Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

19 76 Activities 
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Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1976 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Table of Contents 

Page Page 

I. Summary of U.S. Aeronautics and Space Activities of 1976 _________________________ Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ __ Space _______________________________ Aeronautics __ __________ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ The Heritage ________________________ 

11. National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Applications to Earth __________________ Science ______________________________ Space Transportation __________________ Space Research and Technology _ _ ___ ____ Tracking and Data Acquisition __________ International Affairs ___________________ User Affairs ________________________ Technology Utilization _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ NASA Energy Programs ________________ Aeronautics Research and Technology ____ 111. Department of Defense ___________________ Introduction __ _____ ___ _______________ Space Activities _______________________ Aeronautical Activities _________________ Relationship with NASA _______________ IV. Department of Commerce _________________ Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Satellites in Environmental Monitoring 

and Prediction ...................... Other Satellite and Space Applications ____ Space Support Activities _______________ Space and Atmosphere Physics Research __ Data Programs _______________________ Aeronautical Programs _ _ ______ _____ ____ 

V. Energy Research and Development Administration _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ Introduction _________________________ Support to Space Programs ______________ Satellite Power Systems ________________ VI. Department of the Interior ________________ Introduction _ _ _______ __ ______________ Earth Resources Observation Systems Program ______________________________ Remote Sensing Activities Using Space Data 

Remote Sensing Activities Using Aerial Data 

National Cartographic Information Center _ International Activities ________________ VII. Department of Agriculture _________________ Introduction _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ - __ _ _ _ Remote Sensing Activity ________________ VIII. National Science Foundation _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ ____ Introduction _ - _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ __ __ _ _ ___ Astronomy _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Atmospheric Sciences __________________ IX. Environmental Protection Agency ___________ Introduction _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Interagency Energy-Related Environmental 

Research and Development Program _ __ _ 

Remote Monitoring ___________________ 

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X. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy .of Engineering, National Research 

Council _______________________________ Introduction _ _ _____ _ ______ __ _ ______ __ Aerospace Science _ _ _ __ - _ _ _ __ _ __ _ __ _ - - - Space Applications .................... Aerospace Engineering _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ - - - - - Education ____________________------- XI. Office of Telecommunications Policy __i____-- 

Introduction __ __ __________ ___ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ International Satellite Systems _____ _ _____ Direct Broadcast Satellites ______________ Frequency Management _____ __ _ __ _ ___ __ Domestic Satellite Applications __________ XII. Federal Communications Commission ________ Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - Communications Satellites ______________ Specialized Satellite Services _____ _ ______ XIII. Department of State ...................... Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Activities within the United Nations _____ International Cooperation ______________ Satellite Services ...................... XI\’. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency ______ Introduction _ ________________________ Demilitarization - _ _ __ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ Crisis Management and Verification ______ 

Space Technology ..................... XV. Department of Transportation ______________ Introduction _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - 

Aviation Safety ____________________--- Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation ___ XVI. The Smithsonian Institution ________________ Introduction ......................... Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory ___ The National Air and Space Museum _____ XVII. United States Information Agency ___________ Introduction _________________________ Press and Publications _________________ Films and Television __________________ Information Centers and Exhibits ________ Radio __________________________-__- 

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Appendixes 

U.S. Spacecraft Record .................... World Record of Space Launchings Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond _______ Successful U.S. Launchings--1976 ____________ U.S. Applications Satellites, 1972-1976 ________ US-Launched Scientific Payloads, 1972-1976 __ US-Launched Space Probes, 1972-1976 ______ History of United States and Soviet Manned 

Space Flights __________________________ US. Space Launch Vehicles ________________ Space Activities of the U.S. Government ______ U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority ________ Space Activities Budget .................... Aeronautics Budget _______________________ 

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Aerospace Events in the Bicentennial Year 

The United States in 1976 orbited spacecraft around Mars and landed and operated spacecraft on its surface, showed the first Space Shuttle Orbiter, launched a number of communications satellites, flight-tested 

research aircraft, and opened the new National Air and Space Museum. 

From an altitude of 1857 kilometers, the Viking 1 orbiter photographed the 

meteorite crater Arantlas on Man (above) in July. Twenty-five kilometers 

in diameter and with a typical clearly defined rim and conical peak at the 

bottom, Arantlas and some other craters on Mars have one surprising feature: 

the ejecta la~ci aIountl it ;ippe:ti.s to have Rowed out of the crater rather 

than having Iiecn 1)lastctl out by the impact of the meteorite. Similar results ha\c been wen in cxpcritncntal cratering of \caterlogged ground. A 

closer look at the Slartinn lantlscape was affortlcd by the lander spacecraft. 

lhc panorama I~low was pltotogra~~licd eai-ly on an August morning by thc 

Viking 1 lander. The wind-sculpted sand dunes look much like parts of 

Mexico and California. The large boulder at left, about 8 meters away, 

measures abut 1 by 3 meters. 

iv 
Enterprise (top), first of five Space Shuttle 

Orbiters for the Space Transportation System, was rolled out of the factory at Palmdale, California, on September 17. The 

joint NASA/Army experimental Tilt Rotor 

Research Helicopter (above) was delivered 

and began flight tests in 1976. At right, the 

Comstar 2 domestic communications satellite 

was being readied for mating with its 

launch vehicle prior to launch in July. And 

below, a view of the Independence Avenue 

side of the Smithsonian’s new National Air 

and Space Museum which opened July 1. 

i 

V 
Summary of United States Aeronautics 

and Space Activities in 1976 

I 

introduction 

This bicentennial year has been one of major 

achievements in space and aeronautics. In space, 

the most significant accomplishments were the 

highly successful Viking orbiter and lander missions to Mars and the rollout of the first of the 

Space Shuttle orbiters. These highly visible milestones were balanced by the growing maturity of 

the world’s space communications systems and the 

continuing exploitation and evaluation of data 

from Earth resources and weather satellites. In 

aeronautics, there was promising research on aircraft technology ,that could lead to better fuel 

economy, higher performance with quieter engines, 

and increased safety both at cruising altitudes and 

in terminal areas. New automated equipment was 

placed into operation on the nation’s airways, improving the safety and efficiency of the current 

system. This chapter briefly summarizes and highlights the more detailed contents of the agency 

chapters that follow. 

Space 

The United States had 26 launches into orbit 

in 1976. A total of 34 spacecraft were orbited. 

NASA orbited 15 satellites on 15 successful 

launches; the Department of Defense orbited 19 

payloads on 11 successful launches. Of NASA’s 

total, 9 were industry or government communications satellites-1 for INTELSAT, 5 for Comsat 

Corpor’ation, I for RCA, 1 for the U.S. Navy, and 

1 communications research satellite for the U.S. 

Air Force; 1 was an operational weather satellite 

for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) ; and 4 were international satellites-1 a joint launch with Canada, 1 launched for 

West Germany, 1 for NATO, and 1 for Indonesia. 

Three of the international launches were also communications satellites. Launches for NASA’s own 

program included a laser geodynamic satellite and 

a suborbital gravity probe (the latter not counted 

in the orbital launch figures). Among the DOD 

payloads were 2 communications research satellites 

and 3 scientific satellites. 

Earth Applications 

Communications. In August the ATS 6 experimental communications satellite completed its 

year-long experiment with India, where it had 

transmitted educational and agricultural instruction programs, prepared by the Government of 

India, to inexpensive receiving antennas in some 

2400 Indian villages. As it was moved back toward 

the US., ift participated in a NASA-Agency for International Development program known as Aidsat, beaming programs to 24 Asian and African 

countries on the potential uses of satellite technology in developing nations. 

On the other side of the world, the joint 

Canadian-US. experimental communications satellite was launched in January. The most powerful 

communications satellite to date, Communications 

Tcchnology Satellite (CTS) 1 used its higher transmission power and higher frequencies to transmit 

to small, inexpensive antennas in remote cominunities. 

Operational communications satellite systems continued to grow in 1976. The international INTELSAT system acquired additional capacity in January when NASA launched Intelsat IV-A F2 as a 

backup for the first of this uprated series. Satellite 

technology helped Indonesia meet a national need 

for better communications with the July launch by 

NASA of Indonesia’s Palapa 1 communi,cations 

satellite. When it began transmitting from synchronous orbit in August, it was the first time the 

thousands of inhabited islands in the archipelago 

were linked by direct communication. In the U.S., 

the number of operational domestic communications satellites doubled during 1976 with the 

launches of RCA-Satcom 2 and Comstars 1 and 2. 

A new special purpose communications satellite 

system also came into being with the launches of 

Marisat 1, 2, and 3. 

Weather. The network of U.S. weather satellites 

maintained its operational status with the launch 

of the polar-orbiting Noaa 5, allowing Noaa 3 to 

be deactivated. NOAA was developing a system for 

SMS satellite monitoring of the data-sparse Gulf 

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of Mexico for potential severe storm conditions and 

was experimenting with 3-minute-interval images 

from the Goes 1 satellite of low-level cumulus 

clouds to study their potential to become hurricanes. 

Earth Resources. Work continued to define and 

refine the uses and techniques of exploiting satellite 

sensors for gathering wide-area information on the 

character, conditions, and changes of land areas. A 

cooperative project of NASA, Department of Agriculture, and NOAA, LACIE (Large Area Crop 

Inventory Experiment) continued in its second 

phase. The second phase will extend measurements 

of wheat production to areas outside North America as part of the overall LACIE effort to examine 

the feasibility of a space-based global crop inventory 

system. 

ICEWARN, the NOAA project that tracks ice 

formation in the Great Lakes, had a second successful winter season, enabling uninterrupted shipping 

throughout the winter of 1975-1976. The Coast 

Guard has extended the technique to the coastal 

waters of Alaska. 

A number of established and new demonstration 

projects used Landsat satellite data to inventory 

forest, water, wildland, and range resources, as well 

as deriving contemporary, wide-area data on urban 

development. These demonstration projects are 

sponsored by a number of agencies, including 

NASA and the Departments of Agriculture, Interior, and Commerce. 

Monitoring Air and Water Quality. An intensified program of stratospheric monitoring established 

more accurate measurements of the effect of aerosols and other man-generated gases on the upper 

atmosphere, including the effect of emissions from 

forthcoming flights of the Space Shuttle. Several 

agencies, including NASA, NOM, the National 

Academy of Sciences, the National Science Foundation, and the Smithsonian Institution, are cooperating in the examination of this complex problem. 

In the lower atmosphere, the utility of satellites 

and aircraft for measuring and establishing baselines of air pollution and experimenting with longterm techniques for monitoring changes in the 

baselines was actively explored by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) , supported by 

NASA, NOAA, U.S. Geological Survey, and other 

agencies. For example, EPA was testing an aircraftmounted differential-absorption LIDAR (lightdetecting and ranging) system that constructs a 

vertical profile of relative particle density, showing 

the horizontal and vertical travel of smokestack 

emissions. 

Similarly techniques for monitoring sea and lake 

pollution, currents, and circulation patterns were 

studied and measured by several agencies including 

EPA, NASA, and NOAA. An example is EPA’s 

testing of an aircraf t-mounted laser fluorosensor 

that identifies organics, including specific oils, on 

surface water, offering a means of detecting and 

assessing industrial pollution. 

Planetary Exploration 

Mars. The most significant event in space during 

1976 was the successful Viking mission to Mars. 

During the summer both spacecraft reached the 

planet, were slowed down, and put into orbit. Careful study of the photos taken by the orbiting spacecraft and of the radar returns from NSF’s upgraded 

radar telescope at Arecibo, Puerto Rico, narrowed 

the search for safe landing sites. On July 20 and 

September 3 the lander vehicles separated from the 

orbiters and made successful landings on the Martian surface. The orbiters continued photographing 

the planet, depicting mountains and canyons larger 

than any on Earth and widespread evidence of 

water and steam erosion in Mar’s geologic past. The 

orbiters also measured the water vapor in the atmosphere and on the surface, discovering large 

amounts of water locked in the frozen polar caps. 

The landers photographed the detail of the surface 

around their landing sites, confirming the red color 

of the surface and the pinkness of the lower atmosphere; monitored the Martian weather, which to 

the end of the year remained much the same from 

day to day; and scooped up soil and processed it in 

a series of biochemical tests in an effort to determine 

whether microbial life exists on Mars. Such evidence of life is still unclear at the year’s end. In 

November the intensive phase of the missions 

ended, and NASA began the extended missions, a 

lower phase of activity that would continue observing seasonal changes until about September 

1978. 

Venus. In addition to using its big radar telescope 

to assist NASA in determining the roughness of 

proposed Viking landing sites on Mars, NSF also 

used the instrument to penetrate the murky atmosphere of Venus. There it found a 1,500,000-squarekilometer flat area similar to the lunar “seas”. Another discovery was a series of parallel canyons and 

ridges extending unbroken for hundreds of kilometers and unlike any formations on Earth. 

Saturn. Pioneer 11, having flown past Jupiter in 

1974, was still using the gravitational acceleration 

imparted to it by that huge planet to cross the 

solar system toward Saturn. It is due to fly by 

Saturn in 1979. 

Sun and Sun-Earth Interactions 

Ever since the Skylab missions of 1973-1974, scientists have been studying the. 171,000 photographs 

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of the Sun taken by the 10 instruments in the 

Apollo Telescope Mount. Since Skylab, OS0 8 has 

been orbited for solar study, as well as the two 

West German Helios satellites, which have traveled 

closer to the Sun than any other man-made object. 

Only a preliminary analysis has been possible of 

these more recent data, but those results were combined with Skylab data in a Skylab Solar Workshop 

held in 1976. Important findings resulted, not only 

for understanding of the Sun itself, but for those 

functions of the Sun that control the solar wind 

that blows upon the outer fringes of Earth’s atmosphere and affects our weather and communications. 

Coronal holes, the wellspring of the solar wind, 

were studied closely: temperatures at various levels 

were measured, locations pinned down, the nature 

of movements identified. Larger convectional trends 

on the Sun’s surface were tracked and better understood. Because of certain anomalies in the data, 

future satellite missions, most importantly the 

Solar Maximum Mission, were set in motion in an 

attempt to fill gaps in the data. 

The Universe 

The search for understanding of the origins of 

the Universe, its dynamics, and future has been a 

target of the space program since its inception and 

continued in 1976. The OAO 3 satellite (also called 

Copernicus) has been operational since 1972. New 

techniques, developed since the spacecraft was 

launched, have extended its observational sensitivity to objects one-sixth the brightness that it 

could originally perceive and extended its range in 

the near ultraviolet. 

NSF, in studies of the relative movement of 

galaxies in the Universe, discovered that our galaxy 

and nearby galaxies are traveling at higher speeds 

than previous theory had predicted. 

A NASA suborbital probe, Gravity Probe A, was 

launched in 1976 to test an important part of Einstein’s general theory of relativity-the concept that 

a clock beyond the influence of Earth’s gravity field 

would run faster than its counterpart on Earth. 

Extremely accurate maser clocks developed by the 

Smithsonian Institution were used in the 2-hour 

flight that reached an altitude of 10,000 kilometers; 

the results generally confirm that portion of the 

Einstein theory. 

Studies continued of the proposal for a space 

telescope, intended to be an international facility 

launched and maintained by Space Shuttle missions 

and to provide data to be analyzed by scientists 

worldwide. 

Space Transportation 

The Space Transportation System represents a 

major turning point in the national space program. 

Intended to put manned and unmanned space flight 

on a more routine basis and to reduce the cost of 

putting each pound of cargo in orbit, the system 

has been designed around the concept of maximum 

reusability of major components and regular operational performance. The principal element in the 

system is the Space Shuttle; looking somewhat like 

a transport aircraft, the Shuttle will be powered by 

three high-pressure rocket engines burning liquid 

hydrogen and liquid oxygen. Its cockpit area will 

contain the flight controls and the flight crew of 

three astronauts. Behind the cabin will be a cargo 

bay, 19 meters long and 5 meters wide, that will 

contain cargoes weighing as much as 29,250 kilograms. Though the cargo bay itself is unpressurized, 

it will be fitted with the Spacelab, a sophisticated 

set of modular units that can permit a crew of as 

many as four experimenters to operate the instruments in the payload. 

At launch the three Shuttle engines will be augmented by two solid-fueled rocket boosters strapped 

to the fuselage on either side of a large, external 

liquid-fuel tank. When the Shuttle has risen above 

the atmosphere, the boosters will drop off and parachute down to an ocean landing, to be recovered 

and reused. The external fuel tank is subsequently 

jettisoned. The Shuttle engines will carry the vehicle into low Earth orbit (some 320 kilometers), 

where it can remain as long as 30 days. In addition 

to the wide variety of experiments that can be performed from the Spacelab, the Shuttle can use an 

arm-like remote manipulator to lift satellites out of 

the cargo bay and place them in orbit, or to pick up 

satellites already in orbit and place them in the 

cargo bay, where they can be repaired or returned 

to Earth for refurbishment. For missions where a 

high-energy orbit is needed, the expendable Interim 

Upper Stage, which has rocket motors, can be attached to the payload. In returning to Earth, the 

Shuttle will descend through the atmosphere more 

gradually than previous space vehicles, using the 

aerodynamic lift of its wings, and will flare out and 

land on a 5-kilometer-long runway at Kennedy 

Space Center, Florida, or Vandenberg Air Force 

Base, California. 

Since presi,dential approval in 1972, the Space 

Transportation System has been under research, 

development, and most recently fabrication. A 

major event took place on September 17, when the 

first Space Shuttle orbiter was rolled out in Palmdale, California. In mid-1977 the orbiter will begin 

approach and landing tests at Dryden Flight Research Center. In 1979 the second Space Shuttle 

will begin orbital test flights, preliminary to inauguration of operations in 1980. When the full 

five-Orbiter fleet is in operation, the Space Transportation System will replace most of the present 

3 
stable of expendable launch vehicles for NASA, 

DoD, international, and commercial missions. 

Znternationul Cooperation 

Space Transportation System. International participation in the forthcoming Space Transportation 

System continued to grow during 1976. Spacelab, 

the major Space Shuttle system being developed by 

the European Space Agency, passed its preliminary 

design review in December. The first flight unit is 

to be delivered in 1979, a year before its first mission. In addition to this $500 million European investment, Canada began development this year of 

the remote manipulator system, a commitment involving tens of millions of dollars. 

Potential government, industry, and university 

users of the Space Transportation System from 

Europe, Canada, and Japan were briefed on capabilities, payload accommodations, and probable 

terms and conditions of use. NASA and the European Space Agency completed preliminary studies 

of the first Spacelab payload. For the Orbital Flight 

test phase that will begin in 1979, invitations were 

sent out internationally for proposals of experiments. 

Communication Satellite Experiments. The ATS 

6 experimental communications satellite completed 

its one-year experiment of transmitting Indian 

educational programming to small receivers in some 

2400 villages in India. Though the results are still 

being evaluated, the practicality of such broadcasting was clearly demonstrated. 

In August ATS 6 began its return journey toward 

the U.S. On the way it served as Aidsat, making 

demonstration broadcasts to 24 developing nations 

and regional organizations on the possible uses of 

space technology for national development, and 

transmitting live, two-way conversations between 

local and U.S. officials and experts. 

Canada’s Communications Technology Satellite 

(CTS) was launched by NASA in January, and the 

two countries began sharing its broadcast time for 

experiments in using higher power signals to transmit health care, education, and special service messages to remote, relatively inexpensive receivers. 

Other events of the year were the three launches 

by NASA of international satellites, four agreements 

for instrumentation on future NASA satellites, and 

173 proposals for experiments from 15 countries 

and agencies for 14 flight opportunities on future 

NASA satellites and Space Shuttle flights. 

Defense 

In space operational systems, as well as research 

and development, the Department of Defense 

moved ahead in 1976. 

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System, a 

worldwide, precision, three-dimensional navigation 

system based on satellites, conducted ground tests 

of prototype hardware, preliminary to the launch 

of the first six satellites in 1977. Until NAVSTAR 

is fully operational, the TRANSIT satellite system 

will continue to provide two-dimensional navigation. 

Communication satellite systems have become 

more and more important to DoD both for worldwide command and control and for operational 

communications. In 1976 the Defense Satellite Communications System, the command and control 

system, continued operations through its satellite 

over the Pacific and shared use of the NATO satellite over the Atlantic and the U.K.’s Skynet satellite 

over the Indian Ocean. The Navy Fleet Satellite 

Communications System was preparing its Earth 

terminals for the launch of its first satellite in 1977. 

Production of terminals began for the Air Force 

Satellite Communications System. 

DoD intensified its preparations for use of the 

Space Shuttle, which will have a major effect on 

the nature and cost of space operations. In addition 

to mission planning and coordination with NASA, 

the Air Force initiated development of the Interim Upper Stage, to be used with the Space 

Shuttle when high-energy missions are required. 

Contracts were let for defining the Space Shuttle 

ground facilities to be constructed at Vandenberg 

Air Force Base. 

Aeronautics 

The broad purposes of U.S. aeronautical research 

and development are to improve the performance, 

efficiency, and safety of current commercial and 

general aviation aircraft and the airways on which 

they fly; to provide the technology base for future 

aircraft; and to maintain the competitive performance of current and future military aircraft. 

In recent years increasing concern over environmental problems and oil resources has focused 

much of the research on quieter aircraft with lower 

fuel consumption and emission rates. 

Zmprouing Current and Futare Aircraft 

The Aircraft Energy Efficiency program was established by NASA in 1976. It seeks technology that 

will reduce fuel consumption of future commercial 

transport aircraft by 50 percent, as compared to 

current aircraft. Research will principally center in 

three areas: (1) redesign of components in large 

turbofan engines to reduce specific fuel consumption; (2) combining new aerodynamic technology, 

such as the supercritical wing and winglets, with 

4 
active flight controls that allow significant reduction of structural weight: and (3) substituting 

composite materials in place of metal in certain 

structures, for a weight savings of some 30 percent. 

Other research on improving future aircraft included a NASA contract to build a Quiet ShortHaul Airplane, wind-tunnel testing of a supersonic 

transport model that promised a 30 percent improvement in supersonic lift-over-drag ratio over 

the 1971 U.S. supersonic transport design, and providing design information for a second low-speed 

airfoil of improved lift and drag characteristics for 

general aviation aircraft. 

Improving the Operdiortal Emthmltt 

Aircraft noise and particle emissions from engines were the principal subjects of this research. 

A computer program has been constructed that can 

predict the takeoff and landing noise generated by 

current and conceptual aircraft. Further validation 

will refine this program. Comprehensive studies of 

community response to aircraft noise are identifying 

the types and levels of aircraft noise that cause most 

concern in communities near airports. 

In emission control, NASA’s Experimental Clean 

Combustor program for gas turbine engines reached 

the hardware demonstration phlase. Preliminary results from ground tests of complete engines suggest 

major reductions in emissions during takeoff and 

landing and significant reduction in nitrogen oxide 

emission at high-altitude cruise. 

Another major area of research is in improving 

the efficiency and safety of terminal and airways 

operations. NASA worked with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) on reducing wake 

vortices that trail behind large aircraft, on defining 

the conditions likely to cause low-altitude wind 

shear near airports, and on improved safety reporting. The two agencies also demonstrated to the 

International Civil Aviation Organization the first 

application of all-digital controls in a commercial 

transport aircraft. A number of hands-off landings 

were made with the system controlling approach 

and the landing flare. The FAA also inaugurated a 

long-term project to automate and streamline their 

nationwide network of Flight Service Stations. 

Defense 

In 1976 DoD improved the combat aircraft inventory, continued research and testing on next-generation aircraft and components, and worked with 

NASA on several research aircraft. 

The first F-16 air combat fighter, being produced 

in concert with five European nations, was delivered; the F-15 fighter reached full production; 

and F-14As were arriving aboard carriers. 

In research and development, the F-18 fighter 

entered full development, and the B-1 bomber 

neared the end of flight testing. All three services 

increased the number of aircraft components that 

were being studied or tested for use of composites 

in place of metal to reduce structural weight. The 

Laser Obstacle Terrain Avoidance Warning System 

was flight-tested and found sensitive enough to 

detect obstacles as slender as a small wire. Simulator development continued for helicopter flight 

characteristics under instrument flight conditions 

for the CH-47 and AH-1 aircraft. 

In joint DoD-NASA programs the two agencies 

completed design of the joint Highly Maneuverable 

Aircraft and began fabrication of two remotely 

piloted research aircraft. In both joint experimental 

helicopter programs-the Rotor Systems Research 

Aircraft and the Tilt Rotor Research Aircraftaircraft were delivered for flight testing. 

Details of the events summarized will be found 

in the succeeding chapters. 

The Heritage 

This bicentennial year, which witnessed the beginning of a new chapter in the history of flight 

with the Viking landings on Mars and the rollout 

of the Space Shuttle Orbiter, also became the year 

of commemoration of the past history of flight. On 

July 1, the Smithsonian Institution opened the new 

National Air and Space Museum. Situated on the 

Mall in Washington, the museum displays the actual 

craft that made flight history, from the Wright 

Brothers’ airplane to the Apollo 11 spacecraft that 

carried men to the first landing on the Moon. Exhibits in 23 bays tell the story of the technology, 

science, and history of flight. Public response was 

immediate; more than five million persons visited 

the museum in the first six months. 

5 
I 

11 

National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

Introduction 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the civilian agency of the United 

States government charged with planning, direction, 

and conducting research and development activities 

related to civilian space and aeronautics programs. In carrying out these respon,sibilities, the 

agency works with many other civilian Federal 

agencies that have research or operational interest 

in these fields and also interacts with and provides 

research and development assistance to the Department of Defense, which conducts the military space 

and aeronautics program. 

In its space program, NASA has since its inception in 1958 pursued several broad goals: development of technology for space operations, demonstration of practical applications of space systems 

and technology, and discovery of new scientific 

knowledge about the origin, evolution, and processes of the universe, our solar system, near space, 

and the complexities of the Earth’s atmosphere. 

While emphasis has fluctuated from time to time, 

the broad intent has remained constant. 

In our bicentennial year of 1976, NASA made 

significant advances toward these objectives. In 

space, a combination of space research and operations produced a NASA launch total of 16 satellites and probes, 14 of which supported new or 

existing commercial, national, and international 

systems, while 2 supported NASA R&D initiatives. 

Two major milestones in NASA’s R&D program 

were the successful landings and long-duration operations of the Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft on Mars 

and the rollout of the first Space Shuttle Orbiter. 

Meanwhile a large network of previously launched 

satellites and instruments continued to operate successfully-from Earth-focused satellites returning 

data on crops, population distribution, sea state, 

weather warnings; to greatly increased information 

about the planets of the solar system, the Sun, and 

the new discoveries in the galaxies-pulsars, quasars, 

black holes. In aeronautics, research continued on 

improvement of current commercial aircraft, of 

future higher performance aircraft, and of the 

safety and performance of current airway systems. 

Applications to Earth 

The applications program continued in 1976 to 

make significant strides in attaining its goals and 

objectives through the application of space teclinology in communications, environmental research, 

weather forecasting, and improving man’s understanding of the Earth. Satellites continued to improve our ability to locate, inventory, and manage 

our planet’s resources. Efforts to improve the technology transfer process also continued. 

Coinmunications 

Applications Technology Satellite 6 (ATS 6). 

The ATS 6 satellite completed two years of successful orbital operations on May 30, 1976. India’s 

Satellite Instructional Television Experiment 

(SITE), completed on August 1, 1976, was conducted by the Indian Government to provide instructional television via the ATS 6 satellite to 

about 2400 villages, reaching some 3 million 

viewers regularly. Areas of instruction included 

family planning, health and hygiene, agriculture, 

and national development. In August 1976, ATS G 

started moving slowly back to the U.S. for an 

experimental program in the societal, communications, and technological disciplines. En route, ATS 

6 supported the U.S. Agency for International Development in a project to demonstrate application 

of communications and remote sensing technology 

to developing countries, via direct satellite broadcasting to more than two dozen countries. 

Communications Technology Satellite (CTS-l).The 

CTS-1 satellite, a cooperative program with Canada, was launched on January 17, 1976, to experiment with technology for satellite communications 

to low-cost ground stations at the 12 GHz frequency, 

allocated specifically for satellite broadcasting without power limitations. By December 1976, eleven of 

eighteen experiments had started operations over 

a wide range of educational, health, social services, 

and information-exchange investigations. 

Advanced Communications Research and Technical Consultation. Research was expanded on the 

higher regions of the radio frequency spectrum. 

6 
Studies continued on frequency allocations, bandwidth and orbit requirements, and the opening of 

new regions of the communications spectrum for 

future missions. Research to improve space communications components and technologies continued, and new capabilities were demonstrated 

using experimental hardware for voice, data, and 

educational television. The objective was more 

efficient use of the available spectrum through new 

bandwidth-compression techniques. 

Technical consultation to the Federal Communications Commission on satellite systems evaluations 

and design reviews was completed as new commercial applications for satellite services were filed. A 

special effort was the preparation for the 1977 

World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) 

on Broadcast and Fixed Satellite Services. NASA 

also increased its support to the Department of 

State, Federal Communications Commission, and 

the Office of Telecommunications Policy in preparation for the 1979 WARC. 

Data Collectiolz via Satellite 

The Corps of Engineers continued to use data 

collection platforms reporting through Landsat 1 

and 2 to collect hydrologic data in New England. 

Also a joint NASA-California Division of Forestry 

protot ype-opera ti onal demonstration began in July 

1976 to test a satellite-aided automated fire-weather data system as an aid to predicting the onset and 

location of forest fires. Wind velocity, air temperature and humidity, solar radiation, and the moisture of the ground fuel were measured by 24 instrumented platforms at remote California sites and the 

data regularly sent via the Goes 1 spacecraft to the 

Division of Forestry in Sacramento for analysis and 

decision making. 

Satellite-Aided Search and Rescue. NASA studies 

continued on a space concept to detect and locate 

endangered aircraft and ships equipped with Emergency Locator Transmitters. Satellite-aided search 

and rescue feasibility experiments employing the 

Oscar VI1 (Amateur Radio) spacecraft have demonstrated that emergency signals can be relayed 

through a satellite to ground stations hundreds of 

miles away and provide useful positions information. 

Earth Resources 

Satellites contribute important information to 

the search for necessary resources and the preservation of the environment. 

During 1976, the Landsat 1 and 2 satellites continued to operate satisfactorily, providing almost 

total global coverage every 9 days. A portable 

ground station was installed in Pakistan to obtain 

data from that part of the world without placing 

undue demands on the one operable tape recorder 

on Landsat 2. Development of Landsat-C and its 

sensors progressed on schedule to meet a projected 

late 1977 launch date. 

During 1976, good progress was made in the ongoing Applications Systems Verification and Transfer projects and five new ones were initiated. The 

purpose of these projects is to develop, demonstrate, 

and transfer technology to managers and planners 

in the public and private sectors. In addition, interest and participation by the public and private 

sectors steadily increased, in many cases independently of NASA and without Federal funding. 

The Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment 

operated during its second wheat-growing season, 

and measurements were extended to more areas 

outside North America. The ICEWARN project, 

which provided information on ice conditions in 

the Great Lakes for the second straight year, was 

an important factor in having uninterrupted shipping on the lakes through the winter of 1975-1976. 

The technique was also used by the Coast Guard 

along the north coast of Alaska. A project in the 

western U.S. gave indica(tions of potential benefits 

resulting from use of Landsat data for snow mapping. The Corps of Engineers examined the feasibility of producing computer-generated 1,and 

cover classification maps for the entire natilon, based 

on Landsat data and using NASA-developed techniques. The Pacific Northwest Regional Land 

Inventory Project achieved positive results in all 

the discipline areas (urban, land use, agriculture, 

water resources, forestry, and range). 

New Applications Systems Verification and 

Transfer projects initiated in 1976 were: 

0 a Water Management and Control project in 

cooperation with the Corps of Engineers to 

use Landsat data to predict water run-off in 

flood-prone areas. 

0 a Ccnsus-Urbanized Area projeot in collaboration with the Census Bureau to monitor urban 

and suburbsan growth. 

0 a Forest Resource Inventory System in collaboration with the S!t. Regis Paper Company to 

quantify forest resources, using Landsat data. 

a Wildland Vegetation Inventory project in 

cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management t'o develop techniques by which the Bureau can classify and inventory the 1,918,000 

square kilometers of land in Federal ownership. 

a Land Cover Change Detection Survey, in 

cooperation with the U.S. Geological Survey, 

to develop a capability for using Landsat data 

7 
in the Bureau of Land Management’s Land 

Use and Data Analysis program. 

Weather and Climate 

The Weather and Climate Program is directed toward research on the detection and monitoring of 

severe storms, the development of improved operational satellite systems in support of the National 

Weather Service, and continued support of the international Global Atmospheric Research Propam 

(GARP) . Applying the unique capability of geostationary 

weather satellites to monitor most of the North 

American continent and its bordering oceans, the 

NASA-developed Synchronous Meteorological Satelhe, SMS-2, and Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, Goes 1 (launched in October 

1975), have been used by NOAA to detect the presence and predict the movement of severe storms 

such as hurricanes. The NASAdeveloped Noaa 5 

satellite was launched on July 29, 1976, into polar 

orbit and it is providing global quantitative atmospheric and sea data. The Atmospheric and Oceanographic Information Processing System has been 

completed and placed into operation at the Goddard Space Flight Center. 

In preparation for the First GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) to be conducted in 1978-1979, 

unique global weather data sets have been obtained 

during both summer and winter data systems {tests. 

FGGE research is designed to improve the reliability 

and length of time over which weather forecasts 

can be made. 

At the Gcddard Space Flight Center, a processing 

project has been established to process and distribute Nimbus 4 gllobal ozone data to scientific users. 

Environmental Qdity Mon-ttoring 

The Environmental Quality Monitoring program 

concentrates on developing and demonstrating the 

technology €or measuring and monitoring those environmental parameters which affect the quality of 

the Earth’s atmosphere and water. 

For the upper atmosphere, emphasis is on developing a space-based capability €or monitoring 

stratospheric ozone, trace gases, and aerosols. The 

Stratospheric Aerosol Measurement (SAM) , flown 

in 1975 on the U.S./U.S.S.R. Apll~40y~i~ mission, 

demonstrated the usefulness of the solar occultation technique for measuring aerosols from orbijtal 

distance. Advanced versions of the SAM instrument 

will be flown on the Nimbus G satellite and the Applications Explorer Missilon-B/Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment scheduled for launch in 

1978 and 1979, respectively. During (the past year, 

aircraft, rocket, and balloon measurements have 

contributed to understanding the seasonal and geographical variations of ozone, aerosols, and nitric 

oxide (a by-product of high-altitude aircraft operations) . Advanced techniques have been developed 

and demonstrated for the measurement of other 

important trace gases, including nitrogen dioxide, 

nitric acid, and the hydroxyl radical. These techniques will provide new tools for regulatory agencies such as the Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA) and state environmental agencies. The 

NASA water quality program attacks four general 

problem areas: ocean dumping, red tide detection, 

lake water quality classification, and the definition 

of off-shore ocean and Great Lakes water quality indicators. NASA and EPA executed an interagency 

agreement which provided the framework for more 

extensive cooperative projects between NASA and 

EPA. A joint working group was then formed to 

help focus NASA technology development in response to FPA monitoring requirements. 

Earth Dynamics Monitorilzg ad Forecasting 

The objectives of the Earth Dynamics and Forecasting Program are to demlonstrate the use of space 

technology for gravity and magnetic field mapping, 

for resource assessment, for geodetic surveying including the monitoring of subsidence, for detection 

of crustal motions in faulted regions, and for improved determination of polar motion and Earth 

rotation. 

Analysis of satellite-to-satellite tracking data acquired during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was 

used to funther define the large gravity anomaly in 

the Indian Ocean. Work continued on the development of accurate global geoids using satellite tracking djata and Ocean geoid data acquired with the 

Geos 3 altimeter. 

In response to a need for global magnetic field 

data for updating field models and magnetic field 

charts for navigation and resource assessment, NASA 

and the U.S. Geological Service have undertaken 

the development of a Magnetic Field Satellite 

(Magsat) for launch in late 1979. The data acquired 

with Magsat, in combinations with gravity field data 

and imagery acquired by Geos and Landsat, should 

make it possible to develop a map of potentially 

interesting areas for resource exploration. 

The Laser Geodynamic Satellite (Lageos) was 

launched in May 1976. Lageos is intended for use 

as a nearly permanent reference point in space €or 

laser ranging from Earth. Observations have verified 

the stability of its orbit; its predicted orbital position does not vary more than a few meters over 

many weeks. 
This year, ,as in 1972 and 1974, mobile lasers were 

deployed on either side of the San Andreas faullt to 

determine any motion of the tectonic plates which 

form the fault boundaries. 

Ocean Condition Monjtorircg and Forecasting 

The Ocean Condition Monitoring and Forecasting program supports research and experimentation 

associated with the use of space techniques for 

monitoring and forecasting sea state conditions, 

ocean currents and circulation patterns, accurate 

measurement of the sea surface topography, and the 

incorporation of data on the energy exchange at 

the air/sea interface into short and long range 

global weather forecasting. 

Data acquired with Geos 3 have been used to 

demonstrate the acquisition of sea state information 

and have shown that ocean currents can be detected 

by the change in radar reflectivity of the moving 

water and a small depression (about one meter) of 

the height of mean sea level. 

Seasat-A, the first experimental ocean satellite designed to provide the global data needed to validate 

the use of remotely sensed ocean data, continued under development and is scheduled for flight in mid1978. Seasat-A will carry both active and passive 

microwave instruments and an optical radiometer. 

Diata from these instruments will provide information on wave height and direction, ocean surface 

temperature, sea surface topography, and sea ice. 

NASA and the U.S. Navy's Fleet Numerical 

Weather Central have entered into an agreement 

for (the Navy to process and use Seasat data in its 

ocean forecasting programs. Cooperative agreements 

were being developed with other agencies and with 

commercial interests. Work also progressed on the 

definition of experiments to demonstrate the use 

of Seasat data for routing of commercial shipping, 

large-scale fishing, various other off-shore activities, 

and coastal fishing surveillance. 

MItterkls Processing in Space 

The goals of this program are to develop and 

demonstrate the use of the space environment for 

activities in materials science and technology and to 

encourage privately funded efforts in these areas. 

Previous experience with Skylab and ASTP experiments and analytic studies identified a number 

of organic and inorganic products that appear to be 

feasible to produce in space, either at lower cost 

than now possible on Earth or with substantilally 

improved characteristics. It is also evident that the 

low-gravity, high-vacuum environment of space 

presents a unique opportunity for materials research. 

During 1976 definition studies of materials research payloads for the early missions of the Space 

Shuttle and Spacelab were completed and facilities 

were identified for the initial Shuttle missions involving space processing; these are planned for 

1980-1981. Pending the availability of the Shuttle, 

space processing experiments have been continued 

using sounding rockets under the Space Processing 

Applications Rocket prognam. These rocket flights 

can carry 6 to 10 experiments each and provide 

about five minutes of weightlessness. The first two 

flights were conducted in 1976; three flights are 

planned for 1977. 

Ground-based studies were also conducted on a 

variety of potential applications, including separation of white blood cells for medical purposes, 

growth of electronic crystals in special shapes, production of high-power-laser glass, and manufacture 

of low-cost solar cells. 

Technology Applications 

A one-million-gallon-per-day pilot plant, using 

the NASA/ JPL-developed Activated Carbon Treatment System for wastewater, was completed in 

Orange County, California. Initial operation of the 

plant verified the technical and economic feasibility 

of converting sewage sludge into activated carbon 

by means of pyrolysis and using the resulting carbon 

to treat incoming wasttewater. 

Another wastewater treatment system being developed uses water hyacinths to absorb large quantities of nutrients, heavy metals, and other pollutants as the final filtration agent in sewage treatment 

lagoons. This past year produced experience with 

an operational system in Mississippi. When used appropriately, this Vascular Aquatic Water Treatment' 

System has proven to be an effective, low-cost means 

of meeting EPA water quality standards. 

A means of determining conformance with EPA 

water quality standards was also being developed by 

NASA. This automated Wa,ter Monitoring System, 

which evolved from research on life support systems 

for long-duration manned flights, monitors water 

quality parameters in near-real time. The system 

would be field tested in FY 1977 in cooperation 

with the Gulf Coast Waste Disposal Authority. 

NASA was also developing the Agro-Environmental System, which ties pertinent environmental 

measurements at a number of Virginia Agriculture 

Experiment Stations into the computter system of 

the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. This information would be used to optimize 

the time of application and amounts of pesticides, 

herbicides, fertilizer, and irrigation water to maximize yield and minimize cost. Two of the projected 

eight stations of the system were instrumented to 

9 
verify the crop management models which are key 

elements of the system. 

Science 

Study of the Earth’s Upper Atmosphere 

During 1976 the Upper Atmospheric Research 

Office of NASA pursued its program to acquire a 

sufficient understanding of the chemical and physical processes occurring in the Earth’s atmosphere 

so that (1) perturbations in the stratosphere caused 

by man’s activities can be accurately assessed, and 

(2) associated changes in the transmission of solar 

radiation through the stratosphere to the surface 

can be determined. A program plan was published 

which emphasized the development of a long-term 

basic science program involving field measurements, 

laboratory experiments, and theoretical studies, but 

focused in the near-term on assessing the stratospheric impacts of (1) Space Shuttle operations, (2) 

aircraft operations, and (3) chlorofluoromethanes 

(CFMs) . The institutional base for this program 

was drawn from an evolving combination of NASA 

field centers and the university and industrial communi ties. 

Basic Science Program. Implementation during 

1976 of the basic science elements of field measurements, labovatory experiments, and theoretical studies led to a number of positive results. The first 

measurements of atomic chlorine (Cl) and chlorine 

monoxide (C10) , providing direct evidence of the 

reaction of C1 with ozone in the stratosphere, were 

made, using a resonance fluorescence instrument on 

a high-altitude balloon. Measurements of CFM concentrations at various locations and altitudes established their present levels. Altitude profile measurements of hydrogen chloride, an important element in stratospheric chlorine chemistry, were made 

over different seasons and latitudes. Continuing 

measurements of these and other important stratospheric constituents, as well as the development of 

new (and i,mproved measurement techniques, were 

being emphasized. 

Laboratory experiments addressed the need for 

improved measurements of photochemical parameters and reaction rates of vital stratospheric reactions, particularly those reactions involving chemical 

radicals. Rates for a number of chemical reactions 

involving OH, C1, and C10 were measured during 

1976. These new and improved dota were necessary for theoretical studies that emphasized the development and verification of one-, two-, and threedimensional models for simulation of the stratosphere. The models, which incorporated both chemical and dynamical processes in varying degrees of 

complexity, were being continually improved. With 

inputs and verification from laboratory experiments 

and field measurements, these models were central 

to efforts aimed at assessing potential stratospheric 

changes caused by man’s activities. 

Assessment Activities. During the past year, efforts 

directed at assessing the potential impact of Space 

Shuttle exhaust emissions of stratospheric ozone 

culminated in a Space Shuttle environmental workshop on stratospheric effects. The major conclusion 

of this workshop held that a Space Shuttle system 

with 60 launches per year could be expected to result in an ozone depletion of only 0.2 percent. Program activities in the formal assessment procedures, 

as well as in the basic science elements required as 

inputs, were under way for the assessments of aircraft operations and CFM releases. For example, 

NASA convened an international conference on the 

stratosphere and related problems in September 

1976 to review and update scientific findings related 

to stratospheric perturbations and to focus on the 

social and political implications of stratospheric 

pollution. 

Life Sciences. A major effort in Life Sciences in 

1976 was the work on Life Sciences payloads for 

Spacelab and on medical standards for the Shuttle 

crew. This is discussed in the section on Space 

Transportation. 

The biological experiments provided to the 

U.S.S.R. for flighlt on the Kosmos 782 satellite were 

recovered successfully last December after 19.5 days 

in orbit. A joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. scientific report from 

the flight experimenters was in final preparation. 

Plans were being formulated for similar cooperative 

programs to fly experiments on the U.S.S.R. biosatellite scheduled to be flown the last quarter of 

1977. 

The biological experiments flown as part of the 

Viking Mars mission were providing data in support of continuing search for life forms beyond the 

Earth’s atmosphere. Initial results of data analysis 

indicated apparently new chemical systems but were 

not conclusive as to existence of life on Mars. 

Study of the Moon and Planets 

An intensive synthesis of data from various 

sources in the last few years has led to a greatly 

improved understanding of the solar system. Photogeologic techniques have been used to obtlain relative ages of features on Mercury and Mars, and these 

were combined with ages computed from samples 

of meteorites and terrestrial and lunar rocks to develop a chronology of the evolution of the solar system. In this chronology the planets formed approximately 4.8 billion years ago and the larger bodies 

underwent differentiation which was completed 

some 4.4 billion years ago. They swept up the larger 

10 
meteorites during the period 3.5-4.0 billion years 

ago and have been proceeding on their independent 

evolutionary paths since then. 

The Moon. The Moon has been shown to have 

only a small, parcilally molten core-if it has any at 

all. Remanent magnetic fields found in the lunar 

samples, however, indicate that at one time the 

Moon's core was sufficiently active to generate a 

magnetic field. Sample ages have shown thlat the 

Moon produced lava flows during the period 3.1-3.8 

billion years ago. At present the explanation is that 

the low volatile content of the Moon gave its interior a higher melting point than that of the Earth 

and that the nadioactive elements present were unable to produce enough energy to create and maintain a molten core. 

The Planets. Mercury, which is very similar in 

appearance to the Moon, has a very large magnetic 

field. Since we have little compositional information, 

it is not yet possible to explain this difference. 

The atmosphere of Mars has eroded some of the 

craters created by ancient meteor strikes, although 

not as severely as they have been on the Earth. It is 

clear from the Viking photographs that water erosion has !also taken place on Mars, but probably 3 

billion years ago. The large volcanoes on Mars 

show that interior melting took place, but the energy was not sufficient to create the tectonic plate 

motion that exists on the Earth. Studies of (the 

Martian surface composition and atmospheric dynamics are just beginning, and similar studies of 

Venus and the Gallilean satellites have yet to be 

started. 

Viking Visits Mars. Two Viking spacecraft, each 

consisting of an orbiter and a lander, were launched 

late in the summer of 1975 on Titan-Centaur launch 

vehicles. AEter trawling some 11 months, each spacecraft reached Mars and was injected into an orbit 

about the planet. The two Viking landers successfully descended to the surface on July 20 and September 3, 1976. 

To date the Viking flights have produced a large 

volume of new data on the structure and composition of the Mars atmosphere and on the physical 

and chemical nature of the surface. The 4000 pictures obtained from the orbiters revealed extensive 

details of the effects of tectonic activity and weathering in shaping the surface. Other instruments on 

the orbiters have furnished data on the thermal 

gradients on the surface and water vapor distribution in the atmosphere. These measurements indicate that very large amounts of water are stored in 

the polar ice caps, to the extent that in proportion 

there may be as much water on Mars as on Earth. 

Hundreds of black and white, color, and stereo pictures have been obtained on the surface. These show 

a very rocky surface and confirm that the planet 

is truly a reddish color. 

Evidence from the instruments on the orbiters and 

landers, to the extent that it has been studied thus 

far, portrays a Mars that at some time in its past was 

in several ways more like the Earth than it is now. 

Orbiter photographs reveal massive volcanic mountains and canyons deeper than any on Earth; the 

now-quiescent Mars once was the scene of major 

seismic events, and running liquid-probably water 

-eroded the deep canyons. Near the Viking 1 lander 

sites are evidences of sevmal episodes of flooding 

that mlarkedly shaped the landscape. Unlike the 

craters on the Moon and Mercury, a number of 

large Martian craters are surrounded by an unusual 

lobate apron of ejecta. Whereas the debris from 

Moon and Mercury craters was thrown oust ballistically in a circle, on Mars there seems to have been 

action by a lubricating agent that made the material 

flow out from the craters like a fluid, as if the soil 

were soft and wet when the meteor struck. 

If water existed as a liquid on Mars, the atmospheric pressure must have been notably higher than 

it is now. The gases that Viking instruments have 

identified in the atmosphere-nitrogen, oxygen, 

argon, krypton, and xenon-indicate that a much 

denser atmosphere did indeed once exist. 

All this adds up to an intriguing question: what 

combination of circumstances caused changes of 

this magnitude to occur on Mars? 

The weather stations on the landers show the 

weather has been very repetitious day-to-day since 

the landings. No storms have been encountered as 

yet. No significant seismic events have been observed. The biological and organic analysis experiments, while having already yielded large amounts 

of significant data, still had some critical tests to 

complete before any conclusions can be drawn from 

them. 

The basic mission ended in November 1976, at 

which time all program objectives were completed. 

NASA is conducting an extended mission to observe 

seasonal changes, at a much reduced level of effort. 

The extended mission will end about September 

1978. 

Future Planetary Missions. Mariner Jupiter/ 

Saturn 1977 (MJS77) Mission. The proof test 

model (PTM) spacecraft was assembled and system 

tests, including vibration and thermal/vacuum testing, were completed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. After additional testing at the Kennedy 

Space Center and Eastern Test Range, the PTM 

hardware 8 will be refurbished and used for flight 

spares. The assembly and test of the first flight spacecraft began in November 1976. 

Detailed development of science observation sequences was performed along with the development 

11 
of navigation and maneuver design. Flight trajectories were selected and the associated launch strategy was developed for each day of the August/ 

September 1977 launch period. Most of the software 

was completed for both test and operations and for 

the flight subsystem hardware. Development of capabilities for flight mission operations emphasized 

launch and early mission activities and ground data 

systems required for launch. 

The Mariner Jupiter/Saturn 1977 mission consists of two spacecraft that will reach Jupiter in 

1979 and Saturn in late 1980 and 1981. In addition 

to video observations, scientific studies will be made 

of both planets, their moons, and the rings of Saturn, as well as of interplanetary and interstellar 

space. 

The second spacecraft to arrive at Saturn will 

either make a science-intensive flyby or it may continue to Uranus. The decision will depend on the 

scientific data returned by the first spacecraft to 

reach Saturn, the operational status of the second 

craft, and the adequacy of its attitude-control fuel 

for the additional four-plus years flight from Saturn 

to Uranus. 

Pioneer 10 and 11. The first flyby of Jupiter, accomplished by Pioneer 10 in December 1973, provided excellent data. Rather than repeat the mis. 

sion, Pioneer 11, trailing one year behind Pioneer 

10, was placed on a different trajectory to provide 

new information. The new track had an additional 

feature; as Pioneer 11 passed Jupiter, the massive 

planet altered the spacecraft’s )trajectory to one that 

would send the craft to a flyby of Saturn in 1979. 

Both spacecraft continue to work well. At the end 

of 1976 Pioneer 10 was 11 Astronomical Units from 

the Sun on its way out of the solar system: Pioneer 

11 was well on its way to Saturn. 

Pioneer/Venus. The primary objective of the 

Pioneer-Venus program is to study ‘the Venusian 

atmosphere using four entry probes and an orbiting 

spacecraft. The probes will enter at the same time, 

but a,t widely separate locations. Because the atmosphere of Venus is much hotter and denser than 

Earth’s and because Venus rotates very slowly, atmospheric dynamics should be very different and 

the results could help scientists understand the 

atmosphere of Earth. 

The program started in FY 1975 and development testing is almost completed. Much of the flight 

hardware is being built. Two similar spacecraft are 

planned, one to carry the probes, the other to perform the orbit mission. Launch will be by AtlasCentaur vehicles in 1978. 

Study of the Stln ,vnd Sun-Emth Relationships 

The NASA physics and astronomy program is 

directed toward the investigation of the Earth, the 

Sun and the solar system, galactic and extragalactic 

phenomena, and how they interrelate. The techniques and tools used include theoretical and laboratory research, aircraft, balloons, sounding rockets, small Explorer spacecraft, large automated observatories, and manned spacecraft. Research teams 

are located at NASA field centers, other government 

laboratories, universities, and industrial laboratories. 

NASA also conducts a number of cooperative projects with foreign countries. 

Significant accomplishments during 1976 included 

the launches of the Helios 2 mission and the Gravity 

Probe-A mission. The Helios 2 mission is part of a 

cooperative program between the Federal Republic 

of Germany and the United States for obtaining increased understanding of fundamental solar processes and solar-terrestrial relationships. The objective of the Gravity Probe-A mission was to confirm 

with improved accuracy the gravitational red shift 

predicted by Einstein’s theory of relativity. In addition to these launches, several discoveries were made 

as a result of observations with the 90-centimeter 

telescope carried on the NASA Airkrne Observatory. The sounding rocket and balloon programs 

also made important scientific contributions. 

Studies of the Sun. Orbiting Solar Observatories 

(OSO) . After over a year in orbit, all nine experiments in the OS0 8 satellite continue to work well. 

Both high-resolution ultraviolet spectrometers 

housed in the OS0 8 sail reached stable operating 

plateaus after experiencing some initial reduction in 

sensitivity. The spatial resolution capabilities of 

these instruments remain extremely good and both 

are still measuring material motions and oscillations 

in a variety of solar features. 

Despite continuing emphasis on mission operations, some preliminary data analysis is under way. 

A comparison between OS0 8 and sounding rocket 

data showed that while the outflow of material 

from coronal holes can be detected in coronal emission lines, no sign of any such motion is observed 

in ultraviolet spectra from lower-lying levels. A 

range of altitudes in which this outflow commences 

has thus been identified. 

Another interesting finding is that a general 

downflow of material is frequently observed 

throughout the solar height range observable by 

OS0 8 (from the photosphere through the low 

transition region) . These downflows are heterogeneous and occur preferentially in regions of high magnetic field strength located at the boundaries of the 

supergranulation network. Flow speeds of the order 

of 2-3 kilometers per second have been detected. 

12 
Some evidence of upward flow inside the supergranulation cell has also been reported. This identification of the general circulation through the chromospheric network is important for understanding 

convection in Ithe solar atmosphere. 

A result that is proving difficult to interpret is the 

apparent detection of a persistent horizontal flow 

in the transition region. This is seen as a relatively 

constant shift in the position of selected spectral 

lines which appears always in the same direction, indicative of a flow of material continuously directed 

towards the observer. It is possible that some mechanism other than motion is producing this effect but 

its nature is currently unknown. Small-scale, highspeed motions in the vicinity of sunspots have definitely been observed by both the ultraviolet instruments. 

One of the prime purposes for OS0 8 was the investigation of atmospheric heating mechanisms. To 

date, both spectrometers have successfully measured 

the 5-minute photospheric oscillations both as intensity and as velocity fluctuations in a variety of 

spectral lines. Shorter period fluctuations (3 and 1.5 

minutes) have also been detected in lines formed in 

the chromosphere and low transition region. Peridcities of 35 seconds and 15 minutes, which appear in the data, are now believed to be spacecraft 

disturbances. 

It is interesting to note that at the highest levels 

observable from OS0 8 the 3- and 5-minute periodicities are still detectable in the strength of the lines 

emitted from these regions, but there is little or no 

evidence of velocity variations. 

The widths of the lines may, however, contain 

important inform(ation on the broad-band spectrum 

of random fluctuations which will also be important 

in determining the chromospheric and coronal 

energy transport and heating processes. This possibility will be analyzed during the coming months. 

Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) . After three 

years of intensive activity in the reduction and analysis of the 171,000 photographs and the 2292 hours of 

photoelectric dlata collected during the manned Skylab program (1973-1974), the impact of this program on solar physics is becoming visible. The 

recently completed Skylab Solar Workshop, which 

brought together ATM scientists, ground based observers, solar experimenters, and theoreticians in a 

comprehensive attack on the problem of coronal 

holes, advanced our understanding of the Sun-solar 

wind interface and, hence, of the effect that coronal 

holes have on the terrestrial environment. 

Among the more exciting results of the study has 

been the discovery that polar holes can be connected 

to equatorial solar latitudes by virtue of their highly 

divergent, open magnetic fields and can hence affect 

the structure of the solar wind impinging on the 

Earth. 

This field divergence, which is a general property 

of all coronal holes, has also been shown to produce supersonic (100 kilometers per second) wind 

velocities at only 1 to 2 solar radii above the solar 

surface-a concept completely new to solar wind 

theorists. 

There is also, now, evidence that the one-million 

K temperature which is observed low in the corona 

within coronal holes may not be the maximum temperature attained. Both theory and experiment 

point to the possible existence of a temperature 

maximum of the order of 3 to 5 million K situated 

at a height of several solar radii above the surface. 

Additional experimental and theoretical studies are 

required. 

Another solar phenomenon receiving considerable attention in the analysis of ATM data is flares. 

The ATM experimenters are in general agreement 

that the hottest portions of a flare are within one 

or two small, law-lying loops within an active region. Typical dimensions of these loops are on the 

order of a few arc seconds (approximately 4100 

kilometers) and their height is somewhere in the 

range 1800-5000 kilometers above the solar surface. 

The temperature reached by the heated plasma varies from flare to flare and is on the order of 20 

million K or more. 

These observations indicate the presence of a 

variety of different magnetohydrodynamic instabilities which are considered to be the source of the 

flare. Some experimenters think the cause to be instabilities within the loops, while others favor 

instabilities in the “neutral sheets” between neighboring loops. Both explanations may be correct. 

A major disagreement now exists between the 

ATM scientists, who are constrained to study the 

“thermal phase” of a flare, and experimenters observing the high energy x-ray and gamma ray emissions originating from the flare-induced beams of 

high energy particles that are accelerated by the 

disruption of the magnetic field. The x-ray and 

gamma ray experimenters generally favor a primary 

field disturbance high in the corona, while the 

ATM scientists are convinced that the main flare 

occurs at lower levels in the solar atmosphere. An 

attempt to reconcile the two viewpoints will be 

made at the second Skylab Workshop. It may be, 

however, that opinion will remain divided until 

the Solar Maximum Mission, when the high energy 

and “thermal” emissions from flares can be studied 

simultaneously. 

Out-of-Ecliptic Mission. The growing acceptance 

of the link between some solar parameter and terrestrial weather and climate has further stimulated 

research in the nature and variability of solar wind 

13 
and in the Sun-wind interface. A great deal of progress has been made in the latter area as a result of 

the recent Skylab Coronal Hole Workshop. A number of attractive new theories have been devised 

linking coronal holes with high velocity streams 

and explaining the observed variations of these 

streams as a function of the solar cycle. Verification 

of these theories, which involve the influence of inecliptic wind streams by high-latitude coronal 

holes, requires direct measurement of wind conditions at high solar latitudes. Plans are, therefore, 

under way for an Out-of-Ecliptic Mission, the 

prime objective of which will be to measure the 

pmperties of the solar wind, magnetic fields, and 

particle ejecta as a function of solar latitude from 

the solar equator to the polar regions. 

The mission, which involves two Pioneer-class 

spacecraft, is a joint venture of the European Space 

Agency and NASA. During 1976 some preliminary 

definition studies were undertaken by both agencies 

and a scientific working group was formed to define 

in detail the payload required to achieve the inission’s primary objectives. More detailed studies are 

planned for Fiscal Year 1978, prior to an official 

new start for hardware in Fiscal 1979. The two 

spacecraft will be launched by a four-stage Space 

Shuttle in February 1983 and will use the gravity 

of Jupiter to propel them to high solar latitudes. 

Solar Maximum Mission. During the past year 

work has continued on the definition of the basic 

spacecraft and the experiment package that together form the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM) . The seven major flare instruments were selected 

early in 1976. By observing the entire flare spectrum, from gamma rays to white light emission, 

using SMM and complementary ground-based instrumentation, the various physical processes that 

combine to produce flares will be studied. Of particular interest will be the determination of the 

temporal and spatial relationships between the 

hard x-rays, produced when beams of particles are 

accelerated as a result of magnetic field instabilities 

early in the event, and the soft x-rays and extreme 

ultraviolet emission, which are thought to be produced when the beams of particles impinge on the 

relatively cool chromosphere, causing it to evaporate and heat. Some new theories concerning flares, 

which are being formulated by Apollo Telescope 

Mount experimenters, require that the two types of 

radiation originate from the same low-lying region 

in the solar atmosphere. Scientists specializing in 

the higher energy aspects of the flare event would 

favor a higher-level source of the flare’s hard x-ray 

emissions. SMM should resolve this disagreement. 

In addition to investigating the flare process, 

SMM will study the effects of the flare ejecta on 

the terrestrial environment by conducting a collaborative program of flare radiation and particle 

measurements with the International Sun-Earth Explorer-C spacecraft. The SMM Solar-Terrestrial 

Program will also include measurements of the 

long-term variability of total solar emission (the 

“solar constant”) and of the full Sun ultraviolet 

spectrum. Instruments are currently being selected 

for this purpose. 

Helios. Helios is a cooperative space project between the Federal Republic of Germany and the 

United States designed to provide increased understanding of fundamental solar processes and solarterrestrial relationships. Both Helios 1, launched in 

December 1974, and Helios 2, launched in January 

1976, are still operational. These spacecraft will 

travel closer to the Sun than any previous spacecraft. Germany built the spacecraft and seven of the 

experiments; and the United States provided three 

experiments and the launch vehicles, as well as 

technical, launch, and flight operations support. Although analysis of the data is still under way, two 

of the interesting results so far from Helios indicate 

that (1) high-speed solar wind streams are associated with coronal holes which are usually at high 

solar latitudes rather than with hot spots near the 

equator, and (2) the acceleration of the highenergy streams which has been observed for some 

time, but not understood, appears to be associated 

with large amplitude ion-acoustic waves that were 

measured by Helios in a region between two highspeed solar wind streams. 

Studies of the Universe 

Orbiting Astronomical Observatory. The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory-3 (OAO 3, also 

named Copernicus), launched in August 1972, remained operational through 1976, providing accurately stabilized automated facilities for observing celestial objects and interstellar space in the 

spectral range from the x-ray through the ultraviolet and into the visible region. As a result of new 

techniques, the usefulness of this satellite has been 

expanded: objects one-sixth as brilliant as those 

that could be observed after launch can now be 

observed, and the useful spectral range has been 

extended in the near ultraviolet. Many new classes 

of objects can now be studied by OAO 3. 

Small Astronomy Satellite. The last of the Small 

Astronomy Satellites, SAS-C, launched in May 1975, 

is still operational. With its complement of four 

x-ray instruments, this spacecraft is the most powerful x-ray mission yet flown. The most exciting accomplishments of this satellite have been the detailed studies of bursters and other transient x-ray 

sources, leading to their optical identification and 

14 
to an increased understanding of the extraordinary 

physical conditions producing them. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatory. The basic 

scientific objective of the High Energy Astronomy 

0bserva.tory (HEAO) program is to explore the 

previously inaccessible regions of celestial x-ray and 

gamma-ray sources and cosmic ray flux. This program should increase our understanding of newly 

discovered energy processes, of the creation of matter, and of phenomena such as quasars, pulsars, 

novae, supernovae, and black holes. The first phase 

of the program consists of three observatories to be 

launched on Atlas-Centaur rockets; larger observatories are being studied by NASA as possible payloads to be launched by the Space Shuttle. 

Considerable progress was made during 1976 in the 

development and fabrication of the first three 

spacecraft and experiments, with primary emphasis 

on the HEAO-A mission, scheduled for launch in 

1977. 

Iltter~ional Cooperative Satellites 

Work continued on the International Ultraviolet 

Explorer (IUE), a joint project involving NASA, 

the United Kingdom, and the European Space 

Agency (ESA), planned for launch in 1977. Procurement of hardware and subsystem fabrication 

was completed during 1976 and systems integration 

and testing started. 

Progress also continued on the International 

Sun-Earth Explorers (ISEE), a joint project between NASA and ESA. Three spacecraft, two provided by NASA and one by ESA, with a cambination of instruments provided by both parties, will 

be used. ISEE goals include study of the Earth’s 

magnetosphere, effects of the solar wind on the 

magnetosphere, and interaction of cosmic rays with 

the solar wind and magnetosphere. Emphasis during 1976 was on fabrication of spacecraft and experiments for the ISEE-A and B missions scheduled for launch in 1977. 

Space Telescope 

The Space Telescope reached an advanced state 

of design as a result of work conducted during 

1976. The major objective of the Space Telescope 

is to provide a long-term 2.4-meter astronomical 

observatory in space above the obscuring effects of 

the Earth’s atmosphere, where it will have the capability to observe objects at greater distances than 

can the largest Earth-based telescopes. The Space 

Telescope, designed to be placed in a low Earth 

orbit by the Space Shut,tle, would be operated as 

an international facility, providing continuous coverage in wavelengths from the far ultraviolet to the 

near infrared. Scientific instruments would explore 

the universe and observe both stellar and galactic 

phenomena. Significant contribu.tions are expected 

from the study of early stages of star formation and 

from observations of such highly evolved objects as 

supernovae remnants and white dwarfs. 

Sounding Rockets, Balloons, and Aircraft 

Sixty sounding rockets were launched from sites 

in the United States (Wallops Flight Center; 

White Sands Missile Range; Poker Flat Research 

Range, Alaska; and Wauai Range, Hawaii), Canada (Fort Churchill), Sweden, and Norway; some 

50 research teams from universities, private industry, foreign governments, NASA field centers, and 

other U.S. government agencies w&e involved. A 

cooperative program between NASA and DoD 

launched 26 sounding rockets from the Wallops 

Flight Center in January in support of the Winter 

D-Region Campaign, a coordinated program to 

study winter days of “normal” and “anomalous” 

electron densities in the ionospheric D region. 

The NASA balloon program supported the 

launch of 50 balloons from the United States and 

Canada, and involved 20 research organizations. 

One of the most significant events involved the 

successful flight of a joint NASA/Netherlands ultraviolet payload which obtained new results on 

stellar chromospheres and evidence of mass loss 

and hot, high-luminosity stars. Another highly 

successful flight carried a very sensitive infrared 

telescope (from the University of Arizona) which 

detected, for the first time, a continuous band of 

diffuse emission around the galactic plane. This 

enabled scientists to measure the energy associated 

with the dust in the plane of our galaxy and thereby contributed to the understanding of the structure and physical conditions existing in our own 

galaxy. 

The NASA Airborne Science Program employs 

two aircraft for infrared astronomical research at 

altitudes above 90 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. A C-141 aircraft carries the Kuiper Airborne 

Observatory, consisting of a 90-centimeter telescope, 

while a Lear Jet carries a 30-centimeter telescope. 

During 1976, the principal scientific investigations 

were in three areas: emission spectroscopy of the 

interstellar medium, stellar formation using farinfrared photometers, and planetary atmosphere 

spectroscopy with high spectral-resolution interferometers. 

Space Transportation 

Space flight activities provide the transportation 

and related capabilities necessary to conduct both 

manned and unmanned operations in space. These 

15 
activities include the Space Shuttle program for 

the development of a reusable manned Earth-toorbit space vehicle, U.S. participation with the 

European Space Agency (ESA) in a cooperative 

program for the European-funded development of 

a Spacelab to be used in the Shuttle, development 

and supporting activities for other elements of the 

Space Transportation System, development of new 

component and subsystem technology, conceptual 

studies and research on future space operations, 

and launch operations and support for expendable 

launch vehicles for automated space missions. 

Space Shuttle 

The Space Shuttle is the cornerstone of the Space 

Transportation System (STS) . It will provide routine two-way access to space starting in the 1980s. 

A major breakthrough in manned space systems, it 

eliminates the constraints imposed by present 

modes of space operations. With the Space Shuttle, 

manned and unmanned experiments can be conducted within a single mission, advanced payloads 

and satellites can be deployed into orbit, spacecraft 

can be retrieved for reuse with updating and refurbishing either taking place in space or back on 

Earth, and laboratories can be launched into Earth 

orbit. The versatility and reusability of the Space 

Shuttle will provide great cost benefits for users. 

Space Shuttle development continued on plan 

and within the cost estimates. During 1976, the 

major milestones of qualification and ground tests, 

manufacture of test articles, and assembly of the 

orbiter were met. Progress was highlighted by the 

rollout of Orbiter No. 1 on September 17, 1976, at 

Rockwell International’s Space Division in Palmdale, California. 

The Rockctdyne Division of the Rockwell Corporation progressed in development of the liquidfueled rocket engines. These engines have an advanced, high-pressure design and provide the main 

propulsion systems for the Space Shuttle orbiter. 

Major milestones were reached in development and 

ground tests. Three test engines have been delivered, installed, and tested over one hundred times 

at the National Space Technology Laboratories in 

Mississippi, demonstrating the capability of the 

main engine. 

Manufacture of the external tank, which contains the cryogenic propellants for the orbiter main 

engine, continued as planned. Major assembly 

milestones were met and all major welding tools 

were installed at the Michoud Assembly Facility in 

Mississippi. After assembly, the ground test tanks 

will be tested at the Marshall Space Flight Center 

to provide confidence that they can withstand the 

structural requirements of the Space Shuttle missions. 

The solid rocket booster will provide the additional thrust necessary during launch by burning 

in parallel with the main engines. Progress has 

been satisfactory on all parts of the rocket motor, 

directional controls, structural components, and 

the recovery subsystem. The first motor segments 

for initial development static firings were delivered. 

Major milestones met during 1976 at the Kennedy Space Ceqter included completion of the 

orbiter landing facility, delivery of the initial 

launch processing systems, and timely progress on 

a number of other launch and landing facilities. 

Orbiter 1 is scheduled for approach and landing 

tests in 1977. The orbiter is to be carried to test 

altitude on a Boeing 747 aircraft and released for 

unpowered approach and landing. Fabrication proceeded on the second orbiter, to be used for the 

first manned orbital flights in 1979. 

Space Transportation System Operations 

The Space Transportation System (STS) includes the Space Shuttle, the Spacelab, and an 

upper stage. It is a standardized yet flexible system, capable of accommodating a wide variety of 

payloads and mission requirements. Plans for management, operation, and use of the system when it 

becomes operational in the 1980s are far advanced, taking into account user development, 

mission planning, payload integration, flight and 

ground operations, and financial management. 

A pilot User Development Program was initiated 

and a contract was awarded to the Battelle Memorial Institute to define approaches for encouraging and accommodating commercial users of the 

STS. After the pilot program ends in February 

1977, a full-scale user development program will 

be initiated. 

Since NASA’s present complement of active 

pilots and scientist astronauts is insufficient to fly 

the planned 60 STS flights per year, NASA announced opportunities for additional pilots and 

mission specialists. Selection and appointment 

would not be made until 1978. 

A number of studies were undertaken to determine STS operating costs and to establish user 

charges for STS flights. These studies led to a policy 

in which each class of user will pay equitably for 

use and service. 

Spacela b 

The Spacelab Program is a joint venture between 

NASA and the European Space Agency (ESA) to 

produce the Spacelab, a reusable space laboratory. 

16 
It would be flown to and from Earth orbit in the 

cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Participating European nations are paying for the design, development, production, and delivery of the first Spacelab 

flight unit to NASA. Scheduled to become operational in the 198Os, it would be available to an 

international community of users. 

In 1976, design reviews were completed and 

development hardware was being manufactured. 

Integration of the hard mockup was initiated. 

Manufacture began on the engineering model, 

which is to be delivered to NASA prior to delivery 

of the flight unit. 

NASA evaluated proposals for a Spacelab integration contract. Part of this contract would cover 

design, development, and manufacture of most of 

the Spacelab hardware for which NASA is responsible. A major item of this hardware is the tunnel 

that will connect the Spacelab to the Shuttle Orbiter. Design of the tunnel is scheduled to begin 

in 1977. 

Spacelab Life Sciences. The response to the announcement of flight opportunity for Spacelab 1 

continues to reflect the high interest of the Life 

Sciences community in Space Shuttle/Spacelab 

missions. Real-time Life Sciences missions, in a 

mockup of the Spacelab, have been simulated using 

experiments of the type being selected for Spacelab. The simulation was in support of payload 

planning, to provide a method by which science, 

engineering, and operational evaluations could be 

conducted on the ground to ensure maximum effectiveness in space. The evaluation included payload synthesis, equipment integration, operational 

concepts, and crew training. 

The program to develop a basic complement of 

flight-qualified medical laboratory equipment for 

repetitive use on Spacelab flights was initiated ’in 

1976 and procurement began of items requiring 

long-lead-time development. Primary among these 

items is the spaceflight-qualified specimen/biological holding units. Another long-lead-time- development is the specimen refrigeration compartments 

capable of maintaining - 70°C temperature for 

preservation and storage of Life Sciences specimens 

and tissues. Conceptual design studies of a freeflying Life Sciences satellite for the conduct of long 

duration, isolated animal experiments also were 

completed. 

Two sets of medical standards were prepared, 

NASA Class I and 11, to be used for establishing 

the medical fitness of the Shuttle Pilot and Mission 

Specialist Astronauts, respectively. A third set of 

standards for payload specialist/scientist passengers was drafted, requiring less restrictive physical 

conditioning and stress handling abilities than for 

astronauts. Ground-based studies were assessing the 

deconditioning effects of gravitational stress on a 

population broadly representative of the potential 

payload specialist group, while other research 

sought to develop countermeasures for cardiovascular deconditioning and space motion sickness. 

Project planning was completed for an experiment in support of research on space motion sickness. The plan called for a self-contained unit to 

test vestibular reaction of small animals when exposed to zero gravity for periods up to twenty days. 

Spacelab Science Payloads. In preparation for 

the Space Shuttle era, possible Spacelab science 

payloads were studied. Two of the six orbital flight 

test missions of the Space Shuttle will provide early 

demonstration and verification of the Space Shuttle’s scientific research capabilities. Payloads on 

these flights will include selected experiments in 

space astronomy; high energy astrophysics; life 

sciences; solar physics; and atmospheric, magnetospheric, and plasma physics. 

Two Spacelab missions are already scheduled 

for flight after the Shuttle becomes operational. 

Spacelab 1 is a joint undertaking by NASA and the 

European Space Agency (ESA) , ESA participation 

in the Spacelab 2 missions is still under negotiation. The primary objective of both missions is 

verification of Spacelab performance and capabilities and the measurement of the induced environment. The secondary objective is to obtain valuable 

scientific, applications, and technology data. Two 

announcements oE opportunity were issued by 

NASA in 1976 and experiments will be selected 

for both Spacelabs 1 and 2 in 1977. Detailed studies 

of instruments for future Spacelab missions are 

also being carried out, with major emphasis on 

class experiments by principal investigators. 

Interim Upper Stage 

The Interim Upper Stage (IUS) will propel payloads to destinations beyond the capability of the 

Shuttle alone. NASA would use it primarily for 

lunar and plantary exploration and other high-energy missions. DoD has the responsibility to define 

and develop the IUS, with NASA defining design 

and operational requirements that are unique to 

NASA and other non-DoD missions. A DoD/NASA 

assessment of five study contracts in 1975 led to the 

decision to use a multi-stage solid propellant design. Early in 1976 a requist for proposal for the 

IUS validation phase was issued. The Boeing Aerospace Company was awarded that contract in September. The IUS is expected to be operational in 

mid-year 1980. 

17 
Spinniq Solid Upper Stages 

Complementary to the Interim Upper Stage, 

Spinning Solid Upper Stages are to be primarily 

used for the smaller, commercial-user payloads 

whose missions require synchronous orbits. 

Mounted on a spin table in the cargo bay of the 

Space Shuttle flying in low Earth orbit, the stage 

and its payload would be set spinning; springs 

would separate it and propel it a safe distance 

from the Shuttle, where its solid rocket motor 

would ignite. The spinning stabilizes the stage, SO 

it is unnecessary to have an expensive guidance 

system. As many as four of the Delta-class or two 

of the Centaur-class stages can be mounted in the 

Shuttle cargo bay on a single flight, one of the 

several economies that will substantially reduce 

launch costs from the cost of using the present 

expendable boosters. They will also provide early, 

easy transition to the Shuttle for existing satellite 

series now using expendable boosters. Another 

saving to the government is that McDonnell Douglas Corporation has agreed to develop and build 

the Delta-class Spinning Stage at its own expense 

and initiative. Discussions are underway with Boeing and McDonnell Douglas on a similar scheme of 

industrial development of the Centaur-class stage. 

Advanced Studies 

The Advanced Studies program defines requirements for future space systems and develops long 

range plans for advanced space systems concepts. 

Among the several studies in 1976 was one of a 

space station to be used as an operating base for 

erecting large structures. Ways and means of erecting large structures were examined, as was the 

possibility that these structures could be part of 

a space solar power experiment. Other studies investigated solar electric propulsion applications, 

Shuttle improvements, and concepts of space indus trialization. 

Expendable Lwnch Vehicle Programs 

Expendable launch vehicles continued to provide transportation services to a variety of users 

and missions. NASA will use these launch vehicles 

until most or all are replaced by the Shuttle in the 

1980s. Most of the 16 launches in 1976 were conducted for activities which reimbursed NASA for 

launch services and the vehicles: 

Scout. During 1976 three satellites were successfully launched by the Scout vehicle: an Air Force 

test communications satellite (USAF P 76-5), the 

NASA scientific relativity probe, and the Navy’s 

Transit navigation satellite. 

Delta. The Delta continued to be the most frequently used vehicle. It successfully launched nine 

satellites in 1976: a cooperative communications 

satellite for Canada, three maritime communications satellites (Marisat A, B, and C) for the Comsat Corporation, a Laser Geodetic Satellite 

(Lageos) for NASA, a weather satellite (ITOS-H) 

for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, a domestic satellite (RCA-B) for RCA, 

one communications satellite (NATO-I11 A) for 

NATO, and another (Palapa-A) for Indonesia. The 

Indonesian satellite for the first time connected 

more than 3000 islands with telephone, telegraph, 

and teletype services. 

A tlas-Centaur. This vehicle successfully launched 

Comstar A and B, domestic communication satellites; and Intelsat IV-A F2, an international communication satellite, for the Comsat Corporation. 

Titan ZZZ-Centaur. This is the largest of NASA’s 

current family of launch vehicles. It successfully 

launched Heli,os-B, a cooperative solar probe satellite, for the Federal Republic of Germany in 1976. 

It was also the Titan III-Centaur which launched 

Viking 1 and Viking 2 to Mars in 1975. 

Space Research and Technology 

The NASA Space Research and Technology 

program seeks to advance the technology used in 

scientific instruments and in systems that transport, 

power, control, and communicate with spacecraft. 

Some of the resulting technology has terrestrial 

applications as well. 

Space Propulsion Technology 

NASA space propulsion technology is dedicated 

to advancing concepts in liquid, solid, and electric 

propulsion that will enhance future mission capabilities while reducing costs. 

Liquid Propulsion Technology. Testing of turbomachinery and a regeneratively cooled thrust 

chamber for a small, reusable, high-performance 

oxygen-hydrogen engine started in 1976. The purpose is to demonstrate the technology of advanced 

propulsion systems suitable for future reusable 

Orbital Transfer Vehicles. A key component, the 

liquid hydrogen pump, was successfully run for 

800 seconds at various test conditions, including 

speeds up to 91,800 revolutions per minute. 

Solid Propulsion Technology. Methods were 

demonstrated for recovering the active ingredients 

from the scraps and waste that result from production of solid propellants. The active ingredients 

can be used in subsequent production at considerable cost saving. 

Electric Propulsion Technology. Both the auxiliary ion thruster (to produce one-half milligram 

18 
for stationkeeping of geosynchronous spacecraft) 

and the primary ion thruster (to produce fourteen milligrams for planetary exploration) progressed during the past year. Engineering model 

thruster designs of both systems were firmly established and are being fabricated for flight qualification. Thermal vacuum breadboard power processors were fabricated and successfully operated 

with prototype thrusters. 

Space Energy Systems Technology 

Spacecraft of the future will require increasing 

amounts of energy to power more sophisticated 

experiments and higher data-transmission rates. 

NASA’s technology effort for space energy systems 

is directed at providing such advanced performance at lower cost. Improvements are sought in 

generation, storage, conversion, transmission, and 

management of power. 

Solar Cell Arrays. During 1976, full-scale system 

design and critical component tests of a 12.5-kilowatt, lightweight solar array were completed. This 

array would produce twice the power of a conventionally designed array of similar weight. Tests 

also demonstrated the feasibility of a high-voltage 

ion thruster operating directly from a solar array. 

Such a system would eliminate the need for complex and costly conditioning for major power loads. 

Chemical Energy Conversion and Storage. Progress was also made in advanced non-gassing 

nickel-cadmium batteries which, after more than a 

year of testing, continued to demonstrate improved 

reliability for space operations. 

Thermomechanical Energy Conversion. The 

demonstration of long-lived rotating machinery is 

an essential prerequisite to dynamic space power. 

In 1976, after 21,000 hours of failure-free operation, a 2-to-IO kilowatt Brayton-cycle rotating unit 

was inspected and found free of wear. 

Thermal Conversion Systems. Preliminary materials tests during 1976 suggested that it may be 

possible to increase thermionic converter efficiencies by 30 percent, a gain that would reduce 

the cost and size of thermal energy sources. 

Guidance, Control, and Information Technology 

NASA’s 1976 efforts in guidance, control, and 

information technology were directed at improving the operational characteristics and data 

handling efficiency of a wide spectrum of electronics systems while reducing their size, weight, 

power requirements, and cost. 

Navigation. An optical navigation system in the 

Viking Mars spacecraft determined the position of 

the craft relative to planet/star-field reference with 

better than twice the accuracy of conventional 

radio navigation techniques. Significant fuel savings resulted thmugh fewer, smaller trajectory corrections. 

Data Acquisition. NASA’s charge-coupled sensor 

permitted the first high-resolution infrared images 

of the planet Uranus. These images revealed a 7 

percent error in previously accepted values for the 

diameter of that planet. 

Data Storage. A solid-state data recording system, 

featuring a magnetic bubble domain memory, was 

demonstrated. Because this device has no moving 

parts, it has 10 times the expected life, uses half the 

power, and weighs half as much as conv.mtiona1 tape 

recording systems. 

Materials and Structures Technology 

Advancements in materials and structures have 

shown great potential for more efficient and lighter 

space vehicles and orbiting structures for antenna 

arrays and space platforms. This not only increases 

mission capabilities per launch, but effectively reduces cost for both the vehicles and their payloads. 

Structures. A new concept for truss elements permits high packaging densities for transport to space 

and has greater structural efficiency than the commonly used cylindrical columns. When transported 

in the Shuttle and assembled in space, the newly developed tapered element could form large truss structures capable of supporting antennas, solar cell 

arrays, or other large systems. 

Advances in non-destructive testing techniques led 

to the development of the first inexpensive, portable, 

highly accurate system for applying the correct strain 

to bolted fabrications. Use of this system would result in higher reliability, lighter weight through less 

overdesign, and increased safety through properly 

stressed bolts. 

Materials. Significant progress was made in spacecraft heat shields. A new protective coating was developed from improved glasses and pigments that 

permitted reductions in the manufacturing costs for 

the Space Shuttle heat shields. This new coating exhibits a significant increase in reliability and a 

doubling of useful lifetime. 

Tracking and Data Acquisition 

Efficient and reliable tracking, data acquisition 

and processing, and communications are essential 

for all NASA flight programs if they are to attain 

their specific objectives. The main types of support 

provided are tracking for orbit or trajectory determination, acquisition of engineering and science 

telemetry data, transmission of commands from the 

ground to space vehicles, processing of acquired 

data, and interconnecting voice and telecommunica19 
tions links to widely separated ground locations 

engaged in flight ,support. 

The majority of this support is rendered by two 

worldwide networks of statiions. The Deep Space 

Network is specialized to handle planetary and interplanetary missions at great distances from Earth. 

The other network, the Spaceflight Tracking and 

Data Network, supports Earth-orbital and suborbital programs. Both use a complex communications 

network to tie their distant locations together. Facilities include massive 64-meter-diameter antennas 

and the large computer complexes necessary for mission control and data processing. 

Lugeos 

The laser tracking system used with the Lageos 

satellite is the newest development in precision 

tracking and ranging. To apply the science of plate 

tectonics to studying continental drift and the processes that create earthquakes, precision measurement of slight Earth crustal movements is required. 

The very stable orbit of the Lagoes satellite provides 

a reference from which these minute shifts can be 

determined. Laser tracking is far more precise than 

conventional high-frequency radio ranging techniques. There are currently four-operating ground 

stations, three of which are mobile. Using these experimentally with earlier satellites refined the laser 

system to the point where these stations, and the five 

additional mobile stations under construction, 

should be able to obtain measurements accurate to 

within five centimeters. 

In addition to providing precision ranging data 

from Lageos, which will be utilized in studying 

Earth crustal motion, the mobile equipment will be 

moved to various locations to calibrate sensitive altimeters on satellites such as Geos and Seasat. 

Viking 

The most exciting space event of the year, the 

landing of Viking on Mars, was supported from 

launch through the continuing return of lander 

science data by the Deep Space Network. For the 

first time, a spacecraft on the surface of another 

planet was successfully commanded, controlled, and 

interrogated. Another first was the support of four 

spacecraft at interplanetary distances. The rapid 

and flexible responses provided by the network 

made the Viking adaptive mode, in which subsequent operations depend on the results obtained 

the day before, a success in terms of scientific productivity and rapid solutions to unexpected problems. 

In addition to operational support, the large 64- 

meter antennas of the Deep Space Network were 

employed in the radar surveys that were instrumental in selecting the landing site for Viking 1. 

Since the resolution of the orbiter cameras was not 

sufficient to detect all terrain features that might 

have damaged the lander, analysis of the radar 

echos helped to determine the roughness of the surface area and minimize risk to the mission. 

Preparation for Fzlture Missions 

Several events of this year point significantly to 

continued evolution of the network and communications systems to support future flight programs. The 

telemetry facility at Dryden Flight Research Center 

has been modified to support the Shuttle approach 

and landing tests beginning in 1977. Modification of 

the Deep Space Network 26-meter antennas was 

initiated to add an X-band capability; this will significantly help avoid the increased crowding at 

lower frequencies and provide new means to handle 

long duration, deep space navigation and data retrieval tasks. Improvements to telemetry data processing systems and advances in image processing 

facilities for satellites such as Landsat round out activities in progress to provide responsive, reliable, 

and efficient tracking and data acquisition in the 

future. 

TDRSS 

Another important step forward in the procurement of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) was the award of a contract to Western Union Space Communications, Inc. The 

corporation will provide telecommunications services via TDRSS for support of Earth-orbital spacecraft. Under the fixed-price contract, Western Union 

Space Communications, Inc., will provide TDRSS 

services to NASA for a ten-year period beginning in 

1980 at an annual contract cost of $79.6 million. 

The system will involve two satellites in synchronous orbit acting as two-way relay stations between 

a single ground station and all satellites in low 

Earth orbit. When TDRSS is operational, many of 

the present tracking stations will be closed. 

International Affairs 

The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 

provides that the space activities of the United States 

shall be conducted so as to contribute materially to 

cooperation by the United States with other nations. 

Following are examples of the international cooperation achieved in the past year. 

Space Transportation System 

Increasing emphasis was given in 1976 to future 

international use of the Shuttle-based Space Trans20 
portation System (STS) . Potential users-government, industry, and university-in Canada, Europe, 

and Japan were briefed on capabilities, payload 

accommodations, and probable terms and conditions 

of use. Solicitations were distributed internationally 

for proposals for Shuttle experiments in the Orbital 

Flight Test Phase, in the first two Spacelab missions, 

and in a planned free-flying Long Duration Exposure Facility. Preliminary studies for the first Spacelab payload, jointly planned by NASA and the 

European Space Agency, were completed. Final selection is expected in early 1977. 

The development of Spacelab, the European contribution to STS and currectly valued at $500 million, passed the midpoint in 1976. Completion of 

the preliminary design review in December was a 

major milestone toward the delivery of the first 

Spacelab flight unit to NASA in mid-1979, a year 

before its first mission. 

Development was begun this year on the Canadian 

contribution to STS-the Remote Manipulator System for the Space Shuttle orbiter. That system is 

valued at several tens of millions of dollars. 

Broadcast Satellite Experiments 

On July 31, 1976, India completed a one-year 

Satellite Instructional Television Experiment using 

NASA’s ATS 6 satellite to transmit educational TV 

programs directly to some 2400 villages. The TV 

programs, ground transmitting station, and village 

receivers were all funded and developed by India. 

Evaluation is under way, but the experiment has 

already demonstrated the practicality of satellitebased instructional broadcasting for developing 

countries and has aroused interest throughout the 

world. Initial reports indicate an increase in school 

attendance and enthusiastic acceptance of the new 

instructional tool by village teachers as well as adult 

audiences. Programs containing practical instruction 

-in agriculture and animal husbandry, for instance 

-were particularly popular and apparently effective. 

On August 1, ATS 6 began its return passage to 

the Western Hemisphere. As it passed over Africa 

and Latin America, NASA and the Agency for International Development conducted a three-month 

project using ATS 6 for demonstration broadcasts 

to 24 developing countries and regional organizations. The broadcasts included films on the uses of 

space technology for development and live, two-way 

discussions between panels of U.S. officials and experts and local host government officials in receiving 

countries. 

Another project in experimental satellite broadcasting for remote areas began in 1976 with the January launch of the Communications Technology 

Satellite (CTS), developed jointly by NASA and 

the Canadian Department of Communications. A 

later development than ATS 6, CTS is designed to 

transmit higher powered signals to small, relatively 

inexpensive ground terminals at higher frequencies. 

Its broadcast time, divided equally between U.S. 

and Canada, is being used for experiments in education, health care, community and special service 

broadcasting, and communications technology. 

Stratospheric Research 

NASA’s intensified upper atmospheric research 

program has focused on the possible threat to the 

Earth’s stratospheric ozone shield from fluorocarbon 

compounds widely used as refrigerants and aerosol 

propellants. Because of the global implications, 

NASA made special efforts in 1976 to inform the 

world scientific community generally and to pursue 

its stratospheric research activities cooperatively. 

For instance, a French infrared absorption spectrometer was among instruments carried on NASA’s 

CV990 aircraft in November 1976 to measure trace 

constituents and compare stratospheric concentrations in the northern and southern hemispheres. 

Arrangements were also made to take complementary measurements of ozone and other atmospheric 

trace constituents from a NASA U-2 aircraft in coordination with flights of instrumented Canadian 

balloons. 

To foster international coordination of stratospheric research and policy planning, NASA 

co-sponsored an International Conference on the 

Stratosphere and Related Problenis at Utah State 

University, September 15-17, 1976. 

New and Ongoing Cooperative Satellite Projects 

Of the 25 international satellites that have so far 

been launched by NASA on a cooperative (as distinguished from reimbursable) basis, 8 remained 

active and returning data’ in 1976. Most significant 

were the two German Helios solar probes which, in 

four perihelion passages in 1976, flew closer to the 

Sun than any other spacecraft-less than one-third 

the Sun-Earth distance. Measurements by Helios of 

the solar atmosphere, magnetic fields, and particle 

emissions have generated new data on solar-terrestrial interactions. 

NASA concluded an agreement with Aerospace 

Research Center of the University of Rome to develop the next generation of San Marco satellites for 

continued investigations of processes at the interface 

between space and the upper atmosphere. San 

Marco D is also expected to contribute importantly 

to the current study of the Earth’s ozone layer. 

21 
International interest in contributing experiments 

to NASA spacecraft continued. Agreements were 

reached with Germany, the U.K., the Netherlands, 

and France on instrumentation for the NASA Solar 

Maximum Mission and the Pioneer Venus Orbiter 

and Probe. 

During 1976, NASA announced 14 opportunities 

to participate in future space missions and received 

over 173 proposals from 9 European countries, the 

European Space Agency, Australia, Canada, India, 

Japan, and Socth Africa. The proposals concerned 

infrared astronomy, space processing, atmospheric 

cloud physics, lcnar surface studies, stratospheric 

aerosol and gas investigations, interplanetary and 

planetary physics, and multidisciplinary opportunities planned for future Shuttle and Spacelab flights. 

Earth Resources 

During 1976 NASA began to charge foreign Landsat station operators an initial token share of the 

annual cost of operating the satellites. Such stations, 

receiving data directly from the satellites, were operating in Canada, Brazil, and Italy. Agreements had 

been reached for stations in Zaire, Iran, and Chile. 

Still other stations were being negotiated. 

This growing interest in direct reception is related 

to the significant benefits reported by researchem in 

more than 100 countries currently using Landsat 

data. Bolivia, for example, recently discovered deposits of lithium and potassium as a result of computer-axisted interpretation of Landsat data. A new 

iron ore deposit was discovered recently in Egypt 

using Landsat data. 

Reimbursable lnternutionul Launches 

The following reimbursable (as distinguished 

from cooperative) launchings took place from the 

Eastern Test Range in 1976: 

Intelsat IV-A F2, an international communications satellite, Atlas-Centaur vehicle, January 29 

NATO IIIA, an operational communications 

satellite, Thor-Delta vehicle, April 22 

0 Palapa-A, the first Indonesian domestic communications satellite, Thor-Delta vehicle, July 8 

A reimbursable launching contract was concluded 

with the Science Research Council of the U.K. for a 

Scout launch of UK-6 scientific satellite in early 

1978. Contracts to use the Thor-Delta vehicle were 

signed with the European Space Agency for launch 

of OTS, a geostationary communications test satellite, in mid-1977 and Marots, a geostationary maritime test satellite, in 1978. Launch service contract 

negotiations were begun with EMBRATEL of 

Brazil for launch of two domestic communications 

satellites in 1979: with NASDA of Japan for a 

backup launch in 1978 or 1979; with TELESAT of 

Canada for launch of the fourth Canadian domestic 

communications satellite in 1978; and with the Federal Aviation Administration for two launches of 

the international aeronautical satellite. Aerosat, in 

1979 and 1980. 

Overseas Tracking Facilities 

During 1976, the agreement providing for NASA’s 

use of Canada’s Churchill Range upper atmosphere 

research facilities was extended until June 1979. 

Agreement was also reached with the Government 

of Pakistan for temporary placement of a NASA 

portable Landsat receiver station near Rawalpindi. 

An agreement between CNES (the French space 

agency) and NASA for reimbursable tracking support was extended until December 1977. Reimbursable tracking arrangements with Japan were also 

concluded, providing telemetry and tracking support 

for Japanese launchings by the University of Tokyo 

and NASDA (the Japanese space agency). 

U.S./U.S.S.R. Cooperation in Space Science and 

Applications 

Cooperative work in space science and applications proceeded under the 197 1 Bilateral Agreement 

(incorporated by reference in the 1972 Summit 

Agreement). 

In planetary explorations: (1) U.S. and Soviet 

specialists met on June 10 in Philadelphia and exchanged information on results of the Soviet Venera 

9 and 10 missions, US. radar observations of Venus, 

and on plans for the U.S. 1978 Pioneer Venus missions; (2) two Soviet scientists participated at 

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center May 36Juiie 

13 in joint analysis of Soviet Mars gamma-ray spectrometer data; (3) steps were initiated in September 

by NASA to obtain soil samples from the Soviet 

Luna 24 probe pursuant to previous agreement; and 

(4) NASA prepared to share preliminary results of 

the Viking missions to Mars. 

In other areas, the two sides coniinued coordinated magnetometer observations by the NASA Applications Technology Satellite and Soviet ground 

stations. The Space Biology and Medicine Joint 

Working Group met in Yerevan, U.S.S.R., in September and finalized plans for the flight of five 

U.S. biological experiments on a Soviet satellite to 

be launched in the fall of 1977. A coordinated 

rocket meteorology ‘study of diurnal variations under different geomagnetic conditions was conducted 

in August. In November, two joint working groups 

on satellite and rocket meteorology met in Moscow 

to plan further projects and cooperative efforts, including coordinated experiments in atmospheric 

22 
temperature sensing and microwave sensing and implementation of a sounding rocket intercomparison 

test. The cooperative study of the natural environment moved into a second and important phase in 

the spring of 1976 when the Soviets began providing 

ground truth data for the remote sensing of vegetation. These data will be useful in the U.S. Large 

Area Crop Inventory Experiment aimed at developing a capability for world wheat crop prediction. 

In October a delegation from the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences’ Intercosmos Council met with 

NASA representatives in Washington to continue 

discussions aimed at defining major cooperative 

projects that might follow the successful rendezvous 

and docking of the Apollo and Soyuz spacecraft in 

1975. 

User Affairs 

The Office of User Affairs under the Office of 

Space Applications identifies user needs and requirements; disseminates information to potential users 

of NASA’s space technology; and plans and implements technology transfer in space applications. 

In November 1976, NASA sponsored a conference 

at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena concerning recent advances in image processing technology and new computer applications to stimulate 

the development and transfer of this technology to 

industry and commerce. Additional symposia cosponsored by NASA in 1976 were the William T. 

Pecora Memorial Symposia on Earth resources survey techniques in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, and 

the Conference on Remote Sensing for Land and 

Resource Management in the South and Southwest 

at Texas A & M University in College Station. 

To devise better means for transferring NASA 

technology outside the agency, four Application 

Survey Groups were formed from experts in the following areas: land inventory, inland water resources, 

agriculture, and mineral and petroleum exploration. 

Because of successful experience with these groups, 

planning got under way to develop a process for a 

permanent advisory structure consisting of representatives from the Federal, state, and local governments, 

private industry, and the universities. 

Interaction between users also increased. A Federal Interagency Decision Team and Working 

Group, comprised of representatives from the U.S. 

Departments of Interior and Agriculture, Army 

Corps of Engineers, Agency for International Development, and NASA, was created to identify needs 

and potential applications for future Earth resources 

satellites. To improve technology transfer to state, 

regional, and local users, NASA worked with a variety of user organizations, including the National 

Conference of State Legislatures, Southern Growth 

Policies Board, and the Pacific Northwest Regional 

Commission, to develop alternative strategies concerning user/ NASA roles, responsibilities, and financial commitments. Interaction with the private sector included presentations and discussions with user 

communities such as petroleum and mineral exploration firms and the suppliers of data analysis 

equipment and services. 

Technology Utilization 

Low Cost Space Systems 

The Low Cost Systems Office was established to 

reduce the cost of space systems through development of standard components that will satisfy a 

majority of anticipated mission requirements. To 

date, 17 spacecraft components have been declared 

standard, including: tape recorders, hydrazine 

thrusters and valve assemblies, power regulator, 

spacecraft computer, inertial reference unit, pyrotechnic initiator, transponders for both near-Earth 

and deep space missions, star tracker, reaction wheel, 

telemetry and command components, and a pyrogen 

igniter. 

Under evaluation were 24 additional candidates 

for standardization, including not only components 

for spacecraft maintenance functions, but also the 

experiment and instrument interface support equipment and ground support equipment. Some items 

under evaluation were: solar cell panels, central 

power regulator, Sun sensors, solid state star tracker, 

magnetometer, universal articulation system, magnetic bubble memory, phased array antenna, Global 

Positioning Satellite receiver/ processor, commpn 

sensor subsystems, scanner-chopper drive system, test 

sets, spacecraft checkout system, and a spacecraft 

simulator. 

As standard hardware becomes available, flight 

projects can obtain flight-qualified equipment at 

significantly less expense than in the past. Cost savings have already been realized in the Mariner 

Jupiter/Saturn, Tiros-N, Nimbus G, Seasat, Sage, 

and Solar Maximum Mission projects. These savings 

will continue to accrue as additional standards are 

used by future projects. 

Disseminating Technology aptd Benefits 

Since its inception in 1962, the NASA Technology 

Utilization Office has relied heavily on its publications to facilitate secondary use of NASA technology 

in commerce and industry. More than 10,000 innovations judged to have commercial potential have 

thus been made available to industry. The format 

fos the familiar NASA tech brief was changed significantly in 1976. Tech briefs and related NASA 

technical innovations and improvements are now 

disseminated in a quarterly journal, NASA Tech 

23 
Briefs, which also includes information on new 

product ideas and technology utilization services. 

In 1976 the university-based Industrial Applications Centers expanded the products and services to 

better serve non-aerospace clients. Likewise, technology coordinatocs, experienced in NASA research and 

development programs, were located at four NASA 

field centers to assist the Industrial Applications 

Centers by matching their client’s problems to appropriate NASA scientific and engineering expertise. 

The purchase of improved NASA-developed firefighter’s breathing systems by the Boston Fire Department marked the successful culmination of that 

important technology applications project. Another 

achievement of note in 1976 wals the construction of 

the NASA Technology Utilization House at Langley Research Center, Hampton, Virginia. Tech 

House, as it is called, integrates N‘QSA technology, 

recent commercial building techniques, and other 

innovations into an energy-efficient home that offers the potential of savings to the individual family 

and national benefit in energy conservation. Opened 

to the public in June 1976, Tech House will be 

evaluated when a family is selected to occupy it 

early in 1977, at which time all energy conserving 

systems will be monitored by NASA engineers. 

Scientific and Technical Information 

NASA’s publication of the results of its own 

aerospace research and development, together with 

its acquisition of worldwide aeronautics, space, and 

related literature, created a broad and growing 

national information resource. Remote terminals 

located at NASA centers, the congressional Office 

of Technology Assessment, Industrial Applications 

Centers, and a number of state universities permitted on-line literature searching of a centralized 

computer data bank containing over 1.5 million 

report, book, and journal citations. International 

cooperation in the generation of useful aerospace 

information continued, with the European Space 

Agency processing European literature for direct 

entry inlto the NASA data bank, while providing 

Western Europe with on-line computer access to 

a NASA-furnished portion of the data bank. 

NASA Energy Programs 

The purpose of NASA’s energy program is to 

assure the effective use of NASA technologies and 

experience in support of national energy needs. A 

substantial part of the 1976 activities resulted from 

projects assigned t.0 NASA and reimbursed by the 

Energy Research and Development Administration 

(ERDA) and other agencies having direct responsibilities in the energy field. Included was work in 

wind energy, conversion systems, low cost solar 

cells, solar heating and cooling, coal energy extraction, industrial gas turbines, and advanced ground 

propulsion. 

In addition, NASA also had a number of projects to identify and evaluate the applicability of 

aeronautics and space capabilities to energy problems. The process of technology identificatiron and 

verification is designed to lead to soundly conceived technology plans in selected areas forming 

the basis for possible reimbursable activities in 

support of ERDA, the Department of Interior, and 

other agencies. Areas of interest included work in 

fuel cell systems, magnetohydrodynamics, .energy 

storage systems, combustion technology, and materials and heat exchanger technology. 

Aeronautics Research and Technology 

Aeronautics Research and Technology progi ailis 

are directed at developing technology to (1) improve the energy efficiency of aircraft, (2) reduce 

the undesirable environmental effects of aircraft 

such as noise and pollution, (3) improve aviation 

safety and terminal area operations, (4) advance 

long-haul and shopt-haul aircraft systems, and (5) 

provide technical support to the military in maintaining the superiority of military aircraft. 

improving the Energy Efliciency of Aircraft 

During 1976 NASA initiated the Aircraft Energy 

Efficiency program with the objective of providing 

the technology for future commercial transport 

aircraft with 50 percent lower fuel consumption 

than current aircraft. This major program expanded NASA’s efforts in technology developments, 

particularly those associated with engine systems, 

aerodynamics and active controls, and structural 

composite materials. 

Engine Systems. Engine component evaluations 

have indicated the feasibility of improving the performance of components to increase fuel efficiency 

in future large turbofan engines. In 1976 tests oE 

a new engine mixer component, for example, 

measured a two to three percent reduction in specific fuel consumption. 

Energy Eficient Transport. NASA initiated the 

energy efficient transport program to evaluate aerodynamic features such as the supercritical wing and 

winglets, singly and in conjunction with active controls. Active control systems would allow reduction 

in the size of the horizontal tail by electronic control of aircraft stability and reduction of the 

weight of structural components by control of the 

structural loads experienced by aircraft. 

Composite Primary Aircraft Structures. Future 

applications of composites, with the potential to 
reduce fuel consumption by 10 to 12 percent, were 

being demonstrated. On May 27 the composite 

DC-10 upper aft rubber segment was certificated by 

the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). As of 

September, four rudder segments had been installed on commercial airline transports and a total 

of about 2000 flight hours had been achieved. The 

composite component weighs about 30 percent less 

than the metallic component it replaces. A second 

composite component, the L-1011 Vertical Fin, is 

entering the ground subcomponent test phase. 

Reducing Undesirable Environmental Eflects 

Noise Prediction. Analytical techniques have 

been developed to predict aircrafit noise caused by 

the multiplicity of noise sources on aircraft. These 

methods have been computerized into a program 

capable of predicting ground noise levels from 

existing and conceptual aircraft. More sophisticated 

approaches are under development and will be 

incorporated into the existing program. Coiiiparison of analytical with experimental data continues 

t'o validate the predictive capabilities of the program. 

Psychoacoustics Studies. Comprehensive studies 

have been made to determine how a person's previous experience with aircraft noise affects annoyance. Two findings are noteworthy. First, a relationship between acceptabililty and annoyance has 

been identified. Second, labsoratory subjects tend 

to judge as equivalent those test cdnditions comparable to 'their worst day-at-home experiences. Future 

studies will build upon these findings to provide 

better methods for assessing and predicting community response. 

Piston Engine Emissions Reduction. Emissions 

from current piston engine aircraft have been 

characterized for ten representative general aviation engines. Tests reveal that some reductions in 

pollutant emissions are attainable by leaning the 

fuel/air mixture, but suggest that engine modifications may be required to attain acceptably low 

emission levels. Results were presented in a symposium hosted by NASA and attended by general 

aviation industrial firms, governmental regulatory 

agencies, and interested parties from the scientific 

and academic communities. 

Gas Turbine Emissions Reduction. NASA's Experimental Clean Combustor program for modern 

gas turbine engines has reached the hardware 

demonstration phase in ground tests of complete 

engines. Preliminary results suggest that major reductions in emissions during landing and takeoff 

may be realized, as well as a significant reduction 

in oxides of nitrogen during high-altitude cruise 

operation. 

Improved Safety and Terminal Area Operations 

Wake Vortex Reduction. Trailing vortices from 

large aircraft pose potential hazards to following 

smaller aircraft. Controlling the spacing between 

aircraft provides safe operations but tends to reduce the capacity of busy airports. To restore 

capacity, NASA is exploring ways to minimize the 

trailing vortex strength by aerodynamic means. 

Wind tunnel model and flight tests with a B-747 

aircraft demonstrated that selective deflection of 

wing spoilers can cause a significant reduction in 

vortex strength. Model tests with other widebody 

transports have also indicated equivalent vortex 

reductions with spoiler deflection. NASA is continuing to investigate other vortex minimization 

concepts and to assess the potential operational 

impacts associated with their practical application. 

Wind Environment. Large variations in wind 

direction and speed (wind shear) along aircraft 

take-off and approach paths have been factors in 

aircraft accidents. NASA has identified conditions 

favorable to low-altitude wind shear around airports and has developed hazard definition inodels 

applicable to aircraft design and operations. 

Improving Terminal Area Operations. NASA's 

737, equipped with display, navigation, and flight 

control systems that represent the first application 

of all-digital systems to a conventional transport 

aircraft, was engaged in a cooperative program 

with the FAA to demonstrate a newly developed 

Microwave Landing System to the International 

Civil Aviation Organization. This aircraft made 

many fully automatic (hands-off) landings using 

the new equipment for approach and flare guidance. 

Aviation Safety Reporting System. The Aviation 

Safety Reporting System began collecting reports 

in mid-April. In addition to report analysis, the 

system forwards to FAA reports dealing with critical areas of information. Both the quantity and 

quality of the reports indicate the system's acceptance by the aviation community. 

Advancing Long-Haul and Short-Haul Aircraft 

Systems 

Research continued to focus on identification 

and study of advanced aircraft systems and the 

technologies necessary to make development of 

advanced commercial aircraft systems possible. 

Supersonic Cruise Aircraft Research. Progress 

continued in the technologies pertaining to the 

environmental compatibility and economic viability of supersonic transports. During 1976, an 

advanced 2.4-mach transport model test completed 

in a NASA Ames Research Center wind tunnel 

showed a significant 30 percent increase in super25 
sonic cruise lift-to-drag ratio over the U.S. 1971 

supersonic transport design. Various variable-cycle 

or multi-cycle engines, aimed at optimizing performance over the range of flight regimes encountered by a supersonic aircraft, have been identified and studied extensively. During 1976, the 

critical components of two most promising engine 

concepts were identified for component testing. 

Quiet Propulsive-Lift Technology. In February 

1976 NASA awarded a contract to the Boeing 

Commercial Airplane Company for the design, 

construction, and test of a Quiet Short-Haul Research Airplane. The experimental aircrafqt, scheduled for delivery in 1978, would perform flight research to obtain design certification data for future 

quiet short-haul transport aircraft. 

Low Speed Airfoils. Complete design information 

has been developed for a second low-speed airfoil 

in the General Aviation Wing series. The new 

airfoil, thinner than its predecessor, demonstrated 

higher maximum lift and lower drag characteristics. 

General aviation aircraft designers were exploring 

applications of these new data. 

Technical Support to the Military 

In addition to the continuing broad-based support of military aircraft technology, a number of 

notable accomplishments occurred during 1976. 

The joint NASA/Air Force Highly Maneuverable 

Aircraft Technology program completed its design 

phase and began fabrication of two remotely 

piloted research aircraft. During the design phase, 

the application of several design methodology innovations resulted in an aerodynamic performance 

twice as efficient as current vehicles and developed 

in half the time at a third of the cost. NASA was 

conducting two joint experimental aircraft programs with the Army-the Rotor Systems Research 

Aircraft and the Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft. Fabrication for both vehicles was completed during 

1976. The Rotor Systems Research Aircraft began 

flight testing in 1976, with the Tilt Rotor Research 

Aircraft scheduled to begin in 1977. 

26 
III Department of Defense 

Introduction 

The Department of Defense maintained emphasis on important advances in space systems and 

aeronautics in 1976. These Defense efforts include 

technology investigations and development of operational systems to improve the security of the 

United States during the 1980s and beyond. 

The NAVSTAR Global Positioning System continued as a major development effort within the 

Department of Defense. It is a system using satellites which will provicie continuous, all-weather 

positioning information on a global basis. Suitably 

equipped users will be able to obtain their positions 

to within 10 meters in three dimensions and velocity 

to wichin 0.03 meter per second in real time. During 

1976, prototype satellites were built in preparation 

for the launches of the first six satellites in 1977. 

An inverted test range was installed on the desert 

near Yuma, Arizona, initially using satellite transmitters on the ground to act like satellites for airborne user tests. As satellites are launched, the 

ground transmitters will be turned off. Several general demonstration models have been produced for 

testing purposes. If the concept is validated, plans 

are to deploy a limited system (for navigation only) 

during the early 1980s. The system is expected to 

achieve full operational status in the mid-1980s. 

The Navy Navigation Satellite System (TRANSIT) 

will continue as a major system for providing position fixing information to strategic submarine forces 

until the NAVSTAR Global Positioning System is 

operational. 

DoD has placed increasing emphasis on satellite 

communications systems to support its diverse requirements of worldwide military communications. 

The Defense Satellite Communications System 

(DSCS) supports requirements for worldwide military command and control and was used effectively 

in the Korean Demilitarized Zone action and the 

Beirut evacuation. The space segment of the DSCS 

continues to function with full use of the one 

Phase I1 satellite in the Pacific, augmented over 

the Atlantic Ocean, through mutual agreement between the US. and the North Atlantic ‘Ireaty 

Organization (NATO), by use of the NATO IIIA 

satellite. The Skynet IIB satellite is used in the 

Indian Ocean by arrangement between the U.S. 

and the United Kingdom (U.K.). New, large 

terminals are available for operational use. The 

US., U.K., and NATO have signed an agreement 

for a post-1975 SATCONI arrangement to exchange 

satellite capacity on a contingency and day-to-day 

basis. Significant progress has also been made toward establishing the US.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communication Link via communications satellites. 

Contracts for construction of the first two spacecraft of the Navy Fleet Satellite Communications 

System (FLTSATCOM) have been awarded and 

a decision has been made to procure three additional spacecraft for a total of five. The first FLTSATCOM launch is scheduled for late 1977. A production contract for AFSATCOM strategic terminals 

was awarded in November. The Air Force Satellite 

Communications System provides command and 

control communications for strategic forces. The 

Army is developing ground terminals for use by all 

the services. Terminals for ground mobile forces were 

tested and are being procured. Engineering developments continue on manpack and vehicular terminals. 

DoD maintained close liaison with NASA on the 

Space Shuttle program during 1976. The Space 

Shuttle holds great promise for reducing the cost 

of future space operations, and DoD requirements 

have been incorporated in the Shuttle design. A 

solid-fueled Interim Upper Stage was chosen by the 

Air Force, because of its reliability, safety, and 

lower cost, for development and use wilth the 

Shuttle. The Interim Upper Stage will be used beginning in 1980 for DoD and civil payloads from 

Kennedy Space Center which require low-inclination or high-altitude orbits. The Space Shuttle 

launch and landing capability at Vandenberg Air 

Force Base (AFB) will be ready for Operational 

use in December 1982. A contract was awarded in 

July to define Shuttle ground support systems at 

Vandenberg. 

27 
Equally important to DoD is the aeronautical 

research and development that leads toward: 

lower costs for buying and maintaining aircraft, 

new operational concepts and capabilities, and modernization of the operational aircraft inventory. 

The first development F-16 air combat fighter 

rolled off the assembly line in October. The aircraft is being produced in partnership among five 

countries: U.S., Belgium, Denmark, Norway, and 

The Netherlands. Full production of the F-15 air 

superiority fighter was reached in April 1976. Tactical Air Command received more than 130 F-15s 

by the end of 1976. Fleet deployment of F-14As 

aboard carriers and the newly selected F-18 combat 

fighter now entering full development will provide 

naval weapon systems to counter a broad range of 

threats in the future. 

The Air Force continued its program to modernize the strategic bomber force through development and procurement of B-1 aircraft. Deployment 

of this aircraft will strengthen the triad of strategic 

retaliatory forces by providing a more capable and 

survivable successor to the B-52 to perform the 

manned bomber mission. 

All three services made significant progress in 

1976 in advanced composite structures and materials 

technology. The Air Force tested a graphite/epoxy 

structure for the B-1 horizontal stabilizer which is 

lighter and cheaper than the metal components 

previously used. The Navy completed development 

testing of composite materials components for S3 

spoiler, F-14 ovenving fairing, and F-14 main landing gear door, as well as a replacement for the 

H-46 metal rotor blade. The Army expanded research into advanced hybrid composite concepts 

for primary helicopter components including 

blades, hubs, airframes, landing gear, and drive 

shafts. 

DoD made advances on other fronts in aeronautical research and technology as well. The Army 

developed computer programs for prediction of 

helicopter flow fields to improve the accuracy of 

air-launched missiles. Also, the Laser Obstacle Terrain Avoidance Warning System was flight-tested in 

1976 and successfully detected obstacles as minute 

as a small wire. In addition, a Synthetic Flight 

Training System successfully simulated helicopter 

flight characteristics under instrument flight conditions. In aircraft propulsion, advanced gas generator 

programs continued to seek increased performance 

and life expectancy at reduced cost. The services 

also pursued the development of alternative aviation fuels. 

Space Activities 

Space Systems and Programs 

Defense Satellite Communications System. The 

primary mission of the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) is to provide rapid, reliable, 

and secure satellite communications for the National Command Authorities and World-Wide 

Military Command and Control System. The system provided exceptional communications support 

to the National Command Authorities in controlling the U.S. response to the North Korean action 

in the Demilitarized Zone. The DSCS also allowed 

Washington to closely monitor evacuation of U.S. 

dependents from Beirut, Lebanon. 

The initial Defense Communications Satellite 

Program (Phase 1) provided a limited operational 

system from 1966 through 1974, primarily out of 

research and development assets. Phase 1 is no 

longer operational. 

Two synchronous-orbit satellites, launched in 

December 1973, make up the present DSCS Phase 

11 space segment. One satellite is positioned over 

the western Pacific Ocean and one over the Atlantic Ocean. The Pacific satellite is functioning 

satisfactorily. The Atlantic satellite experienced 

some anomalies in September 1975, recovered in 

October 1975, and functioned satisfactorily until 

it again experienced difficulties in September 1976. 

The impact has been minimized by rerouting circuits through other defense communications facilities, the use of commercial systems, and the use of 

the NATO IIIA satellite. 

In 1975 the Air Force contracted for six more 

DSCS I1 satellites (numbers 7 through 12). Delivery was accelerated so that the first two satellites 

of this group are scheduled for launch in April 

1977. This dual launch will provide one satellite 

for Atlantic Ocean coverage and one for western 

Pacific Ocean coverage. The present Pacific satellite will be repositioned 'to provide either eastern 

Pacific or Indian Ocean coverage. In addition, during 1976, the Air Force completed negotiations for 

the procurement of four additional Phase I1 satellites (numbers 13 through 16) in order to replenish 

the DSCS space segment in the 1978-1979 time 

frame. The latter satellites will upgrade the performance of DSCS by incorporating higher power 

and a defocused antenna for wider coverage. 

During 1976, a total of eight new 19-meter terminals became available for operational use. Additional digital modulation equipment procured by 

the Army represents progress toward an all-digital 

system. 

A conceptual design of the next generation 

(Phase 111) DSCS satellite was developed and made 

28 
compatible with the Space Shuttle. Critical portions of the satellite were fabricated, and parts of 

the ground segment were tested. DoD plans to contract for the development of two R&D spacecraft in 

1977. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System. The purpose of the Fleet Satellite Communications System 

(FLTSATCOM) is to develop, procure, and implement a satellite communications system to satisfy 

the most urgent, worldwide, near-term tactical and 

strategic communications requirements of the Navy 

and Air Force, respectively. Contracts for the first 

two FLTSATCOM spacecraft were awarded and a 

decision on the production of three additional 

spacecraft has been made. The first FLTSATCOM 

launch is scheduled for late 1977. Installation of 

fleet broadcast receivers is virtually complete. Installation of shipboard transceivers and information 

exchange systems is on schedule. Two leased Marisat spacecraft, also called Gapfiller, became operational in 1976, with a third Marisat scheduled to 

be operational in early 1977. The shipboard 

terminal equipment will be operated through the 

Marisat spacecraft until the FLTSATCOM is 

operational. 

Air Force Satellite Communications System. The 

Air Force Satellite Communications System 

(AFSATCOM) will provide command and control 

communications for strategic forces. The AFSATCOM space segment includes transponders on the 

Navy FLTSATCOM spacecraft, the Air Force Satellite Data System, and other DoD satellites. The 

AFSATCOM terminal segment will consist of airborne terminals and ground mobile and fixed 

terminals. Initial operational testing of strategic 

terminals was completed in 1975; production began in November 1976; and Satellite Data System 

capability was available in 1976. 

Army Satellite Communications Activities. The 

Army is developing strategic and tactical satellite 

communications ground terminals for use by all 

services. Two major projects are DCSC Phase I1 

and the Ground Mobile Forces Tactical Satellite 

Communications. The Army has completed the 

modification of all existing DCSC ground terminals 

to upgrade their reliability and communications 

capability. An AN/FSC-78 heavy transportable 

terminal is operational at Fort Detrick, Maryland. 

Additional heavy terminals were contracted for to 

satisfy the needs of the Defense Satellite Communications System and have been installed at 

locations worldwide. The antenna for the AN/ 

MSC-6 1 medium terminal is undergoing engineering development. The AN/TSC-86 light transportable terminal completed development and operational testing. 

The terminals that provide mobile multi-channel 

communications for ground mobile forces using 

DSCS satellite completed all operational testing and 

are being procured. Engineering development continues on ultra high frequency (UHF) manpack 

and vehicular terminals. 

Znternational Cooperation in Space. During 

1976, the United States and (the United Kingdom 

continued to operate under an agreement whereby 

the U.S. and the U.K. would exchange an essentially equivalent amount of sotellilte power between 

U.S. DSCS and U.K. Skynet satellites and to interoperate with each other’s Earth terminals. 

The U.S., U.K., and NATO have signed an 

agreement for a post-1975 SATCOM arrangement. 

The parties will exchange satellite capacity during 

specified conditions and will allocate channels 

temporarily on a day-to-day basis if SATCOM 

difficulties are experienced. 

Another agreement was signed in September 

1976 between the U.S. and NATO which will permit the U.S. to use the NATO IIIB satellite. In 

return the U.S. will provide NATO with equivalent 

DSCS satellite capacity at a time to be designated 

by NATO and agreed to by the U.S. 

Significant progress has been made toward establishing the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communication 

Link, which uses satellite communication circuits 

via Intelsat and Molniya satellites. The link was 

created in accordance with the 1971 Strategic Arms 

Limitations Talks between the U.S. and U.S.S.R. 

Since August 1976, the Molniya system has been 

usable 24 hours a day, and end-to-end testing is now 

being conducted, using both Intelsat and Molniya. 

Navigation Satellite Activity. The Navy Navigation Satellite System, referred to as TRANSIT, 

operated for its eleventh year in 1976. TRANSIT 

provides the Navy with a worldwide, two-dimensional system for position fixing to an accuracy of 

better than one eighth of a kilometer-primarily in 

support of strategic submarines. The five satellites 

in operation provide an opportunity at least every 

two hours, depending upon the latitude, for a user 

to fix his position. Usage has expanded both militarily and commercially. It has been adapted for 

use in such diverse activities as offshore oil exploration and to measure the drift of ice over the poles. 

Since the early 1970s, a TRANSIT Improvement 

Program has been under way. Improved satellites 

with greater survivability are to be launched to 

join the operational constellation; however, the 

first two test satellites in 1975 and 1976 experienced 

partial failure. Plans for future improvement are 

currently under review. 

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. The 

NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) is a 

joint service development to fulfill the position29 
finding needs of all the services and DoD agencies 

beginning in the 1980s. It will provide continuous, worldwide, all-weather coverage using a common grid to enable suitably equipped users to 

passively determine their positions to within 10 

meters and velocity to within 0.03 meter per second. For routine navigation, a relatively inexpensive receiver will provide less accurate information 

(100-200 meters). The system may also be used to 

provide worldwide precise time transfer. The operational NAVSTAR GPS will consist of 24 satellites in three orbital planes at 20,400 kilometers 

altitude, a ground segment for calibration and 

control of the satellites, and 25,000 to 35,000 user 

equipments of various classes. 

NAVSTAR GPS is in the concept validation 

phase with the launch of six satellites and initiation 

of extensive field testing of all classes of user equipment scheduled in 1977. User equipment to be 

tested will include high performance, low cost, and 

manpack models designed to satisfy a variety of 

DoD requirements. During 1976, the Joint Program 

Office conducted qualification testing of prototype 

satellites and environmental testing of working receivers. Increasingly detailed information was 

exchanged with interested civil agencies and with 

NATO. 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program. The 

Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) 

continued to provide high quality visual and infrared imagery and other specialized meteorological 

data to support military operations. The DMSP 

provides weather data for the entire Earth four 

times a day using two satellites in polar orbits. One 

collects early morning and evening data and the 

other collects noon and midnight data. These 

weather data are stored aboard the satellites and 

later transmitted to Air Force Global Weather 

Central in Nebraska and the Fleet Numerical 

Weather Central in California. The imagery is 

also transmitted in real-time to transportable readout stations at key locations worldwide to support 

tactical operations. During 1976, a new temperature 

sensor and other specialized meteorological sensors 

were developed. Satellite reliability and life have 

also been improved. 

DoD continued to cooperate with NASA and 

the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in development of the Tiros-N domestic 

weather satellite. The Tiros-N will be an adaptation of the DMSP Block 5D satellite. 

Space Shuttle. The Air Force maintained close 

liaison with NASA during 1976 to ensure that DoD 

requirements are incorporated in the evolving 

Shuttle design. An expendable, solid propellant 

Interim Upper Stage (IUS) concept was chosen by 

the Air Force in September 1975 for validation and 

development. NASA participated in source selection 

and a contractor was selected in September 1976 

to define the design in the validation phase contract. The solid-fueled IUS should provide advantages in cost, reliability, and safety, and will be 

used with the Shuttle by both DoD and NASA for 

missions requiring low-inclination, high-altitude 

orbits. The Interim Upper Stage will be available 

in 1980 for launch from Kennedy Space Center. 

DoD plans to construct new facilities or to modify existing facilities at Vandenberg AFB, California, to provide a West Coast Shuttle launch and 

landing capability. The planned operational date 

of the Vandenberg facilities is December 1982, when 

DoD and civil payloads requiring polar or nearpolar orbits will begin using the Shettle. In July 

1976, Air Force contracted for definition of Shuttle 

ground support systems at Vandenberg AFB. 

Space Boosters. The DoD family of space boosters is comprised of the Atlas and Titan I11 standard launch vehicles and the surplus IRBM SM-75 

Thor and surplus ICBM Atlas E/F vehicles. These 

boosters launched 11 space missions during 1976: 8 

Titan IIIs, 2 SM-75 Thors, and 1 Atlas F. One of 

the Thor launches was unsuccessful by DoD criteria. The mission was in orbit long enough, however, to be considered successful by the Cospar 

definition. 

Space Test Program. The Space Test Program 

provides spaceflight test and evaluation of DoD 

experimenltal and advanced development payloads. 

During 1976, three missions were flown. In March, 

four satellites were placed in orbit by a single Titan 

IIIC launch vehicle. Two of these satellites, LES 

8 and 9, were developed by MIT Lincoln Laboratory to evaluate advanced satellite communications 

techniques. The other two satellites, called Solrad 

Hi, were developed by the Naval Research Laboratory to measure solar x-rays, ultraviolet light, and 

particle emissions. In May 1976, a single satellite, 

called Wideband, was launched to collect information on effects of ionospheric scintillations on a 

wide range of communications frequencies. In 

July 1976, the third in a series of small S-3 satellites 

was launched under the Space Test Program as a 

secondary payload on a DoD vehicle. This satellite 

carried five Air Force Geophysics Laboratory and 

two Office of Naval Research space experimenfts to 

orbit. These experiments are measuring the intensity, distrihutioii, and effects oi protons, electrons, and alpha particles in space. 

Space Ground Support 

Range, Tracking, and Data Acquisition Facilities. 

DoD space activities are principally supported by 

the Air Force’s Eastern Test Range, Space and 

Missile Test Center, Satellite Control Facility, and 

30 
Arnold Engineering Development Center; the 

Army's White Sands Missile Range: and the Navy's 

Pacific Missile Test Center. A wide variety of test 

and evaluation activities is supported by these facilities which are available to DoD, other Federal components, industry, and international agencies. 

Eastern Test Range (ETR) . The mission of the 

Air Force ETR is to provide support to DoD space 

and ballistic missile operations, NASA space programs, and commercial communications sattellite 

launches. An improvement program at ETR is 

directed toward correcting operational deficiencies 

created by extended use of equipment beyond its 

expected life and providing increased operational 

capability consistent with support requirements. 

Current emphasis is on enhancing telemetry, radar 

tracking, range safety, real-time data, and adaptation of selected instrumentation to a mobile configuration. During 1976, launch and data acquisition support was provided to the NASA Viking 

Mars Lander program, communications satellites 

for commercial organizations and foreign governments, as well as several scientific and operational 

space payloads for DoD and NASA. T h e E T R was 

also actively engaged in planning to support the 

Space Shuttle which will be launched initially from 

the Kennedy Space Center in 1980. 

Space and Missile Test Center (SAMTEC). The 

mission of SAMTEC is to operate the Western 

Test Range and to support development and operational testing on aerospace vehicles for the DoD, 

NASA, and others. During 1976, the SAMTEC 

workload increased, primarily because of the complexity of user systems and requirements for greater 

quantities and higher quality of test data. Through 

programmed system upgrading such as the Telemetry Integrated Processing System and refinements 

in scheduling, SAMTEC can meet current and projected test requirements. SAMTEC supported many 

programs during 1976, including Minuteman 11 and 

111, Airborne Warning and Control System, B-I, 

F-15, F-16, Trident I, and various space launches. 

Planning for the Space Shuttle program at Vandenberg AFB continued. 

Satellite Control Facility (SCF) . The SCF supported 23 launches (15 DoD and NASA, 8 ballistic) , 51,000 satellite contacts, and 55,000 network 

support hours during 1976. The SCF tracking station at Guam was severely damaged by typhoon 

Pamela on May 21, 1976, but the station was restored to a minimum capability within two and 

a half months. Permanent restoration is in progress 

with completion expeoted in 1977. Work continues 

on an improved communications and data system 

for the worldwide tracking network and is expected 

to be completed in 1977. Replacement of the online computers at the Satellite Test Center was 

completed in February 1976. Several mission control centers were relocated, and two new ones were 

developed during 1976. Studies are continuing on 

the configuration and use of SCF resources in support of the Space Transportation System. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center 

(AEDC). AEDC has 40 test facilities that simulate 

flight environments on the ground. Over half of 

these facilities are unique because of one or more 

of the major test parameters they simulate. The 

types of work range from basic research and development associated with environmenltal testing to 

full-scale flight hardware testing. In 1976, AEDC 

provided over 45,000 test hours on major programs 

such as B-1 and F-16 aircraft, Air Launched Cruise 

Missile, Sea Launched Cruise Missile, and support 

to the Energy Research and Development Administration. In 1977, AEDC will begin acquisition of 

the Aeropropulsion Systems Test Facility which 

provides the capability to simulate the severe flight 

environments in which present and future aircraft 

engines must operate. With the new facility, airbreathing propulsion systems can be fully tested on 

the ground prior to flight, thus minimizing the need 

for extensive flight tests and avoiding possible costly 

modifications to complete propulsion systems. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). In 1976, 

the Army's WSMR supported DoD and NASA aeronautics and space programs by providing ground 

and flight safety, surveillance, command and control, data acquisition, and analyses. NASA program 

support included calibration and upper atmospheric sounding rocket programs using the 

Aerobee, numerous smaller rocket systems, and a 

variety of astronomical test programs. DoD efforts 

included sounding rockets and balloon measurements. 

Pacific Missile Test Center (PMTC). The PMTC 

supported DoD and NASA missile, aeronautics, 

and space programs in 1976. PMTC provided support range services for most launches from Vandenberg, including the NASA satellites Lageos and 

Itols-G. PMTC aircraft provided real-time telemetry 

reception and data transmission from the ATS 1 

and ATS 3 satellites to the NASA Rosman, North 

Carolina, tracking site for real-time relay through 

the NASA computer network. 

Space Research and Technology 

Space Research. Air Force space-related research 

and development is directed toward defining the 

space environment and assessing its effect on the 

performance of Air Force systems operating within 

it. Programs to measure atmospheric densi,ty and 

composition include rocket observations and accelerometers on satellites. Atmosphere Explorers 

31 
C, D, and E are providing data to define the 

changes in atmospheric density resulting from large 

geomagnetic disturbances. Rocket flights gather 

data on the chemical composition of the atmosphere 

at alrtitudes from 90 to 160 kilometers. Detailed 

measurements on the ion and neutron composition 

changes during auroral activity have been made 

and are being used to develop models of those 

processes. 

Another area in which the Air Force is actively 

involved concerns the measurements and monitoring of charged particles and electric fields in space. 

Data from satellite S72-1 have been used to improve models of the particle population of the 

Earth’s radiation belt. A series of measurements 

from the recently launched S3-2 satellite are being 

used to study the details of the energy input into 

the upper atmosphere. Instruments designed and 

built under Air Force sponsorship to measure 

charged particle fluxes, particle densities, and electric and magnetic field intensities at the S3-2 orbital 

altitude are currently providing the data to support 

this investigation. Measurements of the space environment, obtained from these satellites and other 

satellite programs, are being used to improve the 

estimates of charged particle dosage rates that orbiting spacecraft will experience under operational 

conditions. This information is needed to determine 

shielding requirements, satellite lifetime, and overall life-cycle costs. 

The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency 

(DARPA) is pursuing advanced sensor technology 

for strategic surveillance from space. New concepts 

in optics, detector arrays, and signal processing are 

being investigated. The technology development activities are supported by signature measurements 

and sensor design efforts to supply a solid phenomenological base for the application of these techniques to detection of a wide variety of strategic 

vehicles. Space experiments are being planned to 

evaluate the optimum concepts as well as provide 

relevant data from a real environment. 

Solar Monitoring. As part of the Air Force technology program in propagation environment prediction, solar processes are being investigated and 

solar emissions are measured. The programs in solar 

emissions include the theoretical study of the processes leading to solar flares. The Air Force Geophysics Laboratory works closely with the National 

Science Foundation’s Sacramento Peak Observatory. 

Air Force scientists are developing techniques to 

forecast the time-history of high energy solar particles that may impact the Earth following a major 

solar flare. The Air Force is designing and installing 

a worldwide Radio Solar Telescope Network for use 

with the Solar Optical Observing Network. 

Air Force scientists are also participating in 

rocket and satellite observations of solar ultraviolet 

(UV) emissions. Working closely with NASA scientists, Air Force personnel are studying the variation 

of solar UV observed by spectrophotometers on the 

,4tmosphere Explorer C, D, and E satellites. Rocket 

Hights designed to measure solar UV flares between 

250 and 1220 Angstroms have been made in conjunction with satellite measurements to develop 

models of the solar UV emission spectrum. 

The Solrad Hi project is a significant part of the 

Navy’s effort to measure and forecast solar parameters and their effect on electromagnetic systems. 

Two satellites were launched on March 14, 1976, 

into 112,000-kilometer circular orbits on a single 

Titan 111 booster as part of the Space Test Program. The Solrad Hi data are being received at the 

Naval Research Laboratory ground station at 

Blossom Point, Maryland. The data are transmitted 

to the Naval Electronic Laboratory Center, La 

Posta Astrogeophysical Laboratory, in California 

and to the NOAA Space Environmental Laboratory, 

Boulder, Colorado. Selected information is transmitted by La Posta to the Naval Communications 

Station, Stockton, California, to include predictions 

of propagation phenomena affecting very low frequency radio and navigation systems, ultra high 

frequency satellite systems, and sensors that respond 

to solar induced variations in the Earth’s magnetic 

field. 

Environmental Remote Sensing. The Air Force 

Geophysics Laboratory is monitoring space environment-induced effects as observed at the surface of 

the Earth. Using transmissions from beacons on 

both orbiting and geostationary satellites, ionospheric scintillation and signal time delay are being 

measured at a number of ground stations around 

the globe. These measurements indicate signal statistics (fade margins, message reliability) for satellite communications systems and positional accuracy for navigation satellite systems and Air Force 

surveillance radars. 

The Navy Environmental Remote Sensing Program explores the potential of satellites to provide 

a global data base for an integrated air-ocean prediction system for strategic and tactical fleet support. A coordinated research and development 

effort is assured through a continuous overview by 

the Navy Environmental Remote Sensing Coordinating and Advisory Group. Activities in 1976 included application of data from space and aircraft 

platforms as well as collection, analysis, and dissemination for operational fleet usage. The effectiveness of coastal surveys was improved using thermal, infared, and visual imagery with sea surface 

temperature maps. Installation has begun of a central Satellite Data Processing Center at Fleet Nu32 
merical Weather Central and of readout equipment 

aboard aircraft carriers for acquiring, analyzing, 

and disseminating data for strategic and tactical 

operations. The analysis of altimetry data from 

Geos 3 and Skylab, along with passive microwave 

data, contributed to development of sensors for 

global all-weather measurements at sea. Cooperative 

planning continued with NASA and NOAA to ensure effective use of the data from future satellites 

such as Tiros-N, Nimbus-G, Seasat-A, and Goes. 

Meteorological Satellite Applications. The Army 

meteorological satellite applications research program is examining ways to provide data in directly 

usable form to operational commanders in support. 

of nuclear fallout predictions, air operations, artillery, and ground mobility activities. Comparison 

tests conducted at White Sands Missile Range have 

demonstrated that vertical temperature profile 

radiometers on Sun-synchronous, polar-orbiting 

meteorological satellites produce vertical temperature, density, and wind structure information at 

15 to SO kilometer altitudes as accurate as or better 

than balloon sounding techniques. A direct readout 

ground station at White Sands Missile Range has 

provided the research information from SMS/ 

GOES satellites for use in designing a minute-by 

minute observational system to provide mesoscale 

meteorological data required by the Army. Research efforts are now concentrated on techniques 

for observing the intensity of severe storms, including areas of high turbulence, precipitation, and 

icing. 

Aeronautical Activities 

Aircraft and Aircraft Systems 

F-16 Combat Fighter Program. In 1976, F-16 development progressed according to schedule and 

included YF-16 flight test of many major avionics 

components. The first full-scale development aircraft rolled off the assembly line in October. Although the prime airframe and engine contractors 

are located in the United States, the F-16 is being 

produced as a partnership among five countries: 

the United States, Belgium, Denmark, Norway, and 

The Netherlands. On July 14, 1976, the initial coproduction subcontracts were signed with the industries of the European Consortium. 

F-15 Air Superiority Fighter. The F-15 air superiority fighter development is essentially complete, with only limited systems integration and 

ground support equipment testing remaining. Full 

production of nine aircraft per month was reached 

in April and more than 130 F-15s were delivered 

to the Tactical Air Command by the year’s end. 

The first. F-15 Tactical Fighter Wing at Langley 

AFB, Virginia, became operational in October. 

More than 18,000 flying hours have verified the 

superior performance indicated by the F-15 during 

developmental testing. 

F-18 Carrier-Based Strike Fighter. The F-18 is a 

new Navy fighter and attack aircraft to replace the 

F-4 and A-7 aircraft and to complement the F-14 

aircraft, The development of this new aircraft 

stresses the use of the latest proven technology and 

new thresholds of reliability and maintainability. 

The Secretary of Defense approved full-scale development in December 1975; detailed design of 

the aircraft, wind tunnel testing, testing of engine 

components, and fabrication of component test 

articles. The design reviews will extend through 

October 1977. In 1978, the preliminary flight rating test of the engine will be completed and the 

radar test bed will enter evaluation. Flight test of 

the F-18 will begin with the first flight in September 

1978. 

F-14A Carrier-Bused Tactical Fighter. The F-14A 

Tomcat continues to prove its versatility as an advanced missile platform and as a highly maneuverable fighter. F-14A squadrons are now routinely deployed on carriers of the Atlantic and Pacific Fleets. 

Ten operational and two training squadrons have 

completed transition to this aircraft, and two additional squadrons are programmed to receive the 

Tomcat in 1977. 

F-4G Wild Weasel Avionics. During 1976, the 

F-4G Wild Weasel completed development as a replacement for the F-105G and F-4C Weasel aircraft. The object of this Air Force program is to 

provide an enhanced defense suppression system to 

search out and destroy hostile air defense weapons. 

The first F-4G (a modification of the F-4E fighter) 

was delivered to the Air Force in October, and the 

second entered the depot facility for modification 

in November. Subsequently, a significant number 

of new F-4E aircraft will be modified to the F-4G 

Weasel configuration by Air Force personnel. With 

its improved avionics, the F-4G will employ advanced guided munitions and improved antiradiation missiles. 

AV-8B V/STOL Light Attack Aircraft. The AV8B aircraft, an advanced version of the Marine 

Corps AV-8A Harrier, will provide significant 

range/ payload improvements over the AV-8A 

through design refinements and aerodynamic 

changes. The AV-8B will replace both the AV-8A 

and A-4M light attack aircraft and will provide the 

Marine Corps with a flexibility especially suited 

for support of amphibious assault. The improved 

Harrier will permit quick reaction in support of 

troops ashore while operating from ships off the 

coast during initial landing phases, or from austere 

landing pads ashore during later phases of the 

battle. 
A-IO Close Air Support Aircraft. The A-10 is being built to support ground forces. The research 

and development phase of the program is drawing 

to a conclusion as production rates increase to the 

planned 15 aircraft per month. Approval has been 

given for the first 195 of the planned 733 production aircraft. Reports from the initial operational 

units have been favorable, and maintenance goals 

are being met so that an anticipated low support 

cost appears to be achievable. Test of the new 

GAU-8 gun, carried by the A-10, against armored 

vehicles clearly demonstrated the lethality of this 

new weapon against tank-type targets. The A-10 is 

a major element in the modernization of our tactical air forces. 

B-1 Bomber Program. The Air Force is continuing its program to modernize the strategic bomber 

force through development and procurement of 

the R-1 aircraft. As a key element of the nation’s 

strategic triad of manned bombers, land-based missiles, and sea-launched missiles, the new bomber 

will support the nuclear deterrent objectives of the 

United States through its ability to deliver heavy 

payloads over long ranges and through a hostile 

environment. 

Three research, development, test, and evaluation 

aircraft are currently flying in the test program at 

Edwards AFB to measure overall performance, to 

gather data on air loads, and to evaluate the offensive avionics subsystem. Primary emphasis has been 

placed upon low altitude penetration to test terrainfollowing equipment, weapons delivery capabilities, 

navigation, and communications. 

Production of a fourth B-1 development aircraft 

was begun in August 1975, and this aircraft, to be 

delivered in August 1979, will be used primarily 

for defensive avionics testing. Congressional approval has been given for production of aircraft 5, 

6, and 7. 

Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST). 

The AMST prototype program is designed to prove 

STOL (short takeoff and landing) technology, 

demonstrate operational utility, and provide an 

option for modernization of our tactical airlift 

forces. The AMST will provide an option to modernize tactical airlift forces and meet both current 

and forecast tactical mobility requirements for support of Army combat forces. 

Both the YC-14 and YC-15 (advanced development prototypes of the AMST aircraft) were flighttested during 1976. The two YC-15s completed 

their initial tests with over 450 flight hours accumulated. The YC-14 had its first flight in August 1976, 

and the second aircraft followed in October. Extensive performance tests are now being conducted 

with the two YC-14 aircraft. 

Advanced TankerlCargo Aircraft (ATCA) . Requests for proposals were released to industry on 

August 27, 1976, for procurement of the ATCA 

although first procurement has subsequently been 

delayed until at least 1979. As a result of previous 

commercial development of wide-bodied freighter 

aircraft, ATCA will be procured without the research and development normally associated with 

acquisition of a new weapon system. The Air Force 

intends to make only those changes necessary to the 

selected commercial aircraft to provide an air refueling capability and to make full use of existing 

cargo carrying potential. The Air Force expects to 

reduce costs further by contracting with private industry for logistical support. By taking full advantage of the existing worldwide support system for 

wide-bodied aircraft, the Air Force will avoid large 

costs associated with setting up a separate system of 

its own. 

Utility Tactical Trunsport Aircraft System 

(UTTAS) . The UTTAS helicopter is designed to 

replace a portion of the Army’s UH-1H to provide 

increased payload capability, increased survivability, 

and reduced maintenance as compared to the UH1H. The UTTAS will transport 11 combat-equipped 

troops, resupply them in combat, and perform aeromedical evacuation. Contracts were awarded for 

production of three prototypes in August 1972. 

Each prototype design was flown approximately 

1400 hours and a decision on the final prototype 

design was made in December 1976. 

CH-53E Helicopter. The two CH-53E production prototypes were completed in early 1976 and 

entered flight test. Correction of deficiencies on the 

horizontal stabilizer and improved rotor blades was 

required during Navy Preliminary Evaluation 

(NPE) 11, and changes made to the analog automatic flight control system verified the need for 

development of a digital control system for increased 

reliability and maintainability. The CH-53E completed NPE I11 during September and began initial 

Board of Inspection Trials in November. The CH53E will significantly enhance the heavy lift capability of amphibious forces. 

Advanced Attack Helicopter (AAH). The competitive airframe development program (phase 1 

of 2 phases) made major progress during 1976. 

Both contractors completed their developmental 

flight tests, and the four prototype aircraft were 

delivered to the Army in May for competitive tests. 

The tests were completed in early October. A Phase 

1 airframe contractor was selected in December for 

engineering development, including development 

and integration of weapons and target acquisition 

systems. Early in 1976, the Army decided to replace 

the Tube Launched Optically Tracked Wire 

Guided (TOW) missile system on the AAH with 

the Hellfire laser terminal-homing missile. This 

34 
will result in a far more lethal weapon system and 

will enhance AAH survivability significantly. 

CobralTO W. The Cobra/TOW program, including retrofit of some existing Cobra helicopters and 

purchase of new aircraft with the highly effective 

TOW missile, continued in 1976. Deliveries of 290 

retrofitted Cobra/TOW helicopters began in June 

1975 and will be completed in July 1977. Upgraded 

engine, transmission, and dynamic components will 

be incorporated in new aircraft delivered in early 

1977 and will be installed in the field on 290 retrofitted Cobra/TOWs. The Army’s plans include the 

retrofit of an additional 200 Cobra helicopters and 

a modernization program of the Cobra/TOW fleet. 

The modernization program will increase the 

Cobra’s secondary armament and enhance reliability 

substantially. The modernization program also includes a new composite structure main rotor blade 

that will increase hover performance and survivability and will double blade life. 

A new family of warheads for the 2.75-inch Folding Fin Aerial Rocket (FFAR) is being developed. 

This family includes screening smoke, illumination, 

and multipurpose submunition warheads. The 

fuzing for these warheads will be set remotely by 

the pilot from the cockpit of the aircraft. A 100 

percent increase in accuracy and a 30 percent increase in range will increase the overall effectiveness 

of the FFAR five-fold. This new family of 2.75-inch 

FFARS will be compatible with the delivery systems 

for both Cobra/TOW and the Advanced Attack 

Helicopter. 

CH-47 Modernization. The CH-47 modernization 

program is designed to increase the life of older 

CH-47A, B, and C aircraft and to improve performance of A and B models. The current CH-47 

fleet will be modernized through development and 

testing of seven systems: rotor, drive, hydraulic, 

electrical, advanced flight control, cargo handling, 

and auxiliary power unit. Integration of these 

changes will improve reliability and reduce vulnerability. The development contract was awarded 

June 4, 1976. 

E-3A Airborne Warning and Control Systems 

(AWACS). The E-3A provides a unique capability 

for all-altitude surveillance over land and sea 

coupled with appropriate command, control, and 

communications functions. It is rapidly deployable 

worldwide to provide a survivable surveillance, 

command, and control capability for either tactical 

control or air defense roles. 

Following the Secretary of Defense’s February 

1975 certification of E-3A cost effectiveness, Congress authorized production of 6 aircraft in FY 

1975, 4 in FY 1976, and 6 in FY 1977, with advanced procurement funds made available for 6 

more aircraft in FY 1978. In the FY 1978 DoD 

amended budget request, procurement funds for 3 

aircraft are requested, as well as advance procurement funds for 3 aircraft in FY 1979. The planned 

initial operational capability date of September 

1977 remains unchanged. 

Activity continued in various NATO forums regarding potential NATO procurement of a variant 

of the USAF E-3A (the NATO Airborne Early 

Warning and Control (AEWC) aircraft). The previously approved project definition studies, begun 

in June 1975, were completed in June 1976 and supported by a draft letter of offer and acceptance. The 

NATO Defense Ministers reviewed the results of the 

NATO contract definition activities on June 10, 

1976, and again on December 8, 1976. They endorsed in principle joint funding by interested nations for preparatory research and development that 

will preserve the option to buy a NATO AEWC 

force before the Air Force AWACS production line 

is terminated. 

E-4A/B Advanced Airborne Command Post. The 

E-4 will provide a modernized, highly survivable 

capability for command and control of our strategic 

forces on a continuous basis before, during, and 

after any nuclear attack on the U.S. The three 

interim E-4As have been operational in support of 

the National Command Authorities since September 1975. The test-bed aircraft is being equipped 

with advanced command, control, and communications equipment that has been developed for integration into this aircraft as the first E-4B. 

EF-IZIA Tactical Jamming System. The EF-111A 

Is being designed to provide ground and airborne 

radar jamming in support of all tactical air missions. The peacetime mission will be to provide 

training in electronic countermeasures for our own 

air defense and tactical forces. The final aircraft 

and avionics designs were completed in August 

1976. Airframe modification (less avionics) .for the 

first of two prototypes was completed in December. 

Initial software and qualification testing and antenna pattern testing were also accomplished during 1976. First flight test for flight stability is 

scheduled for February 1977. 

Tactical Airborne Signals Exploitation System 

(TASES). The Navy requires a carrier-based, landcompatible TASES to improve effectiveness of fleet 

weapon systems. The TASES program objective is 

to develop a multi-source tactical electronic warfare support system in a carrier aircraft. TASES 

will collect communicatiohs intelligence, electronic 

intelligence, and radar surveillance data: analyze it; 

and provide pertinent real-time information to the 

officer in tactical command. TASES is required to 

exploit, correlate, and corroborate electronic emissions used by hostile forces in communications, surveillance, acquisition, tracking, targeting, guidance, 

35 
and reporting. Electronic communications, infrared, 

acoustic intercept, and radar sensors will be integrated into the S-3A aircraft. The three crewmen 

will be assisted in processing and correlating intercepted data by a highly automated sensor management system to overcome the complexities of electronic warfare in the 1980s and 1990s. A feasibility 

demonstration model using one S-3A aircraft is being developed under the TASES program to demonstrate TASES capabilities in an “at sea” test. 

Joint Tactical Information Distribution System 

(JTZDS) . The JTIDS program objective is to develop a data link to satisfy multiple tactical operational users. When deployed it will provide a high 

capacity, jam-resistant, low-probability-of-intercept 

data link to interconnect participants in an area of 

tactical military operations. JTIDS employs modern spread spectrum and time division multipleaccess technology to provide jam-resistant communications as well as accurate relative navigation with 

other cochannel transmissions. 

All services are participating in this program and 

a joint program office has been established. Initial 

operational application of the early phase of JTIDS 

will be in the Airborne Warning and Control System aircraft. Compatibility with existing and anticipated systems will be stressed. 

Aeronuutical Research and Techmology 

Aircraft Structures and Materials Technology. 

All three services made significant progress in advanced composite structures and materials technology during 1976. The largest graphite/epoxy 

structure fabricated to date is the composite B-1 

horizontal stabilizer developed by the Air Force. 

Appreciable weight and cost savings are predicted. 

Other developments addressing secondary structures 

also appear to have impressive weight and cost 

advantages. 

Beyond weight and cost considerations, the Navy 

is evaluating structural systems consisting primarily 

of composite materials to improve corrosion resistance and battle damage tolerance. Components 

which have completed development testing include 

the S-3 spoiler, F-14 overwing fairing, and F-14 

main landing gear door. Development is continuing 

on a composite wing for the Marine Corps AV-8B. 

Hardware verification of critical wing assemblies 

will be completed in 1977 with fabrication and 

structural test of a full-scale wing in 1978. Future 

development work will expand to include assemblies for fuselage, landing gear, and engine nacelles 

for future vertical/short take-off and landing aircraft. 

The Navy continued development during 1976 

of a fiberglass composite rotor blade as a replacement for the H-46 metal rotor blade. The fiberglass 

blade is designed to be corrosion resistant and insensitive to small defects. Predictions are that it 

will require only visual pre-flight inspections and 

will increase the mean time between removal by 

500 percent. The development will significantly increase the effectiveness of the H-46 helicopter fleet. 

The Army efforts over the past years have resulted in development of composites with identified 

basic structural, fatigue, and manufacturing characteristics. Specific programs to fabricate and completely test blades of advanced composites have 

led to a manufacturing capability within industry. 

Rotor blades incorporating this technology are 

used in prototype helicopters for UTTAS and 

AAH competition. Replacement blades for AH-1Q 

and CH-47 emphasizing increased life, improved 

performance, and reduced radar cross section will 

use composite technology directly evolved from 

Army programs. 

Advanced blade concepts continue to be developed to further reduce fabrication and life cycle 

costs and improve survivability. Advanced hybrid 

composite concepts are being considered for other 

primary components. These include rotor hubs for 

reduced cost, weight, and vulnerability; airframes 

for reduced cost, weight, and maintenance; landing 

gear for increased crashworthiness; and drive shafting for reduced cost and weight. A metal matrix 

composite structure is being considered for lighter, 

quieter transmission cases. 

Aduanced Helicopter Rotor System. The basic 

objective of the Navy’s Advanced Helicopter Rotor 

System is to prove flight feasibility of the Circulation Control Rotor (CCR) concept-a non-articulated rotor in which aerodynamic angle of attack 

is achieved by boundary layer control, The 42- 

month, incrementally funded program for the feasibility demonstration continued on schedule during 

1976. The X-wing concept, incorporating CCR 

technology and high-speed rotor technology (Reverse Velocity Rotor), was started in development 

by the Navy and DARPA in 1976. The X-wing 

program will demonstrate high-speed rotor feasibility in parallel with the CCR program. Both 

programs are scheduled for completion in 1979. 

Helicopter Acoustics Research. The YO-SA quiet 

aircraft has been instrumented with microphones 

on wing tips and tail to provide an in-flight, far-field 

acoustic measurement system which will allow for 

triangulation on acoustic phenomena, This system 

will provide data which can be compared with 

scale-model acoustic data from the Army 2.1 x 3- 

meter wind tunnel. Results of this program have 

been applied to both civil and military helicopters. 

Advancing Blade Concept (ABC) Demonstration 

Aircraft. The ABC development program, initiated 

36 
by the Army in 1971, included fabrication and 

flight test of two aircraft to verify and demonstrate 

the concept of elimination of a tail rotor and a 

hingeless main rotor. The ABC demonstrator is 

equipped with two coaxial, counter-rotating, hingeless rotors. Flight tests of the second aircraft totaling 52 hours have been completed at level flight 

speeds up to 160 knots. Maneuvering capabilities 

up to 2.5 g have been established. The concept has 

demonstrated alleviation of retreating blade stall 

at speeds and altitudes where this is normally encountered, good hovering performance, rapid control response, low noise, and generally acceptable 

vibration characteristics. Current plans are to complete flight testing of the vehicle in its pure helicopter configuration in early 1977. 

Helicopter Rotor Aerodynamics. A number of 

aerodynamic investigations are under way to improve efficiency, drag, and vibration characteristics 

that affect helicopter performance and structural 

life. The dynamic stall phenomenon is being investigated to develop techniques to reduce high 

dynamic blade loads and to develop theoretical 

means for determining aerodynamic behavior of 

airfoils which penetrate the stall regime. A prototype in-flight rotor blade angle-of-attack sensor has 

been fabricated to determine blade/vortex interaction and to define quantitative time-dependent 

angle-of-attack variations. Development of a threeaxis laser velocimeter has been initiated and a 

velocity survey has been conducted on a static 

stalled airfoil section using the current laser velocimeter. A method to predict hub drag is being developed to identify important parameters, model 

the three dimensional flow field, and determine 

interference effects. A hub fairing, designed to reduce drag, will be tested in a wind tunnel to verify 

the design. 

Helicopter Aerodynamic Launch Environment. 

An attack helicopter experiences numerous transients, such as vibration, rotor downwash, and rotation and translation of the aircraft. These factors 

particularly affect the launch of weapons. During 

the first few meters of missile flight, the helicopter 

rotor induces a downwash about the missile which 

influences its accuracy. Computer programs for 

analytical prediction of this effect are now developed. The experimental program is being carried 

out by Army Aviation Engineering Flight Activity 

and data are being processed by Army Missile 

Command. 

US. Army Avionics. The Laser Obstacle Terrain 

Avoidance Warning System (LOWTAWS) was 

flight tested in 1976 and successfully detected obstacles as delicate as a small wire. The addition of 

other functions to LOWTAWS, such as terrain 

following and range finding, is being examined. The 

Army is assessing the potential of charged coupled 

devices to provide a lower cost solution to the wire 

detection problem. The AN/ASN-128 Doppler 

navigation subsystem neared the end of competitive, 

design-to-cost engineering development in September 1976. Starting in October 1976, the AN/ASN128 was procured for installation in Utility Tactical 

Transport Aircraft Systems and AH-IS helicopters 

and provides an accurate, self-contained navigation capability. 

Synthetic Flight Training System (SFTS) . The 

UH-1 H SFTS, which simulates helicopter flight 

characteristics under instrument flight conditions, 

has been sent to the field. A prototype program is 

underway for development of a CH-47 and AH-1 

simulator. Both systems will have a television 

model-board visual system that will permit simulation of the full range of flight characteristics for 

both helicopters. The AH-1 simulator will also 

have a weapon system simulation capability using 

model-board and computer-generated imagery. A 

prototype program for a UTTAS simulator was 

begun in September 1976, with delivery expected 

in September 1978. Research now in progress will 

lead to development of an Advanced Attack Helicopter simulator with full weapon systems simulation. The prototype program will begin in 1979, 

with delivery expected in 1981. 

Reseawh in Aircraft Propulsion Systems. A major 

milestone in the T700 engine development program 

was reached in March 1976, when the 150-hour endurance demonstration of the military qualification 

test was completed. A program was initiated in 1976 

to design, fabricate, and test advanced transmission 

components such as gears, bearings, shafts, and seals 

to achieve a 20 percent reduction in weight, a 100 

percent increase in mean time between removals, 

and a 20 percent reduction in costs. 

The Small Turbine Advanced Gas Generator 

program demonstrated improvements in specific 

fuel consumption of 30 percent at typical helicopter 

cruise conditions and increases in specific horsepower of 45 percent relative to current production 

engines. Gas generators have been used as test vehicles for other programs and have provided technology for the proposed 800-shaft-horsepower advanced technology demonstrator engine program 

which is to start in 1977. 

In the Aircraft Propulsion Subsystems Integration program, advanced low spool (fan and fan 

turbine) turbine engine components are integrated 

with the Advanced Turbine Engine Gas Generator 

(ATEGG) to form complete propulsion systems. 

Technology demonstrator engines are assembled 

and tested to obtain the additional critical component assessments required to demonstrate that 

advanced turbine engine component technologies 
can be confidently transitioned to engineering development. The Joint Technology Demonstrator 

Engine (JTDE) is an Air Force/Navy program to 

assess the advanced turbine engine technologies for 

a broad range of military missions. The initial 

JTDE demonstration will occur in 1979. 

The ATEGG program will integrate the most 

advanced turbine engine component technologies 

into a gas generator in which the performance, 

cost, and lifetime characteristics of advanced technologies can be assessed under realistic conditions. 

Design for reduced life cycle cost has become an 

integral objective of this program. Future emphasis 

will be directed toward incorporating dedicated 

gas generators into a structural/life testing program. 

The alternate fuels program is part of a long 

term coordinated effort among the services, NASA, 

and ERDA to ensure that liquid fuels obtained 

from domestic resources such as oil, shale, tar sands, 

and coal will be acceptable in high performance 

engines. The initial DoD effort is an experimental 

program to produce aviation turbine fuels from 

three shale oils and two coal liquids. Results obtained to date provide encouraging evidence that 

the aviation industry can use fuel produced from 

the vast U.S. oil shale resources. 

Relationship with NASA 

Aerolwltics and Astrwzuutics Coordinating Board 

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating 

Board (AACB) met four times during the past 

year. The AACB primarily addresses major policy 

issues of interest to the DoD and NASA in space 

and aeronautics. It Serves as the highest level formal 

coordination mechanism between the two agencies. 

On January 23, 1976, the AACB Co-Chairmen 

agreed to work together to resolve the Space Shuttle 

orbiter procurement issue. Joint studies were undertaken by Air Force and NASA to examine the 

requirements for Space Shuttle orbiters based on 

national traffic projections for space launches, alternatives and implications of procuring fewer than 

five orbiters, and funding alternatives, On June 8, 

1976, the Office of Management and Budget formally advised DoD and NASA that more information 

would be required on procurement of additional 

orbiters and requested an expanded joint DoD/ 

NASA study. The requested joint study concluded 

that five orbiters constitute the minimum fleet size 

needed to support the National Space Transportation System. The integrated Shuttle traffic model is 

established at 560 Shuttle flights, of which 112 are 

allocated to DoD. NASA and DoD agree that the 

two additional orbiters needed to make up the 

fiveLorbiter fleet should be procured by NASA. 

The NASA/DoD Memorandum of Understanding on Management and Operation of the Space 

Transportation System, which was signed last year, 

has been updated. It will be the basis for more 

detailed documentation further defining management and operations concepts and the specific roles 

and responsibilities of each agency. 

The Board is now examining the question of 

reimbursement for Shuttle services provided to 

DoD. In June 1976, NASA provided DoD with a 

proposed preliminary policy for detailed examination. NASA also briefed the Office of Management 

and Budget, congressional committees, and personnel from the General Accounting Office. DoD comments have been provided to NASA and negotiations are under way. 

This past year the Aeronautics Panel was requested to develop a recommended power-augmented ram wing technology program. Considerable interest has developed in this technology. 

Analyses, supported by very recent model test data, 

indicate a good vertical take off and landing capability for surface effects vehicles. Funding is now 

included in the budgets of both agencies to examine 

this technology in more detail and to evaluate its 

applicability to a variety of potential Navy ant1 

Air Forces uses. 

The Board maintained overview of the National 

Aeronautical Facilities Program (NAFP) which 

was defined and submitted to Congress last year. 

Congress appropriated in FY 1977 $437 million for 

the Air Force Aeropropulsion System Test Facility 

(ASTF) under the Defense Military Construction 

Bill. The Corps of Engineers has issued requests 

for proposals for construction starting in 1977. 

ASTF will be in operation in 1982. The two other 

facilities which comprise the NAFP are the NASA 

12 x 24-meter Subsonic Wind Tunnel modification 

and the NASA National Transonic Facility, both 

of which should be in operation in 1981. The Aeronautics Facilities Subpanel reviewed the initial 

Transonic Facility test section design and recommended redesign to achieve a greater angle-of-attack 

test capability to meet future test needs. The Board 

will continue to assess design and construction cost 

implications of recommended changes. A management and test funding plan for National Aeronautical Facilities is also in preparation. 

Joint Programs 

Rotor System Research Aircraft. This joint Army/ 

NASA program will provide an in-house research 

capability to evaluate the potential of promising 

new advanced rotor concepts, to investigate and 

document the characteristics of current or develop38 
mental rotors, and to verify numerous areas of supporting research and technology. The first of two 

aircraft was received on June 7 and first flight of 

this aircraft took place late in 1976. 

Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft. The Tilt Rotor 

Research Aircraft project, a joint Army/NASA 

program, wiII lead to a complete flight demonstration of the tilt rotor concept and an evaluation of 

tilt rotor capabilities with respect to mission performance, survivability, and safety. On August 1, 

1973, a contract was awarded for design, fabrication, 

and testing of two XV-15 Tilt Rotor Aircraft. Fabrication of the first aircraft is complete. The second 

aircraft is in final assembly. First hover flight is 

scheduled for January 1977, followed by full-scale 

wind tunnel and extensive flight tests. 

Spacecraft Charging Technology. The Air Force 

Geophysics Laboratory (AFGL) is actively involved 

in the joint USAF/NASA Spacecraft Charging 

Technology program. In addition to developing 

theoretical and empirical models of the natural 

environment leading to spacecraft electrical charging at synchronous altitude, AFGL is providing instrumentation to be flown on the Scatha satellite 

(P78-2) . This instrumentation includes electrostatic analyzers and electron ion-beam emitters. 

The objective is to measure the natural environment of near-synchronous altitudes with emphasis 

on how this environment leads to the process of 

spacecraft charging. 

Astronaut Selection. DoD and NASA plan to 

enter a new agreement which provides for DoDwide participation in the astronaut selection cycle 

for the forthcoming Space Shuttle program. NASA 

wants at least 15 pilots and 15 mission specialists. 

Applications will be accepted beginning in January 

1977 with selection planned in December 1977. 

DoD expects to nominate 90 pilots and 90 mission 

specialists and submit the names to NASA in July 

1977 for consideration. At present, DoD has 14 

officers assigned to NASA as astronauts and about 

half have prior space flight experience. 

Technical Development Support. DoD has detailed a number of technically trained persons to 

NASA to assist in programs of mutual interest. The 

technological transfer back to DoD in unique functional areas is important. The total number of detailees under the program is 45 (33 from Air Force, 

3 from Navy, and 9 from Army). They are working 

in a variety of operational and research and development programs but most are associated with the 

Space Transportation System development. Their 

activities include space mission planning, maintenance analysis, avionics and communications security, crew procedures, and payloads software. 

Seasat Data Processing. A DoD/NASA memorandum of agreement has been signed to provide for 

a real-time user data processing experiment with 

Seasat-A. Under this agreement NASA will deliver 

all Seasat-A data collected at Fairbanks, Alaska, to 

the Navy’s Fleet Numerical Weather Central 

(FNWC) at Monterey, California, within six hours 

of sensing. FNWC will process these data into 

Earth-located geophysical units (wave heights, sea 

surface temperatures, surface winds, etc.) and use 

these in their global maritime weather analysis and 

forecasting processes. The processed data will also 

be made available for NASA delivery to Seasat-A 

users. The experiment is an important step in several areas: (a) demonstrating the usefulness of 

oceanographic satellite data in naval operations, 

(b) providing useful information on the performance and capabilities of Seasat-A sensors, (c) determining methods needed to fully exploit this new 

source of oceanographic data in weather and ocean 

forecasting. 

39 
IV 

I I 

Department of Commerce 

Introduction 

Within the Department of Commerce, aeronautics and space programs are carried out by the 

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau of Standards, the Office 

of Telecommunications, the Maritime Administration, and the Bureau of the Census. 

The broad goals of these agencies include programs to ensure that the environment and its resources are wisely used; to strengthen and advance 

science and technology and to facilitate their effective application for the public benefit; to improve 

ship communications, navigation, safety, and management techniques; to provide specialized engineering, management, and advisory assistance to 

other Federal agencies in telecommunications applications; and to provide information on population 

trends, urban growth, and internal structure of national land areas. 

These goals are pursued by establishing and 

maintaining operational environmental satellite 

systems; by continuing marine resource assessment 

and prediction programs; by monitoring the marine environment continuously with improved 

sensors on ships, aircraft, and satellites; by improving weather observations and forecasts through the 

use of automated observation stations and improved radar systems, and continued atmospheric 

research programs; by conducting research in 

weather modification; by improving data collection, 

processing, and dissemination techniques; by providing basic measurement and calibration methods 

for operating technical systems and engineering 

data for the design and construction of sophisticated space and aeronautics equipment; by installing, testing, and evaluating shipboard satellite 

equipment; by conducting electromagnetic wave 

propagation studies to improve aerospace communications; and by applying satellite images to 

demographic studies. 

Satellites in Environmental Monitoring and 

Prediction 

Enuironmental Satellite Operations 

At the beginning of 1976, the National Environmental Satellite Service (NESS) of the National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

was operating three polar-orbiting satellites: Essa 8 

of the Tiros Operational Satellite (TOS) series and 

Noaa 3 and Noaa 4 of the Improved TOS (ITOS) 

series. On March 12, 1976, Essa 8 was deactivated 

after its second camera failed. Launched December 

15, 1968, the satellitc had completed more than 

33,000 orbits and provided Automatic Picture 

Transmission service to more than 120 nations. 

Noaa 5 was launched on July 29, 1976, and became 

the primary operational polar-orbiting satellite on 

September 15, 1976. At the same time Noaa 4 was 

placed on standby as the in-orbit backup. Noaa 3 

was deactivated August 31, 1976. 

Development of the Tiros-N series, the third 

generation of operational polar-orbiting satellites, 

is continuing. These satellites will replace the present Itos series and provide more accurate data for 

environmental monitoring and prediction. This 

new system will consist of two satellites in orbit at 

833 kilometers. Sun-synchronous, one satellite 

will orbit south across the equator in the local 

morning and the other north across the equator in 

local afternoon to provide maximum daylight coverage. Tiros-N, the NASA prototype, is scheduled 

for launch early in 1978; about six months later 

Noaa A, NOAA’s first operational version of this 

series, will be launched. 

In 1976, NESS contracted for development, installation, and test of the Tiros-N series ground system. A new ground system is required because of the 

change to a completely digital data system and increased demand by operational users for timely 

delivery of processed data. The major components 

of the ground system are the Data Acquisition and 

Control Subsystem and the Data Processing and 

Services Subsystem. 

No Geostationary Operational Environmental 

Satellites (GOES) were launched in 1976. On Jan40 
uary 8, 1976, Goes 1 was positioned at 75" West 

longitude to replace the Synchronous Meteorological Satellite, SMS 1, which was moved to 105" West 

longitude on February 16, 1976, and placed on 

operational standby. SMS 2 was moved to 135" 

West longitude on December 19, 1975. These 

satellites continue to provide nearly constant viewing of severe storms, helping weather forecasters 

to provide timely warnings to the public. 

In October 1976, NESS increased to 68 the number of experimental Weather Facsimile broadcasts 

from Goes 1 and SMS 2. The duration of each 

broadcast is 8 minutes. The products transmitted 

are processed visible and infrared spin-scan radiometer images from the geostationary satellites and 

processed scanning radiometer images from the 

polar-orbiting satellites. Plain language operational 

messages also are broadcast once a day from each 

satellite. 

Uses of Environmental Satellite Data 

Determining Winds and Temperatures. Geostationary satellite wind data continued to be provided 

to the National Meteorological Center (NMC) for 

use in their numerical weather forecast models. 

However, research continued on automated computation of winds from cloud motions observed by 

these satellites. Motions were computed from temperature data at three levels. Objective analysis 

was made of the computed winds at the lowest level 

to eliminate invalid estimates and improve the 

quality and quantity of wind data. Similar objective 

analyses applied to upper levels provided wind 

field information in data-sparse areas. This technique is being implemented operationally. 

Wind data derived from geostationary satellite 

pictures were used to study the relationship between diverging jet streams and severe weather. 

Studies of five cases suggested that severe weather 

occurs between the polar and subtropical jet 

streams but is sharply inhibited at and to the south 

of the subtropical jet stream. 

Radiance measurements from the Noaa 4 and 5 

Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer were being used to derive polar jet stream and upper 

tropospheric winds. Radiation from the 150 to 

100-millibar level provides a direct indication of 

the thermal wind pattern above the polar jet level. 

Using these data, a wind scale giving 300-millibar 

speeds as a function of radiance gradient and latitude has been derived. These data also are used 

routinely by the NMC in numerical weather forecasting programs. 

Nimbus 6 High Resolution Infrared Sounder 

(HIRS) data were used in two Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) Data System 

Tests (DST). This concept was used to test proposed observation, data management, and data 

utilization systems for the First GARP Global 

Experiment in 1978. Global sets of conventional 

and satellite meteorological observations were collected, processed, and analyzed. These data sets 

were used in global analysis and forecast models 

to determine the accuracy and utility of the various 

observing systems. In particular, experiments were 

made to determine the impact on numerical forecast systems by satellite-derived atmospheric temperatures and cloud-tracked winds. During DST 

5, Nimbus 6 temperature profiles were compared 

with mean temperatures from the NMC analyses. 

The results approached the theoretical limit of 

remote sounding by the Nimbus 6 HIRS. Introducing these data into the NMC model demonstrated that they provide accurate information 

unavailable from conventional sources. 

Monitoring Global Radiation. Processing of 

Nimbus 6 Earth Radiation Budget (EKB) Experiment data continued in 1976. Global maps and 

latitudinal profiles of albedo, longwave radiation, 

and net radiation to space were produced. Limited 

comparisons of the results from ERB scanning 

data agreed more closely with Noaa 4 Scanning 

Radiometer (SR) data than with calculated Nimbus 6 HIRS data. Also, monthly global net radiation values derived from the ERB wide-angle data 

show a cyclical variation about zero, similar to 

those observed from earlier satellites. The solar 

constant, which is important in determining net 

radiation, varied less than 0.2 percent during the 

first year in orbit. 

In 1976 NOAA SR-derived heat budget information continued to be processed. Results from a 

study comparing albedo and longwave radiation 

data for the summers of 1974 and 1975 showed that 

in 1975 more solar energy was available for heating 

over continental Asia, more absorbed solar energy 

reached North Pole regions, and more net radiation over the eastern North Atlantic reached the 

sea surface. Consequently, there was increased intensity of the Asian monsoon, decreased ice and 

snow cover in the Canadian Arctic, and warmer 

water temperatures near the Azores. 

Enuironmental Warning Services. Over 100 satellite-interrogated platforms of the GOES Data 

Collection System (DCS) provided data and 

services to users in the United States and Canada 

during 1976. Requests for DCS services also were 

received from Chile and Bolivia. This system is 

being upgraded with second-generation ground 

processing equipment, and through automation of 

the operational and test function. For this purpose 

four computers, two at NOAA's Wallops, Virginia, 

41 
Command and Data Acquisition Station and two 

at NOAA’s World Weather Building, Camp 

Springs, Maryland, have been installed and are 

now undergoing operational tests. This fully redundant system will permit continuous 24-hour 

reception except during the spring and autumn 

equinox periods when the satellites are eclipsed 

by the Earth. Data will be received from 2000 platforms and can be expanded to handle more. The 

DCS provides a near-instantaneous source of information for many applications such as river and flood 

monitoring and forest-fire index measurements. A 

recent test involving relay of data from a prototype 

Shipboard Environmental Acquisition System 

demonstrated the technical feasibility of collecting 

marine environmental data from ocean vessels. 

To improve reception from Data Collection 

Platforms located on the periphery of the communication range (Earth edge), a new DCS Ultra 

High Frequency antenna is being developed; 

this antenna will provide maximum omnidirectional gain at low elevation angles to the spacecraft. Two prototype antennas have been built; 

one will be placed on a buoy and the other on a 

ship for extended operational tests. 

The GOES-TAP system, instituted in 1975 for 

distributing images received from the GOES satellites, has now been expanded to more than 20 

subscribers. This system permits Federal, state, and 

local agencies, television stations, universities, 

private enterprise environmental consulting firms, 

and others to receive any of the variety of standard 

sectors available to the NESS Satellite Field 

Services Stations. The National Weather Service 

now provides this service directly from its Weather 

Service Forecast Offices (WSFO). Users near the 

local WSFOs may obtain the limited inventory of 

satellite products more economically because of 

shorter communication lines. 

In 1976, the National Environmental Satellite 

Service (NESS) initiated a new cloud analysis 

chart based on geostationary infrared data. The 

chart was transmitted experimentally on facsimile 

circuits once each day. Prepared primarily for 

aviation use, it depicted the areas and types of 

clouds and cloud tops over the continental United 

States and adjacent oceans. 

On July 6, 1976, the Satellite Field Services Station (SFSS) at Kansas City started to monitor and 

analyze satellite photographs showing weather conditions in the Gulf of Mexico. This is an area 

where severe weather systems go undetected because 

of the sparsity of conventional surface and upper air 

observations. The Kansas City SFSS combines lowlevel satellilte wind data with other satellite meteorological interpretations into a Gulf of Mexico Satellite Interpretation Message. These messages are 

transmitted each six hours to the WSFOs at New 

Orleans and San Antonio. Whenever observed 

weather conditions warrant, messages are updated 

and transmitted off schedule. Strong emphasis is 

placed on the early detection of small scale, shortlived severe weather phenomena which can adversely affect oil drilling operations, boating, and 

aviation in the Gulf. Three times each week this 

message includes an analysis of the Gulf LOOP Current, providing information to commercial and 

sports fishermen on the probable locations of the 

most productive fishing areas with significant savings to fishermen of both time and fuel. 

NESS used enhanced infrared images from the 

geostationary satellites to develop a method for 

estimating hourly rainfall. Empirical relationships 

were established between rainfall amounts and the 

growth, merging, and decay of cor.vective cloud 

systems. The method, now being tested, will be 

applicable to flash flood forecasting, especially in 

areas where there are no reporting stations. These 

infrared images also were used to estimate hurricane intensity, especially during nighttime. 

NESS is developing a method to estimate winds 

by tracking low-level cumulus clouds visible in 

one-half-mile-resolution Goes 1 images taken at 

three-minute intervals. This method will provide 

up to twice as many wind samples as obtained 

from longer interval images. This includes areas 

where no winds can be obtained from 30-minute 

images. These short-interval pictures give new insight into the development, growth, and movement 

of severe storms. 

Severe drought in much of the Midwest and 

Canada in 1976 contributed to many forest fires. 

By early June more than 243 square kilometers 

were on fire in a number of remote locations in 

Ontario. Noaa 4 and Goes 1 images were used to 

establish the location and relative size of the fires, 

thus providing considerable assistance to the firefighters. 

In a cooperative effort between the National 

Weather Service (NWS) and NESS, on nights when 

frost is expected, the Miami SFSS provides specially 

enhanced infrared Goes 1 images and interpretations to the Weather Service Office at Ruskin, 

Florida. This program was developed by NASA and 

NWS to support the Florida citrus industry. The 

method was first successfully tested in January 1976, 

and became operational during the 1976-1977 winter. The satellite images display ground temperatures critical to freeze predictions. Ground temperatures, monitored every 30 minutes over the entire 

citrus belt, are accurate to within 1°C. Heating the 

citrus groves cost the growers an average of $830,- 

000 an hour as opposed to $37,000 an hour during 

42 
normal operating periods. Thus more reliable forecasts produce significant economic benefits. 

Search and Rescue Support. NESS provided satellite data to assist in Search and Rescue (SAR) 

planning #throughout the U.S. Air Force Inland 

SAR area and for U.S. Coast Guard SAR missions 

in United States coastal waters. 

The Air Force Rescue and Coordination Center 

used geostationary satellite cloud pictures to detect 

areas of severe weather not observed by conventional means. This information enabled the center 

to provide almost immediate aid to pilots in distress. Satellite photographs, available every 30 

minutes, were used to determine if certain preferred mountain routes were open or blocked by 

weather, and to determine if a missing pilot could 

have flown over a storm or had to fly through the 

weather. The California wing of the Civil Air 

Patrol has been able to reduce most of its searches 

from an average of two weeks to two days by 

using satellite data. Also, satellite data enable 

SAR forces to avoid many of the hazards they 

normally would face during a rescue attempt. 

The Coast Guard has been using both polarorbiting and geostationary satellite data to find 

lost or disabled ships and aircraft. Wind velocities 

and directions, major ocean currents such as the 

Gulf Stream, low-level cloud cover and fog, and 

sea surface temperatures are carefully evaluated 

from satellite data. Using this material, NESS personnel can suggest to the Coast Guard the areas 

with the greatest potential for successful search 

and rescue operations. 

Determining Ocean Conditions. NOAA has prepared a Program Development Plan and established within NESS a special project to coordinate 

research and applications of Seasat-A data. SeasatA is a NASA oceanographic satellite scheduled for 

launch in 1978. Planned research includes experiments on surface winds, waves, sea surface temperatures, ice, tides, and geoid determinations, and a 

demonstration element directed toward applying 

Seasat-A data in near-real time to meteorology and 

oceanography. 

NESS continues to sponsor development of techniques to use satellite data to measure ocean color 

and chlorophyll-a, an important chemical indicator 

of ocean productivity. These data will be obtained 

from a Coastal Zone Color Scanner to be carried 

on the Nimbus-G satellite. 

NESS has developed a technique to improve the 

accuracy of sea surface temperatures (SST) derived 

from polar-orbiting satellite scanning-radiometer 

measurements. The calibrated Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometer (VTPR) water vapor 

channel (18.69 micrometer) data and SST data 

were used in new equations to produce temperatures corrected for atmospheric absorption. 'To 

account for the amount of cloud cover, data from 

the VTPR 11.97- and 13.38-micrometer channels 

were applied to the uncorrected SST measurements 

to determine if the data were from clear, moderately 

cloudy, or heavily cloudy areas. The result of these 

modifications is a 40 percent increase in the number of reliable SSTs. Today, the SST field is derived solely from satellite data and is no longer 

dependent on climatology for estimates in datasparse areas. 

Infrared images from Goes 1 were used by NESS 

to produce time-lapse films of the Gulf Stream 

along the Florida coast. Northward propagating 

eddies were detected at the inshore edge of the 

current. A project was initiated to study the Gulf 

Stream deflection at 32" north. Satellite data were 

used to map the topography of the current in this 

area. 

Investigations conducted during the Arctic Ice 

Dynamics Joint Experiment support the hypothesis 

that different sea ice types (multi-year, first year, 

etc.) can be determined from temperature distributions. Very High Resolution Radiometer data from 

the NOAA satellites were compared with aircraft 

infrared scanner data. Aircraft and satellite data 

sets show a striking similarity. 

NOAA, NASA, and the Coast Guard conducted 

a joint remote-sensing ice reconnaissance experiment along the north coast of Alaska. A Coast 

Guard C-130 aircraft demonstrated the feasibility 

of observing ice conditions with a Side-Looking 

Airborne Radar. The ice data proved valuable to 

the barge operators resupplying Prudhoe Bay. In 

addition, the Anchorage Satellite Field Services 

Station supplied ice charts from satellite data for 

use by the barge and oil companies in their daily 

planning. 

Determining Lake Condition. The NOAA Great 

Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory 

(GLERL) and NESS continued their studies of 

whitings (chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate). Comparisons of aircraft, ship, and satellite 

data show that whitings occur just below the lake 

surface in relatively warm water and are most 

evident in late summer following periods of upwelling. The whitings, which can continue for 

several months, serve as a tracer mechanism for 

assessing horizontal circulation in the Great Lakes, 

and also are useful in studies of carbon dynamics 

and the distribution of nutrients in the Lakes. 

GLERL used Landsat and in situ data to detect 

sediment transport patterns to verify circulation 

models for western Lake Erie, Lake St. Clair, and 

the St. Clair River. Landsat data, used to study the 

influence of the spring runoff into Lake Michigan, 

show the shape of the river plumes in the Lake 

43 
and the distribution of sediment, carbon compounds, and nutrients. 

GLERL used NOAA satellite data to monitor 

ice formation, growth, decay, and distribution on 

the Great Lakes. In addition, these data are being 

used to support ship operations, and for research 

on the geographical extent and physical properties 

of ice. 

NESS has demonstrated that the Multi-Spectral 

Scanner data from the Landsat satellite can be used 

to assess the coverage of chlorophyll-a in the Great 

Lakes when concentrations exceed 10 micrograms 

per liter. Use of ‘these satellite data enables scientists to obtain information on nutrient productivity 

and to describe surface current circulation. 

Determining Hydrological Conditions. The 

NOAA geostationary satellites continued to play 

an important role in monitoring snow cover in 

United States and Canadian river basins. The number of snow basins mapped during the 1975-1976 

winter season was increased to 22. Images from 

Goes 1 and SMS 2, every 30 minutes, increase the 

chances of obtaining a cloud-free view of the Earth. 

These geostationary satellite images are superior 

to polar-orbiting satellite data for delineating small 

bodies of water such as lakes and reservoirs. NESS 

hydrologists forward daily interpretations of snow 

cover conditions to the National Weather Service 

River Forecast Center in Kansas City. These data 

are used to forecast river levels and issue flood 

warnings and also are critical to irrigation planning, hydro-electric power generation, and reservoir regulation. 

Snow and ice charts of the Northern Heniisphere, derived from satellite data from 1966 

through 1975, were used by NESS to determine 

the extent of snow cover in Eurasia and North 

‘4merica. These analyses showed no significant 

overall increase in snow cover but larger fluctuations occurred in Eurasia than in North America. 

Using satellites to monitor worldwide snow cover 

provides important information on global temperature and albedo, each of which has an impact on 

hydrology, agriculture, and weather forecasting. 

Monitoring Agricultural Conditions. In cooperation with the Great Plains Council, NESS is investigating the ability of geostationary satellites to 

gather insolation data. These data will be compared with data collected at ground test sites. 

Insolation is an important parameter in yield 

models for many Great Plains crops such as 

sorghum and wheat. 

Noaa 4 satellite data were used in the development of a method to control locusts in southern 

Algeria. The U.N. Food and Agricultural Organization used Very High Resolution Radiometer 

images to locate rainfall areas and hence areas of 

emergent vegetation. Algerian control teams examined these areas to determine if insecticide 

spraying was needed to inhibit the development 

of migratory swarms. This application of satellite 

data to locust control shows promise and may 

eventually be applied to the entire desert locust 

zone, covering about 3 1 million square kilometers 

from Dakar, Senegal, to Daccah, Bangladesh. 

The Large Area Crop Inventory Experiment, a 

cooperative effort of NOAA, NASA, and the Department of Agriculture, is designed to develop 

technology to provide accurate and timely crop 

production estimates. Computer-assisted analyses 

of archived meteorological satellite data are used 

to develop mathematical models to relate weather 

to crop yields. In 1976, the Environmental Data 

Service Center for Climatic and Environmental 

Assessment developed mathematical models for 

Russia, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and India and 

refined existing yield models for the United States 

and Canada. 

Fisheries Monitoring. To help tuna and salmon 

fishermen find productive fishing grounds along 

the California coast, chart coverage was expanded 

during 1976 to include the area between the Strait 

of Juan de Fuca and Point Concepcion, California. 

These charts, based on Noaa 4 and 5 and SMS 2 

images, depict the ocean surface thermal structure. 

They are produced by the San Francisco Satellite 

Field Services Station and transmitted experimentally to fishermen by NOAA’s Sea Grant Advisory 

Agent. The National Marine Fisheries Service 

(NMFS) and Western Fishboat Owners Association transmit this information operationally by 

single-sideband radio. 

In another effort to assist fishermen, the InterAmerican Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC), 

in cooperation with the NMFS Southwest Fisheries 

Center, correlated NOAA and Landsat satellite 

images with surface-truth data to determine the 

feasibility of using satellite data to identify upwelling areas and ocean frontal boundaries. Albacore migration in the eastern North Pacific has 

been found to be associated with ocean fronts. 

NMFS, state agencies, and private industry 

demonstrated that the distribution of menhaden 

and thread herring can be inferred from Landsat 

Multi-Spectral Scanner data. A test conducted in 

July 1976 used color differentiation in Landsat 

images to determine high-probability fishing areas. 

Reports from the fishing industry indicated that 

most of the predicted high-probability fishing areas 

produced good fish yields. 

Environmental Monitoring Using Data Buoys. 

The NOAA Data Buoy Office (NDBO) expanded 

its capability to acquire environmental data from 

oceanic areas by advancing data buoy technology. 
In June 1976 the NDBO conducted a pilot data 

communication demonstration between a Pacific 

Ocean buoy and thc World Meteorological Center, 

Suitland, Maryland, using the GOES satellite as a 

communications link instead of standard radio 

links. All NDBO meteorological buoys used this 

satellite communication link by the end of 1976. 

Marine meteorological information from datasparse areas is obtained from deep ocean, continental shelf, and drifting buoys. The deep ocean 

buoys provide three-hourly data for national and 

international weather services. Continental shell 

and drifting buoys provide environmental data tq 

the scientific research community, offshore industries, fisheries, environmental protection groups, 

and recreational interests. During 1976, the NDBO 

had nine deep ocean and eight continental shelf 

buoys operating in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 

and the Gulf of Mexico. Over 80 drifting buoys 

were deployed in the oceans of the world. 

Other Satellite and Space Applications 

International Cooperation 

Sharing Data. NESS expanded assistance in the 

form of satellite views of major disaster areas to 

the Office of Foreign Disaster Relief Coordinator 

of the Agency for International Development 

(AID), Department of State. This information was 

used to plan relief operations for and aerial photographic surveys of disaster areas, including earthquakes in Italy and Guatemala, floods in Nicaragua, Typhoon Pamela in Guam, and Typhoon 

Ruby in the Phillipines. 

The United States and the Soviet Union continued to exchange environmental satellite data 

in 1976. Russia received data from Noaa 4 and 5, 

and the U.S. received data from Russia's Meteor 

series. Russia launched Meteor 23, 24, 25, and 26 

in 1976. 

The National Weather Service, under the Voluntary Assistance Program of the World Meteorological Organization, has established Automatic Picture Transmission (APT) stations with improved 

satellite video capability in Ethiopia and Trinidad. 

These stations can receive data from both polarorbiting and geostationary satellites, and are the 

prototype for eventual replacement of most of the 

older APT equipment. 

Demographic Studies. The Bureau of the Census, 

under AID auspicies, continued to support Bolivia 

and Kenya in the application of Landsat satellite 

data to demographic studies. The Census Bureau 

is aiding these countries in preparing maps for 

estimating population and land use. 

The Census Bureau also continued to study the 

potential use of Landsat data in domestic census 

activities. Negotiations have begun with NASA 

for an Advanced Systems Verification Test 

(ASVT) based on the results of studies in the 

Washington, D.C., and Austin, Texas, metropolitan areas. The goals of the ASVT are to develop 

an operational program for delineating urban 

fringe zones and to transfer this technology to the 

Census Bureau, and to implement a land-use information system to integrate 1980 census data with 

Landsat images for monitoring changes in the geographic structure of urban areas following the 

1980 census. 

Weather Modification 

The NOAA N.ationa1 Hurricane and Experimental Meteorology Laboratory (NHEML) expanded its use of satellite data in research on the 

modification of hurricanes and tropical convective 

clouds. Using geostationary satellite data, real-time 

estimates of rainfall from Atlantic Ocean tropical 

storms were made for the National Hurricane 

Center and the River Flood Forecast Offices of the 

National Weather Service. 

NHEML also used satellite and aircraft data to 

construct sea surface temperature patterns in advance of and in the wake of eastern Pacific hurricanes. These measurements were used to calibrate 

satelli te-determined temperatures used in the study 

of air-sea interactions in and near hurricanes. 

Commercial Satellite Service 

The Maritime Satellite (MARISAT) consortium 

launched three satellites in 1976 to provide commercial satellite communication for ships. The 

satellites cover an area between 75" North and 75" 

South latitudes. Full service from Atlantic and 

Pacific Ocean satellites was initiated in August 

1976, with Indian Ocean service begun by the end 

of the year. By reducing the time required to conduct ship operations, satellite communications have 

significant potential for improving ship safety and 

increasing cargo throughput, thus enhancing profits 

from merchant vessels. The Maritime Administration and six participating shipping companies are 

evaluating this new service, and the MARISAT 

consortium is providing no-cost support to this 

evaluation. 

Determination of the Earth's Shape and 

Gravity Field 

The National Ocean Survey (NOS) Geodetic 

Kesearch and Development Laboratory (GRDL) 

used NASA's Geos 3 satellite altimeter data to 

measure large-scale features of the Earth's gravitational field. A system was developed to handle data 

45 
from Geos 3 and the planned Seasat-A satellite. 

GRDL prepared plans to use Seasat-A data experimentally for computing precise satellite positions 

and for obtaining m,ore accurate determinations 

of the geoid commensurate with the expected 10- 

centimeter precision of the Seasat-A altimeter. 

NOS continued to evaluate the use of Lageos 

satellite laser observations and very long base-line 

radio interferometry to monitor temporal variations in horizontal and vertical positions, polar 

motion, and Earth rotation. One application of 

these methods is to provide more accurate information on the slope of mean sea level along the US. 

Pacific coast; the Sea Level Observation and Prediction Experiment has been initiated for this 

purpose. Another study showed that adding Doppler observations to a ground network improved 

the accuracy of horizontal positioning. Doppler 

satellite stations were established at 67 United 

States locations including 6 on offshore oil platforms. 

Satellite Communications 

Mathematical Modelling. The Office of Telecommunications (OT) undertook the qualitative and 

quantitative description of electromagnetic transmission characteristics for satellite communications 

in frequency bands above 10 GHz. OT began the 

development of a mathematical model of atmospheric turbulence, terrain reflection, and ionospheric depolarization effects for satellite-terrain 

interaction. 

Propagation Modelling. OT developed theoretical considerations for inclusion in a propagation 

model of space communication links, taking into 

account atmospheric time variants. These considerations include study of bandwidth limitations to 

electromagnetic transmisfions imposed by clear air 

turbulence; the impact on the far-field of rainfall 

that occurs within the near-field of the antennas; 

prediction of radio frequency spectra for propagation through a random, complex, turbulent medium; atmospheric influence on the digital bit-errorrate above 10 GHz; and the transfer function of a 

gaseous, cloudy, and rainy atmosphere in the 10- to 

40-GHz band. 

Small Earth-Stations. Present-day communication 

satellites transmit a wide beam that covers the entire United States. The next generation of satellites 

will have higher power and narrower beams, which 

will focus on smaller regions of the country. This 

will permit the use of smaller, less expensive antennas on the ground. OT has begun a study of 

how to lower regulatory, technical, and economic 

barriers so that satellite communication systems 

using low cost antennas may be made more readily 

available to public service institutions. 

Time Services. The National Bureau of Standards (NBS) completed the development of a time 

code for the GOES Data Collection System: accuracy is within 100 microseconds and is available 

continuously from Goes 1 and SMS 2. NBS also 

developed an inexpensive decoding clock for use 

with the time code. This clock is capable of coinpensating automatically for the approximately 

260-millisecond propagation delay between the 

Wallops Command and Data Acquisition Station 

and any point on the Earth’s surface via the 

satellite. 

Lunar Ranging. NBS continued to obtain new 

information by analysis of laser distance measurements to the Apollo retroreflectors on the Moon. 

Analysis of six years of lunar ranging data shows 

a negligible difference between the gravitational 

and inertial mass of the Earth. This demonstrates 

that the Earth’s gravitational self-energy contributes equally to its inertial and passive gravitational 

mass. Analysis of data on the Earth’s rotation, for 

which the estimated median accuracy of 194 singleday determinations of the Earth’s angular position 

in space was 0.7 milliseconds, agreed closely with 

the expected 2-millisecond uncertainty of the 5- 

day averages obtained by classical techniques. 

Little evidence was found for very rapid variations 

in the Earth’s rotation. 

Space Support Activities 

Weather Support 

The National Weather Service (NWS) assisted 

Johnson and Kennedy Space Centers in preparing 

background and planning studies for the Space 

Shuttle flights. NWS also worked with the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory in predicting potential 

weather effects on signals from the Mariner JupiterSaturn mission scheduled for launch in 1978. 

Weather support was provided to the Wallops 

Flight Center for its rocketsonde and atmospheric 

ozone measurement programs. 

Solar A ctiuit y 

The Space Environment Services Center (SESC) , 

operated jointly by NOAA and the U.S. Air Force, 

is the National and World Warning Agency for 

disturbances in space and the upper atmosphere. 

SESC provided forecasts and warnings of adverse 

effects of solar and geomagnetic activity to military 

command and control systems; scientists performing diverse experiments with balloons, rockets, and 

satellites; operators of communication satellites; 

the Federal Aviation Administration; electric 

46 
power utilities; and geophysical exploration groups. 

Interference with geosynchronous satellite operations by the type of geomagnetic storms that occur 

most often near solar sunspot minimum continued 

to be a frequent problem. The SESC uses data 

from a variety of space and terrestrial sensors, relying primarily on information from the SMS/ 

GOES Space Environment Monitors, the Noaa 4 

and 5 Solar Proton Monitors, and the NOAA-Air 

Force Global Flare Patrol network. 

Space Processing Research 

NBS continued to support NASA’s effort to develop the Space Shuttle as an orbital workshop 

for materials science. Data and instrumentation 

have been provided for designing and evaluating 

processing procedures to obtain materials of higher 

purity and more uniform properties. Studies are 

under way on the rate of preferential evaporation 

of impurities, growth from the melt of nearly perfect metal crystals, stable limits in floating zone 

systems, surface tension gradient forces, and vapor 

transport synthesis for improved processing of 

ionic materials. 

Measurements and Calibrations 

NBS provides NASA with radiometric standards 

and calibrations from the infrared to the extreme 

ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Spectral irradiance standards, an electrically calibrated ultraviolet photodiodes were supplied to 

NASA investigators and contractors. The NBS 

synchrotron ultraviolet radiation facility is being 

used by NASA investigators to calibrate spectrometers and detectors. 

NBS has extended the near-field measurement 

techniques for directive microwave antennas. This 

approach will be applied to large antennas used 

for satellite ground communication systems and 

for pre-launch assessment of the total performance 

of satellites using complicated multi-antenna configurations. The technique is very accurate for 

obtaining data on gain, pattern, polarization, and 

side-lobe levels for antennas associated with systems such as the Intelsat V and the Defense Satellite Communications Systems. 

Studies also have been carried out to develop 

measurement techniques using radio stars to characterize the performance of large ground-based 

antenna systems. These techniques are used to 

measure the degradation of antenna gain for large 

operational antennas and to measure the Effective 

Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) of a satellite. 

The EIRP is an important measure of satellite 

performance and is used in determining incentive 

clause payments under contracts. 

Cryogenic Measlcrements and Data 

NBS has pioneered in providing NASA with accurate data on the cryogenic fluids used as propellants and for life support and power generation 

systems. The initial data, needed in the design and 

operation of the Gemini and Apollo programs, are 

now being extended for use in the Space Shuttle 

program. NBS provides benchmark data on the 

properties of oxygen and hydrogen used by all 

NASA centers and their industrial contractors. Examples include data on the life support consumables aboard the Space Shuttle, design data for the 

Space Shuttle main engine, and data for the design 

of the New National Transonic Facility (cryogenic 

wind tunnel). 

Space and Atmospheric Physics Research 

Space Physics 

Interl,lanetary Physics. The NOAA Space Environment Laboratory (SEL) performed numerical 

simulations of the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) 

solar wind stream interaction and shock propagation for comparison with data from several spacecraft. Skylab observations of the solar corona also 

were simulated with steady-state, nonradial flow 

models of MHD solar wind dynamics in the 

corona. The simulations produced information on 

the temperature and magnetic field in coronal holes. 

As a result of a cooperative theoretical study with 

the University of Mexico, the viscous-like solar 

wind interaction observed by $the Soviet spacecraft 

Venera is now well understood. The theory is 

especially applicable to Venus because of its weak 

magnetic field. 

Atmospheric Physics 

Ionospheric Physics. The ATS 6 geosynchronous 

satellite, moved to a location near India from July 

1975 to August 1976, observed the seasonal and 

diurnal variations of equatorial ionospheric and 

plasinaspheric electron content. Indian scientists, 

in cooperation with Stanford Research Institute 

scientists, also studied the severe scintillation of 

ATS 6 satellite radio signals in equatorial regions. 

These scintillations affect satellite-to-ground telecommunications. 

Magnetospheric Physics. On the basis of SEL 

analysis of Explorer 45 and ATS 6 data, it is now 

believed that portions of the Earth’s radiation belt 

is composed of ions heavier than protons. A proposed theory is that many of the energetic radiation-bel t ions, once believed to have originated 

from the Sun, actually originate from the Earth’s 

ionosphere. 

47 
The analysis of rocket data taken over an auroral 

arc was used to describe the electrical currents that 

flow in the Arctic ionosphere. Results indicate that 

these currents are not necessarily strongest in the 

highest conducting portion of the ionosphere. Also, 

ionospheric winds may exert strong control of the 

currents flowing near auroral arcs and consequently 

may influence currents flowing in the outer niagnetosphere. 

Atmospheric Photochemistry. Carbon tetrachloride (CC1,) is one of the important chlorinecontaining substances that diffuse from the Earth’s 

surface. CCl, absorbs solar radiation and decomposes in the stratosphere. NBS showed that under 

simulated stratospheric conditions, decomposition 

at lower wavelengths produces two chlorine atoms, 

as opposed to one chlorine atom at a high wavelength. The chlorine atoms released would be 

available to react with ozone, producing modifications of the stratosphere similar to those postulated 

for industrial chlorofluorocarbons. It has been 

demonstrated that the lifetime of CCl, in the 

troposphere exceeds ten years. Assuming that no 

tropospheric sinks exist, then over 99 percent of 

CCl, released at ground level will diffuse up to the 

stratosphere. 

NBS determined the rate constants for the reaction of chlorine atoms with methane, ethane, 

methyl chloride, and methyl fluoride. This information is of current interest for the possible role 

that naturally occurring or man-made chlorine 

compounds might play in controlling ozone levels 

in the stratosphere. 

NBS conducted studies of the reaction products 

of the interaction of ozone and olefins (unsaturated 

organic compounds) to determine the reaction 

mechanism in the troposphere. These data are 

useful in making worst-case predictions of the fate 

of ozone as a pollutant in the lower atmosphere. 

Atomic and Moleculur Data 

NBS measures, compiles, and publishes data on 

atomic spectral lines and energy levels, atomic 

transition probabilities, and infrared and microwave transitions and molecular constants. These 

data are frequently used to interpret planetary, 

solar, stellar, and interstellar spectra. Data on atmospheric constituents such as nitrogen dioxide 

and ozone have been used to interpret upper atmosphere measurements obtained from telescopes 

and instrumented balloon flights. The microwave 

spectrum of chlorine nitrate was studied recently 

to aid in a spectroscopic search for this molecule 

in the upper atmosphere to determine if it can 

affect the chemistry of atmospheric ozone. 

Data Programs 

Environmental Data 

International Magnetospheric Study. The World 

Data Center-A for Solar and Terrestrial Physics of 

NOAA’s Environmental Data Service (EDS) established an International Magnetospheric Study 

(IMS) Central Information Office to gather and 

distribute information about IMS investigations. 

The IMS, scheduled from January 1976. through 

1979, is a study of the structure, time change, and 

physical processes of the outermost parts of the 

Earth’s atmosphere; emphasis is on simultaneous 

measurements by groups of satellites and includes 

complementary experiments and monitoring by 

rockets, balloons, aircraft, and ground-based 

sensors. 

Satellite Rainfall Estimates. Scientists at the EDS 

Center for Experiment Design and Data Analysis 

(CEDDA) are cooperating with NASA’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center, the University of Wisconsin’s 

Space Science and Engineering Center, and 

NOAA’s National Hurricane and Experimental 

Meteorology Laboratory to evaluate and calibrate 

techniques for using visible, infrared, and microwave satellite data to estimate rainfall over tropical ocean areas. The program is based on very 

accurate precipitation estimates derived by CEDDA 

scientists from shipboard digital radar data for a 

125,000-square-kilometer area over the eastern 

tropical Atlantic, collected as part of the Global 

Atmospheric Research Program’s Atlantic Tropical 

Experiment. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Aeronuutical Charts 

Concern for the environment together with the 

sustained growth of air traffic have added to the 

complexity of managing the national airspace. Consequently, the National Ocean Survey has introduced new aeronautical charts and products to keep 

pace with increased requirements. In addition to 

the continuous maintenance of existing charts, 

chart services for video maps, instrument approach 

procedures, and terminal areas were expanded and 

disseminated to airspace users and controllers. 

Also a prototype Alaska Planning Chart was developed and submitted to the Federal Aviation 

Administration for evaluation by the Alaska region. 

Use of Sensor Data from Aircraft 

Outer Continental Shelf Studies. The NOAA 

Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment 

Program scientists used remote-sensing data from 

the Landsat and NOAA satellites and aircraft data 
obtained by the Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, the National Ocean Survey, 

and the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan to conduct scientific investigations in the 

Arctic. Side-looking airborne radar and thermal 

infrared images were used to study large scale geological features and ice activity along the Arctic 

coast. Low-level optical color and color-infrared 

images of the western Alaskan coast from the 

Yukon Delta to Cape Lisburne were used to assist 

in mammal and bird inventories, habitat studies, 

and geological investigations. Low-level, high 

resolution data from a multi-spectral scanner and 

color mapping camera were compiled to support 

inshore emlogical studies in the northwest Gulf 

of Alaska. 

Safety Services for Aeronautics. The NOAA National Severe Storm Laboratory (NSSL) used data 

from a 460.meter instrumented tower, closely 

spaced surface weather stations, aircraft, and 

Dual-Doppler radar to measure the outflow regions 

of thunderstorms for development of an improved 

three-dimensional gust-front model. The multiobservational system measures both horizontal and 

vertical wind shear, the distribution and strength 

of up and down drafts, and turbulence, all of 

which can be hazardous to aircraft. NSSL also 

made Single-Doppler radar measurements of 1QWlevel wind shear in clear air as part of a continued 

effort to develop the use of pulsed-Doppler radar 

for flight safety. 

The Atmospheric Physics and Chemistry Laboratory continued development of an infrared, 

water-vapor band, clear air turbulence radiometer. 

Tests conducted aboard NASA's C-141A aircraft 

directed the radiometer forward at an elevation 

between 7" and 22" above the horizon. These tests 

gave from 4 to 14 minutes of advance warnings of 

clear air turbulence. 

NRS assisted the Federal Aviation Xdministration in a study of factors that control the vertical 

separation of aircraft. A mathematical model of 

the height-keeping process was developed; the 

model includes principal measurements, equipment, information flow, and control logic. The 

results of the study will be used to set vertical 

separation standards for safer and more efficient 

air traffic control. 

49 
V Energy Research and 

Development Administration 

Introduction 

The Energy Research and Development Administration (ERDA) has a significant role in numerous missions in the nation’s space program. 

Through its Office of Space Applications in the 

Division of Nuclear Research and Applications, 

ERDA provides essential mission support, including the development and production of nuclear 

electric power generators and specialized component heaters. By efficient transfer of isotope decay heat to sophisticated thermoelectric converters, 

a long-life, reliable energy supply is made available 

for spacecraft navigation, operations, telemetry, 

scientific studies, and analysis, as well as for transmission of televised pictures of planetary surface 

detail. Also, in 1976 ERDA’s Division of Solar 

Energy acquired a new space-related mission when 

the responsibility for studying Satellite Power Systems was transferred from NASA to ERDA. 

Support to Space Programs 

Apollo Inrnar Surface Experiments 

The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments obtained 

and transmitted data on Moon temperature and 

gravity, seismic activity, and meteorite impact. 

Radioisotope heaters were required to maintain 

operating capability of the solar-powered instruments during the extremely cold lunar nights. 

These units are still operating effectively. 

Pioneer Missions 

The Pioneer 10 spacecraft, launched in March 

1972, which performed close-up studies of Jupiter 

and its moons, now is more than one and one-half 

billion kilometers from Earth, on its way out of 

the solar system. Its mate, Pioneer 11, was launched 

in April 1973, and after a Jupi,ter fly-by was targeted for Saturn encounter in 1979. Both units are 

supplied over 120 watts of radioisotope power for 

their overall electrical requirements, and continue 

regular data transmission to Earth. 

Viking 

The Viking Mars Landers, which were deployed 

on the surface of the red planet on July 20 and 

September 4, 1976, have pursued their assignment 

of characterizing the Martian surface, atmosphere, 

and weather conditions, and of performing numerous experiments in the search for vestiges of life 

or life-related materials. Today, the precise detail 

of Viking landing sites on the pla.ins of Chryse and 

Utopia are as familiar to the television viewing 

public as were the presumed canals of Mars to 

astronomers, Space nuclear power sources provided 

power for this striking achievement. 

Lincoln Experimental Slttellites 

The Lincoln Experimental Satellites, launched 

for the U.S. Air Force in March 1976, carry new 

and more powerful generators to supply a minimum of 250 watts on each of two units for a duration of five years or more. Communications between 

satellites and from satellites to Earth over this interval will be used to demonstrate and evaluate 

performance, reliability, and survivability of such 

systems in a hostile environment. 

Marilcer ]upiter/Saturn 

The Mariner Jupiter/Saturn (M JS) spacecraft, 

to be launched by NASA in August and September 

1977, will continue and extend outer-planetary exploration into the farther reaches of the solar 

system. Building upon the experience gained in 

prior missions, NASA and ERDA anticipate improved performance and reliability as well as an 

expanded scope of scientific data retrieval for this 

mission. Each of the two spacecraft will be powered 

by three radioistope generators to supply a total of 

at least 450 watts initially, to satisfy all electrical 

energy requirements. 

Following interplanetary flights, the M JS spacecraft will make near-equatorial passes of Jupiter on 

trajectories to Saturn, approximately 1.3 billion 

kilometers from Earth. The scientific objectives of 

the MJS 1977 mission are to conduct exploratory 

50 
investigations of the Jupiter and Saturn planetary 

systems and the interplanetary medium out to 

Saturn and to return these data to Earth for analysis. Both spacecraft will escape the solar system 

following the Saturn encounter. 

To ensure operational capability of a variety of 

data sensors and devices in the deep cold of outer 

space, 21 one-watt thermal heater units will provide local warmth in a number of sen.sitive areas 

of each MJS spacecraft. These, too, are fueled with 

Pu-258 radioisotope for compactness, reliability, 

and long operating life. 

The radioisotope thermoelectric generators 

(RTGs) discussed above were developed and 

produced by the ERDA laboratory and industrial 

contractors’ organizations. During the year, five of 

the seven multi-hundred watt generators and all of 

the radioisotope heater units were produced, with 

the balance of two flight units to be delivered early 

in 1977. In addition, numerous test units were prepared and evaluated in detail, in support of safety 

assessments. 

Development 

The trend toward higher power, improved performance, and greater reliability at reduced cost is 

accompanied and supported by technology development in both static thermoelectric and dynamic 

generator systems. By application of novel selenide 

thermoelements in static converters, efficiency of 

power output is expected to rise to 10 to 14 percent, 

essentially double that of the Pioneer, Viking, or 

MJS generators. The competition begun in 1975 

for the Brayton and Organic Rankine Cycle dynamic power systems and culminating in ground 

demonstrations in 1978 is expected to produce 

further improvement, to an efficiency of 20 to 25 

percent. 

The static isotope systems are expected to deliver 

up to 500 electrical watts over their mission lifetime, whereas the dynamic isotope systems should 

supply one to two kilowatts. 

Satellite Power Systems 

Satellite Power Systems (SPS) in geostationary 

orbit, which convert solar energy to microwave 

energy for transmission to Earth and ultimate use 

as a terrestrial energy source, were first suggested 

in 1968 and have been under study by NASA. In 

the FY 1977 budget, the responsibility for this endeavor was transferred from NASA to ERDA. To 

meet this new responsibility, the ERDA Administrator established a task group on SPS to review 

the NASA work and recommended an ERDA policy 

position and program. This group was formally 

appointed on March 15, 1976, provided an interim 

report to the Administrator on June 24, a final 

briefing report on August 12, and a final draft 

report in September. 

The Division of Solar Energy within ERDA 

presently has the task group recommendations under review. 

51 
VI Department of the Interior 

introduction 

The Department of the Interior is responsible for 

the Nation’s public lands and for maintaining a balance between the use and conservation of natural 

resources on these lands. Effective resource management and research require accurate and timely data, 

whether collected on the ground, from high- or lowaltitude aircraft, or from satellites. In some investigations data firom more than one level of 

observation and from various sensors such as multispectral scanners, cameras, and radars can be useful. To collect data, the Department relies on 

aircraft for acquiring aerial photography, carrying 

experimental airborne instruments, and executing 

programs such as selection of utility corridors, cadastral surveys, and resource inventories. 

The need for surveying and repetitive monitoring 

of vast and often inaccessible areas has also created 

a growing interest in the Department in satellite 

data, primarily from the experimental Landsat system because of its synoptic, repetitive, and uniform 

coverage. Digital Landsat data have made posrsible 

the extraction of information by computerized techniques. Because of the flexibility that digital data 

offer in collecting and managing large volumes of 

information, resource managers in some bureaus of 

the Department are incorporating this new technology into their activities. 

Earth Resources Observation Systems Program 

The purpose of the Interior Department’s Earth 

Resources Observation Systems (EROS) program is 

to develop, demonstrate, and encourage applications 

of remote-sensing data acquired from aircraft and 

spacecraft which are relevant to functional responsibilities of the Department. The primary areas of 

activity are: 

1) applications demonstration and research 

2) user assistance and training 

3) data reproduction and dissemination. 

The key facility of the EROS pmgram is the 

EROS Data Center (EDC) in Sioux Falls, South 

Dakota, the principal archive for remotely sensed 

data collected by U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 

aircraft, by National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) research aircraft, and by Landsat, 

Skylab, Apollo, and Gemini spacecraft. Training 

and user assistance in applying remote-sensor data 

are also major functions af EDC. 

To facilitate regional applications, the EROS 

program operates seven Applications Assistance Facilities where the public may view microfilm of 

imagery available at EDC and receive assistance in 

searching and ordering data via computer terminal 

link to the central computer complex at EDC. 

Applications Demmtratiorc md Research 

The objective of this activity is to demonstrate 

and document applications of remote sensing to 

significant resource and environmental problems, 

with emphasis on the use of NASA and National 

Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 

satellite data. Results indicate that remote sensing 

is a potentially useful tool for resource and environmental problem solving. Eighty-five experiments 

on the application of Landsat data to Earth resource mapping, monitoring, and inventory were 

published in 1976 in USGS Professional Paper 929 

entitled ERTS-1, A New Window on Our Planet. 

Ninety-two authors from the USGS, other Interior 

Bureaus, NOAA, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and 

several universities contributed to the 562-page illustrated report. 

User Assistmce and Training 

Technical training programs at EDC range in 

length from a few days to one month and stress the 

use of remotely (sensed data for particular applications such as forest inventories or mineral exploration. As an adjunct to formal courses, EDC operates 

a Data Analysis Laboratory which contains state-ofthe-art analysis equipment such as interactive coniputer systems for the analysis of digital Landsat and 

aircraft data, as well as densitometers, additive color 

viewers, zoom transfer scopes, and stereo viewers. 

Experienced machine operators and resource scientists provide technical assistance to new users. 

52 
The Sixth and Seventh International Remote 

Sensing Workshops, each of 4 weeks in length and 

stressing the fundamentals of remote sensing, were 

held at EDC in 1976. Since 1973, 160 scientists from 

53 countries have attended this series. In response 

to continued high interest, two more workshops are 

scheduled for 1977. In addition, the EROS program 

presented short courses during 1976 in Saudi Arabia, 

Somalia, Ethiopia, Argentina, and Turkey. 

During 1976, more than 30 workshops were conducted for resource managers from various Federal 

and state agencies. Personnel trained included representatives from the Bureaus of Land Management, Reclamation, Mines, and Indian Affairs, and 

the Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department 

of Interior; Forest Service of the Department of 

Agriculture; the Army Corps of Engineers and the 

Defense Mapping Agency of the Department of 

Defense; the Atlanta Regional Commission, North 

Dakota State Water Commission, and the Pacific 

Northwest Regional Commission. In total, approximately 500 domestic resource scientists and land 

managers participated in these workshops. 

Cooperation among the Pacific Northwest Kegional Commission, NASA, USGS, and the states 

of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, demonstrates 

multidisciplinary assistance. After training periods 

at EDC and Ames Research Center, resource managers from the three states completed maps and overlays displaying soils, land use and ownership, drainage, and energy features. 

Data Reprodaction and Distribation 

Photographic reproductions and magnetic computer tapes are processed and distributed and other 

services are provided by EDC to domestic and foreign users at prices which will be raised to amounts 

equal to the full cost of labor and materials. To improve the quality of Landsat data products and 

shorten delivery time to users, a digital image processing system is being installed at EDC. As of June 

30, 1976, there were over 6.5 million images in the 

data base, including over 800,000 frames of Landsat 

images and Landsat data in the form of computercompatible tapes. Aerial and space imagery holdings 

increased at an average rate of 38,000 frames per 

month, of which 20,000 were Landsat imagery. 

The demand for reproductions increased rapidly 

in 1976. In Fiscal 1976, EDC distributed 26 percent 

more frames of Landsat imagery than in 1975, but 

in addition, sales of computer-compatible tapes increased from 729 to 2289, an increase of 213 percent. This indicates an increased trend toward use 

of digital processing of Landsat data by users. Landsat and other satellite products constituted 70 

percent of the $2,464,554 value of data produced by 

EDC during Fiscal 1976. Among the customers, private industry was the largest single purchaser with 22 

percent of the total dollar value; followed by agencies of the Federal government with 21 percent; nonU.S. customers, 17 percent; NASA principal 

investigators, 16 percent; academia, individuals, and 

state and local government agencies accounted for 

the remainder. 

Remote Sensing Activities Using Space Data 

Viking Mission to Mars 

The USGS provided scientific leadership and extensive technical support for the Viking mission in 

the following areas: mission planning, orbiter and 

lander imaging, geologic interpretation, landing-site 

selection, and analyses of geochemistry and physical 

properties of the surface materials. Geologic interpretations and topographic maps made from pictures taken by the Viking orbiters were used to select 

and certify safe and scientifically significant sites for 

the two Viking landers. 

Other Planetary Studies 

USGS support of other planetary exploration includes analysis and synthesis of data from the Moon, 

Mars, and Mercury and participation in planning 

and design of future missions to Mars, Venus, the 

Moon, and the moons of Jupiter and Saturn. The 

USGS seeks to ensure that exploration of the solar 

system will contribute a maximum to the understanding of geologic phenomena. Comparison of 

geologic materials, processes, and history of the 

other planets with those of the Earth provides new 

insight on the development of the Earth’s crust and 

on processes that affect land, mineral, and energy 

resources. 

Geology 

Magnetic data from the Polar Orbiting Geophysical Observatory (POGO) series were compiled by 

USGS scientists to show the gross worldwide magnetic character of the Earth’s crust. The detection 

of the Bangui magnetic anomaly in POGO data of 

central Africa led to field investigations of the region to determine the extent of ferromagnetic and 

associated minerals. The need for a magnetic model 

of the Earth prompted NASA to begin planning a 

new satellite, Magsat, to map the Earth’s magnetic 

field from low orbit. 

USGS studies of thermal infrared emission and 

of microwave scattering and emission are expected 

to provide a basis upon which to interpret the data 

from the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission satellite 

53 
and from the radar on board the Seasat satellite, 

both scheduled for launch in 1978. 

USGS geologists are interpreting linear and curvilinear features as seen on Landsat mosaics of the 

U.S. produced by the Department of Agriculture in 

cooperation with NASA. The initial interpretation 

is being repeated independently by several scientists 

to assess the level of confidence in the results. The 

close relationship of some of these features to occurrences of minerals, petroleum, geothermal 

sources, and seismic events is being investigated. 

In an investigation in the Nabesna quadrangle, 

Alaska, large linear features too long to be recognized on conventional aerial photographs have 

been correlated with known mineral deposits. Computer interpretations of enhanced images suggest 

that 56 percent of all known metallic mineral occurrences in this quadrangle lie within approximately 1 mile of Landsat-identified linear features. 

About 70 percent of the known mineral occurrences 

in the study area appear as color anomalies on computer-enhanced Landsat imagery. 

Cmt.tograph y 

In using the advantages of space systems in the 

national mapping program, the USGS has continued to produce experimental cartographic 

products from Landsat and Skylab images. A second experimental edition of the satellite image map 

of Upper Chesapeake Bay was compiled from a 

Landsat image enhanced by IBM Corporation using computer processing techniques. In cooperation 

with the state of Georgia, a 1:500,000-scale satellite 

image mosaic of the state was published, incorporating 14 Landsat images. Landsat image maps of selected areas of Antarctica have been printed at 

scales of 1 :250,000; 1 :500,000; and 1 : 1,000,000. Skylab pictures were mosaicked to compile a 1 :250,000- 

scale gridded photomap of the Hartford quadrangle 

(lo by 2"), which covers most of Connecticut. 

Analyses of the ability of Landsat wavebands ro 

penetrate shallow water, conducted in cooperation 

with NASA and the Defense Mapping Agency, demonstrated that large underwater reefs and bottom 

details could be located to depths of 22 meters 

under very favorable conditions. Analysis of satellite images taken at night revealed that concentrations of light flux indicate population centers and 

the locations of gas and oil fields tvhere gas flaring 

is practiced. Experiments with mirrors for identifying the location of control points on Landsat 

images have been conltinued. 

Lud Use Analysis and Mapping 

Research has been completed on applying Skylab imagery and data to land-use mapping and 

related resource problems in the Central Atlantic 

Regional Ecological Test Site and in the Census 

Cities Projects. These efforts indicate that several 

Level I1 subdivisions of categories of land use and 

land cover, such as residential, of the Level I category, urban and built-up areas, and some Level I11 

subdivisions such as single-family residential of the 

Level I1 category, residential, can be obtained from 

the Skylab photography in sufficient detail to be 

useful for state or regional planning purposes. 

Hydrology 

The USGS has continued to research applications of Landsat imagery to the study of groundwater hydrology. The USGS, in cooperation with 

the Soil Conservation Service, has used Landsat 

digital tapes to prepare 15 quadrangle maps that 

depict hydrologically related land-cover categories 

covering 1000 square kilometers of the New River 

Basin, Tennessee. The maps were used to select subbasins for intensive study as part of a 5-year energy 

development program to evaluate the impact of 

strip mining on hydrologic processes involving 

geomorphology and water quality (especially sediment). Results of the New River study will be used 

as the basis for analysis of other drainage basins of 

the region. 

The USGS has broadened the scope of evaluating 

satellite Data Collection Systems (DCS) as a POtential operational hydrologic monitoring tool. For 

several years data-transmitting radios have been 

tested through the Landsat DCS, and in 1976 they 

were tested through the NOAA Geostationary 

Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) DCS. 

USGS and COMSAT General Corporation will conduct a 6-month demonstration of a DCS in 1977 

using an existing geostationary commercial communication satellite integrated with USGS sensor 

networks and computer facilities to simulate operational data collection. 

Water Managemetzt 

To develop ,techniques and procedures for operational use in water-resources projects, the Bureau 

of Reclamation is using digital analysis of computer-compatible tapes to inventory the total surface water area on the Columbia Basin Project. 

The Bureau of Reclamation is also cooperating 

wilth the Soil Conservation Service in a project 

sponsored by NASA to monitor the extent of 

mountain snow cover to aid in runoff forecasting. 

Under the High Plains Cooperative Program, a 

Landsat data collection platform is being used to 

relay data from several remote rain gages. NOAA's 

GOES satellite is being used to collect cloud photo54 
graphs in near-real-time, which are then used to 

direct aircraft to cloud formations most promising 

for seeding. GOES is also being used as a data relay 

platform. 

Sea Ice 

USGS scientists are cooperating with other agencies in ice dynamics and energy-release studies 

using data from near-polar orbiting satellites. Data 

from ground sensors and aircraft are also utilized. 

Lad Management 

The need to collect and handle large quantities 

of information concerning the National Resource 

Lands has committed the Burelau of Land Management (BLM) to a program of information systems 

management. A strategic long-range plan which 

will adopt the latest in automatic data processing 

and remote-sensing technologies has been put into 

effect. 

Surface Mining 

A pilot study using Landsat computer-compatible 

tapes to identify active and inactive kaolin surface 

mines in Aiken County, South Carolina, was undertaken by Bureau of Mines, EROS, and various state 

agencies in assessing Landsat technology. Digital 

area calculations from the Landsat dota were compared with planimetric calculations of the same 

areas. Accuracies over 99 percent were achieved 

when comparing areas of over 360,000 square 

meters, whereas approximately 88 percent accuracy 

was achieved in comparisons of 72,000-square-meter 

sites using low-alltitude photographs. Mining areas 

disturbed over a one-year period were also calculated using Landsat imagery taken one year apart. 

Wildlife Management 

Contract research was begun through the Western Energy and Land-Use Team of the U.S. Fish 

and Wildlife Service to define, in quantitative 

terms, the utility of digitally processed Landsat 

imagery. 

The Migratory Bird Management Office of the 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service used data from 

Landsat and the very high resolution radiometer on 

NOAA's Tiros to monitor the melting of the lake 

ice in the Canadian arctic and thereby predict nesting success and game production of Arctic geese. 

Natural Resource Znformution System (NRZS) 

Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has delivered a 

final report to the northwest Indian tribes showing 

€orest cover classification from automated interpretations of original Landsat digital data. 

PEACESAT Project 

The Pan Pacific Education and Communication 

Experiments by Satellite located at the University 

of Hawaii operated 18 hours a week to provide 

education and social communication experiments 

to 14 Pacific territories and countries utilizing 

NASA's ATS 1 satellite. 

Remote Sensing Activities Using Aerial Data 

Wetlands Mapping 

Remotely sensed data, primarily color infrared 

aerial photographs, are being used by the USGS in 

several departmental and interagency research 

projects on wetlands hydrology, classification, 

delineation, and mapping. 

Wildlife Management 

The Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, is assessing the 

utility of aircraflt and spacecraft data for defining 

continental migratory bird habitats. 

Aeromagnetic Swueys 

Aeromagnetic surveys show distribution of rocks 

poltentially related to mineral deposits. During 

1976, the USGS used aircraft for 114,000 traverse 

kilometers of aeromagnetic surveys in the Eastern 

Coastal Plain, 18,000 traverse kilometers in Alaska 

under the minerals program, 18,000 traverse kilometers in Arizona and New Mexico for BIA, 6400 

traverse kilometers off the California coast under 

the reactor hazard program, and 5300 traverse 

kilometers for a geological investigation of the state 

of Washington, as well as 1600 traverse kilometers 

of gamma ray and aeromagnetic surveys under the 

uranium program. 

Airborne Experimental lnstruments 

USGS aircrafzt were used during field studies associaited with various experimental instruments, 

including a muhichannel infrared scanner, microwave and infrared radiometers, an airborne resistivity system, and a Fraunhofer line discriminator. 

Aerial Photography and Radm 

In 1976, the USGS contracted for more coverage 

by aerial photography for the national mapping 

program than ever before-1,350,000 square kilometers, 10 percent more than in 1975. More than 

55 
75 percent consisted of high-altitude, quad-centered 

photographs for support of orthophotoquad production as well as for aerotriangulation and other 

photogrammetric applications. 

Hydrologic Studies 

The USGS, in cooperation with various state and 

Federal agencies in Arizona, used low- and highaltitude aerial photographs and orthophotoquads in 

flood-hazard mapping, geologic and ground-water 

reconnaissance studies, and snowcover distribution 

analyses. Orthophotoquads, prepared from aerial 

photographs of south Florida, are similarly being 

used in hydrologic studies. 

Ice Studies 

In cooperation with other agencies, the USGS 

conducted Arctic sea-ice dynamics and energy-release 

studies. The energy exchange is primarily through 

open-water leads in the ice, and passive and active 

microwave (all-weather) data from NASA’s Convair 

990 aircraft are used to identify open areas. 

Vegetatiolz Studies 

Aircraft were used extensively for data collection, 

cloud seeding, and observation in the Bureau of 

Reclamation% High Plains Cooperative Program, 

which is developing precipitation management techniques to increase rainfall from summer showers, 

of great importance to agriculture in the Great 

Plains. 

Aircraft were used to obtain multispectral scanner 

imagery of a portion of the Colorado River between 

Arizona and California for an inventory of riparian 

vegetation and for archeological surveys. The data 

are being retained on tapes for computer analysis or 

generation of film products. 

BIA agreements with NASA and USGS to obtain 

high-altitude photography over all Indian reservations continued in effect, with 95 percent of the 

photography acquired. The orthophoto base mapping, for which the photography is used, is now 70 

percent complete. 

National Cartographic Information Center 

The National Cartographic Information Center 

(NCIC), a facility of USGS located at Reston, Virginia, is a focal point for information on aerial 

photography and cartographic data from Federal, 

state, and private organizations, as well as data collection plans of those organizations. The Aerial 

Photography Summary Record System, an automated system to catalog most U.S. aerial photography planned, in progress, and completed, is now 

operational. The archive at EDC is a major component of NCIC. 

International Activities 

The USGS participates in an expanded program 

of scientific cooperation with other countries, including long-range technical assistance programs. 

In 1976, the Office of International Geology of 

USGS met with representatives of more than 20 

countries to discuss applications of satellite and 

aerial remote sensing data in support of natural resource studies, development projects, and environmen tal protection programs. These discussions were 

both technical and administrative, and included the 

exchange of scientific knowledge as well as technology transfer and technical assistance. 

The USGS will lead a new project, “Kemote 

sensing and mineral exploration”, which has been 

approved as part of the International Geological 

Correlations Program (IGCP) . The IGCP is jointly 

sponsored by the International Union of Geological 

Sciences and UNESCO. A U.S. National Committee of 20 representatives of Federal and state governments and university and industry groups has 

been formed to work with international participants 

to identify features related to mineralization. 

56 
VI1 Department of Agriculture 

Introduction 

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 

has a continuing interest in improving its agriculture 

activities dealing with crops, forests, range arid 

wildlife management, soil surveys, watershed management, land use classification and management, 

environmental protection, outdoor recreation, and 

man-environment interactions. As one of the steps 

in meeting its responsibilities, the USDA in 1976 

continued to develop and evaluate the use of aerospace remote sensing technology as a means of more 

accurately and in a more timely fashion 

(1) improving the inventorying and quantitative predictions of the food, feed, and fiber 

resources of the U.S. 

(2) evaluating land productivity 

(3) monitoring changes affecting the total production and quality of our resources and 

environment. 

Remote Sensing Activity 

Recognizing that aerospace remote sensing offers 

a means toward the improvement of many USDA 

functions, the Department continues to seek technically feasible and economical remote-sensing 

systems that are effective for inventorying, protecting, and managing our agricultural, forestry, and 

wildlands resources. The following represent a 

number of significant developments and applications during 1976 using remote-sensing techniques: 

Research and Development 

The Agriculture Research Service (ARS) is developing a practical method for more accurate 

assessment of the water status of crop plants by 

remote measurement of plant canopy temperatures 

concomitant with air temperatures, using infrared 

scanners. More precise plant-water stress data 

would improve crop yield predictions and also 

improve the scheduling and amount of irrigation. 

The ARS is also completing a system of computer-aided operations that will provide agricultural crop and soil surveys and delineate growing 

conditions, using Landsat and other sources of 

digital spectral data. Spectral categories can be 

related to crop yields, plant maladies, environmental stresses, and growing conditions. The 

system has been modified and tested by periodically 

classifying the crop and land uses in a 3900-squarekilometer county that has diverse agricultural 

enterprises. 

Functionally independent physiological and 

spectral models developed at Temple and Weslaco, 

Texas, are being tested by ARS to determine how 

well the output from each augments and cross 

checks the predictions of the other. Data sources 

and procedures are amenable to eventual deployment of such models for improving crop conclition information and yield estimates for extensive 

areas, such as the Great Plains. 

The proximity of Mediterranean fruit fly infestations in Guatemala provides a sense of urgency 

in establishing a barrier zone that will prevent this 

serious pest from moving up into the major fruit 

producing regions of Mexico and ultimately the 

U.S. ARS is determining the density and distribution of host plants of the Medfly in the Isthmus of 

Tehuantepec by means of aerial color infrared 

photography . Recognizing its need for a dedicated remote sensing research airplane, the ARS recently acquired 

a Cessna 1825 high-wing aircraft outfitted with a 

turbo-charged system, short take off and landing 

conversion capability, an autopilot with altitude 

hold, radio and naVigatiQna1 equipment (including 

a transponder with an encoding altimeter), a 

closed-circuit television system for accurate mapping, and aerial cameras. While in the photographic mode the airplane will carry two persons, 

one an ARS pilot-photographer. 

Applications 

The Forest Service-NASA cooperative Forestry 

Applications Program (FAP) completed its pilot 

project on 6500 square kilometers of East Texas 

“flatwoods” land. The two specific objectives were 

accomplished and are documented in a Johnson 

57 
Space Center publication (JSC- 1 143). Coniputeraided Landsat data classification procedures for 

inventorying forest and rangeland by administrative boundaries were developed and tested. Procedures were developed and tested also for using a 

sampling approach to inventorying and evaluating 

results of computer-aided automatic analysis of 

Landsat data. As part of the Forestry Applications 

Program’s interest in large-area multi-resource inventory, FAP is now testing and modifying its procedures for use in 10 major ecosystems throughout 

the continental U.S. 

Public Law 93-378, the Resources Planning Act 

of 1974, requires that the Forest Service prepare a 

natural resources assessment. This assessment is to 

be updated in 1979 and after that on a 10-year 

cycle. The Forest Service Resource Evaluation 

Techniques Program has been established in the 

Rocky Mountain Forestland Range Experiment 

Station to develop the procedures for updating the 

assessment. Since there are approximately 6,500,000 

square kilometers involved, aerospace remote sensing is expected to play a significant role in gathering information. The Resources Evaluation Techniques Program is coordinating with FAP to develop remote sensing procedures applicable to the 

Resources Planning Act requirement. 

Large amounts of timber have been killed by 

insects and disease in the National Forests of the 

Rocky Mountains. The Forest Service is using 

aerospace remote sensing techniques t’o assist in 

the dead timber assessment. The study area covers 

26,000 square kilometers and will be put onto a 

cartographic base of 7.5’ quadrangle sheets. 

The Economic Research Service (ERS), in cooperation with the Department of Natural Resources, Cornel1 University, has completed a study 

of land-use change (1961-1970) in 53 rapidly urbanizing counties distributed over the continental 

US., using airphoto interpretations. Inventories 

comprising 7 rural and 5 urban categories of land 

use were developed for 1961 and 1970; and changes 

among the 12 categories were identified and quantified. An April 1976 bulletin, “Dynamics of Land 

Use in Fast Growth Areas” reports the results of 

the study. ERS and Cornel1 will use Landsat 

imagery to identify cropland development in 130 

sample countries in the Southeast and Great Plains. 

A unique application of remote sensing as applied to an operational problem is the Soil Conservation Service’s (SCS) snow telemetry (SNOWTEL) system that is being installed in the 11 Western states. Remote sensors to measure snow and 

related information (temperature, precipitation, 

wind, etc.) have been installed at 260 high mountain sites. A communication system, utilizing the 

meteor-burst phenomenon for transmitting the 

radio signal from the site to its point of use, is 

expected to be operational in early 1977. This 

new system, which partially replaces a manual network that has been in operation nearly 40 years, 

will provide near-real-time data to SCS field offices 

for use in developing improved water supply forecasts and reservoir operation, primarily for agricultural purposes. 

The SCS is also testing the use of Landsat 

imagery to interpret the extent of snow cover and 

its changes throughout the snow accumulation and 

melt season for selected river basins in Colorado. 

This information, combined with the near-realtime snow data, will be used to determine whether 

the accuracy of water supply forecasts can be significantly improved. 

Use of aerial black and white and false color 

infrared photography provided by the states and 

ranging in scale from 1: 15,840 to 1 :48,000 is being 

evaluated by SCS for seleoted areas in Illinois and 

Minnesota as a tool to accelerate the soil survey 

and to improve the quality of mapping. 

The Rural Electrification Administration has 

funded two projects utilizing Landsat imagery for 

locating transmission-line corridors and alternative 

routes, as well as for developing environmeiital 

data for locating plant sites. 

The Agriculture Research Service (ARS) has 

determined that high resolution thermal data from 

satellites, such as Noaa 4, SMS 2, and Defense 

Meteorological Satellites, can identify local variations in surface temperature across the Lower Rio 

Grande Valley of Texas. Practical application of 

the information was tested by relating the severity 

of sugarcane freeze damage to satellite-indicated 

temperatures for 45 commercial fields. Average 

sugar content in these fields was found to be related more closely to the satellite-indicated temperatures of the fields than to air temperatures 

extrapolated for those fields from ground observations. 

ARS used Landsat multispectral digital data from 

;t December 11, 1973, overflight to estimate the 

sugarcane acreage in Hidalgo County, Texas. The 

computer-aided estimate was 89 square kilometers 

compared with the Texas and Livestock Reporting 

Service estimate of 82 square kilometers for the 

1973-1974 crop year. Although there were errors 

of omission-harvested fields that were identified as 

base soil and some citrus and native vegetation 

that were mistakenly identified as sugarcane-the 

mapped location of the sugarcane fields in the 

county compared favorably with their location on 

the thematic map generated by the computer. 

ARS has also found that areas of cotton root-rot 

can be readily delineated on aerial photographs, 
and the acreage so aEected can be accurately determined by optically planimetering the photographic transparencies. Because chemical control 

with a commercial fumigant is costly, the photographs can reduce costs considerably by guiding 

the applicators to only those portions of fields that 

are affected. 

The spread of the imported fire ant throughout 

the southeastern U.S. and along the Gulf Coast 

from Florida to Texas has become a major concern 

to agricultural interests and the general public. 

Currently, fire ant infestations are spread over 

5 10,000 square kilometers. Present ground surveys 

cover only 2 percent of the infested area and are 

very costly. The ARS has found that aerial color 

infrared photography is a useful tool for establishing the location, number, and size of fire ant 

mounds within an area at a iiiucli lower cost ant! 

with 80 percent accuracy. 

The walnut caterpillar has been defoliating pecans over large areas in south-central and east 

Texas. The most widespread activity and subsequent defoliation occurred in August 1973, over 

some 78,000 square kilometers. Subsequent defoliation has been associated primarily with recurreni infestations in the area originally affected. 

Investigation of walnut caterpillar defoliation has 

resulted in the development of techniques by the 

ARS to identify pecans in mixed-tree native stands 

in south-central Texas through the use of aerial 

color infrared photography. This capability should 

be of value to the pecan industry in identifying 

total acreage for potential pecan production, and 

in locating pecans that may be endangered by 

exogenous insects. 

59 
VIII 

introduction in a radio-quiet valley near Arecibo, Puerto Rico, 

P National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation, the only Federal agency with the express mission to advance 

basic scientific knowledge, supports research in 

several areas related to aeronautics and space science. The majority of this research is in astronomy 

and atmospheric sciences, which benefit substantially from the work done by staff and visitors at 

the NSF-supported National Research Centers. 

Astronomy 

General 

The need for both ground-base and space observing in astronomy is dictated by the varying 

ability of photons at different wavelengths to penetrate the Earth’s atmosphere. The atmosphere is 

more or less transparent to visible light and longer 

wavelengths-millimeter, radio, and some infrared. 

It is, therefore, economically and technically possible for astronomers to use large, sophisticated 

instruments for ground-based observing at these 

wavelengths. But because x-rays and ultraviolet 

photons are absorbed by the atmosphere, astronomers must depend on rockets, balloons, and 

satellites to carry detectors above the atmosphere. 

Complete understanding of stars, radio galaxies, 

quasars, and other objects requires that they 

be observed at all wavelengths. Space observing 

programs, therefore, complement ground-based 

programs, which still account for most of the work 

done by astronomers. NSF, which is responsible 

for approximately two-thirds of the Federal support 

for ground-based astronomy in the United States, 

coordinates its support with other agencies that are 

primarily supporters of rocket and satellite programs. NSF also supports some aspects of data 

analysis related to these programs. 

Nationul Astronomy and Ionosphere Center 

is the primary NAIC instrument. A 305-meterdiameter, spherical, aluminum-panelled reflector, 

a suspended feed platform, and associated receivers 

and transmitters comprise the telescope. Interferometric observations are made with the addition of 

a 30-meter-diameter antenna located 10 kilometers 

from the 305-meter antenna. 

This past year was the second full year of operation of the S-band (2380 MHz) planetary radar 

transmitter and maser receivers. During the week 

of July 4, 1976, NAIC produced last-minute maps 

of Martian landing sites for NASA’s Viking 1. The 

new maps allowed NASA to change the projected 

course and avoid a possibly disastrous landing in 

rough terrain. In another project, the first detailed contour maps of a large area of the cloudcovered surface of Venus revealed some surprising 

features. There is a large 1,554,000-square-kilometer basin which appears similar to lunar “seas.” 

The 19-kilometer horizontal resolution of the radar 

also depicted parallel canyons and ridges extending 

for hundreds of kilometers-geologic features unlike any on Earth. 

Sacramento Peak Observatory 

On July 1, 1976, the Sacramento Peak Observatory (SPO) was transferred from the U.S. Air 

Force to the National Science Foundation. SPO is 

an excellent solar observatory, with a 100-meterhigh solar vacuum tower telescope, located in the 

Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico. It is also 

equipped with an echelle spectrograph, a digital 

diode array, and a universal birefringent filter 

capable of simultaneous real-time images of the 

Sun in separated wavelength bands. There are also 

two 40-centimeter aperture coronagraphs, a 40- 

centimeter telescope with a solar magnetograph, 

and several smaller instruments. NASA operates a 

30-centimeter evacuated fixed telescope feeding a 

The National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center multiple line photoelectric spectrograph at SPO. 

(NAIC) is a visitor-oriented facility for research SPO scientists are participating in several space 

in aeron,omy and radio and radar astronomy. The missions, including the design of ultraviolet and 

world’s largest single radio/radar telescope, located extreme ultraviolet spectrometers for the Solar 

60 
Maximum Mission, design of a Space Optical Telescope for the Space Shuttle, membership on the 

Space Shuttle Facility Definition Team, and the 

Skylab Solar Workshop. 

Last year, SPO staff made a number of valuable 

contributions to solar astronomy, including: optical evidence that magnetohydrodynamic waves 

cool sunspots; detection of coronal h’oles at the 

east edge of the Sun, which can now give us 9- or 

IO-day advance notice of an impending geomagnetic disturbance on Earth; and a several-month 

study that shows coronal holes to move rigidly 

across the face of the Sun. 

Kitt Peak Natiod Observatory 

The Kitt Peak National Observatory (KPNO) 

provides facilities for research on the solar system, 

on stars and nebulae in our own Milky Way 

Galaxy, and on galaxies outside our own. KPNO, 

near Tucson, Arizona, has the largest collection of 

modern optical telescopes and auxiliary instrumentation in the world, including a 4-meter telescope. 

Kitt Peak is also the home of the McMath Solar 

Telescope, the largest telescope designed especially 

for observing the Sun. Other instruments include a 

solar vacuum telescope; a 2.1-meter telescope with 

a 1-meter feed telescope for the main spectrograph; 

a 1 .%meter cassegrain reflector; two 92-centimeter 

coude feeds; two 41-centimeter telescopes used 

primarily for photoelectric photometry; and a 30- 

centimeter Schmidt telescope. 

KPNO staff and guest investigators conduct major programs related to space sciences. One of 

KPNO’s objectives is to increase our knowledge of 

the structure, constituents, and radiation characteristics of the planets, including the Earth, using 

ground-based observational instruments. In addition, KPNO scientists have joined in several 

NASA-sponsored space programs, including the 

contribution of experiments aboard NASA satellites that are designed to determine the concentration of the main constituents in the atmosphere of 

Jupiter, Saturn, and Titan; and to investigate the 

atmospheres of Venus and Mercury. In addition, 

KPNO scientists serve on NASA Mission Definition 

Study Teams to define the scientific objectives best 

related to specific satellite planetary programs. 

In support of the NASA infrared telescope to be 

constructed on Muana Kea, Hawaii, KPNO scientists and engineers provided a conceptual design 

and KPNO is grinding, polishing, and providing 

the final figure of the telescope’s 3.2-meter primary 

mirror and two secondary mirrors. The telescope 

will, at appropriate times, furnish observations of 

the planets in support of NASA space probes. 

Daily magnetograms of solar observations conducted with the solar vacuum telescope continue 

to be provided to NASA. The magnetograms indicate magnetic fields on the Sun and are used by 

NASA in support of its orbiting solar observatory 

(OSO-H) program. 

National Radio Astronomy Observatory 

The National Kadio Astronomy Observatory 

(NKAO) , headquartered in Charlottesville, Virginia, provides the large radio telescopes, auxiliary 

equipment, and support services required to conduct advanced research in radio astronomy. The 

three telescopes at the principal observing site in 

Green Bank, West Virginia, operate in the wavelength range between a few meters and one centimeter. Of these, the 91-meter transit telescope is 

especially suited for sensitive surveys of radio 

sources; the 43-meter telescope is used primarily 

for studies of spectral lines at centimeter wavelengths and as an element in very long baseline 

interferometer networks; and the four-element interferometer is used to measure positions and map 

the radio structure of sources. Observations over 

the wavelength range between 1 centimeter and 2 

millimeters are conducted with an 11-meter telescope on Kitt Peak, near Tucson, Arizona. Early in 

Fiscal Year 1977 research will begin with NRAO’s 

partially completed Very Large Array interferometer, located on the Plains of San Augustin, 80 

kilometers west of Socorro, New Mexico. 

During the year, NRAO contributed 21-centimeter wavelength observations to a program 

employing both optical and radio telescopes to 

obtain radio velocities and magnitudes for an allsky sample of 200 distant high-luminosity spiral 

galaxies. The aim of the programs was to determine 

if the Hubble expansion of the universe is uniform in all directions as observed at the Sun. As a 

result, not only has a nonuniform Hubble expansion for these galaxies been ruled out, but a new 

and unexpected component has been discovered in 

the motion of our own Milky Way Galaxy. The 

composite of this and other velocities (for example, 

the component due to galactic rotation) is so large 

as to be of considerable interest to cosmologists. 

This is because measurements of the -270°C COSmic background radiation (which, according to 

the most generally accepted theory of the origin of 

the universe, is the 15-billion-year-old remains of 

the Big Bang) infer a lower velocity than these 

newer measurements for the galaxy and its local 

group of galaxies. 

61 
Atmospheric Sciences 

Meteorology 

This program investigates the dynaniical and 

physical behavior of the atmosphere by means of 

field observati,ons, laboratory experiments, and 

theoretical and numerical analysis. There is also 

considerable support for the development of remote sensing techniques and support for research 

on the interpretation of satellite data for severeweather analysis. 

tion, improve predictions ot‘ scvere weather, determine trends and influences on air quality, 

understand climatic trends and their causes, and 

understand solar processes and their ultimate terrestrial influences. 

The Tropical Wind, Energy Conservation, and 

Reference Level Experiment (TWERLE) , a joint 

project of NCAR, the University of Wisconsin, and 

NASA, was carried out between June 1975 and 

February 1976. In that period, 411 TWERLE balloons carrying weather sensors and signaling equipment were launched from tropical and subtropical 

sites: information on tropical atmospheric circulation gathered by the balloons was relayed to the 

ground by the Nimbus 6 satellite. The TWERLE 

scientific team’s preliminary data analysis is turning 

up significant differences between tropical and 

temperate-zone air circulation patterns. The balloon sensor system has proved to be a sensitive 

probe of a region of the atmosphere (at about 14 

km) not easily studied by other means. 

Another kind of balloon was used to carry 

NCAR’s cryogenic sampler high into the stratosphere in a continuing program of measurements 

that is shedding light on the physics, chemistry, and 

dynamics of the upper atmosphere. During the 

past year, a coordinate program of in situ sampling 

and remote sensing of the upper atmosphere (with 

lasers and from satellites) has given NCAR scientists considerable information on the behavior of 

chlorofluorocarbons (used as aerosol spray propellants and refrigerants) and their influence on the 

ozone layer in the stratosphere. 

A group of solar researchers at NCAR spent the 

past year working together with 60 colleagues in 

the Skylab Solar Workshops, a program devoted 

to obtaining scientific results from the battery of 

solar telescopes operated by the astronauts aboard 

Skylab. The workshops were devoted to the topic 

of coronal holes, areas of dramatically reduced 

density compared to the ambient plasma in the 

solar outer atmosphere or corona. These are believed to be the source of the high-speed streams 

of solar wind observed at the distance of the Earth 

-a steady stream of electrons, protons, and ionized 

atoms given off by the Sun. The workshops have 

yielded a theoretical picture of the conditions under which coronal holes form, grow, and decay and 

a picture of the dependence of these phenomena on 

the solar activity cycle. 

In the field of atmospheric technology, a new 

mesoscale weather-reporting system was put into 

the field for the first time, where it turned in a 

superior performance. The Portable Automated 

Mesonet (PAM) was developed at NCAR in an 

effort to improve on the current generation of surface weather-station networks used in severe storm 

Solar Terrestrial Research 

In 1976 further progress was made in implenienting the Internati,onal Magnetospheric Study, an 

intensive cooperative effort for the period 1976- 

1979. It will further our knowledge of the nearEarth environment and the way it is influenced by 

the Sun. Studies will include auroral particle precipitation, geomagnetic perturbations, hydromagnetic wave propagation, plasma physics, and electric 

fields. In anticipation of increased solar activity 

during 1979-1980, planning of speci*al solar experiments was undertaken in 1976. 

Aeronomy 

Aeronomy is concerned with the Earth’s highaltitude atmosphere and its interactions with the 

lower atmosphere and with the space environment. 

The Foundation supports theoretical, laboratory, 

and field studies of phenomena that occur in this 

region, including airglow, aurora, ionospheric dynamics and instabilities, and chemical processes. In 

addition to the general ongoing work, particular 

emphasis is currently placed on high latitude investigations related to the International Magnetospheric Study. 

Atmospheric Chemistry Program 

This new program is concerned with the chemistry of both the lower and upper atmosphere. 

Considerable effort is directed at stratospheric 

chemistry, and both modeling and observational 

efforts are supported. 

Natiolzal Center fm Atmospheric Research 

(NCAR) 

NCAR plans and carries out atmospheric research programs in cooperation with universities 

and other institutions. It develops and operates 

special research facilities in support of the national 

atmospheric research effort. NCAR’s long-range 

goals include producing knowledge that will help 

to extend the range and quality of weather predic62 
research and other mesoscale investigations. In 

PAM, remote stations measure rainfall, temperature, pressure, humidity, and other parameters and 

transmit their information to a base station, where 

a computer processes and displays the information 

from the whole network simultaneously. The 

synchronous sampling and the instant display permit scientists to study surface weather patterns 

over a wide area in real-time. The system was successfully used this past summer in the National 

Hail Research Experiment, an NCAR-led effort to 

investigate the causes of hailstorms and the feasibility of modifying them. 

The Solar Output and Its Variatiort 

Climatologists, meteorologists, and solar physicists share an abiding interest in the amount and 

form of the solar output of radiation and particles. 

The need for a quantitative description of solar 

radiation at all wavelengths and for the ability to 

predict variations in solar output is strongly felt in 

many physical sciences. 

A summary of the most authoritative information and a projection of the measurements still 

needed will be published in the spring of 1977. The 

Solar Output and Its Variation, the result of a 

conference held at NCAR in April 1976 under the 

joint sponsorship of the Sacramento Peak Observatory, NOAA, NASA, and NCAR, will serve as a 

reference volume for scientists in climatological, 

aeronomical, and solar research. 

Polur Research Programs 

The Foundation supported investigations of the 

upper atmosphere, the ionosphere, the magnetosphere, and the interplanetary medium from four 

Antarctic stations (McMurdo, South Pole, Siple, 

and Vostok) and from Siple’s geomagnetic conjugate point near Roberval, Quebec. 

Analysis of these studies, centered on very low 

frequency waves, auroral particle precipitation, 

electric fields, and geomagnetic perturbations, is in 

progress. Intensity variations of relativistic primary cosmic rays were monitored at McMurdo 

and South Pole. 

Siple has a 21-kilometer-long antenna that receives and transmits very low frequency signals 

propagating through the plasmapause region of the 

magnetosphere. It is the world’s only station with 

these capabilities. Siple was evacuated and closed 

in December 1975 because of a hepatitis case just 

before the winter isolation was to begin, but it was 

reopened in late 1976 for year-round projects that 

will contribute to the International Magnetospheric Study, 1976-1979. 

Materials Research 

Progress in aeronauitics and space technology depends critically on the availability of materials 

with optimum combinations of properties, particularly for advanced structural applications. 

Materials research provides information that will 

advance the state of the art for materials used in 

the construction of aircraft, space vehicles, and 

attendant devices and instrumentation. Current research includes high-temperature mechanical and 

thermochemical behavior of both metals and ceramics, studies of erosion by particulate matter, the 

hydrogen embrittlement of metals and alloys, 

amorphous metallic alloys, photovoltaic materials, 

high-strength low-density polymers, and ion implantation. 

Several areas of research in condensed matter are 

also of interest because they underpin research and 

development work for aeronautical and space activities. One of these is the effect of radiation on 

materials, and in this context the formation of 

various kinds of defects and their properties arc 

being studied. Another area of importance is that 

of solid-state effects that can be used as sensors for 

various aeronautical and space applications. Examples under study are photovoltaics, photoconductors, and millimeter-wave detectors. Finally, 

research on superconductivity and liquid helium is 

important to the development of possible aeronautical and space devices that may use cryogenic 

components. 

Education Activities 

In Fiscal Year 1976, the Foundation made 37 

awards totaling $399,000 for activities relating to 

the aeronautic and space sciences. Most of these 

funds were devoted to the training of graduate 

students and postdoctoral scientists. Assistance was 

also provided to two- and four-year college and 

university faculty members to help upgrade their 

subject-matter background relating to the aeronautic and space sciences. 

63 
Environmental Protection Agency 

Introduction 

The major activities of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) which are associated with 

the utilization of aerospace technology in 1976 

were centered in the Office of Research and Development (ORD). These activities lie within two 

distinct program areas of ORD, namely, the 

Energy-Related Environmental Research and Development Program of the Office of Energy, Minerals and Industry (OEMI) and the Remote 

Monitoring Program of the Office of Monitoring 

and Technical Support (OMTS) . As a segment of the second year effort of the 

multi-agency R&D program which it administers, 

OEMI is funding the development of advanced 

synoptic monitoring techniques which are applicable to a variety of energy-related environmental 

problems. In addition, OEMI is supporting research by elements of EPA, NASA, and NOAA in 

pollutant measurement by long-path instruments. 

OMTS is continuing its remote monitoring program in support of a variety of national environmental needs. 

Interagency Energy-Related Environmental 

Research & Development Program 

The Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry 

(OEMI) is responsible for administering a $100 

million per year, 17-agency, energy-related environmental R&D program whose objective is to provide 

a scientific basis for protecting the environment 

while expanding and developing U.S. energy resources and advanced energy technologies. Aerospace technology is being applied to energy-related 

environmental problems in two distinct areasadvanced synoptic monitoring techniques and advanced pollutant identification, measurements, and 

tracking methods. 

Western EwgylEmironmnt Monitoring Study 

One major activity now underway is the Western 

Energy /Environment Monitoring Study involving 

various elements of EPA, U.S. Geological Survey, 

NOAA, and NASA. The purpose is to establish a 

multi-year, multi-media pollutant baseline in areas 

of the western U.S. where major new energy development is planned over the next ten years. 

Resides monitoring and analyzing air and water 

pollutants, synoptic monitoring is being carried 

out by EPA’s Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory/Las Vegas (EMSL/LV) with aircraft using standard color and infrared photographic techniques. The purpose is to characterize 

the general local ecosystem and drainage patterns 

at sites where development is planned and to evaluate pollutant control practices already under 

development. These sites include coal strip mines 

and power plants; in the future, oil shale, coal 

gasification, and geothermal development sites will 

also be monitored. 

Aircraft are suited to this problem because of 

the need for frequent coverage over a relatively 

broad area surrounding sites which are generally 

very far apart. However, as more sites are developed and as further leasing occurs in the next 

few years, regulatory decisions must be made 

rapidly. The time-consuming process of photo 

interpretation could cause a bottleneck in the information flow to decision and regulatory processes. 

To remedy this anticipated problem, EPA and 

NASA have developed an agreement whereby 

advanced, automated multispectral analysis technology will be transferred from NASA’s Earth 

Resources Laboratory (ERL) to EPA/EMSL/Las 

Vegas for application to western and other en; 

vironmental problems. This automated interpretation technique has been demonstrated by ERL at 

two designated strip mine sites in Wyoming and 

New Mexico. 

Developmental efforts related to these two western “type sites” have centered on identifying 

spectrally differentiable classifications and correlating the accuracy of these classifications with 

ground truth data. An aircraft-mounted laser geodolite has also successfully demonstrated its ability 

to give an accurate record of mine contour. This 

capability is directly applicable to enforcement of 

reclamation regulations. 

64 
‘Technology transfer will be effected during 1977. 

Broad field testing will begin in 1978, after whi,ch 

operational use is planned. This will be a qualitative step upward in EPA’s land use monitoring 

capability . In concert with this effort, ERL is examining 

the utility of Landsat imagery as a low-resolution 

technique for detecting large scale, long term alterations of land use, vegetation, and drainage patterns due to energy-related developments. 

Energy-Related Polbtan$ Monitoring and 

Tracking Methods R&D 

OEMI is sponsoring a number of projects in the 

development of pollutant monitoring and tracking 

techniques which are aimed at increasing mission 

flexibility of multi-source sampling programs for 

purposes such as enforcement. Compared with existing procedures, these devices can increase system 

cost effectiveness by performing many more 

sampling missions in a given time period and by 

providing near-real-time analysis. 

In addition, the adaptation of such devices to 

aircraft can yield real-time information and tracking capability for studies of aerosol long-range 

transport and transformation (e.g., the sulfur particulate complex) . The tracking of pollutant 

plumes is crucial to research in pollutant dispersion and transformation and will be important in 

future regional enforcement and significant deterioration situations involving large areas. 

The following projects are being supported by 

OEMI: 

Particulate Aerosol. EMSL/Las Vegas is testing 

its aircraft-mounted downlooking differentialabsorption LIDAR (light-detecting and ranging) 

system which will give a vertical profile of relative 

particulate density in the path beneath the aircraft. 

This tracking capability, with real-time readout, 

will be of great significance to EPA’s studies of 

power plant plume transport and aerosol transformation. 

NOAA/Boulder has demonstrated, with a 

ground-base research LIDAR scattering system, 

the ability to differentiate between fugitive dust 

and particulates from power plants at distances 

of several kilometers. This is important for anticipated significant-deterioration measurements. 

While this research instrument is n,ot a real-time 

system, it is being used in field work at two coalfired power plant sites. A simplified adaptation, 

calibrated to the basic scattering data ascertained 

with the NOAA system, could eventually be developed as an enforcement tool for monitoring 

dispersed plume particulates. 

Gaseous Pollutants. NASA Langley Research 

Center is developing a multipollutant, differential 

absorption research LIDAR for dispersed plume 

measurements of sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, 

carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, 

and methane. Construction is near completion and 

field tests will then begin. The purpose is to 

demonstrate a mobile, highly accurate system for 

several important pollutants. In addition to avoiding lengthly setup procedures, the tunability feature will enable monitoring of several stack gases 

which at present require distinct sampling and 

analysis systems. In an operational system, this 

should prove highly cost effective compared to 

present systems used for systematic monitoring. 

Furthermore, the LIDAR device provides information on plume dispersion which is beyond the 

capability of existing systems. 

NASA Langley is determining the feasibility of 

using heterodyne detector techniques as a highsensitivity receiver of laser radiation from natural 

topographical targets. This would make possible 

the use of integrated path laser systems in aircraft 

for measurement of the total burden of a pollutant, 

such as ozone, in a vertical plane from a given 

height. Present integrated path measurement systems depend on a mirror-retroreflector and their 

flexibility is therefore limited. 

Water. Pollutants. EMSL/Las Vegas is testing 

the application of a laser fluorosensor system for 

identifying organics, including specific oils, on 

surface water. This is important in view of the 

need to rapidly detect the location and assess the 

extent of industrial pollution. This has application in enforcement and cleanup actions and in 

given situations can provide an indicator for the 

optimum setup of ground-base water monitoring 

networks. 

Remote Monitoring 

Oil Spills 

The Enviorninental Monitoring and Support 

Laboratory, Las Vega, continues to respond to 

reque.sts for information on oil spills. Data have 

been supplied to the Coast Guard, essentially in 

real-time, not only on the extent of river, coastal, 

and estuarine spills but also on the best routes for 

ground crews to get to the polluted areas. The spill 

response effort included information on: (1) a 

sunken tanker in the Delaware River with many 

additi,onal oil pollution sources visible, (2) the 

Saint Lawrence Seaway oil spill survey, (3) oil 

pollution on the Hackensack River (New Jersey), 

(4) a sunken barge on the Chesapeake Bay, (5) a 

sunken barge in Puerto Rico. 

65 
Ocean Dumping 

Aerial photographic imagery of a chemical spill 

in the New York Bight was obtained at the request 

of EPA’s Region 11. 

Ground truth data for remote sensing of the 

Camden-Philadelphia chemical dump site off the 

New Jersey coast was obtained by the Environmental Research Laboratory, Narragansett. This 

consisted of detailed water and biota analyses in 

the wake of the barges during and after the clumping. 

Air Pollution Effects 

Significant outputs in this area include: 

Airborne LIDAR was used to study particulate 

source and receptor areas within New York City. 

The study was intended to collect additional data 

to relate plumes from point sources industrial areas 

and automobile traffic to the observed high concentrations of suspended particulates. 

A report showing ozone and ozone precursor 

distribution over the Gulf Coast states was prepared from airborne measurements made by the 

Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las Vegas, aircraft. The object of the program 

was to establish a cause for the widespread high 

values of ozone in that area. 

Documentation for air emission sources in the 

Worcester, Massachusetts, area. 

Wide aerial monitoring was conducted in support of the intensive Washington, D.C., oxidant 

study. 

WaJte Pollution and Effects 

and enforcement include: 

bulk storage sites. 

Information to assist the Regions in monitoring 

Reports of possible leaching from landfill and 

Data processing and information from Alvin, 

the deep sea submersible research vessel. 

Interpretation of aerial photography in connection with the effect of silviculture and agriculture practices on the river water quality in 

Wenatchee National Forest. 

Basin Study 

An extensive study has been planned lor the 

Apalachicola River Basin in Florida. This is ;I 

multifaceted program to monitor the effects of 

river dredging, silviculture, agriculture, chemicals, 

and flow control on a relatively pristine estuarine 

area which is the principal source (90 percent) oE 

Florida oysters and involves NASA, EPA (Region 

IV), the University of Florida, and the Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory, Las 

Vegas. 

lnter~ionul Cooperation 

At the request of the Remote Sensing Committee 

of the Swedish Board for Space Activities, a package of technical data and application reports was 

delivered describing the existing developments in 

instrumentation and methods for remote sensing 

of air and water pollution. 

Other Enwironme7ttal Protection Agency Studies 

There is an ongoing program to relate land use 

inventories to water quality in five rivers emptying 

into the Great Lakes. EPA’s Region V and NASA’s 

Lewis Research Center are cooperating on this 

program as an assignment from the International 

Joint Commission as defined by the United States} 

Canada Water Quality Agreement. EPA has provided the ground truth data for the five-river 

survey. 

66 
r 1 

X 

National 

National 

National 

Academy of Sciences 

Academy of Engineering 

Research Council - 

Introduction 

The National Academy of Sciences is a private 

society of scholars in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and 

its use for the general welfare. Its charter, an Act 

of Incorporation passed by Congress, calls upon it 

to serve as an official advisor to the Federal government on any question of science or technology. 

The National Academy of Engineering is a parallel organization of engineers that shares with 

the Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the Federal government. 

Most of the activities undertaken by the two 

academies are carried out through the Commissions 

and the Assemblies of the National Research Council, which draws upon a wide cross-section of the 

nation’s leading scientists and engineers. 

Aerospace Science 

Space Science Board 

The Space Science Board (SSB) is concerned 

with helping to formulate the most effective national program in space research. The Board also 

represents the National Academy of Sciences to 

the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) of 

the International Council of Scientific Unions. 

In January 1976 a study cosponsored by the 

National Academy of Sciences and the European 

Science Foundation (ESF) was conducted by the 

Space Science Board and the ESF’s Space Science 

Advisory Board. Its purpose was to consider how 

the Space Telescope could be used by the international scientific community. 

Two special studies were undertaken in 1976. 

One dealt with institutional arrangements for the 

Space Telescope. The study reported on the general 

principles applicable to those ground-based facilities needed to provide the productive interaction 

between the Space Telescope and the scientific user 

community. The second study examined space 

plasma physics to identify future directions of research in this field and to recommend an appropriate role for NASA. 

The SSB is assisted in its work by specialized committees and panels. The Committee on Space Astronomy and Astrophysics is preparing a long 

range strategy for space astronomy. The Committee 

on Space Physics is working on a strategy for space 

physics. The Committee on Planetary and Lunar 

Explorations is planning for the exploration of the 

inner planets (to complement the outer planets 

strategy published in Report on Space Science, 1975, 

National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 

1976). The Committee on Space Biology and Medicine is planning a study (to be completed in 1977) 

of biological and medical experiments ,that could 

be Conducted in the Space Shuttle. The Exobiology 

Panel completed a report on quarantine considerations for Titan, Uranus, and Neptune and monitored the progress of the life-detection experiments 

on the Mars-Viking landers. 

During 1976 the SSB created a Committee on 

Earth Sciences (CES) to consider the space science 

aspects of climate dynamics, geodynamics, geodesy, and other areas in Earth sciences. The CES 

organized a Coordinating Committee to assist 

NASA in planning its climate research program, 

drawing on personnel from other National Research Council groups. 

The 19th Plenary Meeting of COSPAR took 

place in Philadelphia, June 9-19, 1976, at the University of Pennsylvania, with the SSB serving as host 

on behalf of the National Academy of Sciences. 

A special feature of the meeting was a symposium 

on the future of space science that included papers 

by in ternationally known scientists. 

Geophysics Research Board 

The Geophysics Research Board (GRB) was 

established to effect participation by US. scientists in the activities of international geophysical 

organizations and to stimulate and encourage research in geophysics and related fields. The Board’s 

work is conducted largely through a number of 

committees and panels; the principal ones involved 

in space-related activities are the Geophysics Study 

Committee, the Balloon Study Committee, the 

67 
Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research and its 

Panel on the International Magnetospheric Study, 

and the Committee on Data Interchange and Data 

Centers. 

The Geophysics Study Committee oversees the 

work of a number of panels, each of which is preparing a ministudy intended to aid Federal decision making on societal problems that involve 

geophysics. Studies on energy and climate, upper 

atmospheric geophysics, geophysics of estuaries, 

and water and climate have advanced to the point 

that the papers have been presented at suitable 

public forums (American Geophysical Union or 

American Association for the Advancement of 

Science). 

The Balloon Study Committee was appointed 

early in 1975 as a joint activity of the GRB and 

the Space Science Board. Its objective was to review past scientific achievements and the future 

promise of this technique and to obtain highquality scientific data at low cost (as compared with satellites and other platforms). 

The Committee on Solar-Terrestrial Research 

(CSTR) reviews and makes recommendations on 

the national program in solar-terrestrial physics and 

through international bodies, participates in the 

organization and planning of international research 

in solar physics, interplanetary medium, planetary 

atmospheres, and the magnetosphere. The Government- Wide Plan for the International Magnetospheric Study, which was prepared by the Science 

Advisor of the National Science Foundation and 

is now being implemented by government agencies, 

is largely based on recommendations of a joint 

study by CSTR and the Space Science Board in 

1973 and a report by the CSTR Panel in 1974. The 

chief objective of the International Magnetospheric 

Study is to obtain a comprehensive, quantitative 

understanding of the dynamical processes operating 

on plasmas in the geomagnetic field. The operational basis is an international plan of coordinated 

observations from spacecraft, ground-based facilities, aircraft, balloons, and rockets. 

The Committee on Data Interchange and Data 

Centers was established to meet problems of international exchange of geophysical data ‘through 

the World Data Centers and to advise the GRB 

and the Director of the U.S. Center on policies 

and effectiveness of the service to the U.S. scientific 

community of both the U.S. complex (eight discipline-based subcenters and the Data Center Coordination Office) and other US. data centers and 

services. The committee is concerned with coordination of these services and their improvemen,t, especially in regard to effective use of the centers, 

quality control of the data, and services to the 

scientific community. The most recent publication, 

Geophysical Data Centers: Impact on Data-Intensive Programs (National Academy of Sciences, 

Washington, D.C.), was issued in 1976. 

Committee on Atmospheric Sciences 

The Committee on Atmospheric Sciences were re. 

quested by NASA in 1976 to review the program 

areas that were being considered for development 

of the measurement of the Earth radiation budget 

by means of satellite instrumentation. 

In response to this request, the committee established an ad hoc panel that met with scientists of 

NASA, NOAA, and universities who had direct 

involvement in several parallel studies for measuring the Earth radiation budget from space. 

The panel concluded that in order to develop 

valid radiative parameterization schemes, investigations were needed of large-scale, long-term radiative heating and energy transports and of the 

smaller space and time scales as well. It was believed this information would be necessary if atmospheric scientists are to achieve significant advances 

in weather prediction and in better understanding 

of climate and climatic changes. The panel findings 

resulted in specific recommendations on the approach, and they were incorporated in the proposed 

Earth Radiation Budget Satellite System. 

Committee on Impacts of Stratospheric Chmge 

The Committee on Impacts of Stratospheric 

Change (formerly the Climatic Impact Committee) 

completed work on its assessment of the extent to 

which fluorocarbons used largely as spray-can propellants and refrigerants could affect the Earth‘s 

ozone layer. Two reports, Halocarbons: Eflects on 

Stratospheric Ozone (Nation.al Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1976) and Halocarbons: 

Environmental Effects of Chlorofluoromethane Release (National Academy of Sciences, Washington, 

D.C., 1976) were released. The reports concluded 

that “Selective regulation of chlorofluoromethane 

uses and releases is almost certain to be necessary 

at some time and to some degree of completeness. 

Neither the needed timing nor the needed severity 

can be reasonably specified today.” The committee 

recommended a research program to elucidate the 

needed timing and severity. 

Committee on Toxicology 

The Committee on Toxicology has established 

a subcommittee on Fire Toxicology to evaluate the 

state of knowledge in methodology for toxicity 

screening of the combustion pyrolysis products of 

polymeric materials used in aircraft and spacecraft, 

to characterize the parameters of an “optimum” 

68 
test system for screening the toxicities of decomposition products, and to evaluate toxicological data on 

selected polymers. The committee has delivered to 

NASA a Six-Month Progress Report listing requirements for an optimum screening test for toxicity of 

combustion products. 

The Committee on Toxicology has revised the 

emergency exposure limits for hydrogen chloride 

and ammonia and is planning revisions for the hydrazines and rocket fuel oxidants. 

Space Applications 

Space Applications Board 

The Space Applications Board (SAB) was established to advise the Federal government on ma‘tters 

related to the practical applications of space systems. During 1976 the Board continued to bring 

to the attention of appropriate persons in the private and the public sector the 15 reports resulting 

from its 1974 summer study of the Practical Applications of Space Systems. Distribution, now essentially completed, has reached about 30,000 potential 

users interested in space applications. The SAB has 

begun follow-up meetings between Federal agencies 

and certain of the summer study user panels to review what has happened as a result of the study 

and what activities now deserve emphasis. 

In the conduct of the summer study, one panel 

examined the national program of research and 

development on processing materials in the space 

environment.. The panel concluded that the scientific basis for the program needed strengthening. 

The SAB decided, in concert with the National 

Research Council’s Solid State Sciences Committee, 

National Materials Advisory Board, and Division 

of Biological Sciences, to study in more detail the 

future course of the program for materials processing in space. A study, to be completed in late 1977, 

has been undertaken. 

At the request of NASA, the SAB established a 

Committee on Satellite Communications to examine 

the question, “Should the Federal government resume research and development in satellite communications and, if so, what should the Federal role 

be?” The committee was constituted of technologists, communications system operators, satellite 

communication users, communications policy specialists, and regulatory economists. A final report 

summarizing the findings of the committee is expected to be released in early 1977. 

Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for Emth 

Resource Surveys 

The Committee on Remote Sensing Programs for 

Earth Resource Surveys provides advice to the 

Federal government on the use of remote sensing 

from spacecraft and aircraft for natural resource 

surveys and environmental monitoring. 

During 1976, the committee completed an evaluation of a proposed follow-on sensor, the Thematic Mapper, planned for launch in 1981. As 

proposed, the Thematic Mapper is to provide a 

repetitive matrix of high-quality land cover or vegetation data as a basic information product for use 

by resource managers. The committee reviewed the 

characteristics of the sensor and concluded that by 

making some changes in the cut-on’s and cut-offs of 

the spectral bands in the scanner, the effectiveness 

of these bands for vegetation classification can be 

enhanced. Furthermone, these adjustments will also 

increase the utility of the sensor system for geological exploration, water management, land use management, and the study of coastal processes and 

oceanography. The committee also concluded that 

the Thematic Mapper, with the suggested modifications, could serve as the basic operational Earthresource sensing system. The committee recognized, 

however, the some users will require supplementary data that may be best acquired from 

another spacecraft with a different sensor and orbit 

characteristics. 

Committee on Radio Frequencies 

The Committee on Radio Frequencies (CORF) 

and its Subcommittees on Space Science and Radio 

Astronomy coordinate the views of the U.S. scientific 

and engineering communities on radio frequencies 

needed for research. CORF worked closely with 

Study Group 2 of the U.S. National Committee for 

the International Radio ConsuItative Committee 

(CCIR) in preparing documents on space research 

and radio astronomy for the CCIR Study Group 2 

held in Geneva. CORF also worked closely with 

the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) 

in developing and documenting the requirements 

for radio astronomy in preparing for the 1979 

World Administrative Radio Conference. Scientists 

recommended by CORF served on the FCC Radio 

Astronomy working group, formed to assist the 

FCC in preparing the U.S. position for the 1979 

conference. 

Committee on Seismology 

The Committee on Seismology reviewed its program in relation to new advances in the field and 

changing emphasis in government agency missions. 

The fundamental objectives for 1976 through 1978 

have been defined as follows: 

(a) to maintain active surveillance of major 

trends in seismology and related developments in allied scientific and technical fields: 

69 
(b) to provide special studies for government 

agencies on appropriate problems; 

(c) to maintain liaison with international seismological activities; 

(d) to provide advice to government agencies on 

the operation of Federally-supported seismograph networks and data dissemination facilities. 

In addition, the following four issues were selected 

for immediate action: 

Changing trends in seismology, in particular, 

the shifting Federal missions in the field, with 

implications for academic research; 

Operation and support of U.S. governmentsponsored seismograph networks; 

Collection, storage, and dissemination of seismographic data, particularly data for the new 

digital stations, and data from arrays; 

0 Assurance of appropriate response of seismology to the public welfare in regard to earthquake prediction and control, geothermal 

energy, earthquake engineering, geodesy, geological hazards, land-use planning, and offshore 

geological exploration. 

The first of a series of reports confronting these 

issues was published in July 1976, and two more 

are expected to be released in early 1977. The reports are: 

Predicting Earthquakes: A Scientific and Technical Evaluation-wit h Implications for Society, National Academy of Sciences, July 1976. 

Trends and Opportunities in Seismology: Part 

I. Opportunities and Benefits, Part ZZ. Background and Progress. 

Global Earthquake Monitoring: Its Zmportance 

and Support Requirements. 

The work of all U.S. government agencies has been 

reviewed and referenced in the above reports. 

Sources of support for the committee’s work include the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Geological Survey, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, U.S. Nucear 

Regulatory Commission, U.S. Energy Research and 

Development Administration, National Science 

Foundation, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and U.S. Air Force Office of Scientific 

Research. 

Aerospace Engineering 

Aeronatctics and Space Engineering Board 

In order to focus the energies and talents of the 

engineering community on important aerospace 

policies and programs essential to a strong aeronautical base in this country, the Aeronautics and 

Space Engineering Board (ASEB) continued to 

emphasize the need for a research and development 

program that would lead to improved commercial 

aircraft of all kinds. 

During 1976 the Board placed special emphasis 

on reviewing NASA’s Aircraft Energy Efficiency Pro. 

gram. The Board’s ad hoc Committee on Aircraft 

Fuel Conservation considered the means by which 

future aircraft could be made not only more fuel 

conservative but also more cost competitive and 

environmentally compatible. Special emphasis was 

placed on alternative fuels technology that would 

be necessary should the need arise to replace petroleum as a basis for aircraft fuels. 

The ad hoc Committee on Supersonic Research 

and Technology reviewed progress being made in 

this area and noted the advancements that had 

been made during the year in several related technologies. 

The ad hoc Committee on Turbine Engine Test 

Facilities completed its deliberations, taking into 

consideration not only the essential requirements 

for national turbine engine test facilities but also 

the ways by which the competence existing at 

NASA’s Lewis Research Center could support 

facets of the national energy program that are now 

the responsibility of the Energy Research and Development Administration. 

The Board has commended NASA on the steps 

taken to implement previous suggestions on recommendations made by the ad hoc Committee on the 

Management of Space Program Costs. The Board 

is considering the creation of another committee to 

examine the balance between research conducted 

in NASA centers and that supported in the academic and industrial sectors by NASA grants and 

contracts. This committee will also consider how 

the NASA-academic community relationship could 

be improved to ensure that sound basic research in 

support of broad national aeronautical objectives 

could be attained in a timely manner. 

National Materials Advisory Board 

The activity of the National Materials Advisory 

Board covers the entire life cycle of materials from 

their origin as natural resources, through their application for social purposes, to their disposal or 

reclamation back into the materials cycle. The 

studies undertaken by the Board contribute to the 

materials science and engineering data base. Several 

studies completed in 1976 should contribute directly to aerospace technology: 

0 The report of the ad hoc Committee on Mechanical Properties of Infrared Transmitting 

Materials assessed the probability of improving the erosion resistance of radome materials 
without sacrifice of their optical properties. 

e Rapid Inexpensive Tests for Determining 

Fracture Toughness, (National Academy of 

Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1976) examined 

the potential of various rapid, inexpensive 

methods for determining fracture toughness of 

production materials for quality control purposes. 

e The first volume of the report by the ad hoc 

Committee on Fire Safety Aspects of Polymeric 

Materials examined natura1 and synthetic polymeric materials in the presence of fire. Subsequent volumes will address the fire safety 

aspects of polymers in specific applications. 

One of the volumes, soon to be published, is 

devoted to aircraft systems. 

Education 

Commission on Human Resources 

The Commission on Human Resources of the 

National Research Council awards research appointments to doctoral engineers and scientists who 

pursue research at participating centers of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

In NRC-NASA Postdoctoral Associateship programs, able investigators conduct research projects 

that contribute to the goals and programs of NASA 

and that also provide research experience-often oE 

a unique kind-to the investigators. On August 31, 

1976, there were 212 Associates in tenure. 

71 
Office of Telecommunications 

Policy 

XI 

Introduction 

The Office of Telecommunications Policy (OTP) 

was created in 1970 as an independent agency 

within the Executive Office of the President. OTP 

has two major functions: (1) to serve as principal 

advisor to the President on communications policy; 

and (2) to formulate policies and provide coordination for the Federal government’s communications system. 

As specified in its charter, OTP develops plans, 

policies, and programs with respect to communications designed to promote the public interest, support national security, contribute to the economy 

and world trade, promote the interests of the 

United States in its relations with foreign nations, 

and foster effective and innovative telecommunications technology. 

During the past year, OTP was active in a 

broad range of telecommunications issues involving 

the domestic and international application of aeronautics and space technology. 

International Satellite Systems 

OTP has been involved in the development of 

specialized and regional telecommunications system throughout the world. In particular, since the 

beginning of international activity in 1972, OTP 

has been directly involved in the formulation of 

U.S. policies and positions on the establishment of 

an International Maritime Satellite System (INMARSAT). 

In addition, during the past years, OTP, as part 

of a U.S. Government triumvirate including the 

FCC and the State Department, has been providing guidance and instructions to Comsat (as U.S. 

Signatory in INTELSAT) as required by applicable 

legislative and Executive Order requirements. 

The possibility of the use of telecommunications 

satellites for broadcast of television programs directly into home receivers continues to generate 

international debate in the United Nations and 

has demanded OTP involvement as well. 

The Office also continually reviews the demands 

for use of the radio spectrum, which is a limited 

natural resource. During the year, OTP, in cooperation with the FCC and the Department of 

State, has been preparing for three important upcoming international conferences on frequency 

allocation for aeronautical, space, and terrestrial 

telecommunications systems. The conferences are 

sponsored by the International Telecommunications Union, a specialized agency of the United 

Nations. 

INMARSAT 

An International Convention establishing an 

INMARSAT organization was concluded in late 

1976 incorporating U.S. requirements that a twopart agreement be signed specifically delineating 

the rights and responsibilities of designated operating entities. 

Recently, OTP proposed designation of the U.S. 

entity in INMARSAT through legislation. It was 

proposed that this same entity be designated for 

future aeronautical as well as maritime satellite 

systems. This draft legislation is entitled the “International Mobile Satellite Telecommunications Act 

of 1976.” 

Direct Broadcast Satellites 

The fundamental difference between the proposed direct broadcast satellites and conventional 

communications satellites is the former’s capacity 

to broadcast direotly into home receivers, avoiding 

expensive ground stations. The use of receivers designed for direct broadcast satellite reception offers 

the potential for radical changes in the way telecommunications satellites may be employed. 

Active debate on direct broadcasting satellites 

began in the U.N. in 1966 at the time of discussions 

of the Outer Space Treaty. The basic political 

issue is the conflict between the view of the majority of states that DBS cannot be allowed to 

operate without permission of the receiving state 

and the view of a small minority of states which 

advocate free and unlimited operation subject, of 

course, to applicable technical limitations. Four 

72 
differing draft agreements are before the Outer 

Space Legal Subcommittee. 

OTP, along with other interested U.S. agencies, 

participated in the deliberations of both the Legal 

Subcommittee and the Outer Space Committee 

during the year, and it will continue to contribute 

to the formulation and presentation of U.S. policy 

views on the issue. 

Frequency Management 

The radio frequency spectrum is a finite resource. 

Its application is subject to the laws of physics; 

and it is shared by all nations and by all classes 

of radio equipment. Discrete segments of this radio 

spectrum are used by navigational aids, radars, and 

all non-wire forms of communications, e.g., AM, 

FM, and TV broadcasting: satellite transmission; 

and mobile communications generally. Increasing 

spectrum use increases the potential for interference. Avoiding such interference is a function of 

frequency management and spectrum planning. 

International speotrum planning is done within 

the framework of the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), a specialized agency of the 

United Nations, located in Geneva, Switzerland. 

The international radio regulations negotiated at 

conferences of the ITU, when ratified by the U.S. 

Congress, have the force of treaty. In addition to 

the relevance of the ITU regulations to national 

use of the radio frequency spectrum, they have 

an explicit impact on international communications and commerce. OTP, the FCC, and the Department of State are preparing work for three 

major ITU conferences: 

0 A World Administrative Radio Conference to 

be convened January 10, 1977, to establish 

technical sharing criteria for the Broadcasting 

Satellite Service in the 11.7-12.2 GHz frequency band, taking into account the fixed, 

mobile, and other broadcasting operations to 

which that band is also allocated; 

0 A World Administrative Radio Conference 

planned for later in 1977 to revise the planning for the Aeronautical Mobile Service use 

of high frequencies on the world’s air-route 

communication systems; 

e A World General Administrative Radio Conference to be held in the second half of 1979. 

This conference will have the authority to review and revise all of the international radio 

regulations, particularly those dealing with 

allocation of the radio frequency spectrum. 

The last ITU conference to have such broad 

authority was held in 1959. The development 

of satellites and ather sophisticated telecommunication technology, combined with the 

rapid growth of the organization since 1959 

and the ensuing political atmosphere will present the U.S. with pater challenges than any 

ITU-sponsored conference in the history of 

the organization. 

At the initiative of OTP, detailed examinations 

of planned and proposed aeronautical radionavigation and satellite systems have been undertaken 

jointly with the sponsoring government agencies to 

evaluate their electromagnetic interactions with 

each ather and with existing systems. As a result, 

a number of design adjustments in planned systems have been made by the FAA, NASA, and 

DoD to avoid the inestimable expenses in hardware replacement or retrofit which might have 

otherwise been necessary. 

Domestic Satellite Applications 

As a result of the recent ATS 6 program of 

NASA, considerable interest has developed in using 

advanced communications satellites with low-cost 

Earth stations in the delivery of health and educational services. 

OTP, in conjunction with HEW and NASA, has 

encouraged the transfer of this technology to the 

private sector. While NASA has eliminated many 

of the technical barriers associated with this type 

of satellite, questions of demand and how to bring 

all the many potential users together into a useful 

economic market prevented any major private sector initiative in this area. 

To correct this situation, OTP and HEW supported the concept of a user consortium that could 

collect all the various user needs for such service 

into a single package. As a result, the Public 

Service Satellite Consortium was formed early in 

1975 to make high-powered communication satellite services available to public and private institutions concerned with the delivery of health, 

educational, and other public services. OTP continues to be supportive of the PSSC in its developmental efforts. 

73 
XII Federal Communications Commission 

Introduction 

Commercial satellite telecommunications services 

expanded substantially during 1976 to meet the increasing demand of the public for national and 

international communications. Two additional 

countries joined the International Satellite Corporation (Intelsat) in 1976, bringing the total membership to 93. Three domestic satellite systems were 

in operation, broadening the services offered to the 

public to include communications services to cable 

television operators, offshore drilling, and other 

areas not normally accessible through standard 

communications services. Maritime-mobile satellite 

communications was initiated in the Atlantic and 

Pacific Ocean areas during 1976, and an application 

was filed by the U.S. co-owner of the AEROSAT 

aeronautical-mobile satellite system. 

Communications Satellites 

INTELSAT 

On September 21, 1976, INTELSAT contracted 

for the procurement of seven advanced technology 

satellites known as the Intelsat V series. Each of 

the new satellites would nearly double the capacity 

of one of the present generation of Intelsat IV-A 

satellites by utilizing higher frequency bands, frequency reuse, and dual polarization. The Intelsat V 

contract sets the delivery of the first satellite in mid1979. This satellite is capable of being launched by 

the Atlas-Centaur vehicle, as well as by NASA's 

Space Transportation System. 

INTELSAT's global system consists of two operational Atlantic Ocean satellites (one Intelsat 

IV-A and one Intelsat IV) and one operational 

Intelsat IV each in the Pacific and Indian Ocean 

regions. This space segment is complemented by 

a ground network of 140 antennas at 112 sites in 

78 countries. Besides providing international communications, INTELSAT provides satellite capacity to meet the domestic communications requirements of several countries. The continued 

construction of Earth station facilities is just one 

indication of the growing reliance on satellites for 

international as well as domestic communications. 

Domestic Satellite Service 

The number of operational domestic satellites 

doubled during 1976, with the launch of three 

satellites, one (Satcom 2) by RCA American Communications, Inc., and two (Comstar 1 and 2) by 

Comsat General Corporation for the American 

Telephone and Telegraph Company and GTE 

Satellite Corporation. In little over a year the 

Commission has authorized over 100 receive-only 

Earth stations for reception of television via domestic satellites. Also 69 bush stations in Alaska 

have been authorized by the Commission to provide message service to remote areas. A selected 

number of these areas will be provided television 

service in the near future. 

The Commission is evaluating proposals submitted by AT&T and RCA to determine who shall 

provide Alaska's space communications segment. 

Until a decision is reached, RCA has been granted 

authority to carry the Alaska traffic on SATCOM 

on an interim basis. 

Construction of the AT&T/GSAT domestic satellite system has been completed and commercial use 

was authorized in July 1976. The authorization 

called for accelerated integration of Hawaii and 

Alaska telephone rates and for rate integration for 

Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The International Record Carriers have also been authorized 

to use the Comstar satellites for provision of their 

authorized services between the mainland and 

Hawaii. 

Applications for a new domestic satellite system 

were filed by Satellite Business Systems (SBS), a 

proposed partnership between Comsat General 

Business Communications, Inc. (a wholly owned 

subsidiary of Comsat General Corporation), Information Satellite corporation (a wholly owned 

subsidiary of International Business Machines 

Corporation) , and Aetna Satellite Communications, 

Inc. (a wholly owned subsidiary of The Aetna 

Casualty and Surety Company). The proposed system would begin operations in the 12 and 14 GHz 

bands during 1979 to provide wideband switched 

private communications networks to large industrial 

74 
sild governmental users on a common carrier basis 

for voice, data, and image traffic using integrated 

digital transmission techniques between Earth stations located on customer premises through the 48 

contiguous states. 

The Corporation for Public Broadcasting (CPB) 

and the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) have 

submitted thirteen applications from public television licensees for construction permits for receiveonly Earth stations and one application from PBS 

for a main origination terminal. These applications 

are the first of what may be as many as 165 applications for Earth stations. They represent the 

ground segment of a domestic satellite system of 

interconnection for all public television stations in 

the United States, including Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto 

Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The space segment of the interconnection is the subject of a 

separate application filed by the Western IJnion 

Telegraph Company for authorization to provide 

satellite service to public broadcasting at reduced 

rates, pursuant to Section 396 (h) of the Communications Act of 1934. 

Specialized Satellite Services 

MIwitime Mobile-Satellite Service 

The Commission is continuing to work both nationally and internationally to develop maritime 

mobile communications in terms of accuracy, reliability, speed, and a variety of transmission modes 

which will, eventually, enhance maritime safety and 

management . Internationally, the Intergovernmental Maritime 

Consultative Organization, through the Panel of 

Experts on Maritime Satellites, completed its final 

meeting in September 1974, looking toward the 

establishment of an international maritime mobile 

satellite service. Operational requirements have 

been stated and initial economical, technical, and 

financial studies have been completed. 

Three intergovernmental conferences considered 

the report of the Panel of Experts, discussed arrangements for the establishment of the Intanationa1 Organization for a Martime Satellite System 

(INMARSAT) , established a Preparatory Committee to make preparations for the Organization, and 

in September 1976 opened the proposed establishment of INMARSAT the signature agreements. 

In preparation for those conferences, the Commission instituted an inquiry to help formulate the 

U.S. position on the establishment of an international maritime satellite system. 

Currently maritime service is being provided 

through the MARISAT system, which presently 

serves the U.S. Navy and commercial shipping in 

the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean regions. Authority 

was also granted to launch the third Markt 

satellite to serve the Navy in the Indian Ocean 

region. The Commission has adopted rules for 

licensing commercial ships to operate in this system. 

The Navy communications services are provided 

in the UHF band on a lease basis for a period beginning in 1976. The.Navy has agreed to subscribe 

to full UHF service for two and a half years from 

the Indian Ocean Marisat satellite beginning January 1, 1977, as well as committing itself to exercise 

options for full UHF service in the Atlantic and 

Pacific Marisat satellites through March 1979. However, when the Navy service is completed the entire 

satellite capacity can be devoted to commercial maritime service. 

Aeronuutical Mobile-Satellite Service 

In the fall of 1974, a memorandum of understanding was signed by the Department of Transportation/Federal Aviation Administration, the 

European Space Research Organization, now the 

European Space Agency, and the Canadian Government on the basic arrangements for an experimental 

aeronautical satellite system in the North Atlantic 

area. Comsat General Corporation has been chosen 

as the U.S. co-owner in the space segment of the 

system, which is to be placed into operation during 

1979. 

The objectives of the program are to gain experience and to evaluate and experiment with the use 

of satellite capacity in providing voice and data 

communications between aircraft and land stations. 

The system will use frequencies at C-band for 

communications between ground stations and satellites. It is anticipated that this initial system will 

provide limited VHF capability (the frequencies 

now used by aircraft over land) in addition to an 

L-band capability between satellite and aircraft. 

Broadcasting-Satellite Service 

The United States, in conjunction with the Indian government, conducted a series of experiments 

in public service broadcasting with the Applications Technology Satellite (ATS) during 1975- 

1976, after which it was moved to a position to serve 

the Unted States with continued experimental 

education programming. Action on requests to 

authorize 4 U.S. government stations and 16 nongovernment stations to use ATS 6 is expected by 

early 1977. Approximately 40 additional requests 

for operating authorization are expected in 19.77. 

Additional experimentation is taking place with 

the joint United States-Canada Communications 

Technology Satellite (CTS) , launched in January 

1976. There are 14 U.S. government stations authorized to use the CTS and 16 non-government sta75 
tions. At least 20 additional authorizations are 

expected in 1977. 

The Commission is investigating the requirements for a Broadcasting-Satellite Service for coinmunity and individual reception. As part of its 

preparation for the 1977 World Administrative 

Radio Conference on planning for the BroadcastingSatellite Service in the 11.7-12.2 GHz band, the 

Commission has issued its Report and Order in a 

proceeding to develop the proposals of the United 

States to this conference. These proposals have 

been finalized and forwarded to the International 

Telecommunications Union in Geneva. Also, a report entitled, “Satellite System Interference Modeling (1 1.7-12.2 GHz) ”, which considers factors 

pertinent to the planning of this band, was issued 

by the Office of Chief Engineer in September 1976. 

Internutionul Telecommunications Uniott (ITU) 

During 1976, the Commission’s activities increased considerably internationally in advance 

publication, coordination, and notification of space 

systems, in accordance with provisions of the ITU 

Radio Regulations. This increase stemmed from 

the several domestic satellite systems and the U.S. 

government (including military) systems in use 

or under development, the significantly increased 

number of systems in planning or under development by foreign countries, and actions taken by 

the ITU radio conferences, It also resulted from 

U.S. responsibilities to carry out these functions on 

behalf of INTELSAT countries. 

The Administrative Council of the ITU, which 

met during the summer of 1976, reconfirmed the 

convening of a General World Administrative 

Radio Conference and set September 1979 for the 

start of the ten-week conference. This major conference will deal with overall revisions to the current international Radio Regulations governing all 

radio services, including many aspects of a Special 

Joint Meeting of the International Radio C;u;..sultative Committee (C.C.I.R.) in the second half of 

1978, to consider technical factors in preparation 

for the 1979 General Radio Conference. 

Because of the wide scope of the conference, the 

extensive preparatory work required is well under 

way. This work will take into account the frequency requirements of all radio services and the 

many other technical and operating aspects that 

will be involved. The Commission has initiated a 

proceeding and has already issued two notices of 

inquiry to obtain public comments to assist in the 

development of U.S. proposals. 

Preparatory work has continued for the Aeronautical World Administrative Radio Conferencc, 

which will deal with matters relating to the Aeronautical Mobile Route Service, including the revision of their frequency allotment plan on the basis 

of single-sideband operation. This conference, originally to convene in March 1977, was postponed 

until February 1978 by the ITU Administrative 

Council. 

Frequency Allocation and Coordination 

A draft report and order to add a new footnote, 

US222, to the Table of Frequency Allocations has 

been prepared and action is expected in the near 

future. The proposed new footnote would permit 

the use of the frequency band 2025-2035 MHz by 

government Earth stations for Earth-to-space transmissions for tracking, telemetry, and telecommand 

at Wallops Island, Virginia; Seattle, Washington; 

and Honolulu, Hawaii. The action was requested 

by the Office of Telecommunications Policy to allow 

the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite System (GOES) to operate in the 2025-2035 

MHz band. GOES will be used in short range forecasting and warning of weather, ocean, and solar 

hazards, providing nearly continuous, detailed observa tions. 

76 
Department of State 

I I 

Introduction 

International space cooperation in support of 

foreign policy objectives and the goals of the National Aeronautics and Space Act continued to be 

a matter of high priority to the Department of 

State during 1976. Attention was focused both on 

cooperation with individual countries and on endeavors with multilateral and international organizations. 

Particular progress was seen in the continued 

cooperation of NASA with ten European countries 

in their development of a large space laboratory 

for use with the U.S. Space Shuttle system. Canada 

agreed to provide a remote manipulator for use 

on the Shuttle. Bilateral relations with U.S.S.R. 

continued through discussion of post Apollo-SoyuL 

activities and scientific exchanges. International cooperation for peaceful uses of space by all mankind 

was advanced in the communications satellite programs, the emerging maritime and aeronautical 

satellite programs, and the continued interest in 

space matters in the United Nations. The United 

Nations, through its Outer Space Committee and 

various working groups, has continued to be a 

prime forum for the formalization of multinational 

viewpoints and programs to advance cooperation 

in the uses of outer space. 

Activities within the United Nations 

Outer Space Committee 

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space met in New York from June 21 to July 2. It 

reviewed the work of its two Subcommittees-Legal, 

and Scientific and Technical-on four principal 

topics: (a) the draft treaty relating to the Moon; 

(b) the use of artificial Earth satellites for direct 

television broadcasting; (c) the survey of Earth 

resources by remote sensing satellites; and (d) the 

definition and/or delimitation of outer space and 

outer space activities. 

The committee noted the work of its Legal Subcommittee on drafting a Moon treaty. The 

subcommittee has still not resolved the complex 

issue ot the exploration and exploitation of Moon’s 

natural resources, although consensus has been 

reached on other outstanding issues. 

The Legal Subcommittee has made significant 

progress in its effort to establish principles for the 

use of artificial Earth satellites for direct television 

broadcasting. It reached agreement on nine principles dealing respectively with (I) purposes and 

objectives; (2) applicability of international law; 

(3) rights and benefits; (4) international cooperation; (5) state responsibility; (6) duty and right 

to consult; (7) peaceful settlement of disputes; 

(8) copyright and related rights; and (9) notification to the United Nations. It also decided not to 

formulate principles relating to spill-over and disruption. There was a continuing exchange of views 

on consent and participation, program content, and 

unlawful/inadmissible broadcasts. The committee 

agreed that the Legal Subcommittee should continue giving priority to the formulation of these 

principles, with a view toward concluding an international agreement or agreements . The most challenging issue before the committee 

was remote sensing of the Earth’s resources and 

natural environment by satellite. The committee 

agreed with the report of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee that the widespread operation 

of remote sensing was imminent, and that the data 

thus gathered would become integral to the economies and planning activities of states. The cominittee also noted the need to define the term 

“data,” as it is used in discussions of remote sensing. The Legal Subcommittee continued to wrestle 

with the questions of data dissemination and the 

legal implications of remote sensing. 

The committee also noted that work had begun 

on the question of the definition and/or delimitation of outer space and outer space activities. The 

Legal Subcommittee requested the Secretariat to 

prepare synoptic tables including the various proposals that relate to the framework of the committee’s work. The Scientific and Technical Subcummittee continued its deliberations on the options 

relating to a possible United Nations Conference on 

Outer Space. 

77 
The committee also took note of other related 

activities including exchange of information between states on space activities and the need for 

more comprehensive programs in public information. The committee expressed satisfaction on the 

work carried out at the Thumba Equatorial 

Rocket Launching Station in India with the 

CELPA Mar del Plata Station in Argentina, relative to the use of sounding rocket facilities for 

international cooperation and training in the 

peaceful scientific exploitation of solar energy 

through space technology. 

The committee decided, against the recommendation of the U.N. Committee on Conferences, to 

continue to meet annually and scheduled its next 

session for June 13-24, 1977. It agreed to General 

Assembly discussion of the committee’s system of 

alternating annual sessions of the subcommittees 

between New York and Geneva. 

General Assembly 

The First Committee of the General Assembly 

considered the two traditional outer space items, 

“International cooperation in the peaceful uses of 

outer space” and “Preparation of an international 

convention on principles governing the use by 

States of artificial earth satellites for direct television broadcasting” during 18 to 22 October. 

Priority items included remote sensing of the Earth 

from outer space, and the principle of prior consent for television broadcasts from space. 

On October 21, the First Committee unanimously 

adopted a draft resolution (sponsored by 40 countries including the United States) which recommended that the Legal Subcommittee should, as 

matter of high priority, (a) continue to consider 

a draft Moon treaty, (b) consider completing the 

elaboration of draft principles governing the use 

by states of artificial Earth satellites for direct television broadcasting, and (c) give detailed consideration to the legal implications of remote sensing of 

the Earth from space with the aim of formulating 

draft principles on the basis of common elements 

identified by it. The resolution also recommended 

that the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee 

pursue its work on matters before it, giving priority 

to (a) questions relating to remote sensing of the 

Earth by satellite, (b) the United Nations program 

on space applications, and (c) consideration of the 

options relating to a possible United Nations Conference on Outer Space matters. The resolution 

also endorsed the other recommendations of the 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, 

including those calling for further studies and reports by the Secretary General. The draft resolution was adopted unanimously by the Genera: 

Assembly on November 8. 

International Cooperation 

Coopedion with Europe 

During 1976, relations with Europe were characterized by continuing development of existing 

projects and by discussions of new projects made 

possible by advances in technology and space 

transport. 

Discussions with the European Space Agency 

(ESA) led to a tentative selection of experiments 

for the first joint ESA-NASA Spacelab Mission 

scheduled for 1980. Progress was made toward 

early agreement on the Space Telescope, the major 

payload in astronomy for the Space Shuttle. Additional details regarding the planned launch of 

joint ESA-NASA Sun-Earth Explorer satellites were 

worked out. 

Bilateral programs experienced renewed activity 

in 1976. In September, NASA signed a memorandum of understanding with Italy on a San Marco 

D cooperative satellite planned for launching in 

1979-1980. In addition to continuation of existing 

projects, new bilateral activities included discussions with the West Germans on a probe to Jupiter 

in 1983, with the British on several Explorer satellites, and with the Dutch on an infrared astronomy 

satellite. 

Cooperation with Canada 

An agreement was signed on June 23, 1976, in 

Washington whereby Canada will build and provide a Remote Manipulator System to be attached 

to the Space Shuttle, in return for which the U.S. 

will provide for the use of the Shuttle by Canada 

and will also cooperate with Canada in certain related activities. 

Cooperation with Japan 

Space cooperation between the U.S. and Japan, 

as authorized by the U.S.- Japan Space Cooperation 

Agreement of 1969, continued at a brisk pace during 1976 and peaked with the second successful 

launching of Japan’s N launch vehicle. The generally cooperative atmosphere was enhanced this 

summer by the U.S. worldwide sharing of information on the Viking mission. 

Future plans call for further collaboration in 

such projects as the launching of three Japanese 

satellites in FY 1977, the continuing analysis of 

data from the Landsat Earth resources surveying 

system, and analysis of lunar samples. Also, Japan 

has proposed a joint experiment in plasma accelera78 
tion undertaken for the first Spacelab mission. 

Chief among Japan’s priorhies is a program to develop, with U.S. assistance, an improved N-series 

launch vehicle. 

Cooper&iota with the Soviet Union 

Following the publicly acclaimed Apollo-Soyuz 

Test Project (ASTP) of 1975, cooperation in the 

space field with the Soviet Union continued in 

1976 through a variety of highly technical projects. 

Some of *these projects are using data collected during the test project-for example, the study of the 

effect of zero gravity on the resolidification properties of selected ma,terials, which in turn affect the 

electrical and mechanical properties of these materials, and the feasibility of using the resonance 

absorption technique for determining the chemical 

compition of the Earth’s atmosphere. 

Projects not directly related to ASTP included 

the exchange of information on exploration of 

Venus, with Soviet scientists reporting the results 

of the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 missions, and US. 

scientists describing radar observations on Venus 

and the planned 1978 Pioneer (U.S.) Venus missions. Soviet spectrometer readings of gamma radiation from Mars were analyzed by NASA and resulted in the identification of trace amounts of 

three additional elements (iron, oxygen, and carbon) beyond those already found by Soviet analysis 

(thorium and potassium). Coordinated magnetometer observations of Earth by the NASA 

Applications Technology Satellite (ATS 6) and 

Soviet ground stations continued. Both U.S. and 

Soviet experiments will analyze ground and spacecraft magnetometer information using full production runs of processed data tapes. The U.S. is profiting from the lunar sample exchange, since the 

Soviet lunar exploration program, the latest being 

Luna 24, extends to areas not reached by the U.S. 

and there are no NASA programs for obtaining 

additional lunar material. 

Several programs, in preparation for some time, 

only began to bear fruit during the year. Remote 

sensing of agricultural crops and natural vegetation 

at analagous U.S. and U.S.S.R. test sites is proceeding according to schedule. Soviet ground truth information, plus their aircraft data from the Kursk 

test site, will be most useful in the U.S. Large Area 

Crop Inventory Experiment aimed at world wheat 

crop prediction, as announced by the Secretary of 

State at the World Food Conference in Rome. 

Technology Transfer 

In 1976 the bulk of license requests for export of 

space-related hardware and technology processed 

by the Department of State’s Office of Munitions 

Control involved transfer under the United datesJapanese Space Cooperation Agreement and exports to Europe. The Department continued to 

emphasize the export of hardware rather ‘than the 

technology to produce the hardware. 

Remote Sensing 

The Department of State conducts and supports 

negotiations for agreements whereby certain countries provide facilities for reception and processing 

of Landsat data and pay a fee, in return for which 

the U.S. government provides Landsat data transmitted directly from the satellite while over the 

coverage region of the station. This region is a 

circle of about 3000 kilometers radius on the 

Earth’s surface. The countries presently operating 

such stations are Canada, Italy, and Brazil. Agreements have been reached with Iran, Zaire, and 

Chile. During 1976 the renewal of a ground station 

agreement with Brazil was negotiated, as was an 

agreement with Canada for a second station in that 

country. 

Satellite Services 

Communications Satellites 

The definitive agreements establishing the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) entered into force February 12, 

1973, and membership in INTELSAT reached 

ninty-five as of September 30, 1976, with the completion of membership requirements by Bangladesh, Mali, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. 

The agreements consist of an Intergovernmental 

Agreement and an Operating Agreement. The U.S. 

government is a party to the former, and the 

Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) is the U.S. signatory to the latter. INTELSAT consists of an Assembly of Parties, a Meeting 

of Signatories, a Board of Governors, and an 

Executive Organ under the direction of a Secretary 

General responsible to the Board of Governors. 

During 1976 COMSAT participated in the fifth 

session of the Meeting of Signatories and represented the United States at the meetings of the 

Board of Governors held approximately every two 

months. The Secretary General continued to provide financial, legal. and administrative support, 

and COMSAT provided certain technical and operational management services to INTELSAT 

under a contract that runs through February 11, 

1979. Also during 1976, the United States government participated at the Assembly of Parties held 

in Nairobi from September 27 to October 1. 

In July 1976, the Board of Governors, after reviewing several proposals, authorized COMSAT as 

79 
Management Services Contractor to negotiate with 

the Aeronutronic Ford Corporation for the Intelsat V program. The Board of Governors at the 

August meeting authorized COMSAT to contract 

with Aeronutronic Ford for the procurement of the 

Intelsat V spacecraft. These satellites will have a 

capacity of approximately 12,000 two-way voice 

circuits plus two channels for color television, 

almost doubling the capacity of the Intelsat IV-A 

satellites now being utilized. The first Intelsat V is 

scheduled for launch in 1979, and present plans 

call for using the Shuttle launch vehicle for the 

last three launches in 1980-1982. As of September 

30, 1976, there were 150 Earth-station antennas 

providing full-time service at 119 Earth stations in 

79 countries. 

Mmrithe Smtellites 

For a number of years it has been realized that 

a communications satellite system might be the 

solution to the inadequacies of the present system 

of communications with and between ships at sea. 

To this end the United States participated during 

the past few years in a series of international meetings convened by the Intergovernmental Maritime 

Consultative Organization (IMCO) to consider a 

global maritime satellite system. The agreemenlts 

establishing a new International Maritime Satellite 

Organization (INMARSAT) were comple,ted in 

September 1976 at the third and final session of 

the INMARSAT Conference. The agreements consist of a Convention and an Operating Agreement. 

The Convention has been opened for signa,ture. 

The United States is in the process of developing 

domestic procedures that would be necessary for 

formal U.S. participation in the organization. 

Amornutical Satellites 

Negotiations regarding the establishment of an 

experimental aeronautical communications satellite system (AEROSAT) culminated with the entry 

into force on August 2, 1974, of a Memorandum of 

Understanding between the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the European Space Research 

Organization (ESRO, now known as the European 

Space Agency, ESA), and the government of 

Canada. The program to be undertaken is designed 

to test the use of communications satellites for air 

traffic control and civil aviation purposes. ESA has 

selected the Communications Satellite Corporation 

(COMSAT), a United States company, to be coowner with it and Canada of the space segment to 

be provided; COMSAT, in turn, will lease communications capabilimties to the FAA. It is planned 

to launch two satellites in the late 1970s. These will 

be placed in geostationary orbit over the Atlantic 

Ocean. It is thoughit that an operational system 

could be in place by the mid-1980s. AEROSAT 

Council meetings have been held periodically in 

1976. 
XIV Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency 

Introduction 

The Arms Control and Disarmament Agency is 

concerned with implementation of the broad goals 

of U.S. space policy in three areas: first, maintaining space as an environment free of military forces 

and weapons: second, preserving the use of space 

for the purposes of peacekeeping, and crisis management; and third, ensuring that other countries 

will not use space technology and equipment to 

develop strategic offensive weapons. In each of 

these areas, ACDA participates in the formulation 

of U.S. policy, in the negotiation of international 

agreements, and in evaluating the effect of such 

policies and agreements on arms control and disarmament issues. 

Demilitarization 

One of the most fundamental objectives of U.S. 

policy relative to space is to ensure that it is not 

used as an arena for the testing or deployment of 

military forces or weapons. Two treaties relate to 

this goal. The Limited Test Ban Treaty (Treaty 

Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, 

in Outer Space and Under Water) prohibits nuclear weapon tests or any other nuclear explosion 

in outer space. The Treaty was opened for signing 

in 1963. As of the end of 1976, 105 countries had 

ratified it and 16 countries had signed but not yet 

ratified. The Outer Space Treaty (Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the 

Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the 

Moon and Other Celestial Bodies) specifically bans 

the emplacement of weapons of mass destruction in 

Earth orbit, on celestial bodies, or elsewhere in 

outer space, and it forbids the establishment of 

military bases, the conduct of military maneuvers, 

or the testing of weapons on celestial bodies. The 

treaty was opened for signature in 1967. As of the 

end of 1976, 72 countries had ratified it and 35 

countries had signed but not yet ratified. 

Crisis Management and Verification 

Using space for peacekeeping activities such as 

crisis management is an important ACDA interest 

and has been reflected in several international agreements. The 1971 Agreement on Measures to Improve the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Direct Communication 

Link and the technical annex to that agreement 

provided for a secure and direct “hotline” link 

between the U.S. and Soviet governments via space 

satellite for the transmission of urgent information 

and requests for information in situations requiring 

prompt clarification. The space-based communications link between the two governments, exploiting 

the capabilities of the Intelsat and Molniya communication satellite systems, became operational in 

1976. This is a significant step in the continuing 

efforts by ACDA and the U.S. Government as a 

whole to reduce the risk of outbreak of nuclear war. 

Space Technology 

Finally, ACDA is active in the formulation of 

U.S. policy on bilateral and multilateral international programs for the peaceful use of space. 

ACDA seeks to discourage other countries from 

utilizing space technology and hardware for the 

development of strategic offensive weaponry, and 

it participates in the reviews that precede the export of U.S. space technology and hardware as well 

as those concerned with the export of U.S. avionics 

systems. ACDA seeks to institute and maintain 

safeguards that will minimize the possible exploitation of such technology and hardware for military 

applications, while not curtailing legitimate trade 

or discouraging international cooperation. 

81 
XV Department of Transportation 

Introduction 

The basic responsibilities of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) are to ensure the safe 

and efficient utilization of the nation’s airspace, by 

both military and civil users, and to foster the development of civil aeronautics and air commerce. 

To support these responsibilities, the Administration conducts a wide range of research and development activfties. These activities can be grouped 

into two categories: those concerned wi’th enhancing aviation safety and those designed to increase 

the efficiency of air navigation and air traffic control facilities. 

Aviation Safety 

FAA’s research, development, and engineering 

programs in aviation safety include activities designed to demonstrate the technical, operational, 

and economic feasibility of improving the operational performance of aircraft, as well as efforts to 

raise the performance standards for pilots and 

other airmen. A program looking into means of 

deterring or preventing acts of terrorism or other 

violence aboard aircraft and at airports is being 

vigorously pursued. An applied research program 

in aviation medicine seeks to identify and eliminate 

biomedical factors in aviation accidents and to improve the performance, health, and safety of pilots, 

ground personnel, and passengers. The knowledge 

acquired in all of these programs enables the 

agency to improve contemporary and future aircraft and ensure the issuance of appropriate new 

standards, certification criteria, and regulations. 

Conflict Alert 

Early in 1976 FAA completed the installation of 

its confliot alert system, which flashes a warning 

signal on the radar displays used by air route 

traffic controllers to alert them when aircraft are 

potentially in conflict with each other. By January, 

all 20 Air Route Traffic Control Centers 

(ARTCCs) in the contiguous 48 states had completed the initial step of the program, which provided conflict alert in the high altitude sectors 

above 5500 meters; at year’s end, the system was 

operational at 19 centers from an altitude ot 3800 

meters and above. By the middle of 1977 all 

.ARTCCs are expected to operate the ATC system 

with a conflict alert capability extending upward 

hom the base of radar coverage. 

The conflict alert system is a computer progam 

that has been added to the centers’ central coniputers, which provide service to aircraft flying 

under instrument flight rules. The system projects 

what the flight paths of aircraft will be in the next 

two minutes. When their paths are projected to be 

closer than the required horizontal or vertical 

niinimunis established by FAA, the data tags that 

identify the aircraft (which appear on the controllers’ radar scope) begin to blink and the words 

“conflict alert” appear next to a separate display 

of aircraft identities. The controller is thereby 

alerted to the possibility of a conflict and radios 

one of the pilots to give him a new heading or 

altitude to keep the aircraft safely separated. FAA 

standards require a 9-kilometer horizontal separation or a 300-meter vertical separation between 

aircraft flying in controlled en route airspace in 

the contiguous 48 states. 

Wind Shear 

Since early 1971, six air carrier accidents have 

occurred in which wind shear was a major contributing factor. Wind shear-the change in speed 

or direction of wind encountered by descending 

or ascending aircraft-can have an immediate and 

dynamic effect on an aircraft; at a low altitude, it 

can be extremely hazardous. During 1976, FAA 

collected data to define the hazard and to find 

ground-based and airborne solutions. Several promising methods were investigated in flight simulators; these methods will be employed during 1977 

in flight tests. A ground based detection and warning system was installed at Dulles International 

Airport. In addition, the agency made arrangements with the National Weather Service to undertake the prediction of wind shear conditions at 

82 
several east coast airports during the 19761977 fall 

and winter seasons. 

Fire Safety 

If the severity of postcrash fires could be reduced, 

the time for emergency evacuation would be increased. During 1976, FAA completed laboratory 

burn tests of materials currently used in cabin 

interiors. The gases generated by these materials 

were ranked according to degree oE toxic hazard. 

Concurrently a fire management study established 

the relative merilts of various methods of preventing or controlling post-crash fires. An attempt was 

made to determine the pantition geometry required 

to interrupt the spread of fires (including flash 

fires) and determine the adverse effects of fresh air 

feeding a cabin fire. A mathematical model was 

developed to simulate cabin fire propagation on a 

computer; after refinement, this model will predict 

cabin flammability characteristics quickly without 

actual burn tests. Full-scale burn tests were conducted on a surplus C-133 transport fuselage to 

verify the concepts. The fire hazard potential oE 

typical flight attendant uniforms was also tested to 

improve fire safety standards for these garments. 

At year’s end, FAA was in the process of establishing a permanent full-scale fire-test facility. 

In another fire-research project, FAA and the 

U.S. Navy conducted small-scale crash simulation 

tests using modified fuel to assess the range of crash 

conditions in which the crash fireball could be 

prevented. 

General Aviation Safety 

FAA’s research and development efforts are 

directed at a variety of general aviation safety 

problems-crash survivabilimty, pilot competence, 

and flight safety. Primary emphasis is placed on 

improving the crash-worthiness of light planes, the 

need for flight safety improvements to prevent 

crashes, and reducing pilot-related causes of crashes. 

During 1975 and 1976, FAA developed a mathematical technique for analyzing the responses ot 

light-aircraft airframes to the dynamic loads that 

occur during a survivable crash. The technique 

will be validated by full-scale crash tests in cooperation with NASA. Concurrently, a technique 

for predioting occupant, seat, and restraint-system 

responses to crash loads, which had been validated 

earlier, was integrated into the airframe model. 

This study is expected to provide the basis for 

revised structural standards for light aircraf’t; it 

is also expected to provide a mathod that can be 

used to demonstrate compliance with the new 

st andar$s. 

Auktion Security 

FAA’s civil aviation security program is designed 

to prevent or deter acts of terrorism or sabotagei.e., hijacking, bomb threats, and actual bombings 

-aboard aircraft and at airports. The objectives of 

the R&D phase of this program are to conceive, 

design, develop, test, and evaluate new devices and 

ancillary equipment, as well as evaluate and assess 

existing devices, that will detect dangerous objects 

-handguns, explosives, and other weapons. During 

1976, FAA 

Conducted a one-year airport operational evaluation of an automatic device designed to 

detect handguns and explosives hidden in 

handcarried luggage. The device employed 

x-ray absorption #technology. The development 

of a similar device for checked baggage is underway. 

Evaluated a personnel explosive detector based 

on vapor-sensing technology. 

Completed a laboratory determination of explosive vapor characteristics. 

Experimented with locker designs in an effort 

to determine how t.0 minimize the exposure 

of people to explosions at airports. 

Studied the feasibility of a thermal neutron 

explosive detector system and a nuclear magnetic resonance explosive detector system and 

began ,the development of engineering prototypes. 

Aviation Medicine 

The primary purpose of FAA’s medical research 

program is to increase pilot and aircrew effectiveness. This is a high priority objective because 

human error or failure ranks as a major cause of 

aircraft accidents. An additional objective of the 

program, also of high priority, is the search for 

improved means for aircrew and passenger survivability during various emergencies. 

Among Ithe more significant aeromedical studies 

conducted during 1976 were the following: 

A study was conducted on the supplementaloxygen needs of working flight attendants 

during decompression. Men and women flight 

attendants were exposed, both while at work 

and at rest, to the decompression profile reported for a DC-10 decompression in 1973 over 

Albuquerque, New Mexico. The study showed 

that even mild to moderate work markedly 

reduced the time of useful consciousness; this 

was equally true for males and females. The 

study further showed that to remain conscious 

during that decompression, attendants had to 

obtain supplemental oxygen within 15 seconds. 

83 
Recommendations for flight attendant procedures during decompression have been made. 

Computerized data from medical examinations 

of airmen were studied to determine the value 

of periodic medical assessments. Particular attention was paid to the frequency with which 

safety-significant medical information had 

been discovered for various age groups. The 

results of the study, and a companion review 

of medical literature dealing with periodic 

medical examinations, will be used in determining the optimum frequency for airman 

examinations. 

Studies of National Transportation Safety 

Board Data have shown thlat the greatest percentage of aircraft accidents occur during the 

approach4to-landing phase of flight operations. 

Misperception and incorrect judgments oE 

distance and altitude are major factors. FAA 

conducted certain baseline studies on pilots 

performing approach and landing operations 

in a visual flight simulator. The resul’ts of this 

and similar studies will help in improving 

visual approach slope aids for airports. 

Air Traffic Control and Air Navigation 

FAA’s R&D is also directed at improving the 

Federal airways system by applying existing technology to air traffic control and air navigation problems. The aim is to keep (the current system 

operating safely with maximum efficiency and to 

provide for the expansion of the system to meet 

foreseeable future needs. 

Flight Service Station Modmrzktion 

In October 1976, FAA’s Flight Service System 

(FSS) was composed of 292 stations in the contiguous 48 states with an authorized staffing of 

4653 flight service specialists. The system was supported by 147 radio direction finder locations, 54 

remote and 476 limited-remote airlground communications outlets, and 861 VOR/VORTAC 

navigation facilities. In FY 1975, the system provided approximately 58 million flight services, of 

which 16 million were pilot weather briefings; 8 

million flight plans were filed. These services were 

provided to all of the flying public including scheduled air carriers and the military; however, the 

largest customer by far fur the FSS is general aviation, now approximately 161,000 aircraft. 

Present operations are highly labor-intensive. In 

too many cases a pilot must be provided a weather 

briefing for his intended route of flight by a flight 

service specialist. The problem is compounded by 

the projected doubling of demand for flight services by 1985 and a near tripling of demand in 

1990. Much of the equipment now in use is deteriorating and/or obsolete. Although advanced 

technology has been successfully utilized to automate the en route and the terminal elements of 

the air traffic conltrol (ATC) system, none of this 

available technology has been applied to flight service stations. Weather data are distributed by teletype and displayed on flight service specialists 

clipboards-a most awkward and inefficient operation. 

The importance of accurate and timely weather 

reporting to the safety of general aviation flights 

should be stressed. One study has shown that from 

1964 through 1972, 2026 weather-involved accidents 

killed 47 14 persons. These fatal weather-involved 

accidenlts represent 36.6 percent of the total general 

aviation accidents for the period studied. 

Simply stated, the major problem facing the 

FSS is to provide means to satisfy the demand on 

the system in a more efficient, less costly manner 

while at the same time enhancing safety. 

Recognizing the growing urgency of the problem, the Department of Transportation in the fall 

of 1971 formed the joint Office of the Secretary 

(OST) /Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) 

Flight Service Station Evaluation Team to analyze 

existing and projected FSS functions and develop 

recommendations for an improved FSS design. The 

report of the OST/FAA (team recommended a new 

FSS concept employing automation to replace the 

existing labor-intensive system. A key feature was 

flight plan filming through remotely located terminals with little or no assistance from a flight 

service specialist. Automation would disseminate 

the vast amount of weather data in a more efficient 

manner, improving service, safery, and cost. 

Building on this conceptual base, FAA initiated 

a program of system design analyses backed up by 

selected experiments. A very significanlt step in this 

system development was the design, fabrication, 

and evaluation of a flight service specialist automation system designated AWANS (Aviation Weather 

and NOTAMs System). AWANS has two principal 

objectives: first, to improve the timeliness and 

usability of the weather and NOTAM (Notices to 

Airmen) information to the flight service specialist 

(and t’o the ultimate user, the pilot); second, to 

improve the productivity of the system by making 

all of the data necessary for a briefing readily 

available to the briefer. The system employs minicomputers to accept, process, and store the required 

alphanumeric infomation available in today’s system. This information can be called up for immediate use on cathode ray tube video displays by 

flight service specialist. The system also accepts 

and provides a video display of weather radar in- 
formation available from National Weather Service 

radars. This system is currently in operation at the 

Atlanta Flight Service Station and has received 

enthusiastic acceptance by the flight service specialists there. The installation is serving as a 

functional prototype for further system development. 

The next step in system development was the 

co-location and consolidation of the Washington 

Flight Service Station at the Washington Air Route 

Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) at Leesburg, 

Virginia. The consolidation has two objectives: 

(1) demonstration of the operational concept ot 

co-locajting a flight service station with an 

ARTCC, 

(2) demonstration of the concept of performing 

the functions of several FSS facilities at a 

single site. 

This project consists of several phases: 

(1) relocate and reestablish the Washington 

flight service station into existing space in 

the Washington ARTCC (completed) , (2) install an interim (off-the-shelf) video display system (completed), 

(3) replace the interim video display system with 

an automated system identical to the Atlanta 

AWANS, 

(4) remote the functions of several adjacent 

flight service stations into the relocated 

Washington flight service station, all to be 

completed by the summer of 1977. 

Discrete Address Beacon System (DABS). This 

system is a key element of FAA’s plans for the 

evolutionary upgrading of its automated air traffic 

control system to accommodate the projected traffic 

loads of the 1980s and beyond. Essentially, DABS 

is an advanced version of the present air traffic 

control radar beacon system-also known as “secondary radar”-in which an airborne transponder 

signals aircraft identity and altitude when triggered 

by signals from ground interrogator antennas 

mounted on a radar reflector screen. This information is processed and displayed directly on the 

radar scopes used by air traffic controllers. The 

chief advantage of DABS is ilts capability to interrogate and receive a transponded reply from a specific 

aircraft rather than from all aircraft in the zone of 

coverage, as is the case with the present radar 

beacon equipment. This would help eliminate one 

problem in high-density traffic areas-the overlapping and garbling of transponder replies from 

aircraft flying close to one another. 

Since DABS addresses aircraft on an individual 

basis, it provides a natural means for a data link 

between aircraft and the ground-a link that can 

be used for aultomatic communications. The data 

link will be the basis for a ground-based collision 

avoidance service called Intermittent Positive Control. Air traffic control computers will track aircraft 

using transponder and other information and flash 

a warning when potential traffic conflicts are detected. Moreover, since DABS has a much higher address capacity than present radar units (16,777,216 

versus 4096), it will permit the assignment of a 

permanent identity code to all aircraft presently 

in operation and to those to come in the foreseeable future. 

In March 1976, FAA ordered $11.9 million 

worth of DABS equipment, including three ground 

sensors and 30 airborne transponders. The ground 

sensors will be co-located with radars at FAA’s National Avialtion Facilities Experimental Center 

(NAFEC) at Atlantic City, New Jersey; Philadelphia International Airport; and at Elwood, New 

Jersey. The airborne transponders will be installed 

in air carrier and general aviation aircraft. Multisite testing of the three engineering models is not 

expected to begin before 1978. 

Microwave Landing System (MU) 

This system is one of the most important elements of FAA’s Upgraded Third Generation ATC 

System. The present instrument landing system 

(ILS), which is based largely on (the technology of 

the 1940s, has a number of drawbacks: it can provide flight path information for only one approach 

path; terrain, structures, and aircraft interfere with 

its signals; its limisted number of frequency channels cannot meet future growth demands. The 

MLS, presently under development by FAA, overcomes all of these limitations. Development began 

in the early 1970s and is now in its $third phaseprototype development and evaluation. 

Over the last 24 months, FAA has been testing 

an experimental MLS configuration at NAFEC. In 

mid-1976, the agency took delivery of two prototype MLS configurations from each of two contractors. One configuration (the secalled Basic 

Narrow Configuration) is designed for use at air 

carrier airports; the other (the Small Community 

system) is designed for use at general aviation airports. One Small Community Configuration and 

one Basic Narrow Configuration were deployed at 

NAFEC; the second Basic Configuration was installed at Crow’s Landing, California. The second 

Small Community system will be delivered to 

NAFEC early in 1977. The Configurations are being deployed to provide maximum participation in 

the testing and demonstration by both military and 

civil pilots. 

Meanwhile, in December 1975, the United States 

submitted its adopted version of the microwave 
landing system-a configuration employing a timereference scanning beacon technique-to the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for 

consideration as the standard international system. 

During 1976 ICAO’s All Weather Operations 

Panel witnessed demonstrations of the U.S. system. 

ICAO is expected to select an international standard during 1977. 

Atctolnated Radar Terminal System ZZZ (ARTS) 

In 1975, FAA completed the installation of 

ARTS 111, its automated terminal system, at 61 

major terminal areas in the contiguous 48 states. 

In 1976, the agency took the initial step in enhancing the capabilities of this system when it contracted to provide 29 of the higher density terminals with primary radar tracking and improved 

beacon tracking. In addition, all 61 ARTS I11 

systems will be provided with continuous radar 

recording capabilities. 

At present, ARTS 111 displays alphanumeric 

data tags on radar scopes only for those aircraft 

equipped with a transponder for automatic reporting of identity and altitude. The data tags show 

this information as well as the computed ground 

speed of the aircraft. The enhanced ARTS I11 will 

enable controllers to put data stags on the radar 

scope for aircraft without a transponder, permitting continuous identification. 

At the same time, FAA contracted for the installation of an enhanced ARTS I11 system in the 

New York terminal radar control room (TRACON). The New York ARTS I11 will have 

all the enhanced capabilities mentioned above, 

plus the capability to process data from four radar 

and beacon systems. Ground-breaking for ‘the New 

York TRACON building took place in July at 

Mitchel Field, Long Island. The new installation 

will replace the present Common IFR Room at 

John F. Kennedy International Airport, which 

controls aircraft approaching and departing Kennedy, La Guardia, and Newark Airports as well as 

several small airports in the New York area. 

NAS En Route Stage A 

Steps were also taken to enhance the capabilities 

of the automated en rouste system, NAS En Route 

Stage A, which is operational at all 20 ARTCCs in 

the contiguous 48 states, by launching a longterm software development program. Several types 

of computer program developments were contracted for. One involves a redesign of the present 

computer program to improve efficiency and to 

increase computer storage and processing capacity. 

The additional capacity is needed to accoinmodatc 

air traffic growth and allow addition of new automation functions. Other development activities involve software changes required to accommodate 

5UCh upgraded features as DABS, collision avoidance, and FSS automation. 

Additionally, the contractor will develop the following new ATC automation functions: 

Flight Plan Conflict Probe. This will provide 

controllers with computer assistance in the longrange planning of conflict-free paths through en 

route airspace. The computer will update flight 

plans, check an aircraft’s intended flight path, determine potential conflicts, and suggest alternatives 

to correct potential conflicts. 

Contiol Message Automation. This will process 

two-way communications with aircraft using data 

link. The system will generate a variety of aircraft 

control messages such as ATC command, restrictions, and weather advisories. 

Conflict Resolution. This is an extension of the 

Conflict Alert program (see that heading). It will 

use flight plan and tracking data to give the controller suggested resolutions to potential conflicts. 

En Route Meteiing. This function will help 

regulate air traffic passing from en route to terminal airspace conltrol. Because acceptance rates may 

be exceeded by many nearly simultaneous arrivals 

during bad weather, smoothing the traffic flow is 

needed to prevent overloads in the terminal area 

and to minimize fuel consumption. Metering will 

aid the controller in sequencing traffic en route 

and adjusting the rate of flow into the terminal 

airspace. 

86 
XVI 

Introduction 

The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and 

the National Air and Space Museum, as bureaus 

of the Smi,thsonian Institution, contribute directly 

to national goals in aeronautics and space science 

both through active research in geophysics and 

astrophysics and programs of public education and 

information. 

The Srnithsonian Institution 

Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 

The research programs of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory are coordinated wilth those of 

the Harvard College Observatory in a cooperative 

venture known as the Center for Astrophysics. 

With over 140 scientists and 300 supporting staff 

members both in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and 

at field stations around the world, the center represents this nation’s largest observatory. The joint 

scientific program includes investigations in most 

major topics of modern astronomy, with special 

emphasis on space science projects in the fields of 

high-energy astrophysics, optical and infrared 

astronomy, lunar science, solar and stellar physics, 

and geoastronomy. 

High Energy Astrophysics 

The first deteotion of giant bursts of x-ray emission from the centers of globular clusters of stars 

was made by Observatory scientists working with 

data taken by an experiment aboard the Astronomical Netherlands Satellite (ANS) . The sudden 

burst of energy, comparable to the 30-fold brightening of an optical object, was seen from a cluster 

in the constellation Sagittarius. Subsequently, at 

least another dozen of these so-called “x-ray 

bursters” were identified, primarily by a team from 

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology using 

data from the Small Astronomy Satellite (SASS), 

but also by Observatory scientists using ANS and 

Uhuru data. 

Smithsonian scientists also participated in the 

reduction of data returned earlier from the Uhuru 

x-ray satellite. Some 50 new x-ray sources were 

identified and an expanded map of the heavens as 

seen in x-ray range was prepared. 

An x-ray experiment using a two-dimensional 

low-resolution mirror and imaging system was 

flown aboard a rocket. In addition to observations 

of extragalaotic x-ray sources, the experiment obtained data that produced the first x-ray map of the 

Perseus cluster of galaxies, showing both extended 

emission regions and the galaxy NGC 1275. That 

galaxy is the most intense source of x-ray emission 

discovered. 

Work continued on the experiments scheduled 

for flight aboard the upcoming NASA series of 

High Energy Astron,omy Observatory (HEAO) 

satellites. the first of which is planned for late 1977. 

A major efforlt has been devoted to construction of 

the cosmic x-ray telescope aboard the HEAO-B, 

due to fly in 1978. This telescope will be capable 

of detecting tens of thousands of x-ray sources, some 

more distant than the most distant galaxies now 

seen from ground-based telescopes. 

Geoastronomy 

The Observatory operates a worldwide network 

of tracking stations equipped with both optical 

telescopes and laser ranging systems to observe the 

precise positions of artificial satellites and uses the 

resulting data to extract dnformation about the 

Eanth’s shape, gravitational field, and upper atmosphere. 

Lageos, an extremely dense, mechanically and 

electrically inert satellite fitted with retroreflectors 

designed by Observatory scientists, was launched 

by NASA on May 4. The satellite, which has an 

orbital lifetime estimated in millions of years, will 

serve as a stable reference for ground-based laser 

tracking stations, including those of the Observatory, thus providing data on crustal movements, 

polar motion, and variations in the rotation of the 

Earth. At an altitude of 5900 kilometers and with a 

magnitude of 13, the Lageos satellite was thought 

too faint to be acquired by the network’s cameras; 

however, the station at Hawaii photographed the 

satellite on its first orbit, just 90 minutes after 

87 
launch, and other nctwork cameras photographed 

the object shortly thereafter. The Mt. Hopkins, 

Arizona, laser obtained returns within 3 days after 

launch, and, within two months, more than 16,000 

range measurements were achieved by the Observatory’s laser network. During the nexit four years, 

geophysicists hope to obtain range data (laser-tosatellite distance) accurate to 10 centimeters, with 

the distances between the ground stations measured 

to comparable accuracies. By the 1980s, this accuracy is expected to be 2 centimeters, m about 

the distance that Europe and North America are 

suspected of drifting aparlt annually. 

On June 16, an Observatory-designed-and-built 

hydrogen maser clock, so accurate ‘that it varies 

only 1 second in 10 million years, was launched by 

NASA on a 2-hour suborbital flight to test. the 

equivalence principle, a cornerstone of Einstein’s 

theory of general relativity. In the test, time aboard 

the spacecraft was measured against a duplicate 

ground-based clock to an accuracy of 1 part in 

According to theory, the space clock should run 

faster once free of the Earth’s gravitational field. 

The payload reached an altitude of 10,000 kilometers with a flight time of 1 hour 56 minutes. The 

probe maser functioned properly throughout the 

flight, as did the ground-based equipment. Initial 

analysis of the data, considered some 100 times 

more accurate than any previous ground-based experiments, indicates that the principle of equivalence is correct to high accuracy. 

In support of research in geodesy, geophysics, 

and the upper atmosphere, satellite-tracking operations were conducted in close cooperation with 

NASA, the Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales, and 

the Institut fur Angewandte Geodasie. As coordinator of all internaticonal laser networks, the Observatory provided orbital elements, scheduling, 

and general operational support for all the overseas lasers participating in the campaign to track 

the Geos 3 satelhte. Laser data were also acquired 

on a number of other retroreflector satellites for 

use in the development of the gravity field and 

geodetic models of the Earth. 

An analytical theory for determining the nongravitational effects of solar radiation pressure, 

albedo pressure, and infrared pressure on artificial 

satellites was developed for the first time. The 

primary theory of satellite motion was carried to 

third order, with the potential development of an 

accuracy of better than 1 centimeter for satellilte 

applications in geodesy and geophysics. 

Ionospheric data collected by the Doppler tracking experiment on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project 

(ASTP) of 1975 were reduced. This experiment 

was designed to detect large concentrations of mass 

in the Earth beneath the satellites. Work this year 

was devoted to removing propagation errors from 

raw measurements of the relative velocity between 

the Apollo spacecrafit and the ASTP docking 

module, with the resulting data to be inverted into 

gravity-field anlomalies. These data also represent 

valuable horizontal sounding samples of the ionosphere at the 220-kilometer orbital height. 

Raw data on thermospheric composition obtained by the gas analyzer on the polar-orbiting 

satellite Esro 4 were reduced for use in an analysis 

of upper atmosphere properties. In studies of the 

disturbed thermosphere, the increase of the exospheric temperature over quiet conditions was 

found to be a function of the planetary geomagnetic index K, and of the magnetic invariant 

latitude. Local changes in temperature are accompanied by variations in the height of the homopause, which, in turn, caused large changes in 

composition. The atmospheric perturbation propagates toward the equator, where a density wave is 

observed 8 hours after a magnetic disturbance. 

Solar and Stellar Physics 

Observatory scientists continued their analysis of 

solar data obtained by Harvard experiments aboard 

the Skylab satellite during the 1973-1974 flights. 

Thousands of photographs were taken by two different instruments-one sensitive t’o ultraviolet 

emissions, the other to x-rays. The analyses have 

resulted in detailed numerical models describing 

the physical mechanisms for energy flow in the 

Sun’s corona and the acceleration of the solar wind. 

It has been found that the solar wind, which 

strikes the Earth, is contr’olled by a magnetic field 

deep within the Sun. This discovery has major 

implications for understanding physical processes 

and motions below the solar surface. Moreover, this 

discovery may allow Earth-bound investigators to 

predict periods of solar-wind activity through observations of changes in the Sun’s suSface. 

Laboratory studies of atomic and molecular processes were used in theoretical studies of the 

thermosphere of the Earth, for comparison with 

the in situ measurements obtained by the NASA 

Atmospheric Explorer Satellite system, to obtain 

a quantitative understanding of the physical and 

chemical processes. The absorption of solar extreme 

ultraviolet radiation and photoeleatrons in the atmosphere and the phot’ochemical equilibrium in 

concentrations have been calculated. Using the 

satellite observations, information on the free oxygen concentration, the total ionization rate due to 

to the solar ultraviolet flux, and the thermal budget 

of the ionosphere can be obtained. Some preliminary studies of the upper atmosphere of Jupiter 

and Mars have been carried out. 

88 
Lam Scieme 

The Observa,tory continues its research on lunar 

and meteorite samples, with Observatory scientists 

instrumental in organizing two consortia to coordinate research in lunar geology. One of these, the 

Consortium Indomitabile, worked on samples from 

a large lunar boulder; the other, the Consortium 

Imbrium, was formed to study ejecta from the 

Imbrium basin. In addition, the analysis of solarwind gases trapped in the lunar materials has 

placed an upper limit on the amount of tritium 

in the solar wind and has allowed a positive identification of carbon 14. 

Optical and lnfrured Astronomy 

Ground-based optical observations have been 

made in conjunction with x-ray data provided by 

satellites to study the properties of highly condensed objects interacting with normal companions 

in binary systems. An identification of these bodies 

and studies of their variability were made, both on 

short and 1,ong time scales. Intensive studies were 

made of the centers of globular clusters that emit 

x-ray bursts in a search for optical clues to this 

unusual phenomenon. A study of abundances in 

Sirius has been conducted to see whether mass 

transfer between it and its companion could have 

affected nucleosynthesis in this system. Ultraviolet 

studies of x-ray sources will be made with the International Ultraviolet Explorer satellite. 

A 1-meter ballmn-borne telescope program continues with support from NASA. Although both 

scheduled flights in 1976 were cancelled due to 

failure of the gyropointing control, future flights 

will carry a four-color far-infrared photometer 

developed by the University of Palermo and a high 

resolution Fourier transform spectrometer designed 

and constructed by the Observatory with NASA 

support. 

The National Air and Space Museum 

July 1, 1976, marked the opening of the National 

Air and Space Museum building on the Mall in 

Washington. This new facilicy of the Smithsonian 

Institution was developed to present and exemplify 

to the public the technology, science, and history of 

flight. Its opening, on time and wi,thin budget, 

constituted a major bicentennial event. 

The museum was developed around the national 

collections of aircraft and spacecraft which include 

the first airplane in the world, the Wright Brothers’ 

Kitty Hawk Flyer; Lindberg’s Spirit of St. Louis; 

the X-1, the first supersonic airplane; Friendship 

7, which was the first American manned earthorbiter; and the Apollo 11 spacecraft, Columbia, 

which carried the first men to a landing on the 

Moon. 

The National Air and Space Museum uses its 

collections in twenty-three major exhibition galleries 

to tell the story of flight. Gallery names include 

Exhibition Flight, the Hall of Air Transportation, 

World War I Aviation, Benefits from Flight, Space 

Hall, Flight Technology, and Life in the Universe, 

to cite a few. 

The efforts of research and design leading to the 

new museum are believed to constitute by far the 

largest and most ambitious single museum development program ever mounted. The galleries have 

been developed to present the many dimensions of 

flight in ways understandable (and frequently enjoyable) to the visitor, and ‘to supply much information about the technology, science, and history 

of flight never presented before to the general 

public. 

Two major presentation centers augment the 

museum’s exhibit complex, providing visual siniulations of aeronautical and space flight not previously available. These are the Spcearium, a 

21-meter d’omed chamber housing a planetarium 

and many additional projectors for astronomy and 

space (travel presentations, and the Theater, in 

which a five-story-high motion picture is projected 

to convey the realities of flight. The automated 

planetarium was presented to the Unilted States by 

the Federal Republic of Germany as their bicentennial gift. 

Public acceptance of the new museum was instantaneous and dramatic. One million visitor? 

were recorded during Ithe first 3$$ weeks; three 

million during the first 3 months; and between 5 

and 6 million during the museum’s first six months, 

breaking all records for museum attendance. The 

museum is in full operation, encompassing an aeronautical and space flight library, an education operation with programs directed at all ages, and a 

research program directed at studies and publications about the technology and history of flight. 

- 

Flight Experiments 

Museum scientists coordinated the analysis ol 

both verbal descriptions and some 1400 photographs of terrestrial features made by crew menibers on the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz mission. These data 

were used to support research in the fields of geology, oceanography, hydrology, and meteorology. 

The analysis program was pursued in cooperation 

with USGS, NOAA, and several other research 

institultions in the United States and abroad. 

89 
Lunur Research 

Photogeologic studies of the Mare Smythii region 

on the east limb of the Moon continued. The 

Smythii basin is of geologic interest because it is 

located between the Moon’s near and far sides and 

because it is only partially filled with basaltic 

lavas. Several unusual multi-ringed craters occur 

within the basin; and studies of the most welldeveloped crater, Haldane, indicate these features 

may have resulted from extensive modification by 

volcanism, with many aspects common to terrestrial calderas. 

The Museum’s extensive collection of lunar 

photographs and maps was also used to study 

sinuous rilles in the Harbinger Mountains region 

of the Moon. The data indicate a slope-controlled 

orientation and a genetic relation to volcanic features, thus lending support to the theory that the 

rilles formed as lava channels or tubes. 

The southeastern Mare Serenitatis area of the 

Moon has been mapped at a scale of 1:250,000. Data 

sources included Apollo photographs, analyses of 

samples from the Apollo 17 site, and results of 

Apollo orbital geochemical and geophysical sensors. 

Based on struotural relationships within this area, 

a geologic history of the Serenitatis basin was deduced. The resul ting sequences of tectonic events 

are also applicable to major basins elsewhere on 

the Moon as well as on Mars arid Mercury. 

Cooperation continued with NASA in the lunar 

mapping program, particularly through participation in the “Lunar Photographic and Cartographic 

Committee,” to choose sites for future mapping. 

Museum personnel also contributed to the international program to name the Moon’s surface features. 

Nomenclature proposals were presen,ted at the 16th 

General Assembly of the International Astronomical 

Union. A computer program was devised for the 

lunar nomenclature file used by both government 

and private cartographers. 

Comparative Planetology 

Studies of desert landforms were begun as the 

first step in a program of comparative planetary 

research. Specifically, a synthesis of photogeologic 

interpretations and ground-truth information was 

made on eolian landforms .in ‘the Western Desert of 

Egypt. Photographs of this desert display some dune 

shapes and wind-blown features reminiscent of 

dunes and streaks formed by wind action on Mars. 

Correlations between these similar features proved 

significant in understanding photographs returned 

by the Mariner and Viking spacecraft. 

90 
XVII United States Information Agency 

1 I 

Introduction 

The United States Information Agency (USIA) 

maintains United States Information Service (USIS) 

posts in 112 countries with 253 information centers 

and libraries and domestic support facilities for 

press, radio, TV, and film. The Agency’s Voice of 

America operates 113 transmitters with broadcasts 

in 36 languages. The agency also produces sixteen 

worldwide and regional magazines, TV programs, 

and major exhibits. USIA officers serving at posts 

abroad provide a link with local opinion leaders 

and promote contact between U.S. and local experts. 

Space and aeronautics are important matters in the 

Agency’s public affairs mission, since they are a mark 

of U.S. expertise in science and technology. 

In USIA programming the three most significant 

US. space events in 1976 were the NASA Viking 

landing on Mars, the AID demonstration in developing countries of satellite technology (AIDSAT), and the USIA worldwide, satellite-beamed, 

bicentennial TV program “Salute by Satellite.” A 

review of foreign media reaction to ‘the Viking landing showed that the world press gave prominent 

coverage of the landing. USIS pasts advised and 

assisted on Ithe AIDSAT project in countries in East 

Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America. As a 

demonstration of the benefits of satellites for surveying natural resources and for communication to 

remote areas, the project was a media success. 

Press and Publications 

Fifty-three of the 92 space-related press stories 

sent to USIS posts via the Agency Wireless File were 

on Viking. Most were written by staff science writers, but some were commissioned articles from such 

authorities as Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, Arthur C. 

Clarke, and Wernher von Braun. The remaining 

items were on weather and communications satellite programs, other NASA space research, and the 

Space Shuttle. 

Most Agency magazines carried Viking stories 

this year, Titles give some idea of the content: “Mission to Mars,” “Viking on Mars,” “Probing the 

Secret of Mars,” etc. Other space-related magazine 

articles focused on communications and weather 

satellites, Mariner and Pioneer space exploration, 

and the new Air and Space Museum in Washington. 

Over 500 copies of a news packet, “Space: the 

New Frontier,” were distributed to overseas posts 

and to foreign correspondents in New York and 

Washington. This packet contained articles and 

pictures, including a preview of the Viking project. 

The AIDSAT demonstration program was another space event which received continuing support. In July a special new packet, “Satellite Technology Benefits Developing Nations,” was sent to 

the 35 posts involved in the demonstration, and 

copies were distributed to foreign correspondents 

in the U.S. Agency articles on this project received 

excellent placement in the foreign press. 

Films and Television 

Fifteen “SaluLe by Satellite” programs which 

covered bicentennial celebrations of various ethnic 

groups were produced and beamed in July as a part 

of the bicentennial. An introduction by President 

Ford was transmitted to 32 countries; Vice President 

Rockefeller hosted the Spanish-language programs 

for Latin America. These programs were carried by 

TV stations around the world and were seen by an 

audience of approximately 100 million. 

Twelve monthly issues of the film and TV program “Science Reprt” were produced and distributed. Six of these had a NASA topic-the ApolloSoyuz Iink-up, Mariner 10, Landsat satellites, preparations for the Space Shuttle, and an introductory 

story on the Viking project. The sixth report, on 

the touchdown of Viking 1 and the preliminary 

scientific results from Mars, was the first oomprehensive TV account to be released worldwide. It 

was telecast in 81 countries and shown as a film in 

many others. 

USIA produced special programs on solar energy, 

spin-offs from the space program, satellite communication, and the opening of the National Air and 

91 
Space Museum. The= were distributed on video 

casettes. One 60-minute casette-“Satellites, Servant, from the Sky”-was shown in the American 

Pavillion in Yugoslavia at the Zagreb Space Exhibit. 

In addition the Agency continued to distribute 

abroad documentary films such as NASA’s “Mission 

of Apollo-Soyuz” and the National Science Foundation’s “Invisible Universe.” 

Information Centers and Exhibits 

The U.S. crew of the historic Apllo-Soyuz mission traveled to North Africa and the Middle East 

under USIA auspices. In public appearances and 

private meetings the crew explained the scientific 

work accomplished during the flights and their observati’ons from space of several of the nations they 

visited. The astronauts were received by heads of 

state and other high government officials, top scientists, and academic leaders. Dr. Farouk El Baz of the 

Smiithsonian National Air and Space Museum explained the potential economic and scientific values 

of the Apollu-Soyuz mission. 

A live demonstration was given in six countries 

in Southeast Asia on the educational use of modern 

communications technology for developing nations. 

In Zagreb, five U.S. specialists joined Yugoslav specialists to discuss applications of satellites and space 

technology in contemporary problems. 

A satellimte communications exhibit was pant of 

the U.S. exhibit at the Zagreb Trade Fair. Two 

other exhibits, both entitled “Treasures of Space,” 

were shown in ten cities in Africa and the Middle 

East. Six Moon rocks, astronaut equipment, and 

models of satellites were shown separately in various 

areas. 

Skylab mission commander Gerald P. Carr visited 

East Berlin under USIA sponsorship. Other astronauts also lectured for USIA during the year. Alan 

J. Bean talked about his experiences as the fourth 

man on the Moon and about his preparation for 

the Space Shuttle. R’onald E. Evans spoke at the 

opening of the European Space Technology Center 

in the Hague, and at a meeting of the Swedish Space 

Board in Stockholm. Astronaut Karl G. Henize appeared at the 25th anniversary observance of the 

Hermann Oberth Society in Bremen, Germany. 

Press conferences on Viking Mars explorations were 

arranged for Cornel1 Universi,ty astronomer Carl 

Sagan in Paris and London. 

Radio 

Voice of America (VOA) in 1976 reported on 

the here-and-now benefits and future directions of 

space research. Features, interviews, and discussion 

programs covered topics ranging from astronauttype meals for the elderly to prospects for a space 

station; from the use of satellites for locust control 

in Algeria to their role in uniting the world through 

communications. During the year there were more 

than 800 different features and reports in various 

languages on US. space activities. Months before 

the Viking landings, VOA interviewed NASA officials who described the Viking spacecraft and mission. The landing of Viking 1 was described, live 

from Pasadena, on broadcasts in English, Russian, 

Chinese, and Spanish. Correspondents at the Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) gave spot-reports on 

the progress of the search for life on Mars. As the 

first picture from the surface of Mars appeared strip 

by strip on the JPL screens, scientists explained for 

VOA listeners what was being seen by man for the 

first time. Millions of Central and South American 

listeners heard the VOA Spanish “simulcast” as relayed by their own local radio and television stations. Similar coverage was given to Viking 2. A special feature, “Martian Perspective,” reviewed the results of the Viking mission with scientists Gerald 

Soffen, Michael McElroy, Carl Sagan, and Harold 

Klein. 

VOA correspondents traveled to various locations 

to report on space activities in the U.S. Multilingnal broadcasts covered conferences at the Ames 

Research Center, California, and at Philadelphia 

and Cape Canaveral. Michael Collins, formes 

astronaut and Director of ‘the new Air and Space 

Museum, acted as host in a special feature on the 

opening of the Museum in Washington. 

92 
Appendixes 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure Year 

1957 .................. 0 1 0 0 

1958 5 8 0 4 

1959 9 9 1 2 

1960 16 12 1 2 

1961 35 12 0 2 

1962 55 12 4 1 

1963 .................. 62 11 0 0 

1964 .................. 69 8 4 0 

1965 .................. 93 7 4 1 

1966 94 12 7 ‘1 

.................. 

.................. 

.................. 

.................. 

.................. 

.................. 

Earth orbit Earth escape 

Success Failure Success Failure Year 

1967 .................. 78 4 10 0 

1968 .................. 61 15 3 0 

1969 .................. 58 1 8 1 

1970 36 1 3 0 

1971 45 2 8 1 

1972 .................. 33 2 8 0 

1973 .................. 23 2 3 0 

1974 .................. 27 2 1 0 

1975 .................. 30 4 4 0 

1976 .................. 33 0 1 0 

Total ............ 862 125 70 15 

.................. 

.................. 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Record of Space Launchings Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

Year Japan Republic People’s Australia Kingdom United United U.S.S.R. France Italy States of China 

................ ...... ....... ............ ...... ....... ............ ...... ....... 3 .................................................. 

6 .................................................. 20 .................................................. ................... 

1964 ................... .57 30 .............................................................................. 1965 ................... .63 48 ............ 1 ................................................................. 1966 ................... .73 44 ............ 1 .................. ............................................ 1967 ................... .57 66 ............ 2 ............ l..... .............................. 1 ............. 1968 ................... .45 

1969 ................... .40 

1970 .................... 28 

1971 ................... .SO ........................ 1 

1972 ................... .So 74 ‘1 1 

1973 ................... .23 86 ....................................... ......................... 1974 .................... 22 81 ........................ ’ 2 ............ l...... ................... 1975 ................... .27 89 ............ 3 ............ 1 ............ 2 ...... ................... 1976 .................... 26 

Total ............. .671 

.......................................................................... 

........................ ............ ......................... 

Includes foreign launchings of U.S. spatecraft. spacecraft. Some launches did successfully orbit multiple 

NOTE: This tabulation enumerates launchings rather than spacecraft. 
A~PENDIX A3 

Successful U.S. Launches-1976 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Jan. 15 Objective: To investigate the fundamental solar HelioHelios 2 processes and solar terrestial relationships by the centric 

SA study of phenomena such as solar wind, magnetic orbit 

Titan IIIE-Cerrtaur and electric fields, cosmic rays, and cosmic dust. 

The basic mission extends from launch to the 

first perihelion (approximately 0.31 A.U. and 90 

days after launch). 

Spacecraft: Spool-shaped satellite formed by two 

conical solar arrays attached to a lasided cylindrical central body: the central compartment is 

1.75-m in diameter and 0.55-m high. Largest diameter of the solar arrays is 2.77-m and satellite 

height without antenna mast is 2.12-m: with the 

antenna mast protruding above the solar array, 

spacecraft height is 4.20-m. Two deployable 

booms attached to the central body measure 32-m 

tip-to-tip when extended and are used as antennas 

for a radiowave experiment: two other deployable 

booms, attached to the central body and perpendicular to the antenna booms, carry three 

magnetometer experiments. Solar cells located on 

the solar arrays above and below spacecraft body: 

second surface mirrors are interse among 

the solar cells to radiate excess heat: silver zinc 

batteries. Active and passive thermal control subsystem; attitude control subsystem: three antennas for communications and telemetry: carries 

I3 experiments. Weight: 370 kg. 

Jan. 17 

CTS-1 

4A 

Thor-Delta 

Objective: To advance the technology of space- 36,022 

craft-mounted and related ground-based com- 33,814 

ponents and systems applicable to high-radiated- 1392 

RF-power satellites. Specific objectives of two- 0.7 

way television and voice communication: wideband data transmission and data relay to small, 

low-cost ground stations: maintain antenna pointing accuracy; and obta8in 1-kw of useful power to 

the spacecraft from the unfurled solar-cell array. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular box-shaped spacecraft, two 

sides being curved, with a deployable 2-panel 

solar array. Overall height and outside diameter 

are 188-cm and 183-cm. Solar panels are mounted on curved panels on two sides of the spacecraft. 

The forward platform carries the su-mr-highfrequency antennas and earth sensors. The aft 

platform consists of the reaction control system. 

The 2 extendible solar arrays are mounted on 

the north and south panels The total span of 

the satellite is 15.8-m when the 2 solar arrays are fully extended. Earth-oriented satellite receives 

signals at 14 GHz and converts them to 12 GHz 

for retransmission to the ground. Weight in 

orbit: 347 kg. 

Second West German-built satellite 

successfully launched by NASA 

into elliptical solar orbit. Spacecraft orbit will take it closer to 

Sun than any man-made object 

has achieved to date (43 million 

km) . Results will contribute more 

information on the solar corona, 

physical processes active on the 

Sun, and unexpected micrometeorite results observed on Helios 1. 

All 10 active experiments have 

been turned on and are functioning normally. First perihelion 

occurred April 17, 1976. 

Launched by NASA, the joint 

Canadian/U.S. satellite is the 

most powerful communications 

satellite to date. Apogee kick 

motor fired Jan. 20 and satellite 

stationed at 116O west longitude over Atlantic Ocean in slightly 

elliptical orbit. On Jan. 29 arrived on station and operations handed over to Communications Research 

Centre, Canadian Department of 

Communications. 

94 
APPJLNDIX A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1976 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name Cospar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

Jan. 29 Objective: To provide 6250 two-way voice circuits 35,869 

Intelsat IV-A F-2 35,084 

1 OA 1420.2 

Atlas-Centaur of communications traffic. 0. I 

plus two television channels simultaneously or a 

combination of telephone, TV, and other forms 

Spacecraft: Overall height of 6.99-m and 2.38-m in 

diameter. Consists of two main elements: rotating 

cylinder covered with solar cells contains power 

subsystem: positioning and orientation subsystem, 

apogee motor, and despin control subsystem: despun Earth-oriented platfvrm atop rotating cylinder contains 20 communications repeaters 

(transponders) , new antenna reflectors, and telemetry and command subsystems. Antenna re- flectors are supported by a 'single tubular mast. 

134.6-cm transanit and 88.9-cm receive quasisquare reflectors are constructed of a metallic 

mesh on an open web frame. Feed horn arrays 

and global horns are cantilevered from the base 

of the mast. Telemetry and command omnidirectional bicone antenna is mounted on the 

mast tip. Weight at liftoff: 1515 kg. Weight after 

apogee motor fire: 825.5 kg. 

... 

Feb. 19 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 355 

DdenW and technology. 90 

16A Spacecraft: Not announced. 89.0 

Thor-Burner 2 98.9 

Feb. 19 Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 35,867 

Marisat 1 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide 24-hour real- 35,703 

17A time communications between ships and shore. 1436.1 

mor-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical shape. 380-cm high and 2.4 

215-cm in diameter; spin stabilized; 44 duplex 

teleprinter channels and one two-way voice circuit: cylinder covered with 7000 solar cells contains power subsystems, apogee motor, and despin 

control subsystems. Spacecraft has 3 UHF helical 

antenna array and quad L-band array antenna 

mounted on single pole extending from spacecraft body. Command and telemetry antenna located at end of antenna boom. Weight at launch: 

6.54 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 327 kg. 

Mar. 15 

LES-8 

23A 

Titan IIIC 

Mar. 15 

LESS 

23B 

Titan IIIC 

Mar. 15 

Solrad HiA 

!UC 

Titan IIIC 

Objective: To evaluate advanced satellite communi- 35,787 

cations techniques. 35,707 

Spacecraft: Communications satellite with protective 1436.1 

hardening and radioisotope electric power source: 25.0 

Weight: 4.54 kg. 

Objective: To evaluate advanced satellite communi- 35,787 

cations techniques. 35,787 

Spacecraft: Communications satellite with protective 1436.1 

hardening and radioisotope electric power source: 25.0 

Weight: 454 kg. 

Objective: To measure solar x-rays, ultraviolet light, 119,180 

and particle emissions. 118,383 

Spacecraft: Scientific instrumentation and four solar 7344.3 

panels. Weight: 181 kg. 25.7 

Second in a series of improved Intelsat IV-A spacecraft has twice 

the communications capacity of 

Intelsat IV series. Launched by 

NASA for Comsat Corp., manager 

of Intelsat. Apogee motor fired 

Jan. 31 and satellite stationed at 

29.5' west longitude over Atlantic Ocean. To serve as back-up for 

first Intelsat IV-A launched Sept. 

25, 1975. 

Achieved only a low orbit and decayed Feb. 19, the day of launch. 

Though satellite fulfilled Cospar 

rules for successful orbit, DoD 

does not count it as successful. 

First in a series of maritime satellites. Launched by NASA for 

Comsat Corp. Apogee motor fired 

Feb. 21 and satellite stationed at 

15' west longitude over Atlantic 

Ocean. During first two years the 

prime user of UHF will be U.S. 

Navy. Began telephone operation 

July 9 and telex operations July 

29; Navy service began Mar. 25. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

95 
APPENDIX A3-Continued 

Successful U .S. Launches- 1976 

Apogee and 

perigee 

Launch date (G.m.t.) (kilome ters) 

Period 

(@nu tes) 

equator 

(degrees) 

Spacecraft name Spacecraft data Remarks 

Launch vehicle Inclination to 

Cospar designation 

Mar. 15 

Solrad HiB 

23D 

Titan IIIC 

Mar. 22 

Defense 

27A 

Titan IIIB 

Mar. 26 

RC A-Satcom-2 

29'4 

Thor-Delta 

Apr. 22 

NATO 111 A 

35A 

Thor-Delta 

Apr. 30 

Defense 

38A 

Atlas F 

Apr. SO 

Defense 

38C 

Atlas F 

Apr. 30 

DefenJe 

38D 

Atlas F 

Am. 30 

D'efense 

38J 

Atlas F 

May 4 

Lageos 

39A 

Thor-Delta 

Objective: To measure solar x-rays, ultraviolet light, 

Spacecraft: Scientific instrumentation and four solar 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and particle emissions. 

panels. Weight: 181 kg. 

and technology. 

Objective: To provide television, voice channels, 

and high-speed data transmission to Hawaii, 

Alaska, and contiguous United States: to operate 

all 24 transponder channels at specified power 

throughout the minimum 8-year satellite lifetime. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped 1.2-m x 1.2-m x 1.6-m high 

with two rectangular solar panels extending from 

the spacecraft on short booms. Hydrazine propellant tanks protrude from both east and west 

panels of spacecraft body; the two remaining 

main body panels support communications trans 

ponders and housekeeping equipment. During 

operation spacecraft is three-axis stabilized. Three 

nickel-cadmium batteries. Weight at launch: 868 

kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 463 kg. 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous 

orbit over equator for use by NATO. 

Spacecraft: Drum-shaped 2.2-m in diameter, 2.23-m 

long, with overall length of 3.1-m, including an- tennas. Weight at launch: 720 kg. Weight after 

apogee motor fire: 310 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecrafr: Not announced. 

and tecqnology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To provide permanent reference point in 

orbit for precision Earth-dynamics measurement: 

demonstrate capability of laser satellite tracking 

techniques; and make accurate measurements of 

Earth's rotation and movement of the crust. 

Spacecraft: Aluminum sphere 60-cm in diameter 

with 426 laser retroreflectors mounted on surface 

of spacecraft. To obtain density for stable orbit, 

two aluminum hemispheres are bolted together 

around a solid brass core. Weight: 411 kg. 

116,645 

115,720 

71 16.7 

25.6 

347 

125 

89.3 

96.4 

35,882 

35,642 

1434.9 

0.3 

35,794 

35,782 

1436.2 

2.7 

1128 

1092 

107.5 

63.5 

1129 

1093 

107.5 

63.4 

1130 

1093 

107.5 

63.4 

1139 

1083 

107.4 

63.4 

5944 

5835 

225.4 

109.9 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed May 18, 1976. 

Second in a series of three RCA 

commercial satellites. Launched 

by NASA into transfer orbit. 

Apogee boost motor fired Mar. 29 

and spacecraft placed in stationary orbit at 135" west longitude over equator. Commercial operations began June 7, 1976. 

First of three planned NATO com- munications satellites. Launched 

by NASA for NATO. Apogee kick 

motor fired Apr. 24 and satellite 

stationed at 15.5O west 1ongi.tude 

due south of the westernmost 

coast of Africa. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

The Laser Geodynamic Satellite 

(Lageos) was launched success- fully by NASA. Useful life of 

satellite estimated at 50 years, but 

will remain in orbit for more than 8 million years. Operations 

began May 6. 

96 
APPENDIX A-3-Con hued 

Successful U .S. Launches- 1976 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name &spar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Spacecraft data 

Apogee and 

perigee (kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

(degrees) 

Remarks 

May 13 

Comstar 1 

42A 

Atlas-Centaur 

May 22 

P 76-5 Wideband 

47A 

scout 

June 2 

Defense 

50A 

Titan IIIB 

June 10 

Marisat 2 

53A 

Thor-Delta 

June 18 

Gravity Probe A 

(Red Shift 

ixperimen t) 

sub-orbi tal 

scout 

June 26 

Defense 

59A 

Titan IIIC 

July 8 

Defense 

65A 

Titan IIID 

Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 

transfer orbit. Satellite to provide contiguous 

US., Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico with 14,400 

two-way high quality voice circuits. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 244-cm diameter and 610- cm high: spin stabilized; solar cells are mounted on spacecraft exterior; 24 transponders, 12 horizonmtally polarized and 12 vertically polarized permit reuse of same frequencies by satellite, resulting in doubling the effective capacity of each 

spacecraft by making more efficient use of radio 

spectrum. Weight at launch: 1518 kg. Weight 

after apogee motor fire: 816.5 kg. 

Objective: To evaluate certain propagation effects 

of disturbed plasma on radar and communication 

systems. 

Spacecraft: Box-shaped spacecraft with four dT?oyable solar arrays. Experiment package of mu tiple 

antenna array. Weight: 72.6 kg. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

and technology. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 

transfer orbit. Satellite to provide 24-hour realtime communications between ships and shore. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 380-cm high and 215-cm 

diameter: spin stabilized; 44 duplex teleprinter 

channels and one two-way voice circuit: cylinder 

covered with 7000 solar cells containing power 

subsystems, apogee motor, and despin control 

subsystems. Spacecraft has 3 UHF helical antenna 

array and quad L-band array antenna mounted on single pole extending from spacecraft body. Command and telemetry antenna located at end of 

antenna boom. Weight at launch: 654 kg. Weight 

after apogee motor fire: 327 kg. 

Objective: To test Einstein's "equivalence principle", which is the foundation of relativity 

theory. 

Probe: 114-cm long, 96-cm diameter: extremely ac- curate hydrogen maser atomic clock: support 

equipment consists of S-band telemetry transponder, battery, and cooling system. Weight: 102 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

kg. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

35,802 

35,269 

1423.3 

0.1 

1058 

993 

105.7 

99.7 

39,259 

361 2 

700 

c.5 

35,w 

35,788 

1436.6 

2.5 

35.860 

35,620 

1433.3 

0.5 

242 

159 

88.5 

97 .O 

First of planned three satellite network owned by Comsat and 

leased by American Telephone and Telegraph Company. 

Launched by NASA for Comsat. 

Apogee kick motor fired May 15 

and spacecraft placed in stationary orbit at 128" west longitude over Pacific Ocean. Commercial 

operations began July 24. 

Launched by NASA for US. Air 

Force. Spacecraft operated as 

planned, mission objectives were 

achieved. 

Still in orbit. 

Second in a series of maritime satellites. Launched by NASA for 

Comsat Corp. Apogee motor fired 

June 11 and satellite stationed at 

176.5' east longitude over Pacific 

Ocean. During first two years the 

prime user of UHF will be US. 

Navy. Began commercial operations Aug. 15, Navy service hegan June28. 

Launched by NASA into an elliptical flight of one hour and 55 

minutes over Atlantic Ocean. 

Maximum altitude l0,OOO km. 

Data substantially confirmed 

equivalence aspect of the theory. 

Still in orbit. 

Still in orbit. 

97 
APPENDIX ASContinued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1976 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name war designation 

Launch vehicle 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period 

(minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

Spacecraft data Remarks 

(degrees) 

kY744 

65B 

Titan IIID 

July 8 

Defense 

65C 

Titan IIID 

July 8 

Palapa 1 

66A 

Thor-Delta 

Objective: To measure the intensity, distribution, 

and effects of protons, electrons, and alpha particles in space. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 

transfer orbit. Satellite to provide transmission of 

television, voice, and other data throughout Indonesia. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 1.8-m diameter and 3.3-m 

high; despun Earth-oriented antenna assembly 

affixed to top of spacecraft. Provides 12 RF channels, two of which will be protection channels for 

10 traffic carrying channels; 23,000 solar cells. 

Weight at launch: 574 kg.; weight in orbit: 281 

k. 

July 22 

Comstar 2 

73A 

Atlas-Centaur 

July 29 

Noaa 5 (ITOS H) 

77A 

Thor-Delta 

Objective: To launch spacecraft into synchronous 

transfer orbit. Satellite to provide contiguous US., 

Hawaii, Alaska, and Puerto Rico wi,th 14,400 twoway high quality voice circuits. 

Spacecraft: Cylindrical 244-cm diameter and 610-cm 

high; Tin stabilized; solar cells are mounted on 

spacecraft exterior: 24 transponders, 12 horizontally polarized and 12 vertically polarized, permit reuse of same frequencies by satellite. Weight at 

launch: 1518 kg. Weight after apogee motor fire: 

816.5 kg. 

Objective: To place spacecraft in a Sun-synchronous 

orbit having a local equator crossing time of 

approximately 830 a.m., descending to permit 

regular and dependable daytime and nighttime 

meteorological observations in both direct readout and stored modes of operation. 

Spacecraft: Rectangular, box-shaped spacecraft with 

a deployable 3-panel solar array. The base of the 

main body is about 102-cm by 102-cm and the 

overall height is about 122-cm. The total area of 

the array is 4.5 sq m with each of the 3 panels 

measuring 93-cm by 162-cm. 3-axis stabilized, 

Earth-oriented satellite carries primary sensor complement of 2 Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) instruments and 2 Scanning Radiometer (SR) sensors for daytime and nighttime 

coverage, 2 Vertical Temperature Profile Radiometers (VTPR) which permit determination of 

the Earth's vertical temperature profile over 

every part of the Earth's surface at least twice 

daily, and 1 secondary sensor, the Solar Proton 

Monitor (SPM) , which provides continuous 

measurements of proton and electron flux activity near the Earth. Thermal control system; 4 

antennas. Weight: 345 kg. 

8048 

236 

179.0 

97.5 

632 

628 

97.3 

96.4 

35,809 

35,764 

1436.1 

0.0 

35,747 

55,388 

1425 

0.2 

1521 

1505 

116.3 

102.1 

Carries five experiments for Air 

Force Geophysin Laboratory and 

three experiments for Office of 

Naval Research. Still in orbit. 

Decayed Dec. 13. 

Launched by NASA for Indonesia 

into transfer orbit. Apogee motor 

fired July 11 and spacecraft 

placed in stationary orbit above 

equator at 8.5" east longitude. 

First message sent via satellite by 

President Suharto on August 17, 

1976. 

Second of three planned satellite 

network owned by Comsat and 

leased to American Telephone 

and Telegraph Company. 

Launched by NASA for Comsat. 

Apogee kick motor fired July 24 

and spacecraft placed in stationary orbit at 95" west longitude 

below southwestern US. Commercial operations began Sept. 

13, 1976. 

Fifth operational satellite of a series of second generation meteorological satellites launched by 

NASA. Part of NOAA global 

weather watch program. Spacecraft functioning normally and was turned over to NOAA on Aug. 20, 1976, for operational use. Replaced Noaa 4 which became 

the back-up spacecraft. 

98 
APPENDIX ASContinued 

Successful U.S. Launches- 1976 

Launch date (G.m.t.) 

Spacecraft name &spar designation 

Launch vehicle 

Apogee and 

perigee 

(kilometers) 

Period Remarks (minutes) 

Inclination to 

equator 

Spacecraft data 

(degrees) 

Aug. 6 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Defense and technology. 

8OA Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIIB 

Sept. 1 Objective: To test a developmental satellite proTransit Improvement viding improved operational characteristics for 

Program (TIP) 3 the Transit navigation system; to be integrated 

89A into the operational Transit system. 

Scout Spacecraft: Solar panels and accordion-like boom 

deploy from main satellite b4y after insertion 

into proper orbit: hydrazine-fueled motor. 

Weight: 166 kg. 

Sept. 11 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Defense and technology. 

91A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Thor-Burner 2 

Sept. 15 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Defense and technology. 

94A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIIB 

Oct. 14 Objective: To launch satellite into synchronous 

Marisat 3 transfer orbit. Satellite to provide 24-hour reallOlA time communications between ships and shore. 

Thor-Delta Spacecraft: Cylindrical 380-cm high and 215-cm 

diameter: spin stabilized: 44 duplex teleprinter 

channels and one two-way voice circuit; cylinder 

covered with 7000 solar cells containing power 

subsystems, apogee motor, and despin control 

subsystems. Spacecraft has 3 UHF helical antenna 

array and quad L-band array antenna mounted on single pole extending from spacecraft body. 

Command and telemetry antenna located at end 

of antenna boom. Weight at launch: 654 kg. 

Weight after apogee motor fire: 327 kg. 

Dec. 19 Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 

Defense and technology. 

125A Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Titan IIIB 

39,315 

380 

703.8 

63.3 

787 

341 

96.0 

90.3 

848 

818 

101.6 

98.7 

330 

135 

89.2 

96.4 

36,525 

35.051 

1436.2 

2.6 

530 

244 

92.3 

96.9 

Still in orbit. 

Third in a series of improved 

Transit Navigation Satellites. 

Launched by NASA for the U.S. 

Navy into an elliptical transfer 

orbit. Solar panels failed to deploy as planned. Navy attempting to salvage mission. 

Still in orbit. 

Decayed November 5, 1976. 

Third in a series of maritime satellites. Launched by NASA for 

Comsat Corp. Apogee motor fired 

Oct. 16 and satellite stationed 

over Pacific Ocean for check out. 

Satellite was stationed over Indian Ocean at 73" east longitude 

in December 1976. To be used by 

the Navy as a Tare in orbit 

should either Marisat 1 or 2 fail. 

Still in orbit. 

99 
APPENDIX B-1 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1972-1976 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Jan. 22, 1972 

June 13, 1972 

Oct. 15, 1972 

Nov. 9, 1972 

Apr. 40, 1973 

Aug. 24, 1973 

Dec. 13, 1973 

Jan. 19, 1974 

Apr. 13, 1974 

May 30, 1974 

Oct. 10, 1974 

Nov. 21, 1974 

Nov. 23, 1974 

Dec. 19, 1974 

May 7, 1975 

May 22, 1975 

Aug. 27, 1975 

Sep. 26, 1975 

Dec. 13, 1975 

Jan. 17, 1976 

Jan. 30, 1976 

Feb. 19, 1976 

Mar. 15, 1976 

Mar. 26, 1976 

Apr. 22, 1976 

May 13, 1976 

June 10, 1976 

July 8, 1976 

July 22, 1976 

Oct. 14, 1976 

Intelsat IV (F-4) 

Intelsat IV (F-5) 

Oscar VI 

Anik 1 (Telesat 1) 

Anik 2 (Telesat 2) 

Intelsat IV (F-7) 

Skynet 2A 

DSCS 2-3,4 

Westar 1 

ATS 6 

Westar 2 

Intelsat IV (F-8) 

Skynet 2B 

Symphonie 1 

Anik 3 (Telesat 3) 

Intelsat IV (F-1) 

Symphonie 2 

Intelsat IV-A (F-1) 

RCA-Satcom-1 

Intelsat IV-A IF-2) 

CTS- 1 

\I 

Marisat 1 

LES a/9 

RCA-Satcom 2 

NATO IIIA 

Comstar 1 

Marisat 2 

Palapa 1 

Comstar 2 

Marisat 3 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Atlas-Centaur 

AtlasCentaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta ITAT) 

Atlas-Centaur ’ 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Cen taur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAl3 

Thor-Delta (TAT; 

Titan IIIC 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

AtlaoCentaur 

Thor-Del ta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Third in new high capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Fourth in new high capacity series.. Positioned over Indian 

Amateur radio relay. 

launched for Canada. 

Launched for Canada. 

Fifth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Atlantic. 

Follow-on to DSCS 2-1,2. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft failed to achieve 

the proper orbit. 

Launched for the Western Union Co. to establish a domestic 

communications link. 

Multipurpose experimental satellite especially designed for re- gional services in North America and later India. 

Launched for the Western Union Co. as part of their domestic 

communications links. 

Sixth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Pacific. 

Launched for the United Kingdom in response to an agreement 

to augment the DSCS program. Spacecraft positioned over 

Indian Ocean. 

First of two experimental satellites for France and West Germany. Spacecraft positioned over Atlantic. 

Launched for Canada. 

Eighth in high-capacity series. Positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Launched for France and West Germany. Positioned over the 

First of a new series double the capacity of its predecessors. 

Launched for RCA as first of their communications satellite 

Canadian-US., most powerful experimental satellite. 

Positioned over Atlantic. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over the Atlantic. 

Experimental satellites with radioisotope power sources. 

Second of three. 

First of new series. 

Placed over Pacific for AT&T by Comsat. 

For maritime use by Comsat, over the Pacific. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

Placed south of the United States for AT&T by Comsat. 

Placed over Indian Ocean. 

Ocean. 

Atlantic. 

Positioned over the Atlantic. 

series. Positioned over the Pacific. 

100 
APPENDIX B-1 -Con tinued 

U.S. Applications Satellites 1972-1976 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

WEATHER OBSERVATION+ 

Oct. 15, 1972 

Dec. 11, 1972 

Nov. 6, 1973 

May 17. 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

Feb. 6, 1975 

June 12, 1975 

Oct. 16, 1975 

July 29, 1976 

July 23, 1972 

Jan. 22, 1975 

Apr. 9, 1975 

May 4, 1976 

Sept. 2, 1972 

Oct. 30, 1973 

Jul. 14, 1974 

Oct. 12, 1975 

Sep. 1, 1976 

NOAA-2 (ITOS D) 

Nimbus 5 

NOAA-3 (ITOS F) 

SMS-1 

NOAA-4 (ITOS G) 

SMSP 

Nimbus 6 

Goes1 

NOAA-5 (ITOS H) 

ERTS- 1 

Landsat 2 

Geos 3 

Lageos 

Triad 01-1 

NavSat 0-20 

NTS 1 

Tip-2 

Tip-3 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

Thor-Delta 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Provided the first atmospheric vertical temperature profile 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

First full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

Second generation operational meteorological satellite. 

Second full-time weather satellite in synchronous orbit. 

To build numerical models for Global Atmospheric Research 

First fully operational synchronous weather satellite. 

Second generation operational satellite. 

measurements through clouds. 

Program. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta Acquired synoptic multi-spectral repetitive images that are proving useful in such disciplines as agriculture and forestry 

resources, mineral and land resources, land use, water re- sources, marine resources, mapping and charting, and the 

environment. 

Thor-Delta Second experimental Earth resources technology satellite. 

GEODESY 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta Laser geodynamic satellite. 

To measure geometry and topography of ocean surface. 

NAVIGATION 

scout 

Scout 

Atlas F 

scout 

scout 

First experimental station-keeping Transit navigation satellite. 

Navigation technology satellite. 

Transit Improvement Program. 

Transit Improvement Program. 

+ Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites which are not individually identified by launch. 

101 
APPENDIX B-2 

U.S.-Launched Scientific Payloads 1972-1976 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Jan. 31. 1972 

Mar. 12, 1972 

Aug. 13, 1972 

Aug. 21, 1972 

Sep. 23, 1972 

Oct. 2, 1972 

Oct. 2. 1972 

Nov. 15, 1972 

Nov. 22, 1972 

Dec. 16, 1972 

June 10, 1973 

Oct. 26, 1973 

Dec. 16, 1973 

Feb. 18, 1974 

Mar. 9, 1974 

June 3,1974 

July 16, 1974 

Aug. 80, 1974 

Oct. 15, 1974 

Nov. 15, 1974 

May 7, 1975 

June 21, 1975 

Aug. 9, 1975 

Oct. 6, 1975 

Nov. 20, 1975 

Mar. 15, 1976 

May 22, 1976 

July 8, 1976 

HEOS A-2 

TD- 1 

MTS (Explorer 46) 

OAO 3 

IMP 9 (Explo~d 47) 

Radcat 

Radsat 

SAS B (Explorer 48) 

ESRO 4 

Aeros I 

Radio Astronomy 2 

(Explorer 49) 

IMP 10 (Explorer SO) 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 51) 

San Marco 4 

UK X-4 (Miranda) 

Hawkeye 

(Explorer 52) 

Aeros 2 

ANS 

Ariel 5 

INTASAT 

SAS-C (Explorer 55) 

OSO-8 

COS-B 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 54) 

Atmosphere 

(Explorer 55) 

Solrad HiA/HiB 

P-76-5 

SESP 74-2 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

Sc0u.t 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Burner I1 

Atlas-Burner I1 

Scout 

Scout 

Scout 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Del ta 

Scout 

Scout 

Scout 

Scout 

scout 

Scout 

Thor-Delta 

Scout 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Thor-Delta 

Titan IIIC 

Scout 

Titan XIXD 

Investigate interplanetary space and high latitude magnetoSeven ESRO experiments. 

Meteoroid penetration rate study. 

Precise astronomical observation from above the atmosphere. 

Study cislunar space radiation environment, plus magnetic data. 

Defense scientific experiment. 

Defense scientific experiment. 

Survey of high energy gamma radiation including point sources. 

Polar iono9phere studies (ESRO payload.) 

Study of upper atmosphere and ionospheric F region. (German 

Measure galactic and solar radio noise shielded from earth by 

Study of interplanetary environment particle and fuel interPhotochemical processes in absorption of solar UV. 

Diurnal variations in equatorial neutral atmosphere. (Italian 

Measure density of sun reflecting particles near the s acecraft, 

Plasma properties of the magnetosphere over the north polar.cap 

Measure aeronomic parameters of upper atmosphere and solar 

Study steller UV and x-ray sources. (Netherlands payload.) 

Study galactic and extragalactic x-ray sources. (United Kingdom 

Measure ionospheric total electron content, ionospheric irreguMeasure X-ray emision of discrete extragalactic sources. (ItalianTo study minimum phase of solar cycle. 

Extraterrestrial gamma radiation studies. (ESA European satelPhotochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. 

Photochemical processes in absorption of solar energy. Measure 

Measure radiation and particles at close to 120,OOO km circular. 

Plasma effects on radar and communications. 

Particle measurements up to Boo0 km. 

sphere. (International cooperative payload.) 

(Italian launched.) 

payload.) 

the moon, by use of lunar orbit. 

actions in the distant magneto tail. 

payload and launch.) 

and test engineering systems. (United Kingdom paykad.) 

UV. (German payload.) 

payload.) 

larities and scintillation. Spanish payload. 

launched.) 

lite.) 

spatial distribution of ozone. 

102 
APPENDIX B4 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes 1972-1976 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

May 30. 1971 Mariner 9 Atlas-Centaur Mars orbital photographic mission. Entered orbit of Mars Nov. 

13, 1971. Returned 6876 pictures and data on temperatures, 

elevations, and water vapor. 

Mar. 3. 1972 Pioneer 10 Jupiter flyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 3, 1973, returned 

color pictures and data on radiation, temperatures, and magnetic fields. Accelerated toward solar system escape. 

Jupiter flyby mission. Passed Jupiter on Dec. 2, 1974, returning 

pictures and data and headed for a similar pass by Saturn 

Venus and Mercury flyby mission. Passed Venus on Feb. 5, 1974, 

returning good quality pictures. Passed Mercury again on Sep. 21, 1974, returning 500-600 good quality pictures. Passed 

Mercury again on Mar. 16, 1975. Other data were also re- turned. 

Investigate properties of interstellar space close to Sun. W. GerMars lander and orbiter mission, arrived in mid-1976, orbited, 

Mars lander and orbiter mission, arrived in mid-1976, orbited, 

Investigate properties of space close to Sun. W. German payload. 

Atlas-Centaur 

Apr. 6, 1973 Pioneer 11 

Nov. 3, 1973 Mariner 10 

Atlas-Centaur 

I before accelerating out of the solar system. 

Atlas-Centaur 

Dec. 10, 1974 Helios 1 

Aug. 20, 1975 Viking 1 

Sep. 9, 1975 Viking 2 

Jan. 15, 1976 Heliw 2 

Titan IIIECentaur man payload. 

Titan IIIECentaur landed. 

Titan IIIECentaur landed. 

Titan IIIECentaur 

103 
APPENDIX C 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Vostok 1 

M~reuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Melrury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

vostdr J 

Vwmk 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mrrcury-Atlas 9 

Vwk 5 

Vo&k 6 

Voskhod 1 

Voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

soyuz 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz 3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz 4 

soyuz 5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apollo 11 

Apr. 12, 1961 

May 5, 1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6, 1961 

Feb. 20, 1962 

May 24. 1962 

Aug. 11, 1962 

Aug. 12, 1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15. 1963 

June 14, 1W 

June 16, 1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18, 1965 

Mar. 23, 1965 

June 3,1965 

Aug. 21. 1965 

Dec. 4,1965 

Dec. 15,1965 

Mar. 16, 1966 

June 3,1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11,1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11.1968 

Oct. 26, 1968 

Dec. 21,1968 

Jan. 14, 1969 

Jan. 15,1969 

Mar. 3, 1969 

May 18, 1969 

July 16, 1969 

Yuri A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

Gherman S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Pavel I Popovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Coaper, Jr. 

Valery F. Bykovsky 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin P. Feoktistov 

Dr. Boris G. Yegorov 

Aleksei A. Leonov 

Pavel 1. Belyayev 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White, 2d 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schim, Jr. 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Neil A. Amstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgi Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Boris Volynov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Yevgeniy Khrunor 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas P. Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Neil A. Armstrong 

Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

1 h 48 min. 

15 min. 

16 min. 

25 h 18 min. 

4 h 55 min. 

4 h 56 min. 

94 h 22 min. 

70 h 57 min. 

9 h 13 min. 

34 h 20 min. 

119 h 6 min. 

70 h 50 min. 

24 h 17 min. 

26 h 2 min. 

4 h 53 min. 

97 h 56 min. 

190 h 55 min. 

330 h 35 min. 

25 h 51 min. 

10 h 41 min. 

72 h 21 min. 

70 h 47 min. 

71 h 17 min. 

94 h 35 min. 

26 h 37 min. 

260 h 9 min. 

94 h 51 min. 

147 h 1 min. 

71 h 23 min. 

72 h 56 min. 

241 h 1 min. 

192 h 3 min. 

195 h 19 min. 

First manned flight. 

First U.S. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital: capsule sank after landing. 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km from target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First long U.S. flight. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6) . First woman in space: within 5-km of Vostok 

First 3-man crew. 5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First US. 2-man fiight; first manual ma21-min. extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 0.3 m of Gemini 7. 

First docking of 2 orbiting spacecxaft (Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket). 

Extravehicular activity: rendezvous. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

First initial rendezvous; first tethered 

flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (1372 

km) . Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 h 37 min) . Cosmonaut killed in reentxy accident. 

First U.S. 3-man mission. 

min) . 

neuvers in orbit. 

Maneuvered near unmanned Soyuz 2. 

First manned orbit (s) of Moon: first manned 

departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; 

highest speed ever attained in manned 

flight. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 cos- monauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation of lunar module to landing and takeoff from lunar surface and rejoining with 

command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunar module descent to 14,300 m from the lunar surface. 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

sak return to Earth. First return of rock 

and soil samples to Earth, and manned deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

104 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

History of U.S. and Soviet Manned Space Flights 

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight time Highlights 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

Soyuz 8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

Soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

Soyuz 10 

Soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

Soyuz 17 

Anomaly 

Soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo 

Soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14, 1969 

Apr. 11, 1970 

June 1, 1970 

Jan. 31, 1971 

Apr. 22,1971 

June 6, 1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16, 1972 

Dec. 7,1972 

May 25, 1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3, 1974 

Aug. 26,1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Jan. 10, 1975 

Apr. 5, 1975 

May 24, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 6, 1976 

Sep. 15,1976 

Oct. 14. 1976 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Vladislav Volkov 

Viktor Gorbatko 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard ,F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell. Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andrian G. Nikolayev 

Vitaliy I. Sevastianov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Room 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir Shatalov 

Aleksey Yeliseyev 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy Timofeyevich 

Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislov Nikolayevich 

Volkov 

Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James Bensen Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charls M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly, 11 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

loseph P. Kerwin 

Paul J. WeiU 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy Lazarev 

Oleg Makamv 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr Klimuk 

Valentin Lebedev 

Pave1 Popovich 

Yuriy Artyukhin 

Gennadiy Sarabnov 

Lev Demin 

Anatoliy Filipchenko 

Nikolai Rukavishnikov 

Aleksey Gubarev 

Georgiy Grechko 

Vasiley Lazarev 

Oleg Makarov 

Petr Klimuk 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Aleksey Leonov 

Valeriy Kubasov 

Thomas P. Stafford 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris Volynov 

Vitaliy Zholobov 

Valeriy Bykovskiy 

Vladimir Aksenov 

Vyacheslav Zudov 

Valeriy Rozhdestvenskiy 

118 h 42 min. 

118 h 41 min. 

118 h 50 min. 

244 h 36 min. 

142 h 55 min. 

424 h 59 min. 

216 h 2 min. 

47 h 46 min. 

570 h 22 min. 

295 h 12 min. 

265 h 51 min. 

301 h 52 min. 

627 h 50 min. 

1427 h 

9 min. 

47 h 16 min. 

2017 h 

16 min. 

188 h 55 min. 

377 h 30 min. 

48 h 12 min. 

142 h 24 min. 

709 h 20 min. 

20 min. 

1511 h 

142 h 31 min. 

217 h 28 min. 

20 min. 

1182 h 

24 min. 

189 h 54 min. 

48 h 6 min. 

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding and 

Earth and celestial observations. 

Second manned lunar landing. Continued 

manned exploration and retrieved parts of 

Surveyor I11 spacecraft which landed in 

Ocean of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted due to explosion in the 

service module. Ship circled Moon, with crew using LEM as “lifeboat” until just 

prior to reentry. 

Longest manned space flight to date, lasting 

17 days 16 h 59 min. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and 

continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not 

board space station launched Apr. 19. 

Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew 

occupied space station for 22 days. Crew 

perished during final phase of Soyuz 11 

capsule recovery on June 30, 1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first 

Apollo “J” series mission which carry the 

Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s in-flight 

EVA of 38 rnin 12 s was performed during 

return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landDocked with Skylab 1 for 28 days. Repaired 

Docked with Skylab 1 for over 59 days. 

ing, with roving vehicle. 

damaged station. 

Checkout of improved Soyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in continuing long 

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources experiments. 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew occupied space station for over 14 days. 

Rendezvoused but did not dock with SalTest of ASTP configuration. 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew reDocked with Salyut 4 and occupied station 

Target for Apllo in docking and joint exDocked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station 

Earth resources study with multispectral camFailed to dock with Salyut 5. 

duration mission. 

yut 3. 

during a 29-day flight. 

covered after abort. 

during a 63-day mission. 

periments ASTP mission. 

of ASTP mission. 

during 49-day flight. 

era system. 

105 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Vehicle 

Max . Payload (lb) 

Zri? launch 

Thrust Max . 

Stages Propellant 8 cngOd;' ciia . Height First 

lbs) (ft) (ft) 

Scout ............... 1. Algol IIIA ......... .Solid ........... 2 . Castor IIA ......... Solid ........... 3 . Antares IIB ........ Solid ........... 4 . Altair I11 ......... .Solid ........... Thor-Delta 2900 1 . Thor plus LOX/RP-1 ..... series ............. nine TX 354-5 ... .Solid ........... 2 . Delta (DSV-3) ..... N,O, /Aerozine .. 3 . TE 364-4 .......... Solid ........... Atlas F/TE 364-4 .... 1 . Atlas booster and 

sustainer 

(Atlas F) ....... .LOX/R P.l ..... 2 . TE 364-4 .......... .Solid ........... Atlas-Agena ......... 1. Atlas booster and 

sustainer 

(SLV/SA) ...... .LOX/R P.1 ..... 2 . Agena .............. IRFNA/UDMH . Titan IIIB-Agena .... 1. LR-87 ............. .N,O, /Aerozine .. 2 . LR-91 ............. .N,O, /Aerozine 

3 . Agena .............. IRFNA/UDMH . 

120411 diameter .. .Solid ........... 2 . LR-87 ............. N,O, /Aerozine .. 3 . LR-91 .............. N,O, /Aerozine .. 4 . Transtage .......... N,O, /Aerozine .. 

120-in diameter . .Solid ........... 2 . LR-87 ............ .N,O, /Aerozine .. 3 . LR-91 .............. N'OJAerozine .. 

120-in diameter .. .Solid ........... 2 . LR-87 ............ .N,O, /Aerozine .. 3 . LR-91 .............. N,O, /Aerozine .. 4 . Centaur (Two 

.. 

Titan IIIC .......... 1. Two 5-segment 

Titan IIID .......... 1 . Two 5-segment 

Titan IIIE-Centaur . . 1 . Two 5-segment 

RL-IO) .......... LOX/LH ....... 

and sustainer ..... LOX/RP ....... Atlas-Centaur ....... 1 . Atlas booster 

2 . Centaur (Two 

RL-IO)' .......... LOX/LH ....... Saturn IB ........... 1. SIB (eight H-1) ... LOX/RP ....... 2 . S-IVB' (one 5-2)' .... LOX/LH ....... 

108.3 

63.2 

28.5 

5.9 

99' 

10.3 

15 

205 

443 

15 

503 

16 

520 

100 

16 

2. 

520 

100 

16 

2.m 

520 

100 

2. 600 

520 

102 

30 

503 

so 

1. 640 

230 

3.67 

8 

10 

10 

10 

10x30 

10x30 

10x30 

10 

21.6 

72.0 

116 

85 

133 

159 

133 

154 

160 

131 

181 

4104 

3. 9004 

3. 300' 

6. OOO ' 

7. 1005 

26. 5004 

6,500 ' 

854 

1. 050 4 

1. OOO' 

1W6 

7. 000' 

'1972 (SO) 

1973 (SO) 

1968 (SO) 

1966 

1965 

1971 

11. 3004 1974 

10. 3004 

54. 

2. 5004 1967 (So) 

1966 

~~ 

The date of first launch applies to this latest modification Inhibited Red Fuming Nitric Acid and Unsymmetrical Diwith a date in parentheses for the initial version . methylhydrazine-IRFNA/UDMH; Nitrogen Tetroxide and ' Set of 3 . UDMH/N.H.-N.O. /Aerozine. Liquid Oxygen and Liquid 

Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: Liquid Hydrogen-LOX/LH . Oxygen and a modified Kerosene-LOX/RP; Solid propellant 

combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer-Solid: 

Due east launch . Polar launch . 

106 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

20-yEAR BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(In millions of dollars) 

NASA Department ERDA Interior Agriculture NSF Total Space' of Defense merce 

1959 .................. 305.4 235.4 489.5 34.3 ............................................ 759.2 

560.9 43.3 .................................... . 1 1,065.8 1960 .................. 523.6 461.5 

1961 813.9 67.7 .................................... . 6 1,808.2 .................. 964.0 926.0 1962 .................. 1,298.2 147.8 50.7 1.3 334.8 1,824.9 1,796.8 1,549.9 213.9 43.2 ...................... 1.5 5,434.5 1963 .................. 3,673.0 3,626.0 2.8 3.0 6,861.4 

1,573.9 228.6 12.2 ...................... 3.2 6,985.5 1965 .................. 5,249.7 5,167.6 

1966 1,688.8 186.8 26.5 ...................... 3.2 6,999.8 .................. 5,174.9 5,094.5 

1967 1,663.6 183.6 29.3 ...................... 2.8 6.741.5 .................. 4,967.6 4,862.2 

0.5 3.2 6,551.4 

1969 .................. 3,990.9 3,822.0 2,013.0 118.0 20.0 0.2 0.7 1.9 5,975.8 

1970 .................. 3,745.8 3,547.0 1,678.4 102.8 8.0 1.1 0.8 2.4 5340.5 

1971 1,512.3 94.8 27.4 1.9 0.8 2.4 4.740.9 

1972 .................. 3,306.6 3,071.0 1,407.0 55.2 31.3 5.8 1.6 1.9 2.0 4,574.7 2.6 4,824.8 

1973 .................. 3,406.2 3,093.2 1m.o 54.2 39.7 10.3 

1974 .................. 3,036.9 2,758.5 1,766.0 41.7 60.2 9.0 3.1 1.8 4,640.3 

1975 .................. 3,229.1 2,915.3 1,892.4 29.6 64.4 8.3 2.3 2.0 4,914.3 

1976 1,983.3 23.3 71.5 10.4 3.6 2.4 5,321.4 .................. 3,550.3 3,226.9 

T.Q? .................. 931.8 849.5 460.4 4.6 22.2 2.6 0.9 0.6 1,340.8 

1977 Est ............... 3,749.8 3,372.5 2,291.5 22.6 89.8 9.5 4.7 2.4 5,793.0 

1978 Est ............... 4,033.2 3,596.4 2,770.0 35.1 94.5 9.5 5.6 2.4 6,528.5 

1964 .................. 5,099.7 5,046.3 1,599.3 210.0 ...................... 

1968 .................. 4,588.8 4,452.5 1,921.8 145.1 28.1 0.2 

.................. 3,311.2 3,101.3 

1 Excludes amounts for air transportation . Source: Office of Management and Budget . T.Q.-Transitional Quarter . 

U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority 1967-1978 

[May not add due to rounding] 

BILLIONS OF 

DOLLARS 

107 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Activities Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

~ 

Budget Authority Outlays 

1976 T.Q.' 1977 1978 1976 T.Q.' 1977 1978 

Actual Actual Est. Est. Actual Actual Est. Est. 

Federal mace Droprams: 

NASA' ......................... 3226.9 849.5 3372.5 3611.4 3336.3 868.6 3383.4 3523.2 

Defense ......................... 1983.3 460.4 2291.5 2770.0 1864.4 458.1 2017.1 2543.3 

-r--- r- 0- - - - _. _. 

ERDA 

~~ ~ ~ 

.......................... 25.3 4.6 22.6 35.1 25.7 7.5 22.6 28.9 

Commerce ...................... 71.5 22.2 89.8 94.5 71.1 23.2 92.5 96.5 

Interior ......................... 10.4 2.6 9.5 9.5 10.9 2.2 9.5 9.5 

NSF ............................ 2.4 0.6 2.4 2.4 2.0 0.5 2.4 2.4 

Agriculture ..................... 3.6 0.9 4.7 5.6 3.5 0.9 4.7 5.6 

Total ......................... 5321.4 1340.8 5793.0 6538.5 5'313.9 1361.0 5532.2 6209.4 

NASA: 

Manned space flight ............. 1956.6 506.3 2066.2 2181.6 2000.2 524.6 2071.4 2155.8 

Space science, ap li 

cations and tecKt101ogy ........ 944 .O 255.0 949.5 1038.8 980.3 251.5 960.1 968.2 

Air transportation ............... 324.9 82.6 378.8 423.4 332.7 82.8 349.4 391.6 

Supporting operations ........... 326.3 88.2 356.8 391.0 355.8 92.5 351.8 381.2 

Total NASA .................. 3550.3 931.8 3749.8 4033.2 9667.5 951.1 3731.2 3913.2 

Less receipts .................... -1.5 -0.3 -1.5 -1.6 -1.5 -0.3 -1.5 -1.6 

T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. 

Excludes amounts for air transportation. 

Aeronautics Budget 

(In millions of dollars) 

Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

Budget Authority 

1976 T.Q.' 1977 1978 

Actual Actual Est. Est. 

Federal aeronautics programs: 

NASA' .............................................. 324.9 82.6 378.8 423.4 

Department of Defense a .............................. 1941.3 479.5 2245.2 2618.7 

Department of Transportation ' ...................... 84.8 21.8 93.8 103.4 

Total ............................................. 2351.0 583.9 2717.8 3145.5 

~~~ 

T.Q.-Transitional Quarter. 

Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, tion Administration Research and Development. 

'Office of Secretary of Transportation and Federal AviaResearch and Program Management. 

craft and related equipment. 

* Research, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of air- Source: Office of Management and Budget. 

108 

fr U5. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1977 0-238-427