for high-volume traffic pavements; 

(2) studying ways to minimize the adverse effects of 

cold weather on pavement construction and performance: and (3) developing new techniques for improv82 
ing aircraft braking on water-covered runways and a 

methodology to measure and relate runway conditions 

to braking performance. 

The need for the first project had long been evident 

because the guidance followed in the construction and 

maintenance of pavements at the nation’s busiest terminals is based on criteria developed for military airfields with relatively low traffic volumes in the 1940s 

and 1950s. Because of massive increases in traffic since 

that time, FAA, through the U.S. Army Corps of 

Engineers, is developing more realistic guidance 

specifically tailored for airports with runways subjected to more than 100 000 takeoffs and landings annually. At the Waterways Experiment Station of the 

Corps of Engineers in Vicksburg , Mississippi, testing 

pavements to destruction will document fatigue and 

failure of both rigid and flexible pavements. 

The second project deals with the deleterious effects 

of frost and freezing in more than two-thirds of the 

country. In a five-year project-in its third year in 

1981 -FAA, the Federal Highway Administration, 

and the U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory are developing design criteria to 

minimize the effects of freezing and thawing. The 

project seeks to provide stronger and more uniform 

pavements and to alert design engineers to methods 

and materials that will enable them to build 

pavements in the frost belt which, while costing no 

more than existing pavements, will have a much 

longer life. A predesign field test was being developed 

to indicate the degree of susceptibility of the sub-base 

to freezing. 

The third project, the National Runway Friction 

Measurement Program, provided a way of automatically measuring the friction characteristics of airport pavements and of determining corrective action 

to provide enough friction to prevent aircraft skidding or hydroplaning. Using a portable mu-meter, a 

specially designed runway-friction-measurement 

device, FAA in September 1978 began evaluating surface conditions at 491 instrument -landing-systemequipped runways at 268 airports in the contiguous 48 

states. The program, completed in October 1981, provided a fast and efficient way to ensure that airport 

pavements funded by ADAP had the characteristics 

needed to prevent hydroplaning in wet weather and 

slipping and skidding due to excessive rubber accumulation and ineffective grooving. 

Environmental Research 

In 1981, FAA worked in three principal areas of environmental research. The first, a continuing project, 

dealt with the effects of aircraft engine emissions at 

high altitudes. The second, also a continuing project, 

examined how best to control pollution in aircraftengine emissions at low altitudes and on the ground. 

The third studied how to handle and dispose of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), a colorless liquid chemical used as a dielectric in electrical equipment and 

determined to be a carcinogen. 

The High-Altitude Pollution Program 

HAPP originated as a follow-on investigation to the 

departmental Climatic Impact Assessment Program 

(CIAP), which had concluded that high-altitude commercial aircraft operations -including possible largescale supersonic transport and subsonic operations - 

could significantly deplete atmospheric ozone, with attendant harm to man and the environment. The CIAP 

calculations were far from definitive, and HAPP was 

established to resolve uncertainties. HAPP’s findings 

show that, as far as large-scale SST operations alone 

are concerned, CIAP’s conclusion was essentially correct. If large-scale SST fleets become a reality, they 

will indeed deplete atmospheric ozone and harm the 

environment. But existing and future subsonic operations would generate additional ozone and thus partially or fully offset harmful effects of the SST fleets. 

The change in ozone would depend on the size of the 

respective fleets and the altitudes at which they 

operated. Large SST fleets would, in short, deplete the 

ozone layer; large subsonic fleets, recharge it. FAA’s 

research was closely coordinated with that of NASA, 

the World Meteorological Organization, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. The 

findings were to be submitted to Congress in January 

1982. 

Low-Altitude Pollution Control 

The basic Clean Air Act of 1970 calls for the control 

of harmful aircraft-engine emissions at or near the 

ground. Although relatively little research had been 

done on this kind of pollution before that time, the 

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued the 

first aircraft emission standards in 1973 on the basis of 

available information. The standards were to go into 

effect at future dates, and EPA stipulated that, should 

technical information in the interim warrant it, they 

would be changed accordingly. FAA research programs (some conducted with DoD, EPA, and NASA) 

and monitoring and modeling of actual airport pollution indicated by 1981 and in the years immediately 

preceding that the aircraft emission standards originally proposed by EPA were more stringent than required. EPA was withdrawing some standards and reexamining and revising others. 

The PCB Problem 

In 1978 EPA recognized that polychlorinated biphenyl, a liquid chemical, was carcinogenic. EPA’s 

rule had allowed use of, PCB-containing equipment 

provided the toxic fluid was below a certain concentra- 
tion and was totally enclosed and could not escape. In 

early 1981, a private environmental group in a class 

action suit successfully challenged the rule. The court 

gave EPA time to work out ways PCB in existing 

equipment was to be used, handled, and disposed of 

safely. FAA, which has equipment containing the 

chemical, is working to ensure the safety of its equipment. 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control 

Mode S Radar Beacon Program 

Mode S -a long-term program to develop advanced 

ground sensors and airborne transponders -in the 

next several years will begin replacing the existing air 

traffic control radar-beacon system (ATCRBS) as the 

primary tracking and surveillance system in FAA's 

automated control system. 

FAA developed the Mode S radar system because 

ATCRBS has serious shortcomings, which became 

more apparent with the increasing traffic densities of 

the 1970s. Mode S sensors -advanced interrogators 

mounted on primary radar antennas -will be able to 

address individual Mode S transponders and aircraft 

equipped with a traffic-alert and collision-avoidance 

system (TCAS). Mode S receives a response from a 

specific aircraft by using that aircraft's unique identity 

code, rather than receiving signals from all the aircraft 

in the vicinity. It thus ends garbled and overlapping 

responses common on ATCRBS and provides a digital 

data link between each aircraft and the ground facility 

monitoring it. Deployment of Mode S sensors and 

transponders will significantly upgrade the existing, 

computerized, secondary surveillance radar system. 

Conversion from ATCRBS to Mode S will be 

gradual. At the end of 1981, three Mode S models had 

been tested and evaluated at FAA's Technical Center, 

and FAA's operating services were to begin early procurement for possible operation by mid-1987. 

Traffic-Alert and Collision-Avoidance System (TCAS) 

A new, wholly airborne, air-to-air, midair collisionavoidance system, TCAS is designed to operate independently of the existing air traffic control system. It 

was designed from the beginning with a digitized, 

discrete-address, Mode S radar-beacon capability. 

TCAS-equipped aircraft will carry both Mode S 

antennas and Mode S transponders, to communicate 

with other similarly equipped planes and also with 

planes carrying conventional transponders. 

Two basic versions of the new system are contemplated. TCAS-I is a low-cost system within the reach of 

most owners of general-aviation aircraft. It will provide the pilot a proximity warning-a visual or audible 

alarm alerting him that another aircraft carrying 

either TCAS-I or a conventional transponder is near. 

The more capable and more expensive TCAS-I1 will 

protect against collision independently pf the ground 

ATC system by using vertical maneuvers, with potential expansion to horizontal maneuvers should technical and economic feasibility be demonstrated. 

FAA estimates that TCAS-I units can be in volume 

production in 36 months and TCAS-I1 in 48. 

Microwaue Landing System (MLS) 

MLS - which will eventually replace the instrument 

landing system (ILS), the international standard 

precision landing aid since 1949 -was developed by 

FAA in the early 1970s, using a time-referenced 

scanning-beam technique. It was accepted by the International Civil Aviation Organization as the international standard in 1978. Three versions of the system 

have been developed: a basic, wide-aperture system 

for large airports: a basic, narrow-aperture system for 

medium-size airports: and a small community system 

for smaller airports. By 1981, all three systems had 

been tested and evaluated. 

At a meeting in Montreal in April 1981, ICAO 

agreed on the standards and recommended practices 

for MLS use in international civil aviation. ICAO also 

agreed to a first draft international plan for transition 

from the ILS to the MLS. 

Meanwhile, FAA's operating services accepted the 

MLS technical data package, and FAA completed installation during 1981 of four MLS systems to be used 

in a service evaluation program. Two small commercial airlines, equipped with avionics supplied by FAA, 

would check out the guidance of the four units during 

a two-year test period. FAA planned to conduct tests 

and collect data for developing siting standards, ter- 

'minal instrument procedures, and flight inspection 

and maintenance procedures. 

Modernizing the Flight Service Stations 

Replacement of the agency's long out-of-date and 

highly labor-intensive flight service stations by a centralized automated system began in earnest in early 

1978. The present, revised master plan calls for consolidation of the nation's more than 300 stations into 

61 automated hubs at airports in 45 states and Puerto 

Rico, chosen because of heavy general-aviation use. 

Equipped with computer terminals and cathode-raytube displays, the hubs would operate in conjunction 

with computers at air-route traffic control centers, 

which receive data from the FAA Weather Message 

Switching Center in Kansas City. Remote terminals 

tied in with the hubs would complete the service. 

In early 1980, competitive contracts were awarded 

for the design of the automated system. In October 

1981, the winner was awarded a contract to produce 

the computers as well as the rest of the system. Two 

models were to be produced. A basic model capable of 

64 
displaying weather and flight data in alphanumeric 

form on the specialist’s screen was to be ready in two 

years. It would eventually be replaced by the more 

sophisticated model with additional displays for 

weather inputs, charts, and graphics, as well as access 

to the data base from remote computer terminals. By 

1988, the system would be in full operation. 

According to FAA estimates, meeting the demand 

for future flight services with the existing one-to-one 

manual system would require 11 500 flight specialists 

by 1995 and cost $320 million per year. An automated 

system would require less than half that number of 

specialists and was expected to save the government 

millions of dollars by 1995. 

New Automated Weather Stations 

In 1980, FAA developed a follow-on system to its 

AV-WOS automated weather observation system for 

aviation, developed in 1978 with the National 

Weather Service. The new wind-altimeter and voiceequipped (WAVE) system responded to an FAA flight 

operations requirement for an automated, unmanned 

observation station to serve airports with approved instrument landing approaches. Industry developed two 

commercial WAVE systems in 1981, and FAA certified them for civil use. 

WAVE was followed by yet another system. Using 

the basic modular WAVE, adding ceiling and visibility sensors, and enhancing the data processing capability, FAA and NWS developed a still more advanced 

automated facility for air taxis and commuter airlines. 

Two of these ALWOS low-cost weather observation 

systems were being tested as 1981 ended-one at 

Dulles International Airport, the other on an oil rig in 

the Gulf of Mexico. 

Meanwhile, realizing an even more sophisticated 

automated flight-service station was needed, FAA in 

1981 completed development of the automated 

weather observation system (AWOS) by adding more 

weather sensors and sophisticated data processing 

equipment to the basic WAVE and ALWOS modular 

systems. 

Next - Generation Weat her Radar Network (NEXRA 0) 

The Departments of Transportation, Commerce, 

and Defense sponsor the NEXRAD program to develop a network of common-use, doppler weather 

radars that will meet the data needs of the nation’s 

aviation in the 1990s and beyond. The new radars will 

replace the aging weather radar network operated by 

the National Weather Service with new and highly 

reliable, computer-linked, solid-state, doppler radar 

equipment capable of “seeing” inside storm clouds, 

spotting wind gusts, wind-shear, hail, and embryonic 

tornadoes, and providing a data service for civil and 

military aviation far superior to the existing network. 

A joint NEXRAD special program office -in which 

the National Weather Service, working with FAA and 

the Department of Defense, has the lead role-was 

established in 1980. NEXRAD is a large development 

/calling for 160 doppler radars, but by 1981 most outstanding issues had been agreed on. The design of the 

network and the builder will be decided by competition, and the National Weather Service in June 1981 

spelled out the rules of competition for representatives 

of 50 interested companies. Invitations for bids for the 

design were issued in September 1981. Multiple contract awards for NEXRAD prototypes were to be made 

in the spring of 1982. Validation was to begin in 1983, 

and the winning company was to be selected in 1985 to 

build NEXRAD for the joint use of FAA, National 

Weather Service, and DoD. Final development was to 

be completed and production begun in 1986. Nationwide deployment was scheduled to start in 1987, with 

the entire network operating by 1990. 

65 
Environmental Protection Agency 

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and 

NASA continued the Interagency Energy/Environment (IEEP) studies during 1981. This cooperative activity extensively field-tested remote-sensing systems 

developed to gather data on hazy air masses and the 

transport and transformation of oxidants, aerosols, 

and other pollutants and compared the data gathered 

with those obtained by in situ measurement systems. 

The field studies focused on air pollution problems in 

the northeastern quadrant of the United States. 

IEEP, begun in 1974 under EPA direction, provides 

state and federal regulatory decision-makers with environmental data and assessment methodologies to ensure that development of energy resources in the 

United States can be accelerated with acceptable impact on human health and the environment. NASA 

provided EPA space age technology for remotely sensing pollution and pollution effects. In particular, 

NASA contributed to the EPA study conducted during 

July-August 1980, known as PEPE/NEROS (Persistent Elevated Pollution Episode/North East Regional 

Oxidant Study), with its UV-DIAL (ultraviolet-differentia1 absorption lidar) system for obtaining rangeresolved ozone data from an airborne measurement 

platform. PEPE/NEROS collected an extensive set of 

data to improve knowledge of the origin, evolution, 

and movement of large-scale hazy air masses that occur frequently during the summer in the eastern half 

of the nation as a result of stagnant meteorological 

conditions. 

Analysis of data obtained by NASA researchers for 

the PEPE/NEROS experiment continued during 

1981. These data are being compared with similar 

data taken by other measurement techniques. The 

evaluated data sets will be transferred to EPA by late 

1982. 

In another major effort in 1981, NASA scientists 

helped evaluate remote and in situ sensors, particularly the UV-DIAL. Three experiments during July 

and August demonstrated the performance of the UVDIAL system for shorter distances and times. The experiments covered the altitude range from the surface 

to the upper troposphere, horizontal distances from 

one to a hundred kilometers, and times from minutes 

to several hours. Data collected will permit assessment 

of the accuracy, sensitivity, and precision of the UVDIAL system. 

Specific experiments were a study of the surface 

boundary layer of the atmosphere in a complex coastal 

environment, a case study of a theoretical mechanism 

for transporting ozone from the boundary layer up into the free troposphere above it via convective clouds, 

and measurement of the vertical structure of ozone 

and aerosols in the upper troposphere near the tropopause. Preliminary results showing the unique capabilities of the UV-DIAL system included: 

Measurement of micro-structure movement of 

aerosol-rich air up into the boundary layer as convective plumes penetrated these layers from 

below. 

Measurement in late evening of ozone and aerosol-rich air injected into the free troposphere 

above the convective boundary layer of an 

average afternoon. 

Measurement of ozone up to 13 km and aerosols 

up to 14 km and measurement of both horizontal 

and vertical structure of ozone and aerosols on the 

north side of the jet stream over Maine. 

Imagery from geostationary meteorological satellites 

was used extensively for planning experiments and for 

real-time implementation. Several aspects of the 1981 

experiments will assist EPA in completing the development and provide a data base for validating the EPA 

regional oxidant model. Finally, NASA began further 

development of the UV-DIAL system during 1981, to 

extend its application to measuring sulfur dioxide and 

to daylight operation. 

66 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation supports research 

to advance scientific knowledge, including the fields of 

astronomy and atmospheric science. Scientists con - tribute to this research through NSF grants and the 

use of NSF-supported national research centers. In 

1981, a number of discoveries in astronomy resulted 

from ground-based observations. 

Two galaxies with the largest doppler redshifts ever 

detected were identified by researchers sponsored by 

NSF. Spectrum scans using the four-meter telescope of 

Kitt Peak National Observatory in Arizona and the 

three-meter telescope of the Lick Observatory in California revealed that the two galaxies were receding so 

rapidly that, according to the accepted expansion rate 

of the universe, they must lie at a distance of 10 billion 

light-years from Earth. Since their light would have required 10 billion years to reach Earth, astronomers 

have now looked more than halfway back to the moment believed to mark the creation of the universe. 

While most bright spiral galaxies are only weak 

radio sources, a few are much stronger radio emitters 

than would be expected from their brightness at optical wavelengths. Maps made with the new very large 

array of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in 

West Virginia have established that these rare radiobright galaxies are undergoing gigantic bursts of star 

formation in their nuclei. 

The presence of auroras in the atmosphere of 

Jupiter has been well documented by the spacecraft 

Voyager 1, IUE, and Copernicus. Such activity has 

been observed from the ground for the first time by 

three astronomers working with the four-meter telescope at Kitt Peak and NASA’s three-meter Infrared 

Telescope Facility in Hawaii. 

A relatively new technique called very -long-baseline 

interferometry has enabled radio astronomers at the 

California Institute of Technology to obtain the first 

definite evidence of apparent faster-than-light, or 

superluminal, motion. Gas clouds were observed to 

move faster than the light barrier in three quasars and 

one galaxy. Since such speeds are forbidden by the 

theory of relativity, the phenomenon has been interpreted as a relativistic deflection of light emitted from 

material in rapid motion toward the observer. 

A puzzling region of virtually empty space has been 

found 400 million light-years away in the constellation 

Bootes by three astronomers making a broad survey of 

galaxies with telescopes on Kitt Peak, Mount Hopkins 

in Arizona, and Palomar Mountain in California. By 

far the largest such void ever detected, it is 300 million 

light-years in diameter and has a volume of about one 

percent of the observable universe. 

A new spiral arm on the fringes of our Milky Way 

galaxy has been discovered by two Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute researchers using the 11-meter telescope of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. 

Because such arms are composed of molecular gas and 

dust associated with star-forming regions, this finding 

indicates that the extent of star formation in our 

galaxy is significantly greater than believed before. 

67 
Srnithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to the national space program through an integrated program 

of basic research and development in space science 

and astrophysics at its Smithsonian Astrophysical 

Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and 

exhibits at its National Air and Space Museum 

(NASM) in Washington. Basic research at the Center 

for Earth and Planetary Studies at NASM also supports national goals. 

Space Sciences 

High -Energy A st rophysics 

During 1981, reduction and analysis of data from 

Einstein, the second High Energy Astronomy Observatory (HEAO) satellite, dominated research. The x-ray 

telescope, the imaging proportional counter, and the 

high-resolution imaging detector carried on the satellite were designed and developed by Smithsonian 

scientists. Other Einstein-related activities emphasized 

mission planning and selection of instrument observation targets, conservation of the spacecraft’s attitudecontrol gas until it was exhausted in April 1981, and 

continued direction of the guest investigator program. 

Among highlights of the year’s Einstein research were 

the discovery of two galaxies showing strong x-ray activity but no optical activity, the detection of a probable underluminous x-ray-active nucleus in the nearby 

galaxy M81, and the discovery of limitations on the 

physical state of a confining medium for the emission: 

line clouds found in the outer regions of active Seyfert 

nuclei. Imaging instruments on Einstein have shown 

extended x-ray features associated with galaxies in the 

core of the galaxy cluster Abell 1367. These x-ray coronas may be hot gas gravitationally bound to the 

galaxies by massive envelopes of subluminous matter. 

Einstein observations of galactic x-ray sources 

resulted in discovery of a diffuse source associated with 

the puzzling celestial object SS 433. From Einstein 

data on the Tycho supernova remnant, an accurate 

estimate was obtained of the mass ejected in the explosions, and the interaction of the expanding shell with 

the ambient interstellar medium was studied. Size and 

distribution of the “x-ray clouds” are being examined 

to learn more about the instabilities that fragment the 

expanding shell and about the role of these fragments 

in the acceleration of the electrons producing the 

radio shell. 

Other substantial data analysis activities included 

the Heao 1, Small Astronomy Satellite (SAS 3), and 

sounding rocket programs. The scanning modulation 

collimator on Heao 1 led to significant scientific 

results, including discovery of x-ray or optical pulsations, or both, from two new celestial, cataclysmic 

variable systems, H2252-035 and V 1223 Sag, and 

identification of the first normal M-giant star 

(2A1704 + 241) as an x-ray emitting system. A study of 

x-ray background fluctuations on a small angular 

scale at energies above 6 kilo electron volts used 

data acquired by SAS 3 (which operated from May 

1975 to April 1979). A joint sounding rocket experiment developed by SA0 and colleagues in France was 

reflown, measuring the soft x-ray spectrum of the 

North Polar Spur. Ultraviolet spectrometry of hot 

galaxies by the International Ultraviolet Explorer 

satellite ZUE and theoretical interpretation of observations made by the Skylab Apollo telescope mount continued. 

Balloon Astronomy 

A balloon-borne, 102-centimeter, far-infrared telescope flown in October 1980 made new observations. 

The telescope -using a new, four-beam broadband 

photometer-was developed by SA0 and the Naval 

Research Laboratory. During almost 10 hours of 

observation, 12 objects were observed, including 3 

giant molecular-cloud regions. An unbiased, highresolution, far-infrared survey of the galactic plane in 

the region of M17, covering more than seven square 

degrees and including the giant molecular cloud 

southwest of M17, detected 42 far-infrared sources. 

Thirteen lie within the M17SW giant molecular-cloud 

complex, and these data provided the first highsensitivity, high-resolution, far-infrared survey of the 

complex. 

The first far-infrared map of the evolved H I1 region 

M16 showed that the radiation arises primarily from 

interfaces of ionized gas and the molecular cloud. The 

observations have been important in understanding 

the latter stages of evolution of an H I1 region. A consistent picture of four stages is beginning to emerge: 

pre-main sequence, compact far-infrared, blister, and 

68 
diffuse. Far-infrared spectral observations of the 

Orion molecular cloud led to the detection of the rotational spectrum of shocked carbon monoxide in this 

region. 

A balloon flight of a far-infrared spectrometer in 

December 1980 produced good-quality data on stratospheric spectra, but failed on astronomical spectra because of a balloon-system malfunction. The stratospheric observations were analyzed to detect minor 

species in the ozone-layer region and to obtain vertical 

mixing ratios -yielding an accurate measurement of 

the ratio of hydrogen fluoride to hydrogen chloride in 

the stratosphere. 

Earth’s Resources 

The SA0 Satellite-Tracking Network was upgraded 

with an improved optical-pulse chopper installed at all 

stations, to reduce laser pulse width and improve ranging accuracy. Data-handling capabilities were improved by modified software, allowing more direct 

transmission of data from field stations to SAO. All 

field stations continued local coverage of Lageos, Geos 

3, and other satellites useful for geodetic research. 

Studies of the geomagnetic variation in the thermosphere used data from several satellite-borne massspectrometer experiments. The work emphasized the 

latitudinal and local-time dependence of the variation, relation of specific features to the underlying 

energy sources, and determination of the time-lag between the onset of a geomagnetic disturbance and the 

corresponding disturbance in the atmosphere. The 

studies seek a better understanding of physical processes in thermospheric disturbance and the interactions with other atmospheric regions, as well as to provide an improved model for practical use. 

Solar and Stellar Physics 

Ultraviolet spectroscopic measurements by ZUE, 

x-ray measurements by Einstein, and a solar-ultraviolet-coronagraph program provided the basis of 

observational research on the sun and other cool stars 

and stellar systems. Ultraviolet observing programs 

with ZUE also included spectroscopy of supernova remnants, the interstellar medium, and cataclysmic 

variables. 

Studies of mass loss in cool stars, using principally 

ZUE observations, now indicate a consistent and continuous evolution of coronas, wind characteristics, and 

mass-loss rates. These vary from the hot fast winds of 

the sun with a low mass-loss rate, through the luminous hybrid stars exhibiting moderately hot winds, 

medium terminal velocities accompanied by larger 

mass loss, and finally to the coolest giant and supergiant stars possessing slow cool winds and high massloss rates. 

Analysis of ultraviolet spectra obtained by ZUE of 

two supernova remnants, the Cygnus Loop and the 

Vela remnant, provided data on abundances of elements and on shock velocities. Ultraviolet spectra of 

AM Herculis stars in the low state and of the LMC 

transient x-ray source A9538 - 66 were obtained and 

analyzed. 

New observational techniques were developed to 

study the acceleration of the solar wind out of the sun 

and the physics of the outer solar corona. Coronagraphic observations in April 1979 and February 1980 

from sounding rockets carrying the new ultraviolet 

light coronagraph and a white light coronagraph led 

to the first measurements of coronal temperatures beyond 1.5 solar radii from the center of the sun. They 

are expected to determine upper limits on velocities of 

coronal material flowing out into the solar wind. New 

diagnostic techniques for determining many of the 

major plasma parameters of the solar-wind acceleration region are being developed, and an ultraviolet 

light coronagraph has been defined for a possible 

Shuttle Spacelab mission. 

Rocket measurements of Lyman-alpha profiles 

showed that the hydrogen temperature decreased with 

height in three regions of the corona. Evidence was 

found for a small amount of proton heating and nonthermal contribution to the motions of coronal protons between 1.5 and 4 solar radii. The data also suggest that the solar-wind flow was subsonic in the 

observed regions. 

Gravity Research 

Research on use of hydrogen masers for scientific 

programs continued. SAO’s hydrogen maser group 

provided the three masers used for deep space tracking 

in NASA’s planetary Voyager program. Work to improve stability and support of the 14 VLG-series 

masers now in the field continued. 

Lunar Research 

A Smithsonian participant in the Lunar Highlands 

Initiative is leading a consortium to study the petrography, major and minor element chemistry, and ages 

of some of the lunar samples brought to earth by the 

Apollo 16 mission. Effort is focused on rock 67015, a 

breccia with a light-gray, friable matrix from the rim 

of North Ray Crater. Thin sections will undergo optical and microprobe studies at SAO, and splits were 

sent to Washington University at St. Louis for traceelement (neutron activation) analyses and argon 

dating. Although this breccia appeared similar to 

others from the same site, early results of the study 

show that the matrix is more variable in a KREEP (a 

lunar material) component and the clasts include at 

least one variety not found in the adjacent breccias. 

The discovery of a unique eucrite-like lunar gabbro 

among the coarse fines of an Apollo 16 soil, 61220, 

also was reported. 
Planetary Research 

Voyager Studies 

Investigations by a member of the Voyager imaging 

team detected planetary auroras, detected lightning 

and bright fireballs in the atmospheres of Jupiter and 

Saturn, and measured aerosol layers that exist well 

above the cloudtops of both planets. Studies of volcanism on Jupiter’s satellite Io led to a model for the 

plumes that compares favorably with the observed examples. The model requires that the masses of solid 

and gaseous material must be roughly equal, In an 

observational and theoretical study of the photometric 

function of airless bodies, an accurate representation 

of the complete lunar phase curve was achieved. The 

surface structure of all the larger satellites of Jupiter 

and Saturn, save Titan, can now be analyzed. 

Voyager results were analyzed in an investigation of 

the sources of the finely detailed features seen in the 

radial structure of Saturn’s rings. Because several 

sources are likely, a detailed calculation of the location 

of resonances and their theoretical strengths is in progress. (However, perturbations associated with satellite 

resonances are clearly responsible for much detail in 

those parts of the ring where the optical thickness is 

not too large.) The structure in the outer ring -4 appears to have a clear association with several satellites, 

as does some but not all of the structure in ring C. At 

least two instances of satellite resonance unseen elsewhere are now clearly identified. These occur when 

the local precession of the apsides (rotation of a line 

through the high and low points of the orbit) equals 

the orbital frequency of the satellite. Certain resonances now appear to be slightly displaced from their 

predicted positions by nontrivial ring mass. It is now 

clear that the two satellites (S 10 and 11) move in orbits differing in semimajor axis by about 50 kilometers-substantially less than the sum of their radii. 

Their mean motions differ by about 0.25’ per day, 

and they will come close together about a year in the 

future. 

Center for Earth and Planetary Studies (National Air 

and Space Museum) 

Research was conducted in 1981 in photogeologic 

interpretations of the planets, terrestrial and planetary 

remote sensing, and comparative planetology. Lunar 

research concentrated on studies of orbital geochemical data and photogeology of impact basins and 

volcanic features. X-ray data for areas of large impact 

structures yielded information on primitive anorthositic crustal material underlying the surface. 

Studies of ridge systems on Mars, on both a local 

and planet-wide scale, added to knowledge of Martian 

global tectonics and indicated the timing of geologic 

events in the Tharsis region. In comparative planetology, study of terrestrial deserts has had applications to the distribution, morphology, transport, and 

mineralogy of sand deposits and dunes on Mars. 

70 
International Communication 

Agency 

The successes of two flights of the nation’s Space 

Shuttle Colum bia and the unmanned Voyager 2 flight 

to Saturn and beyond were echoed around the world 

during 1981 by the United States International Communication Agency. USICA coverage included direct 

satellite TV and live radio broadcasts, feature stories, 

news coverage, exhibits, information materials, and 

video tapes for television. 

USICA emphasized the U.S. commitment to advancing science and enlarging the frontiers of human 

knowledge through space exploration. It stressed US. 

leadership in space technology and the spin-off benefits for mankind. Worldwide reaction was positive. 

Perhaps as important as the news coverage was the 

provision of face-to-face contact for scientists, government leaders, academics, and citizens with the first 

crew of Columbia, astronauts Robert Crippen and 

John Young. 

Space Shuttle 

USICA placed the flight of Columbia on its worldwide Issues Agenda, to guide overseas posts in selected 

events for emphasis. A NASA film on the Shuttle was 

offered to posts. Both the April and November 

launches were covered live by USICA media, the agency facilitating the transmission by satellite to some 15 

countries. Voice of America broadcast both launches 

live from Kennedy Space Center in nine languages and 

interviewed NASA officials and the astronauts. Advance information packets were supplemented by extensive coverage by the USICA press service to 193 

posts in 125 countries. Agency magazines featuring 

Columbia on their covers were distributed in Africa 

and the Soviet Union. An agency pamphlet, The 

Flight of Columbia, was distributed in 73 000 Spanish, 

French, and English copies. TV news clips, as well as a 

23-minute USICA video tape special, were distributed 

in Spanish, French, Portuguese, Arabic, Polish, and 

English. The 23-minute tape was also available via 

satellite to any country willing to cover the down-leg 

satellite charge. These productions used photographic 

and other material from NASA. 

Exhibits on Columbia were popular during 1981. 

USICA posts in Japan, India, and Uganda asked for 

materials to produce an exhibit, and the Uganda show 

was transformed into a circulating exhibit in Africa 

following its showing in Kampala. Shuttle-related 

materials such as models, brochures, posters, and 

equipment for display (such as spacesuits and tiles 

from the orbiter) have been requested continuously by 

field posts, and a poster exhibit was one of this year’s 

most requested items. 

The first crew visited eight countries in Europe and 

Asia after the April mission, including the Paris Air 

Show in May. USICA programmed appearances, 

parades, and celebrations in Germany, Yugoslavia, 

The Netherlands, Spain, England, Ireland, Australia, 

and New Zealand. Exchanges with the public were 

also arranged for other NASA astronauts, in Indonesia, Thailand, Mexico, Liberia, Kenya, and Botswana. 

Voyager 1 and 2 

The Voyager 1 flyby of Saturn in late 1980 was 

covered by agency magazines in early 1981. Wireless 

file coverage of the Voyager 2 passage around Saturn 

was extensive and a 30-minute program for television 

was distributed in English and foreign languages. Additional magazine stories on the scientific achievements will be released in 1982. An exhibit, “Images 

from Space,” also emphasizes the scientific results of 

the flight. 

71 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-1 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacecraft from cooperating countries launched by U.S. launch vehicles.) 

Earth Orbita Earth Escape' Earth Orbit' Earth Escape' 

Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure Success Failure 

Year Year 

1 0 0 1 3 0 

8 0 4 2 8 1 

9 1 2 2 8 0 

12 1 2 1973 ...... 2 3 0 

12 0 2 1974 .................. 27 2 1 0 

12 4 1 1975 .................. 30 4 4 0 

11 0 0 1976 .................. 33 0 1 0 

2 2 0 

7 4 1 2 7 0 

12 7 Ib 0 0 0 

4 0 0 

15 9 0 1981 .......... 1 0 0 

1 8 1 134 79 15 

1964 .................. 69 8 4 0 

1967 .................. 78 4 10 0 

a The criterion of success or failure used is attainment of earth orbit or earth escape rather than judgment of mission success. "Escape" 

flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the earth. 

This earth-escape failure did attain earth orbit and therefore is included in the earth-orbit success totals. 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People's United European United U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom :pace India States of China gency 

Year 

1957 ...................... 

........... ........... 

........... 1963 .................... 38 ................................... ............. 

............ 

............. 

......................... 

.................... 24 .................... 32 

.......... l.... 

a Includes foreign launchings of US. spacecraft. 

73 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful U.S. Launches-I981 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives. Perigee (km). 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

Equator (") 

Remarks 

21 Feb. Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit to 35 794 

Comstar 0-4 provide communications to 48 contiguous states, 35 782 

18A Alaska. Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. 1436.2 

Atlas-Centaur Spacecraft: Drum-shaped cylinder, 6.1 m long, 2.44 m 0.1 

in diameter. Can carry more than 14 000 2-way highquality voice circuits. Weight at liftoff 1484 kg. 

28 Feb. Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 285 

Defense technology. 138 

19A Spacecraft: Not announced. 88.5 

Titan IIIB-Agena D 96.4 

16 Mar. Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 35 801 

Defense technology. 35 776 

25A Spacecraft: Not announced. 1436.2 

Titan I11 1.3 

12 Apr. Objective: To demonstrate safe ascent and return of 

Space Shuttle orbiter and crew. Columbia (STS 1) Space Shuttle consists of reusable orbiter Columbaa 

34A (OV-lO2), external tank (ET), and 2 solid-fueled 

rocket boosters (SRBs). Orbiter is crew- and payloadcarrying, delta-winged spacecraft about size of DC-9 

aircraft, 37 m long with 24-m wing span, weighing 

75 000 kg without fuel. Orbiter designed to transport 

payload of 29 500 kg into orbit when operational. 

Cargo bay measures 18.3 X 4.6 m. Three main, 

liquid-fueled rocket engines, each with 

1670-kilonewton thrust at sea level. Engines fed propellants from external tank 47 m long, 8.4 m in 

diameter, holding 719 000 kg liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. External tank, only part of Shuttle not 

reusable, was jettisoned just before orbit. Solid rocket 

boosters-each 45.5 m long, 3.8 m in diameter, with 

23 575 kilonewton combined thrust -dropped away 

after ascent and were recovered for reuse. 

Payload: development flight instrumentation. 

24 Apr. Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Defense technology. 

38A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIIB-Agena D 

250 

238 

89.4 

40.4 

708 

188 

93.0 

62.7 

15 May Objective: To launch spacecraft into elliptical orbit for 

transfer into circular orbit, to enable Navy to provide 

93 1 

Nova 1 351 

scout users. 90.2 

44A worldwide positional data to military and commercial 97.5 

Spacecraft: Octagonal body 52 cm in diameter, 39 cm high, topped by cylindrical attitude control section 27 

cm in diameter, 76 cm high. Dual 5-MHz oscillators, 

phase modulators, and transmitters operating at 400 

and 150 MHz. Computer with memory for 5-day 

messages. 50- to 1300-bps readout. Command system. 

Digital telemetry capacity of 172 channels. Power supplied by 4 panels of solar cells, 1 battery pack. Attitude 

control system includes 8-cm dual scissor boom, 66-cm 

extendable boom. Weight at liftoff: 167 kg. 

Last in series of 4 domestic communications satellites launched by NASA for 

Comsat General Corp. Leased to 

AT&T. Apogee-boost motor fired 23 

Feb. Became operational 5 May. On 

station at 127' W. longitude over equator. 

Reentered 20 June. 

Still in orbit. 

First of 4 planned orbital flight tests of 

Space Transportation System. Piloted 

by astronauts John W. Young and 

Robert L. Crippen. Shuttle lifted off 

from KSC at 7:00:03 a.m. EST. After 

Columbia entered orbit, cargo bay 

doors were tested in space environment. Integrity of thermal protection 

system (TPS) was proved under reentry heating and stress. First use of both 

liquid- and solid-fueled rocket engines 

for launch of manned mission; first 

airplanelike landing of craft from or- bit. Touched down on runway 23, Edwards AFB. Calif., 10:20:58 a.m.. 

PST, 14 Apr. Total mission time: 2 

days 6 hrs 20 min 52 sec. Orbiter was returned to KSC 28 Apr. for refurbishment for November flight. 

Still in orbit. 

First of series of improved satellites 

launched by NASA for TRANSIT. 

Navy Navigation Satellite System. Still 

in orbit. 

74 
APPENDIX A-34ntinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I981 

~ 

Launch Date (GMT). Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

Equator (") 

22 May 

Goes 5 

49A 

Thor -Delta 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into geosynchronous 

orbit to provide near-continual. high-resolution. visual 

and infrared imaging over North and South America 

and surrounding oceans; to continue demonstration 

and validation of temperature and moisture soundings 

from the VISSR atmospheric sounder (VAS). 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical, 2.15 m in diameter and 4.43 m 

long from top of S-band omni antenna rod to bottom 

of apogee-boost motor. Apogee-boost motor ejected 

after synchronous orbit reached. Primary structural 

member is thrust tube in center of cylinder. Visible infrared spin-scan radiometric atmospheric sounder 

(VAS) extends length of spacecraft, located in and supported by thrust tube. Scanning mirror at one end of 

thrust tube. Weight at liftoff: 837 kg. Weight in orbit, 

after ejection of apogee-boost motor: 444 kg. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit 

for INTELSAT, provide 12 000 voice circuits plus 2 

Spacecraft: Modular main body, 1.66 X 2.01 X 1.77 m, 

with winglike solar arrays spanning 15.6 m. Overall 

height, 6.4 m; width deployed, 6.8 m; 6 communications antennas - 2 global-coverage horns, 2 

hemispherical/zone offset -fed reflectors, and 2 offsetfed spot-beam reflectors. Double the capacity of Intelsat IVA series. Weight at launch: 1928 kg. 

23 May 

Intekat V F-1 

50A television channels simultaneously. 

Atlas-Centaur 

23 June 

Noaa 7 

59A 

Atlas F 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into sun-synchronous 

orbit of sufficient accuracy to enable spacecraft to 

make dependable daytime and nighttime 

meteorological observations of the earth. 

Spacecraft: Launch configuration including apogeekick motor. 3.7 m high, 1.9 m in diameter. Solar 

panels deploy in orbit. Structure composed of 4 major 

elements: reaction-control-equipment support structure (RSS); equipment support module (ESM); instrument monitoring platform (IMP); and solar array. 

With exception of IMP and transition ring, basic structure identical to DMSP block 5D2. Instruments include 

advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR), 

data-collection and location system (DCS), space environment monitor (SEM), total energy detector 

(TED), medium-energy proton-electron detector 

(MEPED), high-energy proton-alpha detector 

(HEPAD), contamination monitor, and Tiros operational vertical sounder (TOVS) composed of 3 instruments: high-resolution infrared-radiation sounder 

(HIRSD), stratospheric sounding unit (SSU). and 

microwave sounding unit (MSU). Weight in orbit after 

apogee motor firing: 723 kg. 

35 792 

35 783 

1436.2 

0.1 

35 803 

35 773 

1436.2 

0.1 

858 

838 

101.9 

98.9 

Second of 3 satellites to replace initial 3 

operational satellites. Launched by 

NASA for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Goes f, is 

5th in series of operational spacecraft 

funded by NOAA. Apogee-boost 

motor fired 24 May. Satellite placed 

in synchronous orbit at 75' W. 

longitude. Turned over to NOAA 2 

July; became operational 5 Aug. 

Second in series of 9 satellites; launched 

by NASA for 106-member-nation International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). 

Placed in geosynchronous orbit after 

apogee motor firing 25 May. Satellite 

moved to operational position at 

24.5O W. longitude. Satellite turned 

on 14 July. 

Third in series of operational environment monitoring satellites; launched 

by NASA for National Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Administration. Joined 

Noaa 6 in orbit as part of 2-satellite 

operational system. Apogee motor 

fired 23 June. Turned over to NOAA 

13 July, became operational 24 Aug. 

75 
APPENDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches--1981 

Launch Date (GMT). Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee (km), 

COSPAR Designation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Launch Vehicle Inclination to 

Equator (") 

3 Aug. Objective: To study interaction between earth's magDynamics Explorer 1 netosphere, ionosphere, and atmosphere in higher 

(DE 1) region than DE 2. 

70A Spacecraft: 16-sided body, 1.4m wide, 1.1 m high. SatelThor -Del t a lite structure provides mounting surfaces for outer 

shells, experiments, electronic packages, attitude control systems, S-band antenna, and launch adapter. 

Weight: 424 kg including 105 kg of instruments. 

Dynamics Explorer 2 Objective: To study interaction between earths magnetosphere, ionosphere, and atmosphere in lower 

70B region than DE 1. 

Spacecraft: 16-sided body, 1.4 m wide, 1.1 m high. 

Satellite structure provides mounting surfaces for outer 

shells, experiments, electronic packages, attitude control systems, S-band antenna, and launch adapter, 

Weight: 420 kg including 11 1 kg of instruments. 

(DE 2) 

6 Aug. 

Fltsatcom 5 

73A 

Atlas-Centaur 

3 Sept. 

Defense 

85A 

Titan IIID 

24 Sept. 

SBS 2 

96A 

Thor -Del t a 

6 Oct. 

SME 

1 OOA 

Thor - Del ta 

Objective: To place spacecraft in synchronous, near- equatorial orbit for USAF narrow-band and wideband 

communications and USN fleet -relay and broadcast 

channels. 

Spacecraft: Hexagonal, composed of payload module 

and spacecraft module; 6.7 m high. Provides 1 SHF 

and 23 UHF communications channels. Weight at liftoff: 1876 kg. Weight after apogee-motor firing: 1005 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

kg. 

technology. 

Objective: To place satellite in stationary geosynchronous orbit to provide integrated, all-digital, interference-free transmission of telephone. computer, electronic mail, and video teleconferencing to SBS business 

clients. 

Spacecraft: cylindrical, 2.2 m in diameter, with stowed 

height at launch of 2.8 m; height in orbit, 6.6 m with 

solar panel and antenna deployed. Spin-stabilized. 

Provides up to 480 million bits of data per second, 

equivalent of more than 10 million words. Two nickelcadmium batteries provide power during eclipse. 

Weight after apogee-motor firing: 555 kg. 

Objective: To study reactions between sunlight. ozone, 

and other chemicals in atmosphere and how concen- trations of ozone are transported in the region from 

30-to 90-km altitude. 

Spacecraft: Satellite body is cylindrical, 1.7 m high 

and 1.25 m in diameter. Spacecraft powered by diskshaped solar array 2.2 m in diameter, affixed to lower 

end of main cylinder. Two nickel-cadmium batteries 

provide power during occultation and for high-power 

use. Satellite spin-stabilized. Weight: 145 kg. 

24 770 

671 

437.8 

90.0 

1 002 

304 

97.8 

90.0 

36 814 

34 774 

1436.5 

6.2 

521 

212 

91.8 

96.9 

35 791 

35 783 

1436.1 

0.1 

534 

530 

95.3 

97.5 

Dual launch placed NASA's DE 1 and 

DE 2 in polar, coplanar orbits. 

Minimum scientific lifetime of 1 year 

planned for both spacecraft. Mission 

success relies on correlative sets of 

measurements from 2 satellites. Final 

orbits somewhat lower than predicted, 

but suitable to cany out full scientific 

mission. Both spacecraft operating 

properly and returning data. Returned first color views from space of 

auroras at North and South Poles. 

Dual launch orbited DE 1 and DE 2 

(see above). 

Fifth of 5 planned satellites; launched 

by NASA for Navy, to serve DoD. 

Satellite providing limited communications after structural damage 

received during orbital insertion. 

Still in orbit. 

Second of 4 domestic communications 

satellites built for Satellite Business 

Systems (SBS); launched by NASA. 

Apogee-kick motor fired 26 Sept. 

Spacecraft placed in synchronous orbit at 97O W. longitude. Commercial 

operations began 15 Dec. 

Dual launch orbited NASA's Solar 

Mesosphere Explorer and UOSA T 

(below). All SME systems performing 

properly. Instruments returning data 

for first comprehensive global study of 

creation and destruction of ozone. One-year mission planned, orbital 

lifetime of spacecraft expected to be 

about 3 years before reentry. 

76 
APPENDIX A-34ntinued 

Successful US. Launches-I981 

~ 

Launch Date (GMT), Apogee and 

Spacecraft Name, Mission Objectives, Perigee Om), 

COSPAR Desi ation, Spacecraft Data Period (min), Remarks 

Launch VeEcIe Indination to 

Equator (") 

UOSAT (Oscar 9) 

lOOB 

Objective: To provide radio amateurs and educational 

institutions with operational satellite that can be used 

with minimal ground station for studying ionosphere 

and radio propagation conditions. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular, 42.5 cm square, 83.5 cm high. 

Weight: 50.4 kg. 

31 Oct. 

Defense 

107A 

Titan IIIC 

12 Nov. 

Space Shuttle 

IIIA 

Columbia (STS 2) 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques and 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

technology. 

Objective: To demonstrate reusability of orbiter; launch, 

in-orbit, and entry performance under conditions 

more demanding than for STS 1; orbiter capability to 

support scientific and applications research with attached payload; and remote manipulator system 

Space Shuttle consists of reusable orbiter Columbia 

(OV-lOZ), external tank (ET), and 2 solid-fueled 

rocket boosters (SRBs). 

Payload: OSTA 1, consisting of Shuttle imaging radar 

(SIR-A). Shuttle multispectral infrared radiometer 

(SMIRR), ocean color experiment (OCE), measurement of air pollution from satellites (MAPS) experiment, feature identification and location experiment 

(FILE), nighttime and daylight optical survey of 

thunderstorm lightning (NOSL), and Heflex 

bioengineering test (HBT). OSTA 1 mounted on engineering-model pallet supplied by European Space 

Agency (ESA), part of joint NASA-ESA Spacelab program. Payload pointed toward earth. Weight of OSTA 

1 and pallet: 2452 kg. RMS to deploy and retrieve 

payloads and accomplish other freight-handling ac- tivities. Mechanical am jointed like human arm; fully 

extended, 15.3 m long, 38 cm in diameter. Weight of 

RMS: 408 kg. Additional payload cargo: development 

flight instrumentation (DFI), induced environment 

contamination monitor (IECM), aerodynamic coefficient identification package (ACIP), arld passive orbiter experiments (OEX) - OEX tile-gap heating effects, OEX catalytic-surface effects, and OEX 

dynamic, acoustic, and thermal experiments. Weight: 

6370 kg. 

(RMS). 

533 

531 

95.3 

97.5 

382 

134 

90.4 

29.3 

231 

222 

89.0 

38.0 

United Kingdom amateur scientific 

satellite developed by University of 

Surrey, launched by NASA as Kcondary payload with SME. First Oscar 

designed to transmit scientific data 

and pictures of earths surface for 

display on domestic TV set. Initial 

difficulty due to interference from 

145-MHz telemetry transmitter was 

overcome by shift to redundant 

435-MHz command system. 

Still in orbit. 

Second of 4 planned orbital flight tests 

of S ace Transportation System. Columfia. piloted by astronauts Joe H. 

Engle and Richard H. Truly, lifted off 

from KSC at 1O:lO a.m. EST. After 

Shuttle entered orbit, fuel-cell problem shortened planned 5-day mission 

to minimal mission of 36 orbits. 

OSTA 1 experiments returned good 

data. Remote manipulator arm, 

checked out in orbit, performed well 

except could not be cradled in backup 

mode. Columbia touched down on runway 23, Edwards AFB, Calif., 

1:23:11 p.m. PST, 14 Nov. Total mission time: 2 days 6 hrs 13 min 11 sec. 

Orbiter returned to KSC 25 Nov. for 

refurbishment for next flight. 

77 
APPENDIX A-S-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-I981 

Launch Date (GMT), 

Spacecraft Name, 

COSPAR Desi ation, 

Launch Vegcle 

Mission Objectives, 

Spacecraft Data 

Apogee and 

Perigee (lun), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator (O) 

20 Nov. 

RCA-Sutcom 3-R 

114A 

Thor-Delta 

Objective: To place spacecraft in stationary geosynchronous orbit to provide television, voice channels, 

and high-speed data transmission to Hawaii, Alaska, 

Puerto Rico, and contiguous U.S.; to provide video 

programming to CATV (cable television) systems 

throughout U.S. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped, 1 .2 X 1 .2 X 1.6 m high; 2 rectangular solar panels on short booms. Hydrazinepropellant tanks protrude from east and west panels of 

spacecraft body. Three-axis stabilized. Weight at 

launch: 1082 kg. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit 

for INTELSAT, provide 12 000 voice circuits plus 2 

television channels simultaneously. 

Spacecraft: Modular main body, 1.66 X 2.01 X 1.77 m. with winglike solar arrays spanning 15.6 m. Overall 

height: 6.4 m; width deployed, 6.8 m; 6 communications antennas-2 global-coverage horns, 2 

hemispherical/zone offset-fed reflectors, and 2 offsetfed spot-beam reflectors. Double the capacity of Intelsat IVA series. Weight at launch: 1928 kg. 

15 Dec. 

Intehut V F-3 

119A 

Atlas-Centaur 

35 794 

35 779 

1436.1 

0.1 

36 001 

35 690 

1439.1 

0.5 

Fourth in a series of RCA commercial 

communications satellites. Launched 

by NASA into transfer orbit. RCASatcom 3-R to replace RCA-Sutcom 3 

lost in space in late 1979. Satellite 

moved to position at 131O W. 

longitude. 

Third in series of 9 satellites. launched 

by NASA for 106-member-nation International Telecommunications 

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT). 

Apogee-kick motor fired 18 Dec.. 

placing satellite in near geosynchronous orbit. Satellite to be stationed at 25O W. longitude. 

78 
APPENDIX B-I 

U.S..Launched Applications Satellites 1976-1 981 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

17Jan. 1976 

30 Jan. 1976 

19 Feb. 1976 

15 Mar. 1976 

26 Mar. 1976 

22 Apr. 1976 

13 May 1976 

10 June 1976 

8 July 1976 

22 July 1976 

14 Oct. 1976 

28Jan. 1977 

10 Mar. 1977 

12 May 1977 

26 May 1977 

25 Aug. 1977 

15 Dec. 1977 

7 Jan. 1978 

9 Feb. 1978 

5 Mar. 1978 

31 Mar. 1978 

7 Apr. 1978 

11 May 1978 

29 June 1978 

19 Nov. 1978 

14 Dec. 1978 

16 Dec. 1978 

4 May 1979 

9 Aug. 1979 

21 Nov. 1979 

2 Dec. 1979 

18Jan. 1980 

31 Oct. 1980 

15 Nov. 1980 

6 Dec. 1980 

21 Feb. 1981 

23 May 1981 

6Aug. 1981 

24 Sept. 1981 

20 Nov. 1981 

15 Der. 1981 

29 July 1976 

16 June 1977 

14 July 1977 

23 Nov. 1977 

1 May 1978 

16 June 1978 

13 Oct. 1978 

24 Oct. 1978 

6 June 1979 

27 June 1979 

29 May 1980 

9 Sept. 1980 

22 May 1981 

23 June 1981 

CTS 1 

Intelsat IVA F-2 

Marisat 1 

LES 8, LES 9 

RCA-Satcom 2 

NATO IIIA 

Comstar D-1 

Marisat 2 

Palapa 1 

Comstar D-2 

Marisat 3 

NATO IIIB 

Palapa 2 

Intelsat IVA F-4 

Sirio 

Sakura 

Intelsat IVA F-3 

Fltsatcom 1 

Oscar 8 

Intelsat IVA F-6 

BSE (Yuri) 

OTS 2 

DSCS II-7,8 

Comstar D-3 

NATO IIIC 

DSCS 11-11,12 

Anik 4 (Telesat D) 

Fltsatcom 2 

Westar 3 

DSCS 11-13.14 

RCA-Satcom 3 

Fltsatcom 3 

Fltsatcom 4 

SBS 1 

Intelsat V F-2 

Comstar D-4 

Intelsat V F-1 

Fltsatcom 5 

SBS 2 

RCA-Satcom 3-R 

Intelsat V F-3 

Noaa 5 (ITOS-H) 

Goes2 

Himawari 

Meteosat 

AMS 3 

Goes 3 

Tiros-N 

Nimbus 7 

Noaa 6 

Noaa-B 

Goes 4 

Goes 5 

Noaa 7 

AMs-4 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TATj 

Titan IIIC 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas -Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Canadian-U.S., most powerful experimental satellite. 

Second of series with double capacity of predecessors. Positioned over 

For maritime use by Comsat, over Atlantic. 

Experimental satellites with radioisotope power sources. 

Second of 3 launched for RCA. 

First of new series. 

Placed over Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over Pacific. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Placed south of United States for AT&T by Comsat. 

Placed over Indian Ocean. 

Second of new series. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Positioned over Atlantic. 

Italian experiment. 

Japanese experiment. 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

First of new Defense series. 

Secondary payload with Landsat 3, replacement for Oscar 6 for 

Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Japanese experimental direct-broadcast satellite for television; doEuropean Space Agency experimental relay satellite; domestic satellite. 

Positioned south of U.S. over the equator by Comsat; domestic satellite. 

Final one of this military series. 

Defense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for Canada; domestic satellite. 

Second of new DoD series. 

Launched for Western Union Co. as part of its domestic comDefense communications (dual launch). 

Launched for RCA, but contact lost during orbit circularization. 

Third of DoD series. 

Fourth of DoD series. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems as part of its domestic communications links. 

First of new series, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fourth in series for Comsat General Corp. 

Second in series for INTELSAT, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in DoD series. 

Second in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Fourth in series for RCA, replacement for RCA-Satcom 3. 

Third in series. To be positioned over Atlantic. 

Atlantic. 

amateur radio communications. 

mestic satellite. 

munications links. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION a 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Burner 2 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas F 

Second-generation operational satellite for NOAA. 

Second in series of operational synchronous-orbit satellites for NOAA. 

Japanese geosynchronous satellite. 

European Space Agency geosynchronous satellite. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Third of this series for NOAA. 

First of third-generation for NOAA, also experimental satellite for 

Last of this experimental series for NASA. 

DoD meteorological satellite. 

Second of 8 planned third-generation satellites for NOAA; first was 

Failed to achieve useful orbit. 

Fourth of this series for NOAA. 

Fifth of polar-orbiting series for NOAA. 

Replacement for Noaa-B. 

NASA. 

Tiros-N. 

a Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

79 
APPENDIX B-1-Continued 

U.S.Launched Applications Satellites 1976-1981 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

5 Mar. 1978 Landsat 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) Third experimental earth resources satellite. 

26 Apr. 1978 HCMM (AEM 1) scout Experimental, low-cost, limited-function heat-capacity mapping mis27 June 1978 Seasat 1 Atlas F Proof-of-concept oceanographic-phenomena data-collection satellite. 

sion for earth resources. 

GEODESY 

9 Apr. 1975 Geos 3 Thor-Delta (TAT) To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. 

4 May 1976 Lageos Thor-Delta (TAT) Laser geodynamic satellite. 

NAVIGATION 

12 Oct. 1975 TIP 2 scout Transit Improvement Program. 

1 Sept. 1976 TIP 3 scout Transit Improvement Program. 

23 June 1977 NTS 2 Atlas F Forerunner of Navstar Global Positioning System. 

28 Oct. 1977 Transit scout Developmental model. 

22 Feb. 1978 Navstar 1 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

13 May 1978 Navstar 2 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

7 Oct. 1978 Navstar 3 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

11 Dec. 1978 Navstar 4 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

9 Feb. 1980 Navstar 5 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

26 Apr. 1980 Navstar 6 Atlas F Global Positioning System satellite. 

15 May 1981 Nova 1 scout First of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

APPENDIX 8-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Satellites 1976-1981 

Date Name Launch Vehicle 

15 Mar. 1976 

22 May 1976 

8 July 1976 

20 Apr. 1977 

12 Aug. 1977 

22 Oct. 1977 

26Jan. 1978 

14 July 1978 

12 Aug. 1978 

24 Oct. 1978 

13 Nov. 1978 

30Jan. 1979 

18 Feb. 1979 

24 Feb. 1979 

6 June 1979 

20 Sept. 1979 

SO Oct. 1979 

14 Feb. 1980 

3 Aug. 1981 

6 Oct. 1981 

6 Oct. 1981 

Sohad HiA, HiB 

P-76-5 

SUP 74-2 

GeoS 

Heao 1 

ISEE 1,2 

IUE 

Geos 2 

ISEE 3 

Cameo 

Heao 2 

Scatha 

Sage 

Solwind 

Ariel 6 

Heao 3 

Magsat 

SMM 

Dynamics 

SME 

UOSAT 

Explorers 1, 2 

(Oscar 9) 

Titan IIIC 

scout 

Titan IIID 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas-Centaur 

scout 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Remarks 

Measure radiation and particles at close to 120 000-km circular orbit. 

Plasma effects on radar and communications. 

Particle measurements up to 8000 km. 

European Space Agency, study of magnetic and electric fields from geosynchronous orbit (not attained). 

X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy. 

Magnetosphere and solar wind measurements (for NASA and European 

Ultraviolet observation of astronomical phenomena, in elliptical geoEuropean studies of magnetosphere, in geosynchronous orbit. 

International Sun-Earth Explorer, in halo orbit near Earth-Sun libraSpace Agency respectively). 

synchronous orbit. 

tion point. 

Barium and lithium cloud experiments, carried in rocket body of Nimbus 7 launcher. 

High-resolution observations of astronomical x-ray sources. Measurement of sources of electric charge buildup on spacecraft. 

Measurement of stratospheric aerosols and ozohe. 

Measurement of solar wind, electron buildup in polar regions, aerosols, 

Measurement of cosmic radiation (United Kingdom payload). 

Gamma and cosmic ray emissions. 

Detailed current description of earth’s magnetic field and of sources of 

Solar Maximum Mission. 

Measure magnetospheric-ionospheric energy coupling, electric currents 

and fields, plasmas. 

Solar Mesosphere Explorer to measure changes in mesospheric 

ozone. 

Secondary payload with SME. for amateur radio and science 

experiments. 

and ozone. 

variations. 

80 
APPENDIX B-9 

U.S.=Launched Space Probes 1975-1 981 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

20 Aug. 1975 Viking 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

9 Sept. 1975 Viking 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

15 Jan. 1976 Helios 2 Titan IIIECentaur 

20 Aug. 1977 Voyager 2 Titan IIIE5 Sep. 1977 Voyager 1 Titan IIIECentaur 

Centaur 

20 May 1978 Pioneer Venus 1 Atlas-Centaur 

8 Aug. 1978 Pioneer Venus 2 Atlas-Centaur 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, while 

orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of 

life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended. landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, while 

orbiter circled planet photographing it and relaying all data to Earth. 

Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of 

life. and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million lun of sun, 

measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. Payload 

had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus 

cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in July 1979, 

amved Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 1986. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the way, swun 

around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in Nov. 1980, headei 

for outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit 4 Dec., returning imagery and 

data. 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all descended 

through Venus atmosphere 9 Dec., returned data. 

01 
APPENDIX C 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1981 

Spacecraft 

Vostok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

Sop2 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apollo 11 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Launch Date Crew Flight Time 

(days : hrs : min) Highlights 

12 Apr. 1961 

5 May 1961 

21 July 1961 

6 Aug. 1961 

20 Feb. 1962 

24 May 1962 

11 Aug. 1962 

12 Aug. 1962 

3 Oct. 1962 

15 May 1963 

14 June 1963 

16 June 1963 

12 Oct. 1964 

18 Mar. 1965 

23 Mar. 1965 

3 June 1965 

21 Aug. 1965 

4 Dec. 1965 

15 Dec. 1965 

16 Mar. 1966 

3 June 1966 

18 July 1966 

12 Sept. 1966 

11 Nov. 1966 

23 Apr. 1967 

11 Oct. 1968 

26 Oct. 1968 

21 Dec. 1968 

14 Jan. 1969 

15 Jan. 1969 

3 Mar. 1969 

18 May 1969 

16 July 1969 

11 Oct. 1969 

12 Oct. 1969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White I1 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Ceman 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell , Jr . Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra. Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

0 : 1 : 48 First manned flight. 

0 : 0 : 15 First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:18 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10 : 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

Suborbital: capsule sank after landing; astronaut 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of Vostok 5. 

First %man crew. 

safe. 

1 : 2 : 2 First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 min). 

0 : 4 : 53 First US. 2-man flight; first manual maneuvers in 

4 : 1 : 56 21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

orbit. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

1 : 1 : 51 Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

0 : 10 : 41 

3 : 0 : 21 Extravehicular activity: rendezvous. 

2 : 22 : 47 First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with Agena 10, 

2 : 23 : 17 First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight: 

3 : 22 : 35 Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 

1 : 2 : 37 Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecraft (Gemini 8 

with Agena target rocket). 

then Agena 8). 

highest earth-orbit altitude (1372 km). 

h 37 min). 

10 : 20 : 9 First U.S. 3-man mission. 

3 : 22 : 51 Maneuvered near unmanned Soy 2. 

6 : 3 : 1 First manned orbit(s) of moon; first manned 

departure from earth's sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned flight. 

2 : 23 : 23 Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cos3 : 0 : 56 monauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

10 : 1 : 1 Successfully simulated in earth orbit operation of 

lunar module to landing and takeoff from 

lunar surface and rejoining with command 

module. 

8 : 0 : 3 Successfully demonstrated complete system including lunar module descent to 14 300 m from the 

lunar surface. 

8 : 3 : 9 First manned landing on lunar surface and safe 

return to earth. First return of rock and soil 

samples to earth, and manned deployment of 

experiments on lunar surface. 

4 : 22 : 42 Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight without actually docking. Each conducted certain 

4 : 22 : 41 experiments, including welding and earth and 

celestial observation. 

Soyuz 8 13 Oct. 1969 4 : 22 : 50 

82 
APPENDIX +Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1981 

Flight Time Highlights Spacecraft Launch Date Crew (days : hrs : min) 

Apollo 12 14 Nov. 1969 

Apollo 13 11 Apr. 1970 

sop2 9 1 June 1970 

Apollo 14 31 Jan. 1971 

Soyuz 10 22 Apr. 1971 

Soyuz 11 6 June 1971 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

Soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soy 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Sop2 19 

Apollo 

Soyuz 21 

Sop2 22 

Soyuz 23 

Soy 24 

Soyuz 25 

26 July 1971 

16 Apr. 1972 

7 Dec. 1972 

25 May 1973 

28 July 1973 

27 Sept. 1973 

16 Nov. 1973 

18 Dec. 1973 

3 July 1974 

26 Aug. 1974 

2 Dec. 1974 

10 Jan. 1975 

5 Apr. 1975 

24 May 1975 

15 July 1975 

15 July 1975 

6 July 1976 

15 Sept. 1976 

14 Oct. 1976 

7 Feb.1977 

9 Oct. 1977 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Popovich 

Yuriy P. Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Volynov 

Vitaliy M. Zholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

10: 4:36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17 : 16 : 59 

9: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23 : 18 : 22 

12 : 7 : 12 

11 : 1 : 51 

12 : 13 : 52 

28 : 0 : 50 

59:ll: 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1:16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15 : 17 : 30 

2: 0:12 

5 : 22 : 24 

29 : 13 : 20 

0: 0:20 

62 : 23 : 20 

5 : 22 : 31 

9: 1:28 

48 : 1 : 32 

7 : 21 : 54 

2: 0: 6 

17 : 17 : 23 

2: 0:46 

Second manned lunar landing. Explored surface of moon and retrieved parts of Surveyor 

3 spacecraft, which landed in Ocean of Storms on 19 Apr. 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. Ship circled moon, with crew using 

LM as “lifeboat” until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and con- tinued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1. but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew recovered 

24 Apr. 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew occupied 

space station for 22 days. Crew perished during 

final phase of Soyuz 11 capsule recovery on 

30 June 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first Apollo ‘1” 

series mission, which carried Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight EVA of 38 min 12 sec 

was performed during return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar Roving 

Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, 

again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired damaged station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in long-duration mission; 

last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources exDocked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut 3. 

Test of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Target for Apollo in docking and joint experiDocked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of 

periments. 

space station. 

after abort. 

ments of ASTP mission. 

ASTP mission. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Earth resources study with multispectral camera 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 station. 

system. 

83 
APPENDIX CContinued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1981 

~~ ~ 

Highlights Flight Time 

(days : hrs : rnin) Spacecraft Launch Date Crew 

Soyuz 26 

Soyuz 27 

Soyuz 28 

Soyuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

Soyuz 31 

Soyuz 32 

Soyuz 33 

Soyuz 34 

soyuz 35 

Soyuz 36 

Sopz T-2 

Soyuz 37 

Soyuz 38 

Sopz T-3 

 sop^ T-4 

Soyuz 39 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

Soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 2) 

10 Dec. 1977 

1OJan. 1978 

2 Mar. 1978 

15 June 1978 

27 June 1978 

26 Aug. 1978 

25Feb. 1979 

10 Apr. 1979 

6 June 1979 

9 Apr. 1980 

26 May 1980 

5 June 1980 

23 July 1980 

18 Sept. 1980 

27 Nov. 1980 

12 Mar. 1981 

22 Mar. 1981 

12 Apr. 1981 

14 May 1981 

12 Nov. 1981 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Aleksey A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Aleksandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Sigmund Jaehn 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Ceorgi I. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 

Leonid I. Popov 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Bertalan Farkas 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Corbatko 

Pham Tuan 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 

Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

Vladimir V . Kovalenok 

Viktor P. Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov 

Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

37 : 10: 6 

64 : 22 : 53 

7 : 22 : 17 

79 : 15 : 23 

7:22: 4 

67 : 20 : 14 

108: 4: 24 

1:23: 1 

73 : 18 : 17 

55 : 1 : 29 

65 : 20 : 54 

3 : 22 : 21 

79 : 15 : 17 

7 : 20 : 43 

12 : 19 : 8 

74 : 18 : 38 

7 : 20 : 43 

2: 6:21 

7 : 20 : 41 

2: 6:13 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 27; 

crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 26; 

crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech cos- monaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31; 

crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 48 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first Polish 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29; 

crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 min. Jaehn was first Geman Democratic Republic cosmonaut 

to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 34; 

crew duration 175 days 36 min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 station. 

Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for 

Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned unmanned. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37. 

Crew duration, 184 days 20 hrs 12 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 35. 

Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 46 min. Farkas was first Hungarian to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight of newgeneration ferry. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 36. 

Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 42 min. Pham 

was firstVietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban to 

orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in Soviet 

program since 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 6. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

First flight of Space Shuttle, tested spacecraft in 

orbit. First landing of airplanelike craft from 

orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, first scientific payload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator arm. 

Retuned for reuse. 

84 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Thrust 

newtons) 

Vehicle Stages Propellanta (kiloMax. Payload (kg)b - 

Max’ Dia’ First 185-Km Geosynch.- Circular LamChc 

Height I\ Orbit Transfer Sun-Svnch. 

W) Orbit Orbit 

Scout ........... .l. Algol IIIA ....... .Solid .......... 2. Castor IIA ....... .Solid .......... 3. Antares IIIA Solid ............. 83.1 

4. Altair IIIA . ....... 25.6 

Delta 2900 Series . . 1. Thor plus . . 

(Thor-Delta) 9TX 354-5 ....... Solid ............. 147 each 

Delta 3900 Series . .l. Thor plus ....... .LOX/RP-1 ....... 

2. Delta ............ N,O,/Aerozine-50 . 44.2 

3. TE 364-4 ........ .Solid ............. 65.8 

912.0 

(Thor-Deltap 9 TX 526-2 ...... .Solid ..... 

3. TE364-4 

Atlas E/FTE 364-4 & sustainer .... .LOX/RP-1 ....... 1 722.0 

2. TE364-4 .Solid ............. 65.8 

sustainer ........ LOX/RP-1 ....... 1 913.0 

146.0 

Atlas-Centaur .... 1. Atlas booster & 

2. Centaur .......... LOX/LH,. ........ 

Titan IIIC ... 

Titan IIID ... Titan III(34)D 

Titan IIIB-Agena . 1. LR-87 .......... .N,O./Aerozine .... 2 341.0 

... 

... 

... 

Titan III(34) 

D/IUS 

Titan III(34)D 

4. Transtage 

2. LR-91 ........... N;O,/Aerozine .... 455.1 

3. Agena ........... IRFNA/UDMH .... 71.2 

3.05-m dia. ..... .Solid ............. 10 675.2 

2. LR-87 ........... N,O,/Aerozine .... 2 341.0 

3. LR-91 ........... N,O,/Aerozine .... 455.0 

4. Transtage ........ N,O,/Aerozine .... 69.8 . Same as Titan IIIC without Transtage 

.l. Two 546-segment 

.l. Two segment 

3.05-m dia. ...... Solid ............. 11 564.8 

2. LR-87 ........... N,O,/Aerozine .... 2 366.3 

3. LR-91 ........... N,O,/Aerozine .... 449.3 

Same as Titan 111 (34)D plus: 

4. IUS 1st Stage ..... .Solid ............. 275.8 

5. IUS 2nd Stage ..... Solid ............. 115.7 

Same as Titan III(34) plus: 

Transtage ........... N,O,/Aerozine .... 69.8 

1.14 X 22.9 255 - 1556 1979(60) 

205d 

2.44 x 35.4 2 000 705 1250d 1973(60) 

141Od 

2.44 X 35.4 3 045 1275 2 135d 1982(60) 

2 180d 

3.05 X 28.1 209odf - 1500d 1972(67) 

3.05 X 39.8 5 680 2045 - 1962 

SunDirect Synch. 

Geosynch. Transfer 

Orbit Orbit Orbit 

3.05 X 48.4 360Od - 3 060 1966 

3.05X48.2 13 245 1610d - 1965 

3.05x46.9 11 O2Od - 99 750d 1971 

3.05X49.4 12 520” - 11 S40d g 

3.05X48.0 14 920 1850” - 1982 

3.05X46.9 14 920 1855d - h 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

Space Shuttle . (reusable) 

... . 1. Orbiter; 3 main 

engines (SSMEs) 

fire in parallel 

with SRBs ..... .LOX/LH, ........ 1 670 each 

2. Two-solid-fueled 

rocket boosters 

(SRSs) fire in 

parallel with 

SSMEs ....... ‘ .H,CLO,/ 

.AN .......... 11 790 each 

Mounted on ex- ternal tank (ET) 

29 500 1981 

in full 

performance 

23.79 X 37.24 configuration 

wing long 

span 

3.80X45.46 

8.40 X 47.00 

a Propellant abbreviations wed are as follows: liquid oxygen and a modified kerosene = I..OX/R RJ; solid propellant combining in a 

single mixture both fuel anu odizer =solid; inhibited red fuming 

nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine = 

IRFNA/UDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and UDMH/N,H, = N,O,/ 

aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen = LOX/LH2; 

aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and polybutadiene 

acrolonitrile terpolymer =- AL/NH,CLO,/PBAN. 

Due east launch. c The date of first launch applies to this latest modification with a 

date in parentheses for the initial version. 

tions. PAM =payload assist module (a private venture). 

d Polar launch. 

Maximum performanced based on 3920. 3920/PAM configuraf With dual TE 364-4. 

g Initial operational capabaility in December 1981; launch to be 

h Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch to be 

i At sea level. 

scheduled as needed. 

scheduled as needed. 

NOTE: In no instance should these data be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the director of expendable launch 

vehicles. 

85 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY - BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

NASA 

Defense Energy 2:; Interior A@cu1- NSF Total Spacea ture Space Fiscal Year 

1959 ...._...__.._..... 1960 _..___............ 

1961 .............. 1962 .................. 1963 _.__.._........... 1964 .................. 1965 _.._.............. 1966 ..._.............. 

1968 .................. 

. , . . . . . . . 

1971 .._..___.......... 

1972 .__..___.._....... 

1973 ,__..___..__..._.. 

1974 .................. 1975 ___..__........... 1976 .................. Transitional Quarter . . . . 

1977 __................ 1978 .................. 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1824.9 

3673.0 

5099.7 

5249.7 

5174.9 

4965.6 

4587.3 

3990.9 

3745.8 

331 1.2 

3306.6 

3406.2 

3036.9 

3229.1 

3550.3 

931.8 

3817.8 

4060.1 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1796.8 

3626.0 

5016.3 

5137.6 

5064.5 

4830.2 

4430.0 

3822.0 

3547.0 

3101.3 

3071.0 

3093.2 

2758.5 

2915.3 

3225.4 

849.2 

3440.2 

3622.9 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1298.2 

1549.9 

1599.3 

1573.9 

1688.8 

1663.6 

1921.8 

2013.0 

1678.4 

1512.3 

1407.0 

1623.0 

1766.0 

1892.4 

1983.3 

460.4 

2411.9 

2728.8 

34.3 ... 43.3 ... 67.7 ... 147.8 50.7 

213.9 43.2 

210.0 2.8 

228.6 12.2 

186.8 26.5 

183.6 29.3 

145.1 28.1 

118.0 20.0 

102.8 8.0 

94.8 27.4 

55.2 31.3 

54.2 39.7 

41.7 60.2 

29.6 64.4 

23.3 71.5 

4.6 22.2 

21.7 90.8 

34.4 102.8 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

.2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

0.3 

9.0 

8.3 

0.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

1979 _...._...._.,...,. 4595.5 4030.4 3211.3 58.6 98.4 9.9 

1980 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5240.2 4680.4 3848.4 39.6 92.6 11.7 

1981 _...._...._..._... 5518.4 4992.4 4827.7 40.5 87.0 12.3 

1982 est. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5935.6 5462.0 6386.9 37.6 125.0 11.9 

1983 est. __.._......... 6608.0 6121.7 8501.9 30.6 151.0 9.5 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

.7 

.8 

.8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

.9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

15.3 

22.8 

... 784.7 

0.1 1065.8 

.6 1808.2 

1.3 3294.8 

1.5 5434.5 

3.0 6831.4 

3.2 6955.5 

3.2 6969.8 

2.8 6709.5 

3.2 6528.9 

1.9 5975.8 

2.4 5340.5 

2.4 4740.9 

2.8 4574.7 

2.6 4824.9 

1.8 4640.3 

2.0 4914.3 

2.4 5319.9 

.6 1340.5 

2.4 5982.8 

2.4 6508.7 

2.4 7419.2 

2.4 8688.8 

2.4 9977.8 

2.0 12040.7 

1.5 14839.0 

a Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402). SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

U. S. Space Budget - Budget Authority FY 1970-1988 14.8 

0.2 pq ...... 

...... ...... 

...... 

...... 

...... 

...... - ...... ._...::... I.... ...... ...... 

. . . ... (. 

(May not add because of rounding1 

...... 

...... ...... 

...... 

......... 

...... 

...... ...... 

..... ...... 13.0 ...... 

BILLIONS OF 

DOLLARS 

OTHER 

DEFENSE 

0 NASA~ 

a T.Q-TRANSITIONAL 

OUARTER 

EXCLUDES AMOUNTS FOR 

AIR TRANSPORTATION 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Federal Space hograms 

Budget Authority Outlays 

1981 1982 1983 1981 1982 1983 

Actual Est. Est. Actual Est . Est. 

Federal agencies: 

NASA' .................................... ............................ 

............................ Commerce ................................. Interior .................................... NSF .... .......................... Agriculture ............... 

Total ................................... 

4 992.4 5 462.0 6 121.7 4 877.1 5 282.4 6 061.6 

4 827.7 6 386.9 8 501.9 4 130.5 5 112.8 6 477.1 

40.5 37.6 30.6 46.9 43.1 31.1 

87.0 125.0 151.0 81.0 122.0 147.0 

12.3 11.9 9.5 12.1 11.7 9.3 

2.4 2.0 1.5 2.4 2.2 2.0 

15.5 15.3 22.8 15.5 15.3 22.8 

9 977.8 12 040.7 14 839.0 9 165.5 10 589.5 12 750.9 

NASA: 

Space flight ................................ 3 187.2 3 577.6 3 983.1 3 053.3 3 461.7 3 991.6 

Space science, applications, and technology ...... 1 359.1 1 381.2 1525.8 1 384.3 1344.4 1461.8 

Air transportation ........................... 526.0 473.6 486.3 544.2 544.2 515.5 

Supporting operations ....................... 450.4 507.6 617.7 443.8 480.7 613.1 

TotalNASA .............................. 5 518.4 5 935.6 6608.0 5421.4 5 826.6 6 577.1 

Less receipts ................................ -4.3 - 4.4 - 4.9 - 4.2 -4.4 - 4.9 

a Excludes amounts for air transportation. SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautics Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Federal Aeronautics Programs Budp;et Authority 

1981 1982 1983 

NASA' ................................................................. 526.0 473.6 486.3 

Department of Defenseb .... ..... ...... .... 2653.3 2983.6 3664.1 

Department of Transpo .... ..... ...... .... 106.2 80.6 133.5 

Total ..................................................... 3285.5 3537.8 4283.9 . . 

a Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, Research 

and Program Management. 

Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraft and 

related equipment. 

Federal Aviation Administration Research, Engineering, and 

Development and Facilities, Engineering and Development. The 

1982 estimate assumes enactment of a proposed $16 million supplemental and the 1983 estimate assumes enactment of pending 

authorization and user fee legislation. 

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget. 

2 U. R. GOVERNMFW PRIEITIRC, OFFICE: 1987 382-698/8482 

87