Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1986 Activities 

\ 
NOTE TO READERS: ALL PRINTED PAGES ARE INCLUDED, 

UNNUMBERED BLANK PAGES DURING SCANNING AND QUALITY 

CONTROL CHECK HAVE BEEN DELETED 
Aeronautics and Space Report 

of the President 

1986 Activities 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 

Washington, D.C. 20546 
Contents 

Page 

1 

Spacescience 3 

Communications 6 

Earth's Atmosphere, Environment and 

Resources 7 

Space Transportation 9 

Commercial Use of Space ............. 10 

Space Tracking and Data Systems ...... 11 

Space Station ....................... 11 

Aeronautics and Space Research and 

Technology ........................ 12 

Administration ....................... 17 

Space Science ....................... 17 

Applications ........................ 25 

Space Transportation 33 

Commercial Use of Space ............. 37 

Space Station ....................... 39 

Space Tracking and Data Systems ...... 43 

Space Research and Technology ........ 45 

Aeronautics Research and Technology ... 51 

Department of Defense .................. 61 

Space Activities ..................... 61 

Aeronautical Activities ............... 66 

Space and Aeronautics Support ........ 71 

Relations with NASA ................ 73 

Department of Commerce ................ 75 

Space Systems ...................... 75 

Satellite Data Services ............... 77 

International Activities ............... 79 

Research ........................... 80 

Aeronautical Programs ............... 81 

Department of Energy ................... 83 

Space Nuclear Power Systems ......... 83 

Nuclear Test Detection ............... 85 

Department of the Interior ............... 87 

Remotely Sensed Data Acquisition and 

Processing ........................ 87 

Digital Data Processing and 

Transmission ...................... 88 

Remote Sensing Applications .......... 89 

International Activities ............... 95 

Department of Agriculture ............... 97 

Remote Sensing Research ............. 97 

Federal Communications Commission ...... 101 

Communications Satellites ............ 101 

New Satellite Services ................ 103 

International Conference Activities ..... 104 

Department of Transportation ............ 105 

Aviation Safety ..................... 105 

Air Navigation and Air Traffic Control . . 110 

Ofice of Commercial Space 

Summary ............................. ....................... .................... 

......................... ................ 

National Aeronautics and Space 

................ 

Transportation .................... 112 

A-1 

A-2 

A-3 

B-1 

B-2 

B-3 

C 

D 

E-1 

E-2 

E-3 

F-1 

F-2 

b3e 

Environmental Protection Agency ......... 115 

Environment 115 

National Science Foundation 119 

Astronomical Sciences 119 

Atmospheric Sciences 119 

Monitoring and Assessing the ...................... ............. ................ 

................ Smithsonian Institution ................. 121 

Space Sciences 121 

Atmospheric Sciences 121 

Space Technology 121 

Planetary Sciences 121 

Department of State 123 

Activities within the United Nations .... 123 

Communication Satellites ............. 124 

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency .... 127 

U.S. Space Arms Control Activities ..... 127 

Multilateral Discussions on Space Arms 

127 

Space Policy ........................ 127 

United State Information Agency ......... 129 

Voice of America 129 

Television Service ................... 129 

Other .USU Activities. 129 

...................... ................ .................... .................. .................... 

Control .......................... 

.................... 

............... 

Appendixes 

U.S. Spacecraft Record ................... 131 

World Record of Space Launches Successful 

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond ...... 131 

Successful U.S. Launches-1986 132 

US.-Launched Applications Satellites, 1980- 

1986 134 

US.-Launched Scientific Satellites, 1980- 

1986 ................................ 136 

US.-Launched Space Probes, 1975-1986 .... 137 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights, 1961- 

1986 ................................ 138 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles .............. 14.4 

Space Activities of the US. 

........... 

................................ 

Government: 

Historical Budget SummaryBudget Authority .................... 145 

Space Activities Budget .................. 147 

Aeronautics Budget ..................... 147 

Presidential Commission on the Space 

Shuttle Challenger Accident-Executive 

Order ............................... 148 

Presidential Statement on Fourth Shuttle 

Orbiter and Commercial Payloads ........ 149 

Summary 

During 1986, advances that were made in 

the areas of aeronautics, space science and 

applications, and space exploration, involving several federal agencies, demonstrated 

the Nation’s abiding commitment to improve 

the quality of life on Earth and to extend human enterprise beyond Earth. However, the 

Space Shuttle Challenger accident, and the 

subsequent investigation and recovery operations, were the dominant events of the year, 

affecting a broad range of national and international space plans and policies. 

The year’s successful Space Shuttle mission 

began with the launch of flight 61-C on January 12, using the orbiter Columbia. The 6- 

day mission carried the Materials Science 

Laboratory; the first Hitchhiker payload-ofopportunity carrier; the Infrared Imaging 

Experiment; 13 Getaway Specials; and RCA’s 

Satcom K-1 communications satellite was 

deployed. One of two payload specialists on 

the flight was U.S. Representative Bill Nelson who participated in a number of experiments for the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration (NASA). 

On January 28, Space Shuttle Challenger 

flight 51-L was launched at 11:38 a.m. 

Aboard were Francis R. “Dick” Scobee, commander; Michael J. Smith, pilot; Judith A. 

Resnik, Ellison S. Onizuka, and Ronald E. 

McNair, mission specialists; and payload specialists Gregory B. Jarvis, Hughes Aircraft 

Company, and Christa McAuliffe, the first 

teacher in space. Flight 51-L ended 73 seconds later in an explosive burn of hydrogen 

and oxygen propellants that destroyed the 

External Tank and exposed the spacecraft to 

severe aerodynamic loads that caused complete structural breakup. All seven crew 

members perished. Subsequently, President 

Reagan announced the formation of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle 

Challenger Accident to determine the probable cause and necessary corrective actions. 

After conducting an extensive investigation, 

the Commission made important recommendations designed to insure the return to safe 

flight. NASA’s plan to implement the recommendations of the Commission was submitted to President Reagan on July 14. 

After extensive studies of the entire Shuttle Transportation System program were conducted, NASA announced February 1988 as 

the target date for resuming Shuttle flights. 

Based upon a reduced flight rate, a 3-year 

projected manifest was issued that accommodated the payload backlog as much as possible. In addition, the President announced his 

support of the construction of a vehicle to replace Challenger, and of a new policy on the 

commercial use of space that emphasized private sector launches of commercial satellites, 

except for those that are uniquely suited to 

the Shuttle or have national security or foreign policy implications. 

In 1986, expendable launch vehicles 

(ELV’s) continued to provide launch support 

to satellite users. Five launches were conducted for the Department of Defense (DOD) 

and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration (NOAA) using Scout, Delta, 

AtlasEentaur, and Atlas E/F vehicles. In addition, NASA initiated studies on the need to 

establish a Mixed Fleet Transportation System that would consist of the Space Shuttle 

and existing or new ELV’s. 

In lieu of using the Centaur G prime upper 

stage to launch planetary payloads, the Inertial Upper Stage (a launch vehicle that fits 

into the Shuttle’s cargo bay) was selected for 

the Magellan, Galileo, and Ulysses planetary 

missions. 

In the area of space exploration, Voyager 2 

became the first spacecraft to fly past 

Uranus, providing prime scientific data on 

that planetary body. In an unprecedented, coordinated effort, Halley’s Comet was studied 

extensively by scientists and astronomers 

from around the world. Also, in the process of 

star formation, astronomers observed the 

stage where the collapsing object is closer to 

attaining stellar dimensions than anything 

previously observed; and the fastest known 

spinning binary pulsar was discovered. 

The year 1986 marked the 25th anniversary of the use of Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTG’s). Through the years, 

RTG’s delivered by the Department of Energy to NASA and the DOD provided safe and 

highly reliable electric power sources that 

contributed to the success of some of the most 

ambitious and spectacular astronautical 

events ever undertaken by the United States. 

RTG’s aboard spacecraft studying the interplanetary medium, Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 

11, launched in 1972 and 1973, respectively, 

and the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2, launched in 

1977, are still operational. 

1 
Under a White House directive, NASA and 

DOD continued to examine technologies that 

would improve launch capabilities in the 

post-1995 period. In addition, studies were 

initiated to examine options for new rocket 

engines, advanced propulsion recovery systems, and a second-generation Space Shuttle. 

NASA and DOD also initiated the joint National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) research 

program that could lead to a whole new class 

of aerospace vehicles. The goal of the program is to develop hypersonic and transatmospheric technology for aerospace vehicles 

that are powered by airbreathing rather than 

rocket propulsion. NASP is a technology development program that will lead to a decision on building and flight testing the X-30 

flight research aircraft. The X-30 would 

serve as a research vehicle to demonstrate 

the technologies developed to attain higher 

altitude and Mach numbers, and to validate 

the integration of the technologies into an 

aircraft. The performance goals planned for 

the vehicle include horizontal takeoff and 

landing from conventional runways, sustained hypersonic cruise in the atmosphere, 

and acceleration to orbit and return. Using 

the technology developed for the NASP, a 

family of future operational vehicles might 

include a next-generation space transportation system, high-altitude, high-speed military interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft, 

and hypersonic cruise transport. 

Advances in other joint NAWDOD research programs, such as the x-29 forwardswept wing experimental aircraft, the X-wing 

research aircraft, the tilt rotor/JVX aircraft, 

and the mission adaptive wing, increased the 

technology base substantially for civilian 

and military aviation. 

In 1986, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) authorized, conditionally, two 

companies to provide international telecommunications services through satellite systems separate from the International 

Tblecommunications Satellite Organization 

(INTELSAT). Since the FCC issued its regulatory policies on independent satellite systems in 1985, a total of seven companies have 

been granted conditional authorization to establish these systems. In December 1986, INTELSAT’s Board of Governors approved the 

U.S. proposal to establish separate systems. 

In related activity, the FCC allocated 27 MHz 

of spectrum for domestic mobile satellite 

services, and determined that joint ownership of a mobile satellite system would be the 

best way to provide a variety of services to the 

public. In addition, advances in technology 

resulted in new applications of satellitedelivered communications. The FCC granted 

approval to a company to construct, launch, 

and operate three satellites that will provide 

radio determination satellite service and ancillary message service. 

In accordance with provisions of the Land 

Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 

1984, the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT) has operated the land remote 

sensing satellite system (Landsat). The Company initiated development of a satellite receiving center, and an operations and control 

center that will be used for capturing and 

processing data and flight control for the 

next-generation Landsat 6 and future spacecraft. The Earth Resources Observation System (EROS) Data Center of the U.S. 

Geological Survey (USGS) supported the 

transition of Landsat operations, and data 

marketing and sales from NOAA to EOSAT. 

In 1986, approximately 26,000 film and digital Landsat products were generated and distributed to users worldwide. 

To encourage U.S. private sector involvement and investment in commercial space 

ventures, NASA’s Office of Commercial Programs established and funded four additional 

Centers for the Commercial Development of 

Space, for a current total of nine. As an alliance of industry, academia, and government, 

the Centers will use the space environment 

to stimulate high technology research that 

may lead to the development of new products 

and services with commercial potential. The 

revised U.S. space launch strategy gives the 

commercial expendable launch vehicle industry a primary role in meeting public and private requirements for launch services. In 

response to policy changes, the Office of Commercial Space Transportation, Department of 

Transportation, developed regulatory guidance and interagency relationships designed 

to create a more favorable environment for 

the industry. In another development, the Department of Transportation’s Federal Aviation Administration entered into an 

agreement with NASA to develop system requirements for forward-looking aircraft wind 

shear sensors, such as Doppler radar and 

Doppler lidar, that will sense wind shear and 

allow aircraft to be alerted to hazardous areas. 

2 
In the international arena, U.S. representatives continued to meet with European, Japanese, and Canadian representatives to 

negotiate agreements on the detailed design, 

development, operation, and utilization of 

the Space Station. Agreements from the negotiations are expected to commit all international partners to hardware investments, 

operational roles, and use of the Space Station for many years to come. 

As the agency responsible for representing 

U.S. foreign policy interests, the Department 

of State was actively involved in discussions 

with nations whose plans for space were adversely affected by the Space Shuttle Challenger accident, and by changes in U.S. 

commercial space policy. 

A number of federal agencies participated 

in preparations for the International Telecommunication Union’s World Administrative Radio Conference for Mobile Services 

(Mobile WARC) that will be conducted in Geneva, Switzerland in 1987. In July, a draft of 

the U.S. technical proposals on mobile services from terrestrial and satellite communications, radio determination and radio 

navigation satellite systems was presented to 

41 countries. In addition, U.S. representatives were involved in plans for the second 

session of the International Telecommunication Union’s World Administrative Radio 

Conference on the Use of the Geostationary 

Satellite Orbit and the Planning of the Space 

Services Utilizing It (Space WARC), commonly known as ORB (2) WARC, scheduled 

for 1988. The objective of the conference is to 

guarantee to all nations equitable access to 

the geostationary satellite orbit and to the 

frequency bands allocated to space services. 

The Arms Control and Disarmament 

Agency continued to articulate the U.S. position on space arms control in the Defense and 

Space Negotiating Group, part of the Nuclear 

and Space Talks, a bilateral U.S.-Soviet 

arms control negotiation that began in 

March 1985. 

The United States Information Agency’s 

popular satellite telecast service, Worldnet, 

broadcast several programs about U.S. activities in space, such as Voyager 2’s encounter 

with Uranus, the future Space Station, the 

Young Astronauts Program, and the Challenger accident. In addition, most of the Voice 

of America’s 41 foreign language services 

covered a variety of stories about the U.S. 

space program. 

The National Commission on Space presented its proposed program and goals for the 

U.S. civil space program for the next 50 

years. 

The remainder of this chapter is a summary by function of U.S. aeronautics and 

space activities in calendar year 1986. The 

succeeding chapters present activities of individual agencies in greater detail. 

Space Science 

Space science programs include observations and studies of the universe and of the 

fundamental physical laws important to understanding the distant universe, exploration 

of the near universe, and efforts to acquire 

more knowledge about Earth‘s planetary features and environment. Investigations are 

conducted using satellites, space probes, the 

Space Shuttle, suborbital vehicles, and 

ground-based facilities. In 1986, the temporary loss of U.S. space launch capability precluded what was planned as “A Year for 

Space Science.” However, scientists and astronomers maintained full schedules working on activities that did not require 

launches. 

Study of the Universe 

Astrophysics programs study the physical 

nature of the universe, from the Sun to the 

most distant quasars, to determine the laws 

that govern cosmic phenomena, and to learn 

the origins of the universe and how it will 

end. Many observations cannot be made 

through the Earth’s atmosphere, so instruments to conduct studies must be carried 

above the atmosphere into space. Planning 

and development continued on the four Great 

Observatories; after they are launched into 

space, they will be able to observe objects at 

any wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum. 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST). Originally 

scheduled for launch in October 1986, the 

current flight manifest calls for launch of the 

HST late in 1988 or early 1989. The first of 

the four Great Observatories, it will carry 

five scientific instruments to study the stars, 

planets, and interstellar space, allowing scientists and astronomers to see clearly 10 to 

3 
30 times beyond what can be observed with 

existing instruments. 

When placed in orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope will observe objects in the universe in visible and ultraviolet light 

with 10 to 30 times the clarity of existing ground-based observatories. 

Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). Final 

stages of manufacturing and assembling the 

four scientific instruments of GRO, the second of the four Great Observatories, continued. When it is placed in orbit in 1990, GRO 

will view objects clearly that are at least 10 

times fainter than existing capabilities can 

observe, and will improve existing knowledge 

of the origin and location of gamma rays in 

the universe by a factor of 50 to 100. 

Proposed Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility (AXAF). Proposed as the third of the 

four Great Observatories, AXAF would be 

100 times more powerful for detecting x-rays 

from celestial sources than the highly successful High Energy Astronomy Observatory 

(HEAO-8) mission. Studies using AXAF 

would have a direct bearing on such important scientific fields as plasma physics, 

atomic and nuclear physics, elementary particle physics, and cosmology. 

Proposed Space Infrared Telescope Facility 

(SIRTF). If placed in orbit, this proposed Facility, the last of the four Great Observatories, will span the infrared part of the 

spectrum with a thousand-fold increase in 

sensitivity. It will be able to search for planets around the nearest stars; and spectra for 

planets that might be detected could reveal 

the chemical composition of their atmospheres and help to determine whether they 

might sustain life similar to that found on 

Earth. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories 

(HEAO’s). Data obtained from the three High 

Energy Astronomy Observatories contributed significantly to existing knowledge 

about high energy astrophysical processes. 

Continued analysis of data from the HEAO-1 

and HEAO-8 satellites revealed the presence 

of dense, x-ray emitting gas in the central 

regions of some galaxies, indicating a significant annual influx of matter; this discovery 

led to the unexpected observation of the formation of a galaxy. Analysis of data from the 

HEAO-3 satellite disclosed that gamma rays 

come from the plane of the Milky Way Galaxy. 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). In orbit 

since 1980, the SMM’s major achievement in 

1986 was its observation of Halley’s Comet 

when the Comet was too close to the Sun to 

be studied from the ground and by other 

spacecraft. Also, the SMM continued to obtain an unparalleled series of observations of 

the Sun’s corona and sunspot activity. 

Spartan. Carrying instruments to observe 

Halley’s Comet, the second Spartan and mission support systems, designed to release and 

recapture Spartan subsatellites, were destroyed during the Challenger accident. A 

new spacecraft and supporting systems are 

being built, and should be ready for a flight 

on the Space Shuttle in 1988. 

Astr+l. Scheduled for launch in 1986, the 

Astro-1 payload, a Shuttle-borne observatory 

that will measure ultraviolet radiation from 

celestial objects, is now manifested for a 

flight in January 1991. 

Solar System Exploration 

Cometary Studies. In 1985 and 1986, the 

appearance of Halley’s Comet was the focus 

of unprecedented international scientific 

study. Although NASA did not send a probe 

directly to intercept the Comet, it was studied extensively by U.S. scientists on the 

ground, and by aircraft, rockets, and existing 

spacecraft that included the Pioneer Venus 

Orbiter, the Dynamics Explorer, the Solar 

Maximum Mission, the International Ultra4 
violet Explorer, and the International Cometary Explorer. In addition, NASA’s Deep 

Space Network provided tracking and communications support to international spacecraft observing the Comet. 

1986, the spacecraft observed Halley’s Comet from a 

distance of 35 million kilometers. 

Voyager at Uranus. In January 1986, Voyager 2 became the first spacecraft to fly past 

Uranus, transmitting over 7,000 images of 

the planet that revealed two new rings, ten 

new moons, and an abundance of helium in 

its atmosphere comparable to that found on 

Jupiter and Saturn. 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter At a time when Halley’s Comet was relatively close to Venus, the 

Pioneer Venus Orbiter obtained unique images of the Comet, and data on the chemical 

composition of its atmosphere. Also, instruments on the spacecraft made important new 

measurements of the solar wind interaction 

with Venus. 

Pioneers 10 and 11. Pioneers 10 and 11 continued to measure the properties of the interplanetary medium in the outer solar system. 

The main scientific goal of both spacecraft is 

to search for the heliopause, the interaction 

boundary between the solar wind and interstellar space. During Voyager 2’s encounter 

with Uranus, Pioneer ll’s instruments monitored solar wind conditions. 

Galileo and Ulysses. The separate Galileo 

and Ulysses missions to Jupiter were scheduled for launch in 1986. The Galileo mission, 

a joint project with the Federal Republic of 

Germany, will conduct an in-depth study of 

Jupiter’s atmosphere, magnetic field, and 

moons; and could be launched from the Space 

Shuttle in 1989 or 1991, or by an expendable 

launch vehicle. The Ulysses mission, a joint 

effort with the European Space Agency, will 

provide the first view of the Sun and the solar 

system from above the ecliptic plane. Data 

obtained is expected to improve understanding of the Sun, and the effects of solar activity on the Earth’s weather and climate. The 

Ulysses mission is being considered for 

launch in 1989 or 1990. 

Images of Uranus taken by Voyager 2 from a distance of 1.3 

million miles 

Mars Observer: Scheduled for launch in 

1990, the Mars Observer will obtain images 

of the surface and atmosphere of Mars during 

the four seasons of one Mars year. In 1986, 

spacecraft manufacturers and geoscience and 

climatology experiments were selected for 

the mission. 

Explorers. For the past nine years, the International Ultraviolet Explorer has provided ultraviolet spectra for studying comets, 

the outer planets and their satellites, the atmospheres of stars, the interstellar medium, 

and extragalactic objects. In 1986, it provided 

images of Halley’s Comet during encounters 

by spacecraft from Japan, ESA, and the Soviet Union. From polar orbit, the Cosmic 

Background Explorer will map the sky and 

measure cosmic background radiation that is 

the focus of debate on the Big Bang theory of 

the exploding universe. In 1986, integration 

of the spacecraft began, and its instruments 

were tested at liquid helium temperatures. 

Also, plans continued on developing the Explorer Platform, a reusable spacecraft bus for 

Explorer payloads. 

Life Sciences 

The two major goals of NASA’s Life Sciences program are to promote health and productivity in manned space flight, and to 

study biological processes and life in the universe. 

Space Medicine. The crew of Shuttle flight 

61-C investigated human responses to the 

low-gravity environment of space, such as 

motion sickness, and changes in body fluids, 

and were involved in echocardiography, handeye coordination, and treadmill stress tests. 

A Health Maintenance Facility is being developed for the Space Station that will allow 

space crews to exercise and have their health 

monitored. 

5 
Gravitational Biology. The goal of the Gravitational Biology program is to understand 

how gravity affects life on Earth and the 

weightlessness of space is used as a tool to 

understand life and its processes. Analysis of 

data on young, developing animals experiencing weightlessness on the 1985 flight of 

Spacelab 3 indicates a reduction in bone 

strength, suggesting that gravity loading is 

essential for normal bone growth. In addition, significant changes in muscle mass 

were observed. 

Exobiology The Exobiology program endeavors to understand the origin, evolution, 

and distribution of life in the universe. Recently, precursors of biologically important 

organic molecules were discovered in the interstellar medium. Studies indicate a direct 

link between these organic molecules and 

those found in primitive solar system bodies, 

fueling speculation that life exists elsewhere 

in the universe. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System 

(CELSS). The goal of the CELSS program is 

to develop a spacecraft system that continually recycles the solid, liquid, and gaseous 

materials required to sustain human life. Under the CELSS Breadboard Project for bioregenerative life support, a chamber was built 

that is designed to test techniques for growing plants in a closed environment. 

Spacelab Flight Program 

Following the Challenger accident, there 

was a reassessment of the Spacelab Flight 

program to try to accommodate the payloads 

that were previously scheduled for flights on 

the Shuttle. Payloads that are planned for 

early Spacelab flights include the Materials 

Science Laboratory, International Microgravity Laboratory, Space Life Sciences, and Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and 

Science. Negotiations on a reimbursable 

Spacelab flight with Japan (Space1ab-J) continued. 

Microgravity Science 

The Microgravity Science and Applications 

program conducts research into the effects of 

reduced gravity on basic physical phenomena 

and processes. Research is focused on the areas of combustion, metals and alloys, electronic materials, glasses and ceramics, 

biotechnology, and fluid dynamics and transport phenomena. Although 70 high-quality, 

ground-based investigations have been 

funded, new research efforts will require expanded program resources. 

Communications 

The United States has implemented a 

multifaceted communications satellite program that will allow it to meet foreign competition and maintain its preeminent status 

in the global marketplace. 

Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS). ACTS technology will contribute to future domestic and global satellite 

networks. In 1986, laser technology and a 

steerable antenna were added to the items 

currently planned for ACTS. The antenna 

will extend ACTS coverage to states and areas outside the contiguous 48 states, such as 

Alaska, Hawaii, and South America. The 

spacecraft is scheduled for a Shuttle launch 

in late 1990. 

Mobile Satellite. Within the next four to six 

years, the joint industry/government mobile 

satellite program will provide two-way 

satellite-assisted communication with cars, 

trucks, trains, boats, and aircraft. The FCC 

has allocated L-band frequencies for the domestic mobile satellite system, and is in the 

process of formulating service guidelines. 

The system is expected to create new U.S. 

hardware markets, business, and service industries. 

Search and Rescue. The COSPAS/SARSAT 

system, which locates aircraft and vessels in 

distress, completed its first year of regular 

operation. Since its inception, it is credited 

with saving more than 675 lives, and is gaining worldwide acceptance. Research continues on techniques to reduce false alarm 

rates, and improve detection. 

Advanced Technology Satellite (ATS-3). 

The ATS-3 continued to support the activities of several federal agencies, domestic and 

international relief organizations. In addition, satellite voice and data links in science 

and communication application experiments 

provided support to areas of North and South 

America, most of the Atlantic Ocean, and a 

large part of the eastern Pacific, including 

Hawaii and Antarctica. 

INTELSAT and INMARSAI: At the end of 

1986, INTELSAT maintained 15 satellites in 

6 
orbit: 1 IV, 1 IVA, and 6 V’s in the Atlantic 

Ocean Region; 3 V’s in the Indian Ocean Region; and 2 NA‘s, and 2 v’s in the Pacific 

Ocean Region. Three of the IVA satellites exceeded estimated maneuver life. Approval 

was granted for construction and application 

of 30 new Earth station facilities to access the 

INTELSAT system in the Atlantic and Pacific 

Ocean Regions for INTELSAT (digital) business, and television transmission and reception service. 

In its fifth year of maritime satellite communications service, the 48-member International Maritime Satellite Organization 

(INMARSAT) leases three operational and 

three in-orbit satellites for the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean Regions, and serves 

over 5,000 vessels. Seventeen coast stations 

are operating in 12 countries, and five more 

are expected in 1987. Second-generation satellites, the first of which is expected to become operational in 1989, will have 3 times 

the capacity of the current leased satellites. 

The International Maritime Organization 

(IMO) is developing a global maritime distress and safety system that will use ship 

Earth stations through INMARSAT, and satellite emergency position-indicating radio 

beacons (EPIRB’s) operating through 

COSPAS/SAR,SAT. 

Domestic Communications Satellites. Currently, there are 27 domestic satellites operating in the geostationary orbit located 

between 69O and 143O west longitude. During 1986, no new domestic communications 

satellites were authorized for construction 

and launch. The FCC’s Advisory Committee 

on 2O Spacing issued several recommendations relating to the areas of Earth stations, 

space stations, and coordination. 

Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS). Three 

“first-round” companies, previously granted 

permits to construct Direct Broadcast Satellites (DBS), were in the process of constructing DBS systems that are expected to be 

operational by late 1988. These companies 

will use 200 to 230-watt traveling wave tube 

amplifiers (TWTA’s), together with various 

half-CONUS or full-CONUS beam configurations, to provide service throughout the 

United States. One of the “second-round” 

DBS companies has been awarded channels, 

orbital position, and launch authorization, 

and operations are expected by mid-1989. 

This system will use two 16-channel satellites equipped with 100-watt TWTA’s to provide DBS service. In 1986, three companies 

were granted conditional construction permits for new satellite systems, and three 

other DBS system applications that were 

filed are pending. 

Military Communications Satellites. Military Satellite Communications (MILSATCOM) provide a variety of services worldwide 

in several frequency bands. In the Ultra High 

Frequency band, the Fleet Satellite Communicat ions (FLTSATC OM) System, assisted 

by leased satellites (LEASAT’S), provide lowcapacity, command and control services to users of small, mobile terminals. The Air Force 

Satellite Communications (AFSATCOM) System provides global communications between 

the National Command Authorities and U.S. 

nuclear forces. In the Super High Frequency 

band, the Defense Satellite Communications 

System provides high-capacity command and 

control, intelligence, and multichannel communications service to a multitude of strategic, tactical and non-DOD users. The future 

Milstar Satellite Communications System 

will use the Extremely High Frequency band 

to provide jam-resistant, secure communications for the President, Joint Chiefs-of-Staff, 

and the Commanders-in-Chief. When completed, Milstar will provide the Nation’s most 

survivable wartime communications capability. In 1986, full-scale development of the 

space and mission control segments of Milstar continued, and critical design reviews 

were scheduled for mid-1987 and early 1988. 

Navigation Satellites. Navstar 11, the last 

developmental Global Positioning System 

(GPS) satellite, was launched in 1985. In 

1986, two of the seven developmental GPS 

satellites demonstrated the effects of age and 

performed marginally. GPS satellites provide 

radio position and navigation information to 

support defense missions worldwide. 

Earth’s Atmosphere, Environment, 

and Resources 

In 1986, observations and knowledge of 

Earth, its atmosphere, environment, and resources, were advanced substantially by special space systems, programs, and 

experiments. 

Monitoring and Analysis 

Satellite Operations. The environmental 

satellites operated by NOAA for the Department of Commerce include both polar7 
orbiting and geostationary spacecraft. NOAA 

satellites are used primarily to forecast 

weather and issue storm or natural disaster 

warnings. NOAA 6 and NOAA 9 provided the 

agency’s polar-orbiting service for most of the 

year. These spacecraft view the Earth in the 

visible and infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, using the Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer, and move in 

Sunsynchronous orbits observing every part 

of the Earth at least twice daily, once in daylight, and once at night. NOAA 9 has been 

operational since December 1984; and NOAA 

6 was able to fulfill most mission requirements until it was replaced by NOAA 10 in 

November 1986. NOAA H is expected to replace NOAA 9 in December 1987. Scientific 

instruments aboard the NOAA 9 and NOAA 

10 spacecraft, which are associated with the 

Earth Radiation Budget Experiment, studied 

the physical processes that influence climate. 

Data obtained from these instruments, and 

those aboard the Earth Radiation Budget 

Satellite, are expected to help determine the 

role of clouds in the Earth‘s radiation budget. 

GOES 6, the only fully operational geostationary satellite, continued to provide imaging and sounding data throughout the year. 

Because its rate of movement around the 

Earth equals that of the Earth‘s rotation, its 

observing position over the Equator remains 

fixed, allowing an uninterrupted view of the 

Earth. Included among the instruments it 

carries is the Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan 

Radiometer Atmospheric Sounder that provides day and night coverage of the Earth 

and its atmosphere. In 1986, an effort to 

launch a second geostationary satellite, 

GOES G, failed. Launch of GOES H, last in 

the current series of GOES spacecraft, is 

scheduled for February 1987. Design and development of the next-generation geostationary spacecraft, GOES I-M, began; and 

launch of the first satellite in this series is 

expected in 1989. 

Atmospheric, Oceanic, and Geologic Research. In 1986, a three volume document entitled “Atmospheric Ozone 1985: Assessment 

of Our Understanding of the Processes Controlling its Present Distribution and 

Change,” was published by the World Meteorological Organization. Approximately 150 

scientists from 11 nations contributed to the 

assessment, and publication of the report was 

coordinated by NASA, FAA, NOAA, the 

United Nations Environment Program, 

World Meteorological Organization, Commission of the European Communities, and the 

Federal Republic of Germany. A major conclusion of the report was that increased concentrations of trace substances such as 

chlorofluorocarbons, methane, and carbon dioxide can perturb ozone distribution in the 

atmosphere and harm the global climate system and temperature structure. In related activity, federal and private organizations 

sponsored a scientific expedition to Antarctica to study the “ozone hole” that has been 

discovered there by ground and space-based 

instrumentation. Results of the study are expected to determine the cause of this phenomena, and to ascertain whether the Antarctic 

hole serves as a harbinger of atmospheric 

changes elsewhere on the globe. 

In its third year of operation, the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project 

(ISCCP) continued to collect data on the 

global distribution of clouds that was obtained from an international array of polarorbiting and geostationary satellites. Also, 

the first field experiment was conducted by 

the university-government science team of 

the First ISCCP Regional Experiment 

(FIRE), a multiagency program studying the 

effects of cloud systems on climate. 

Advanced remote sensing techniques are 

being developed for satellite observation of 

the Earth’s atmosphere. A preliminary design study for placing a coherent Laser Interferometric Detection and Ranging Radar 

(LIDAR) wind sensor on the Space Shuttle 

was completed. This study provides a positive 

indication of the maturity of the technology, 

and allows serious consideration of the use of 

LIDAR’S in satellite global wind sensors. Recently completed studies indicate that satellite observations of global wind profiles will 

dramatically improve understanding of 

large-scale atmospheric processes. 

achieve a better understanding of microbursts, severe thunderstorms and their associated downbursts, the Cooperative 

Huntsville Mesoscale Experiment 

(COHMEX) was conducted. It was supported 

by GOES and NOAA environmental satellites, Doppler radars, NOAA special rawinsonde coverage, the FAA, aircraft flights 

sponsored by the National Science Foundation, and special Qnnessee Valley Authority 

rain gauge and surface reports. During the 

experiment, records were made of the most 

extensive weather system measurements 

ever taken by high-altitude aircraft. 

The FAA determined that false alarms 

8 
from the six-sensor Low Level Wind Shear 

Alert System (LLWAS) were often caused by 

the location of the System. As a result, the 

FAA formed a team to assess the siting of all 

LLWAS’s at 110 airports in the United 

States. To help reduce the rate of false 

alarms, new algorithms were developed for 

incorporation into the Systems as they are 

relocated during 1987 and 1988. 

In oceanography programs, activities focused on the Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere and World Ocean Circulation Experiments, and on the Global Ocean Flux Study. 

A number of spaceflight missions to study atmospheric and oceanic processes are planned 

for launch in the early 1990’s. The first of two 

missions in the Physical Oceanographic program, NASA’s Scatterometer will fly aboard 

the Navy’s Remote Ocean Sensing System 

satellite. The second mission, the Ocean Topography Experiment (TOPEX), will be 

jointly conducted with the French Space 

Agency’s POSEIDON project. The TOPEX 

satellite, with POSEIDON sensors aboard, 

will be launched by a European Ariane 

rocket in late 1991. Launched in 1978, the 

Nimbus-7 weather satellite has performed 

well beyond its expected one-year life span. 

Processing the satellite’s Coastal Zone Color 

Scanner imagery into ocean-basin maps of 

chlorophyll was initiated, and the first map of 

this type that covered the North Atlantic was 

produced. In related activity, NOAA’s National Ocean Service developed a Pacific 

Ocean Route Chart, for use by FAA’s air traffic controllers, and a Navigational Aid Digital Data File that contains the geographic 

position, type, and unique characteristics of 

every navigational aid in the United States, 

Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. 

The USGS and NOAA signed an agreement 

to establish the Cooperative Federal Land Remote Sensing Research program. The goal is 

to promote greater operational and research 

use of remotely sensed data and related technology within federal and state governments, 

academia, and the private sector. NOAA 

trained several foreign scientists in applications of remote sensing data that included 

estimating precipitation from satellite imagery, assessing climate, and forecasting 

weather and crop productivity. The USGS 

conducted a workshop for scientists from six 

nations that covered the use of Landsat data 

for geologic, hydrolgic, and vegetation analysis. The Department of Agriculture’s Agricultural Research Service participated in an 

experiment with the USGS and the University of Arizona on the use of remotely sensed 

spectral data for large-scale farm management. 

Geodynamics research improves understanding of the evolution of the Earth, the 

interaction between the solid Earth, the 

oceans and atmosphere, and the nature and 

causes of earthquakes. More than 30 nations 

participate in U.S. geodynamics research, 

and there is intergovernmental cooperation 

between NASA, USGS, NSF, NOAA, and 

DOD. Joint projects and programs included 

measuring tectonic plate motion and the 

Earth’s rotation, using fixed and mobile laser 

ranging systems, and a study of earthquake 

hazards in the Caribbean Basin. Through 

digital analysis of images recorded in the visible and near-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, USGS scientists made 

significant advances in identifying minerals 

in rock and soil, and in compiling maps showing their distribution. 

Space Wansportation 

Most of the activity involving NASA’s 

Space Flight program focused on the investigation of the Space Shuttle Challenger accident, examination of the entire Space 

Transportation System (STS) program, and a 

return to flight status. One communications 

satellite was boosted into orbit from the 

Space Shuttle Columbia; and five expendable 

launch vehicles were used to place military 

and civilian satellites into space. For the second time, a public official was flown aboard 

the Space Shuttle, and the first HispanicAmerican journeyed into space. 

On January 12,1986, in the first Space Shuttle launch of the 

year, Space Shuttle Columbia rises into the early morning 

sky from Kennedy Space Center. 

9 
Orbiter 

A total Systems Design Review of the orbiter was conducted, and a number of design 

modifications to enhance safety were identified. In addition, crew escape studies, hazard 

analyses, and critical items list reviews were 

conducted to improve safety margins on future flights. For the near-term, approval was 

granted to provide a crew bailout system 

through the side hatch of the orbiter. Also, 

the decision was made to procure a replacement orbiter, which is expected to be delivered in 1991. 

A program was initiated to address key 

problem areas of the Space Shuttle Main Engine that were identified following Challenger’s accident. Coincidentally, other problems 

were found, such as new critical turbine 

blade cracks and marginal turbopump bearing temperature. 

As one of two payload specialists aboard Space Shuttle 

Columbia, Representative Bill Nelson participates In an experiment for NASA’s Space Biomedical Research Institute. 

Seven external tanks were manufactured 

and delivered. However, Challenger’s accident resulted in significantly reduced product ion requiremen t s . The production of solid rocket boosters and 

motors was suspended, and activity focused 

on the failure investigation and on recovery 

actions for redesigning and recertifying the 

boosters. 

Payloads. The design for operating the 

Spacelab Igloo Pallet configuration’s mixed 

cargo mode, to support the Astro 1 mission, 

was completed and reviewed. In this configuration, using an igloo, two pallets, and the 

Instrument Pointing System, the Spacelab is 

scheduled to fly in January 1989. “he Payload Operations Control Center at Marshall 

Space Flight Center was completed, and 

preparations are underway for it to support 

the Astro 1 mission. Development of the configuration for the Spacelab Enhanced Pallet 

continued; it will be used for missions of the 

Space Technology Experiment Platform and 

Tethered Satellite System. 

Shuttle Flight Operations 

‘Ib improve operations facilities at the Johnson Space Center, old data processors in the 

Mission Control Center were replaced with 

four IBM 3083 computers; and plans to upgrade the Shuttle Mission Simulator were revised and accelerated. 

!&thered Satellite System 

The Tethered Satellite System, a cooperative development between NASA and Italy, 

will be capable of deploying and retrieving a 

tethered satellite up to 100 kilometers above 

or below the orbiting Space Shuttle. Critical 

Design and Manufacturing Reviews were 

conducted on the satellite; and science investigations were initiated for the first mission, 

scheduled for October 1990. 

Advanced Planning 

A prime contractor was selected to build 

the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle, which will 

perform payload delivery to and retrieval 

from the Shuttle orbiter. Initial studies also 

were completed on a space-based Orbital 

Transfer Vehicle, featuring an aerobrake that 

significantly reduces propellant requirements. In addition, research was initiated in 

areas of key technology that could lead to options for new rocket engines, advanced recovery systems, and a second-generation Space 

Shuttle. 

Commercial Use of Space 

The Office of Commercial Space Transportation of the Department of Transportation 

was established to encourage, regulate, and 

promote a commercial expendable launch vehicle industry. One of the major consequences 

of the Challenger accident was the President’s decision, announced in August 1986, 

to preclude use of the Space Shuttle for boost- 
ing routine foreign and commercial satellites 

into space. The decision was later incorporated into the U.S. Space Launch Strategy, 

which requires a space transportation system 

composed of both expendable launch vehicles 

and the Space Shuttle. The revised space 

launch strategy emphasized that the Space 

Shuttle fleet would be used for missions requiring its unique capabilities, and that the 

commercial expendable launch vehicle industry would be a critical element in meeting 

Government and industry requirements for 

space. 

NASA’s Office of Commercial Programs 

was established to encourage U.S. private 

sector involvement and investment in commercial space ventures, and to facilitate commercial application and transfer of existing 

aeronautics and space technology to the private sector. In 1986, four additional Centers 

for the Commercial Development of Space 

were established, for a current total of nine. 

The Centers will use the space environment 

to stimulate high technology research that 

may lead to the development of new products 

and services with commercial potential. 

More than 30 agreements have been executed 

with U.S. firms interested in conducting 

space-related research and development in 

the areas of pharmaceuticals, semiconductor 

electronic materials, metals and alloys, and 

organic polymers. The successful privatization of NASA Tech Brief$ the agency’s primary publication on technology transfer, has 

enhanced NASA’s interaction with industry. 

At the end of 1986, the number of industrial 

and business subscribers exceeded 130,000, 

which reflects a 70 percent increase in subscriptions from the previous two years. 

Space lbacklng and Data Systems 

The Space Tracking and Data Systems program is responsible for planning, implementing, and operating worldwide tracking, data 

handling, and communications facilities and 

services that support flight programs of 

NASA and other agencies. Two Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellites (TDRS) that were 

scheduled for separate launches in 1986 

would have completed the operational satellite constellation of three in orbit. The TDRS 

aboard Space Shuttle Challenger’s flight 51- 

L was lost. However, two TDRS spacecraft are 

scheduled for launch when Shuttle operations resume in 1988. 

The Deep Space Network (DSN) continued 

to support missions to explore the solar system, and was key to the success of Voyager 2’s 

January 1986 encounter with the planet 

Uranus. During the international observations of Halley’s Comet, the DSN supported 

Japan’s effort to track its two spacecraft; provided backup tracking of the European Space 

Agency’s Giotto spacecraft; tracked the Soviet Vega spacecraft as they approached the 

Comet; and supported other spacecraft, such 

as the Pioneer Venus Orbiter and the International Cometary Explorer, as they observed the Comet. In addition, efforts were 

underway to increase the sensitivity of the 

DSN in preparation for Voyager 2’s encounter 

with the planet Neptune in 1989. 

Major projects that became operational in 

the Communications and Data Systems program included a Time Division Multiple Access system, providing operational circuits, 

via satellite, that will improve communications throughout NASA’s facilities; and a Program Support Communications Network, 

providing voice and data services to support 

the agency’s institutional and programmatic 

requirements. 

SPAR€ CENTRAL1 

The future configuration for the Racking and Data Relay Satelllte System (TDRSS). 

Space Station 

In 1986, efforts to build the Space Station 

continued as NASA complied with the President’s 1984 directive to establish a permanently manned presence in space by the 

mid-1990’s. 

The Space Station will. be an orbiting scientific laboratory, and a permanent observatory 

in space. The facility will be used to process 

11 
materials and manufacture commercial products; assemble large spacecraft; stage deepspace missions; and service and deploy 

satellites, upper stage rockets, and scientific 

instruments. 

During 1986, the most significant achievement in the Space Station program was the 

selection of the dual keel baseline configuration that will be used to guide detailed design 

and development activities. Most of the work 

on the 3-year definition and preliminary design phase of the program was completed. 

Changes were made in the Space Station's 

assembly sequence; technical and management problems were identified and resolved; 

and progress on agreements for hardware development was made with NASA's international partners: the European Space Agency, 

Canada, and Japan. By the end of the year, 

NASA was preparing to release to industry a 

Request for Proposals to design and build the 

Space Station. 

Artist's conception of the four pressurized modules that are 

part of the baseline configuration of the permanently 

manned Space Station. 

Aeronautlcs and Space Research 

and Technology 

The United States has long been recognized 

as the world leader in aeronautics research 

and technology. However, U.S. leadership in 

these areas is being challenged by foreign industrial competitors and potential military 

adversaries. For the United States to preserve its leadership status in civil and military aviation, the Nation must pursue those 

opportunities in aeronautics research and 

technology that will enable important advances in aircraft performance and capabili ty. 

In order to meet the goals for the Nation's 

activity in aeronautics research and technology that were established by the White 

House Office of Science and Technology Policy, NASA redirected its Aeronautics Research and Technology program toward 

emerging technologies that have potential 

for order-of-magnitude advances in aircraft 

performance and capability. These technologies span the flight spectrum from advanced 

rotorcraft to hypersonic vehicles for both civil 

and military uses. Wind tunnels, simulators, 

supercomputers, and experimental flight vehicles are some of the research tools used to 

design and develop future generations of civil 

and military aircraft; and aerodynamics, 

structures and materials, propulsion, artificial intelligence, and advanced computational simulation are some of the traditional 

and newer scientific and engineering disciplines that are being studied to find new challenges and opportunities in technology that 

could result in aircraft capabilities not yet 

defined. 

The success of future national programs to 

explore and exploit space depends, in large 

measure, on advances in NASA's Space Research and 'hchnology program. The program focuses on long-term, high-payoff 

research and technology development to provide the capabilities required to meet national goals for space, and to maintain U.S. 

leadership and security in space. To facilitate 

the transfer of technology developed, many of 

the program's activities are conducted jointly 

with other government agencies, U.S. industry and universities. 

Aeronautics 

The Aeronautics Research and Technology 

program places emphasis upon the initial 

steps in the research and development process, recognizes the common civil and military 

utility of aeronautical technology, and capitalizes on the synergism between aeronautical and space technologies and capabilities. 

Elements in the program include disciplinary research and vehicle-specific research. 

Disciplinary Research and Technology. 

NASA's disciplinary research and technology 

activities are aimed at establishing and 

maintaining a solid technology base from 

which new ideas and concepts can emerge 

that will lead to advanced aeronautical development. The research activities endeavor to 

12 
improve understanding of basic physical phenomena, and to develop new concepts in primary aeronautical technical disciplines that 

include fluid and thermal physics, materials 

and structures, propulsion, controls and guidance, human factors, and information sciences. 

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) flow field solution for 

the F-16 aircraft, generated by the Numerical Aerodynamic 

Simulation (NAS) system at Ames Research Center. 

New techniques in the discipline of computational fluid dynamics were used to calculate the stream trace lines over an F-16 

high-performance aircraft configuration. Use 

of these techniques will allow the identification and improvement of separated flow regions that might lead to aircraft stall and 

dynamic instability. 

The world's most powerful supercomputer 

facility, the Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation (NAS) system, became operational and 

was made available to scientists and engineers throughout the United States. 

Because they are lighter and stiffer than 

conventional metallic materials used in aircraft structures, composite materials are 

used increasingly in airframe designs. A 

breakthrough in composite structures research occurred with the fabrication of a geodesic stiffened compression wall panel that is 

about 30 percent lighter than a skidstringer 

aluminum structure, and 40 percent cheaper. 

Also, a new approach was developed to fabricate strong, tough, ceramic composite structures that are capable of withstanding high 

temperatures. 

Propulsion research focused on analytical 

and experimental work in the areas of highspeed fluid flows, chemically reacting and 

mixed fluid flows, turbomachinery internal 

aerodynamics, and high-speed inlet and nozzle aerodynamics. An analytical model was 

used to study flow fields in a high-speed fan 

stator, high-speed, counter-rotating propellers, and in the first stage of the Space Shuttle Main Engine fuel turbine. 

NASA and the FAA conducted joint studies 

expected to result in increased capacity for 

the Air Traffic Control system in the United 

States. Also, these agencies cooperated on 

programs that addressed problems of lightning, wind shear, icing, and other phenomena affecting aviation safety. 

Vehicle Technology. Vehicle-specific research relates to technology that has the potential to enhance the capabilities of specific 

classes of vehicles, such as subsonic transport, rotorcraft, high-performance military 

aircraft, supersonic, and hypersonic vehicles. 

The United States (NASA and DOD) and 

the United Kingdom signed an agreement to 

collaborate in the development of advanced 

short takeoff and vertical landing (STOVL) 

aircraft technologies. Also, NASA and Canada agreed to test a full-scale STOVL aircraft, designated as the E-7. Wind tunnel 

tests of the E-? model confirmed the viability 

of the design as a high-performance aircraft. 

Advances in the turboprop research program included the completion of ground tests 

of both single- and counter-rotation propfans 

in preparation for flight tests to verify largescale propeller structures, aeroelastics, and 

acoustics. 

Reducing rotorcraft noise received special 

emphasis in a cooperative research program 

conducted by NASA, DOD, FAA, and industry. As a result, a new helicopter total system 

noise prediction code called ROTONET was 

developed and made available to industry. 

The National Aerospace Plane program 

(NASP) is a coordinated effort between NASA 

and DOD to develop advanced technologies 

for a new generation of aerospace vehicles. 

These airbreathing vehicles will be capable 

of operating at hypersonic speeds in the atmosphere or in space as single-stage-to-orbit 

spacecraft. The first experimental vehicle, 

designated as the X-30, will validate a wide 

range of aerospace technologies and capabilities. 

After completing more than 85 test flights, 

the X-29A forward-swept wing aircraft expanded its flight envelope to Mach 1.4 at 

40,000 feet. Subsequently, a NAWAir Force 

program was initiated to flight test the second X-29A aircraft. 

The NAWArmy X-Wing Rotor Systems 

Research Aircraft (RSRA) was delivered to 

NASA's Dryden Flight Research Facility for 

final assembly and integration. Successful 

13 
flight testing of the X-WingRSRA will lead 

to a new generation of air vehicles that combine the best features of both helicopter and 

fixed wing aircraft. 

Space 

The Space Research and Technology program provides critical and often unique elements of the technology base that allow the 

United States to maintain its leadership in 

space activities. The program focuses on developing technology to provide more capable, 

less costly space transportation systems, and 

large space systems, such as the Space Station; enabling scientific and planetary exploration to improve understanding of the Earth 

and solar system; and supporting the commercial exploitation of space. Among the disciplines included in the program are 

propulsion, space energy conversion, aerothermodynamics, advanced materials and 

structures, controls and guidance, automation and robotics, and space human factors. 

Earth-to-orbit propulsion research concentrated on high-performance systems and extended service life. In this area, a cryogenic 

engine bearing model was developed to determine cooling, lubrication, and bearing design 

characteristics. Another new model predicts 

the life of materials subjected to both lowcycle and high-cycle fatigue. Optical sensors 

were used to track bearing wear, and to measure turbine blade temperatures and rotor 

speed. Redesigned turbine blade materials 

demonstrated the potential to sustain up to 

20 times the fatigue life of existing blade materials. 

Orbit transfer propulsion research focused 

on developing high-performance, highpressure, variable-thrust engines that will be 

stored and fueled in space. For example, technology for space-based liquid oxygenhydrogen expander cycle engines advanced in the 

areas of combustion, heat transfer, materials 

compatibility, high-expansion ratio nozzle 

performance, and engine level system testing. 

In the area of space energy conversion, progress continued to be made in improving the 

performance of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells 

and arrays; recent tests resulted in reduced 

output loss which is caused by natural radiation. Phase I1 of the joint DOD/DOE/NASA 

Space Nuclear Reactor Power System Development program (SP-100) was initiated. The 

goal of the program is to provide advanced 

technology options that will allow higher 

power levels, improved system efficiency, and 

increased reliability and lifetime. Considerable progress was made in developing thermal 

management systems, consisting of heat 

pipes, thermal loops, and radiators. New 

lightweight composite materials of titanium 

and graphite or tungsten fibers proved feasible in the fabrication of heat pipes for use at 

looooc. 

Research in the field of aerothermodynamics improves understanding of the flow phenomena of advanced aerospace vehicles. An 

aerospace vehicle in the concept stage that is 

expected to result in space-based operation is 

the Aeroassisted Orbital Transfer Vehicle 

(AOTV). Critical wind tunnel tests to assess 

the effects of flow impingement on various 

AOTV concepts were completed. 

In the areas of materials and structures, 

significant efforts were focused on developing 

advanced thermal protection systems, with 

improved durability and high temperature 

capability, for use on the Space Shuttle and 

future space transportation systems. Research on erectable and deployable structures 

resulted in the development of a concept for a 

mobile remote manipulator system that will 

be used to erect large truss-type structures in 

space. 

Impact resistant, durable ceramic thermal protection tile that 

will be used on the Space Shuttle and future space transportation systems. 

Automation and robotics research focused 

on developing and demonstrating technology 

applicable to the Space Station, the Orbital 

Maneuvering Vehicle, the Orbital Transfer 

Vehicle, the Mobile Remote Manipulator system, geostationary satellite systems, and 

planetary rovers. The preliminary design and 

development of the Telerobotic Demonstration Facility was completed, and a sequence 

of demonstrations was defined for 1988. 

14 
Space human factors research concentrated 

on optimizing the allocation of functions between humans and computers during space 

missions. A new concept in computer terminals, the “Virtual Workstation,” was developed that will allow scientists and engineers 

working from a ground base to conduct experiments and manage equipment in space by 

remote control. 

The “Vlrtual Workstation,’’ a new concept in computer termlnals that will allow ground-based scientists to conduct experiments In space by remote control. 

1s 
National Aeronautics 

and Space Administration 

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), established in 1958, is 

responsible for planning, conducting, and 

managing civilian research and development 

activities in aeronautics and space. Other 

federal agencies, state, local, and foreign governments, as well as educational institutions 

and private industry, also share in NASA's 

programs. 

NASA's mission continues to reflect the intent of Congress in creating the agency; that 

is, to explore space for peaceful purposes, 

with international cooperation, for the benefit of all humankind. %chnological advances 

have resulted in significant economic and social benefits for the United States and other 

nations, and remain the catalyst for national 

pride, progress and achievement. The continued success of NASA's programs will allow 

the U.S. to maintain its leadership status in 

aeronautics and space. 

Space Sclence and Applications 

During 1986, NASA's space science and applications research continued to focus on the 

origin, evolution and structure of the universe, and on the fundamental laws that govern it. Research activities involve 

observation of the distant universe, exploration of the near universe, and the characterization of the Earth and its environment. 

Space science programs include astrophysics, 

planetary exploration, life sciences, and microgravity science and applications. Applications efforts include Earth science, 

communications, and information systems. 

Space Sclence 

In 1986, studies of the nature of the universe and solar system continued. Voyager 2's 

encounter with Uranus was a major scientific 

event of the year. 

Study of the Universe 

NASA's Astrophysics program investigates 

the physical nature of the universe, from the 

Sun to the most distant quasars, to determine 

the laws that govern cosmic phenomena, to understand the Sun as a star, and to learn the 

origins of the universe and how it will end. 

Many observations cannot be made through 

the Earth% atmosphere, so instruments for the 

investigations must be carried above the atmosphere into space. The goal of the program is to 

place in orbit four observatories, with significantly improved sensitivity, to observe objects 

at any wavelength in the entire electromagnetic spectrum. The Great Observatories are 

the Hubble Space Telescope 0, the Gamma 

Ray Observatory (GRO), the Advanced X-ray 

Astrophysics Facility (AXAF), and the Space 

Infrared Telescope Facility (SIRTF). Unlike 

HST and GRO, AXAF and SIRTF have not yet 

been approved as formal programs and are undergoing preliminary study for a potential future proposal. 

Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The first of 

the four Great Observatories, the HST is expected to be launched into space late in 1988 

or early 1989. Serviced by the Shuttle and 

the Space Station, it will be a long-term, major observatory that will extend our vision of 

the universe by allowing scientists to see 

clearly 10 to 30 times beyond what can be 

seen with existing instruments. Observing 

the solar system, HST will provide the first 

images of the surfaces of Pluto and its moon, 

Charon; and at the edge of the universe, will 

determine whether a galaxy is a featureless 

ellipse or a beautiful spiral. 

Four scientific instruments aboard the Gamma Ray Observatory will study the full range of gamma ray phenomena in the 

univem, observing sources at least 10 times fainter than 

any previous capability allowed. 

17 
Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). Final 

stages of manufacturing and assembling the 

four scientific instruments of GRO, the second of the four Great Observatories, continued. When it is launched into space in 1990, 

GRO will observe objects at least 10 times 

fainter than any previous capability allowed, 

and will improve our knowledge of the origin 

and location of gamma rays in the universe 

by a factor of 50 to 100. 

Solar Maximum Mission (SMM). Originally launched in 1980, the SMM remains 

about 75 percent operational. A major 

achievement of SMM during 1986 was its observation of Halley ’s Comet, accomplished by 

carefully pointing the telescope away from 

the Sun. Using the CoronagrapWolarimeter, 

the Comet was observed when it was too close 

to the Sun to be investigated from the ground 

and from space. Currently, the observations 

are part of the data base being analyzed by 

scientists through the International Halley 

Watch. In addition, as the current cycle of 

solar activity ends and the next one begins, 

SMM continues to obtain an unparalleled series of observations of the Sun’s corona and 

sunspot activity. Such a long sequence of observations has never been possible from 

space, and is certain to become a major resource used to test future models of the sunspot cycle. Also, selection of SMM Guest 

Investigators was announced, the fourth in 

this series. To date, more than 100 scientists 

from over a dozen countries have participated 

as Guest Investigators in the analysis of 

SMM data. 

High Energy Astronomy Observatories 

(HEAO’s). Data from the three HEAO’s continued to provide significant contributions to 

our understanding of the universe. Analysis 

of the HEAO-2 data on clusters of galaxies 

revealed the presence of x-ray emission that 

indicates a large annual influx of matter; 

this discovery led to the unexpected observation of the formation of a galaxy. Analysis of 

data from the HEAO-3 satellite revealed 

that gamma rays come from the plane of the 

Milky Way Galaxy. This is due to the nuclear 

decay of approximately three solar masses of 

a radioactive isotope of aluminum, and is direct evidence of the continuing synthesis of 

heavy elements in the Galaxy. The Guest Investigator program continues to involve the 

astronomical community in the analysis of 

HEAO data. 

Explorers. The International Ultraviolet 

Explorer (IUE) is in its ninth year of operation. More than 1,000 U.S. astronomers have 

used this orbiting facility to observe objects 

from inside the solar system extending to the 

edge of the universe. For several years IUE 

was used to observe Halley’s Comet at ultraviolet wavelengths; in 1986, IUE provided additional space-based observations of the 

Comet and tail during the Japanese, European, and Soviet missions to its nucleus. 

Infiared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS). Discoveries continue to abound from analysis of 

data taken by IRAS in the first survey of the 

sky at infrared wavelengths. Scientists from 

around the world conduct their research either at the Infrared Processing and Analysis 

Center at the California Institute of Bchnology or from the IRAS catalog that summarizes, in four infrared bands, the intensity of 

more than 250,000 objects. Copies of this catalog can be obtained from the National Space 

Science Data Center at NASA’s Goddard 

Space Flight Center. 

Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE). The 

COBE mission will investigate the earliest 

structure of the universe, as revealed by cosmic background microwave radiation, 

thought to originate a million years after the 

Big Bang marked the creation of the universe. From polar orbit, COBE will use instruments, cooled to within a few degrees of 

absolute zero, that will measure the spectrum of radiation. Early in 1986, COBE’s instruments finished testing at liquid helium 

temperatures and integration of the spacecraft began. In the wake of the Challenger 

accident, extensive replanning took place, 

and, by the end of 1986, designs were prepared for modifications that would allow 

launch of COBE using a Delta launch vehicle 

rather than the Shuttle. 

Explorer Platfirm. A reusable spacecraft 

bus for Explorer payloads, known as the Explorer Platform, was started based on the 

multi-mission modular spacecraft used for 

the Solar Maximum Mission and the Landsat 

missions, This spacecraft bus will be compatible with both the Shuttle and Delta launch 

vehicles. The first payload, the Extreme U1- 

traviolet Explorer (EUVE), is under development at the University of California at 

Berkeley. It will be launched on an 18-month 

mission scheduled for late 1991, and will conduct the first high-sensitivity survey of the 

sky at wavelengths between ultraviolet light 

and x-rays. Upon completion of the EWE 

mission, the Shuttle will rendezvous with the 

Explorer Platform and replace the EWE 
payload with the X-ray Timing Explorer (XTE). 

The XTE mission will monitor changes in the 

x-ray luminosity of black holes, quasars, and xray pulsars; and will investigate physical processes under extreme conditions, as revealed by 

variations in time-scales as short as microseconds and as long as years. 

SOLARA. Planned by a joint Japanese/ 

U.S. team, the SOLARA mission will study 

solar activity using a payload containing two 

critically important experiments. One will be 

built by the Japanese, and the other, a sofi 

x-ray telescope, will be built by a joint 

Japanese/U.S. team. Through an Announcement of Opportunity released by NASA in the 

spring, U.S. participants were chosen in the 

fall of 1986. The mission will be launched in 

1992 from the Kagoshima Space Center, and 

will be operated by joint JapaneseN.S. science teams from a control center in Japan. 

Advanced Technology Development, Advanced technology development continued for 

the remaining two space-based Great Observatories, the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics 

Facility (AXAF) and the Space Infrared TeleThe proposed Space Infrared Rleacope Faclllty would observe lnfrarsd radlatlon from a varlety of sources in the unlvem, wlth a thousand-fold Increase In sensltlvlty. 

scope Facility (SIRTF). These preliminary 

The proposed Advanced X-Ry Astrophyaicr Faclllty would 

be 100 tlmea more powerful than the HEAO-2 mlulon for 

detecting X-rays from celestial objects, and would provlde 

Imager almost 10 tlmes sharper. 

studies will contribute to our knowledge of the 

development requirements of these potential 

future projects. AXAF will examine x-rays 

hm celestial sources with a high-resolution, 

x-ray telescope comprised of nested grazing-incidence mirrors. SIRTF will allow astronomers 

to make the most sensitive observations of infrared radiation from stars, planets, and other 

infrared sources in the universe. Both facilities 

will help answer fundamental questions in astrophysics and astronomy. 

Spartun Carrying instruments to observe 

Comet Halley, the second Spartan and mission support systems, designed to release and 

recapture Spartan subsatellites, were destroyed during the Challenger accident. In 

addition to rebuilding the Spartan and supporting systems, the program is developing 

payloads for future Shuttle flights. The next 

Spartan spacecraft and supporting systems 

will be ready for flight in early 1988. 

Gravio Probe-B (GP-B). Einstein’s General 

Theory of Relativity predicts the effects of 

gravitation manifested at relativistic velocities. Although his theory is essential to understand phenomena, such as the large-scale 

structure of the universe, very few quantitative tests of it have been conducted. By observing gyroscopes in Earth orbit, GP-B will 

provide new, highly precise tests of the theory. According to the theory, a small drift will 

be induced in the gyroscopes due to the rotation of the Earth’s gravitational field as the 

Earth rotates. A phased approach to the technically challenging mission is being implemented that stresses ground-testing of the 

sytem design for GP-B; ultimately, the testing will lead to flight-testing on the Space 

Shuttle. 

Roentgensatellite (ROSAT). ROSAT, a cooperative x-ray astronomy project of the Federal 

Republic of Germany and the United States, 

is scheduled for inclusion on a Space Shuttle 

mission in 1994. Concurrently, efforts are un19 
derway to launch the spacecraft on an expendable launch vehicle by 1989 or 1990. The 

U.S. instrument, the High Resolution Imager, has been produced, and will be shipped 

to Germany early in 1987. Development of 

the ROSAT Science Data Center continues at 

NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center. 

Solar System Exploration 

Cometary Studies. During 1985 and 1986, 

the appearance of Halley’s Comet was the focus of unparalleled global scientific study 

from the ground, Earth orbit, Venus orbit, interplanetary space, and from within the 

Comet itself. 

The various activities in space were coordinated by the four space agencies, ESA, Intercosmos, ISAS, and NASA, through the 

Inter-Agency Consultative Group (IACG). Coordination of activities of ground-based observers was provided by the International 

Halley Watch (IHW). 

The single goal of the IHW and IACG was 

to maximize the scientific results of all mission efforts to explore Halley’s Comet from 

ground and space. The obvious success of this 

unique endeavor should serve as an example 

for future cooperative scientific programs. 

Although NASA did not send a probe directly to intercept Halley’s Comet, it was 

studied intensively by U.S. scientists on the 

ground, and by aircraft, rockets, and existing 

NASA spacecraft. Also, U.S. scientists were 

involved in missions of ESA’s Giotto, Intercosmos’ Vega I and 11, and Japan’s Suisei and 

Sakigake that tracked the Comet. 

The International Cometary Explorer (ICE) 

performed the most complicated orbital maneuvers ever conducted by a spacecraft when 

it encountered Giacobini-Zinner on September 11,1985; also, in March 1986, it observed 

Halley’s Comet from a distance of 35 million 

kilometers. 

The International Halley Watch (IHW) selected scientists and organized worldwide 

networks of over 1,000 professional astronomers in 51 different countries that assured 

continuous international monitoring of the 

Comet by every possible technique, and at all 

wavelengths, accessible from the ground. As 

observation of Halley’s Comet continues, the 

data acquired is being reduced and prepared 

for inclusion in the general Comet Halley Archives that will contain all calibrated ground 

and space data from the 1986 apparition. 

Targeting a spacecraft to the Comet’s nucleus is a major problem because the nucleus 

is hidden by gas and dust in the coma. The 

position of the nucleus of Halley’s Comet was 

obtained from Earth-based IHW observations 

with an accuracy of about 500 kilometers. 

The reduction of this uncertainty, essential 

for Giotto’s precise targeting, was achieved by 

the Pathfinder project, an historic example of 

international collaboration. The project involved two Soviet Vega spacecraft that encountered Halley’s Comet, and provided 

ESA’s Giotto’s spacecraft with a more accurate location of the Comet’s nucleus on its 

subsequent encounter. NASA’s Deep Space 

Network supported the effort by tracking the 

Vega spacecraft using precise L-band VeryLong-Baseline Interferometry navigation 

techniques that allowed a flyby distance of 

600 kilometers, with an uncertainty of only 

40 kilometers. 

The probes sent by ESA, Intercosmos and 

ISAS provided detailed “snapshots” of the 

Comet. Concurrently, NASA’s ground-and 

space-based programs gave an overview of the 

global properties of the Comet and its longterm evolution. The combination of these two 

approaches should result in the most comprehensive Comet study possible at this time. 

Uranus’ moon, Miranda, taken from Voyager 2 spacecraft on 

January 24,1986. 

Voyager at Uranus. In January 1986, Voyager 2 became the first spacecraft to fly past 

Uranus, transmitting planetary data and 

over 7,000 images of that planet, its rings, 

and moons. In August 1989, the spacecraft 

will reach Neptune, its final planetary destination, and examine its large moon, Triton. 

20 
Voyager 2 discovered 10 new moons surrounding Uranus, bringing the total of identified satellites to 15 that range from 40 to 

1,610 kilometers in diameter. Of the five largest moons, Oberon and Umbriel appear to 

have the oldest surfaces. The moons have numerous large impact craters and little evidence of surface changes in their recent 

geological past. Titania has a number of 

small craters and an extensive series of fault 

scarps. Ariel appears to have the youngest 

surface, with faults and possible evidence of 

ice flows. Miranda, the smallest of the large 

satellites, has the most amazing topography, 

with undulating cratered plains and canyons 

10 to 15 kilometers deep and slopes 20 kilometers long. 

Voyager 2 discovered two new rings of 

Uranus, for a total of 11 known dark, narrow 

rings. Although fine dust occurs in the rings, 

most of the ring particles are several centi7kro slices of Uranus’ epsilon ring are shown in a computerconstructed image created horn data obtained by Voyager2’s photopolarimeter. The disparity In the size of the two 

slices illustrates the accordion-like nature of the ring, which 

seems to expand and contract as it orbits the planet. 

meters in diameter. Also, the spacecraft revealed that the helium abundance in the atmosphere is similar to that on Jupiter and 

Saturn. It was confirmed that Uranus has an 

intrinsic magnetic field that is offset by 60 

degrees from the planet’s rotational axis; and 

an auroral region surrounds the magnetic 

pole on the dark side of the planet. Voyager 2 

measured the planet’s rotation rate at 

slightly more than 17 hours. 

Due to low levels of light, the long distance 

that communications signals traveled, and 

problems aboard the eight-year-old Voyager 

spacecraft, the Uranus flyby was an engineering challenge. Many modifications were 

made to the spacecraft in flight, as well as to 

data processing systems on the ground that 

included NASA’s deep space communications 

stations in California, Spain, and Australia. 

The Australian station was situated to receive most of the data from the time of the 

spacecraft’s closest approach to Uranus, and 

was supplemented by the Parkes radio astronomy antenna. 

Pioneer Venus. Early in 1986, the Pioneer 

Venus Orbiter spacecraft, now in its seventh 

year of operation, obtained unique images of 

Comet Halley when the Comet was “behind” 

the sun and unobservable from Earth. At 

that time, the planet Venus was relatively 

close to the Comet. By reorienting the spacecraft’s Ultraviolet Spectrometer instrument, 

it was able to make daily observations of the 

Comet’s behavior over a five week period. 

Data on the chemical composition of the 

Comet’s atmosphere and rate of water evaporation from its nucleus were obtained, and 

the huge cloud of hydrogen gas which comprises the outer layer of the Cometary coma 

was mapped. Measuring approximately 20 

million miles in diameter, the cloud is 15 

times larger than the Sun; and observed 

changes in its brightness and shape indicate 

variations in solar radiation pressure. 

As the spacecraft orbit continued to evolve, 

other instruments on the Pioneer Venus Orbiter made important new measurements of 

the solar wind interaction with Venus. The 

data gathered are particularly important because this was a period of minimum solar activity. Due to the absence of a planetary 

magnetic field, the interaction of the solar 

wind with Venus was found to be comet-like. 

One consequence is that plasma “tail” structures extend outward from the nighttime ionosphere of Venus, appearing much like 

cometary tail rays. 

The Interplanetary Medium. Pioneers 10 

and 11 and Voyagers 1 and 2, continued to 

measure the properties of the interplanetary 

medium in the outer solar system. Pioneer 10 

is now 38 astronomical units from the Sun. It 

21 
is well outside the orbit of Neptune and the 

outer boundary of the solar system. Pioneer 

11, traveling in the opposite direction from 

Pioneer 10, is now 22 astronomical units 

from the Sun, between the orbits of Uranus 

and Neptune. Because of declining power levels available from thermoelectric generators 

aboard the Spacecraft, power-sharing among 

the Pioneer instruments was initiated. The 

primary scientific goal of Pioneers 10 and 11 

is the search for the heliopause, the interaction boundary between the solar wind and 

interstellar space, 

Pioneer 11 played an important supporting 

role in Voyager 2’s encounter with Uranus. 

The spacecraft used its instruments to monitor solar wind conditions throughout the encounter period. At this time, Pioneer 11 was 

crossing the orbit of Uranus six astronomical 

units beyond Voyager 2’s encounter point. 

Galilea In May 1986, Galileo’s mission to 

Jupiter was scheduled for launch; however, as 

a result of the Challenger accident, the 

launch will not occur before late 1989. Also, 

since the Centaur upper stage program was 

cancelled due to Shuttle safety concerns, a 

reevaluation of Galileo’s launch and trajectory profiles has taken place. Currently, no 

upper stage capable of placing Galileo on a 

direct trajectory to Jupiter is available. 

Present plans call for a Shuttlehertial Up 

per Stage (IUS) launch of the spacecraft on an 

initial trajectory to Jupiter, followed by two 

passes around the Earth that will allow sufficient energy to reach Jupiter. 

Ulysses. Ulysses was scheduled for a May 

1986 launch on the ShuttleKentaur. Like 

Galileo, the combination of the Challenger 

accident and ShuttleKentaur cancellation 

has forced a reevaluation of the mission. 

However, unlike Galileo, and because of u1- 

ysses’ smaller mass, a plan was developed 

that maintains the same transit time to the 

higher latitudes of the Sun as the planned 

1986 mission. Uylsses will be launched in 

September 1989 or in October 1990 using the 

ShuttleDUS system, with an energy augmentation derived from a Payload Assist Module. 

This additional energy will allow use of the 

massive Jovian gravity to reach higher latitudes of the Sun. 

Magellan. Active development continued on 

the Magellan mission to Venus that will use 

a polar orbiting, radar-equipped spacecraft to 

map the cloud-shrouded surface of the planet. 

The objectives of the mission are to determine the geology of the surface, and to understand how Venus has evolved compared to 

other bodies of the inner solar system. The 

Challenger accident resulted in delaying the 

launch date of Magellan from 1988 to 1989. 

Designs for the spacecraft and radar instrument were completed, and significant progress was made in fabricating the flight 

hardware. 

Current plans call for the Magellan spacecraft to be launched in April 1989 by the 

Shuttle/IUS, and its encounter with Venus is 

expected in August 1989. Nearly the entire 

surface of the planet will be mapped in highresolution radar imagery from August 1989 

to May 1990. The images obtained will be an 

improvement, by a factor of 10, over those obtained by the Soviet Venera 15 and 16 missions in 1983 and 1984 that covered less than 

20 percent of the planet. 

Schuduled for launch In 1990, the Man Observer rprcocnlt 

wlll rtudy the atmosphere, wrhce gwchemlatry, Interlor, 

and climate of Man on a global rcale. 

Mars Observer The Mars Observer spacecraft manufacturer, RCA, and the contractor 

for the upper stage, the Orbital Science Corporation, were chosen. Also, the geoscience 

and climatology experiments were selected, 

along with the group of scientists who will 

monitor instrument development and preparations for the data analysis phase. To 

achieve scientific objectives, and to provide 

high resolution images for any future advanced missions to Mars, a camera will be 

added to the payload. Scheduled for launch in 

August 1990, the mission will last one Mars 

year (687 Earth days) during which surface 

and atmospheric changes will be observed 

over all four seasons. 

Flight Missions Suppork In 1986, Ground 

Data Systems tests to support Voyager’s encounter with Uranus, and the planned 

launches of the Ulysses and Galileo spacecraft were completed. Although the launches 

were postponed, Voyager’s encounter with 

22 
Uranus was an extraordinary success. Acquisition and processing of significant amounts 

of rare data from the encounter, both in realtime and batch processing modes, by the Mission Control and Computing Center (MCCC), 

were accomplished without difficulty. Images 

produced by the new Multi-mission Image 

Processing Laboratory taken from observations of the planet, its rings, and its moons 

were spectacular and are of unique scientific 

value. Also, the MCCC supported the Giotto 

encounter and Pioneer Venus Orbiter observations of Halley’s Comet. Pioneer Venus produced the only data obtained when the 

Comet was most active, closest to, and behind 

the Sun. Significant design advances were 

made in the new Space Flight Operations 

Center to produce multi-mission Ground 

Data Systems that will be more cost efficient 

and scientifically productive. 

Advanced Programs and Planning. The 

planetary “Core Program” recommended by 

the Solar System Exploration Committee in 

1983 included two new classes of spacecraft: 

Planetary Observers for near-Earth missions 

and Mariner Mark I1 spacecraft to explore 

the outer solar system. Planning continued 

for a future start of the first Mariner Mark I1 

mission, the Comet Rendezvous Asteroid 

Flyby (CRAF) mission. CRAF will make a 

close flyby of an asteroid and then rendezvous 

with a comet for extended observation and 

study. During 1986, proposals for scientific 

investigations and instruments for the CRAF 

mission were evaluated, and a tentative 

flight payload was selected. A second potential Mariner Mark I1 mission, Cassini, would 

consist of a Saturn orbiter mated with an 

ESA-developed Titan entry probe. During 

1986, science teams from ESA and NASA 

conducted joint studies of this possible mission. 

Lifk Sciences 

The Life Sciences program is involved in all 

major aspects of NASA’s activities in space 

exploration. The program has two major 

goals, derived from NASA’s charter: to promote health and productivity in manned 

space flight, and to study biological processes 

and life in the universe. The Life Sciences 

program extends from basic research to applied clinical practice. Major areas of research include Space Medicine, Gravitational 

Biology, .Global Biology (Biospherics), Exobiology, and Controlled Ecological Life Support Systems. During 1986, substantial 

progress was made in each of these areas of 

research. 

Space Medicine. Through basic and applied 

research, clinical studies, and flight programs, NASA is investigating the nature and 

mechanisms of adaptation, deconditioning, 

and inherent risks resulting from exposure to 

space flight. In turn, this knowledge helps 

scientists to develop protective measures and 

safety procedures needed to ensure the 

health and productivity of crews during longterm missions. The program will develop protective measures for repeated exposures to 

the space environment. 

In the area of Space Medicine, clinical characterization and the time course of motion 

sickness have been described. Working with 

the Space Biomedical Research Institute at 

Johnson Space Center, NASA expects to expedite processes that investigate countermeasures to space sickness and identify 

susceptible individuals. 

Including Congressman Bill Nelson in the 

crew of STS 61-C gave NASA’s Life Sciences 

Program an opportunity to expand the scope 

and depth of medical experiments. This mission investigated operationally important issues related to human capabilities in space, 

such as space motion sickness, echocardiography, inflight treadmill stress tests, 

changes in total body water during space 

flight, and eye-hand coordination. 

A Health Maintenance Facility (HMF) is 

being developed for the Space Station that 

will incorporate state-of-the-art technology 

and inflight medical care, and will also enable adequate exercise and health monitoring for space crews. Also, tests of physical 

exercise protocols for the HMF are underway. 

In the area of human factors and manmachine interface, a sophisticated computer 

modeling system is under development that 

is based on anthropometric measurements 

made in space flight and on the ground. This 

system will accelerate design of work stations, assess work conditions, and determine 

appropriate workloads for space crews. 

Gravitational Biology. The goal of the Gravitational Biology program is to understand 

how gravity affects and shapes life on Earth. 

This program uses weightlessness as a tool to 

understand life and its processes; by understanding how the space environment affects 

plant and animal species, the human ability 

23 
to use and explore space can be greatly enhanced. Both flight- and ground-based research in the gravitational biology area 

provide significant information on the biological significance of gravity. Also, the role of 

calcium as a gravity-sensing element in both 

plants and animals has been significant. 

Animal research has emphasized modeling 

the gravity-sensing systems of animals, understanding mechanisms that control bone 

formation and loss, and identifying mechanisms that lead to normal muscle development and atrophy when gravitational 

loading is removed. Analysis of otoconia 

(crystals that form the sensory mass in the 

inner ear) in rats flown on Spacelab 3 indicate that crystal formation is affected by 

gravity and that, under near-weightless conditions, a number of small, potentially immature crystals were formed. The significance of 

this finding has yet to be determined. This 

flight also showed that bone strength is reduced in growing animals which suggests 

that gravity loading is essential to the development of normal bone. Also, significant 

changes in muscle were observed. Rodents 

flown in space lost up to 40 percent of mass in 

leg muscles which are normally used to oppose gravity. 

Biospherics. The goal of the Biospherics Research program is to understand how biological and planetary processes interact. This is 

done in conjunction with the environmental 

effects of human activity, and how these processes affect the long-term habitability of the 

Earth. Currently, efforts are concentrated in 

specific research projects that include wetlands, along the eastern part of the United 

States; temperate forests, represented by Sequoia National Park; tropical forests, represented by the Amazon forest; and global 

studies that concentrate on biogeochemical 

models. In addition, a new effort that applies 

remote sensing technology to the solution of 

global health problems will be developed. 

This research program is using existing data 

banks, remote sensing techniques, and field 

research to create mathematical models that 

predict biospheric behavior under a given set 

of perturbations. These models are integrated with mathematical models of planetary behavior, and they are continually 

evaluated for accuracy and modified when 

necessary. By ensuring that undesirable consequences of biospheric change do not adversely affect the habitability of the Earth, 

the Biospherics Research program has important implications for the future of the terrestrial ecosystem. 

Exobiology. The Exobiology program seeks 

to understand the origin, evolution, and distribution of life in the universe, focusing on 

six major areas: cosmic evolution of biogenic 

compounds, prebiotic chemistry, early evolution of life, evolution of advanced life, solar 

system exploration, and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. The prime focus of 

exobiology research is on investigating the 

characteristics and life-promoting or lifethreatening events that dominate important 

evolutionary stages. This research elucidates 

the role of the biogenic elements, the main 

constituents of living matter, and the biogenic compounds in solar system formation, 

planetary development, and the emergence 

and impact of life. 

Recent accomplishments within the program include the discovery of precursors of 

biologically important organic molecules in 

the interstellar medium. Analysis has shown 

a direct link between organics in the interstellar medium and those found in primitive 

solar system bodies. These results add to the 

available evidence that life might exist elsewhere in the universe. It also indicates that 

life may be an integral part of the origin and 

evolution of the stars and planets. Concurrently, planetary exploration and groundbased planetary environment simulations 

are adding to our awareness of conditions required for the origin and evolution of life. 

Controlled Ecological Life Support System 

(CELSS). A spacecraft system that continually recycles the solid, liquid, and gaseous 

materials essential for human life is the goal 

of the CELSS Program. The main focus of 

CELSS research has been on techniques for 

growing higher plants and algae, processes 

for recycling solid and liquid wastes, and system interactions in biological life support systems. 

Laboratory results show that desired specifications can probably be met or exceeded. In 

terms of usable dietary calories divided by 

the photosynthetically active light energy 

needed to produce them, energy conversion 

efficiencies in the 7 to 9 percent range were 

obtained for wheat, potatoes, and soybeans; 

eficiencies approximately twice as high were 

measured for two kinds of algae. Under the 

CELSS Breadboard Project for bioregenerative life support, a chamber designed to test 

techniques for growing plants in a “closed” 

environment was completed. 

24 
Applications 

Communications 

NASA has implemented a multifaceted 

communications satellite program to meet 

foreign competition and maintain U.S. preeminence in the global marketplace. One element in the development of this program is 

the Advanced Communications Bchnology 

Satellite (ACTS) Project, scheduled for 

launch in 1990. ACTS technology will contribute to future domestic and global satellite 

networks. Another major thrust in NASA's 

communications program is the partnership 

with industry in a mobile national satellite 

service. Recently, a significant milestone was 

reached with the allocation of domestic frequencies by the Federal Communications 

Commission (FCC). This first generation 

commercial system will provide communications to and from trucks, boats, and airplanes. It will create a totally new service 

and hardware industry, and improve the productivity of many U.S. communications industries. Launch of the first spacecraft for 

this system is expected in 1990 or 1991. The 

Search and Rescue system, which locates aircraft and vessels in distress, is gaining worldwide acceptance. It is credited with saving 

more than 675 lives since its inception. 

NASA continues to develop technologies 

needed to use the geosynchronous arc and 

spectral frequencies effectively. 

Advanced Communications Technology Sa& 

ellite (ACTS). In 1986, the ACTS project 

moved closer toward its goal of a spacecraft 

launch from the Shuttle by late 1990. 

In 1986, a steerable antenna was added to 

extend the ACTS coverage to states and areas 

outside the contiguous 48 states, such as 

Alaska, Hawaii, and South America. The cost 

of the augmentation has been assumed by 

RCA, the prime contractor on the ACTS. In 

addition, a joint NASA/Air Force effort was 

initiated to develop an optical payload that 

will demonstrate laser intersatellite communications technology. This optical payload 

will allow laser communications between the 

ACTS and ground terminals, low Earth orbiting vehicles, such as the Space Shuttle and 

the Space Station, and other satellites in 

geosynchronous orbit, such as the Tracking 

and Data Relay Satellite. 

Mobile Satellite. The joint mobile satellite 

program with U.S. industry and other government agencies will provide two-way satellite-assisted communication with cars, 

trucks, trains, boats, and aircraft within the 

next four to six years. Such a system, offering 

nationwide voice and data communications, 

is especially important for mobile users in 

rural and remote areas of the United States. 

This system would also complement existing 

and planned urban terrestrial service, energy, mineral, and forestry operations; business and commercial endeavors; emergency 

and disaster communications; and wide-area 

law enforcement. By mid-1985, the FCC had 

received 12 applications to build a mobile satellite service. In mid-1986, the FCC allocated 

L-band frequencies to domestic mobile satellite service, removing a major barrier to implementation. Currently, the FCC is in the 

process of formulating service guidelines and 

selecting a system. 

NASA is developing and testing the power, 

spectrum, and orbit-efficient technologies 

critical to the success of high-capacity, future 

mobile satellite systems. In direct response to 

the President's policy on the commercial use 

of space, the system will create new hardware 

markets, business and service industries in 

the United States, and counter growing foreign competition, such as the Japanese 

launch of an experimental mobile satellite 

scheduled for 1987. 

Search and Rescue. The COSPAS/SARSAT 

system completed its first year of regular operation. Its success has stimulated participating governments to draft a new agreement 

which reflects a strong and continuing commitment to the program. World-wide interest 

in this rescue system began with the endorsement of the 406 MHz frequency as the primary frequency for the Emergency Position 

Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB) that will be 

used for the future Global Maritime Distress 

and Safety System. There is continual development of world-wide standards for Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELT's) operating 

in the same frequency band. In addition, research and development is continuing on 

techniques and technologies to reduce false 

alarm rates, improve location accuracy and 

provide near instantaneous detection. 

Advanced Planning. In close coordination 

with industry and advisory groups, NASA is 

developing plans to address future space communications needs, and the ever increasing 

demand for communication bandwidths. Currently, there is little distinction between the 

communications technology requirements of 

NASA's future planetary missions and Space 

25 
Station operations and those of the U.S. industrial space community as a whole. Technologies being investigated for possible 

future development and application include 

optical communications for holographic image transmission in space robotics; communications links to support space travel, and 

lunar and planetary exploration bases; and 

large, multibeam antennas with frequency 

reuse factors of 5 to 20 or more. This will 

conserve spectrum and allow growth of future mobile satellite systems. Also, technologies that could implement an on-orbit 

antenna array are being studied. They could 

be used within the Space Station complex to 

test and calibrate large antennas in a near 

zero-gravity space environment. 

ATS-3. ATS-3 (Advanced Technology Satellite) continued to support the National Science Foundation, National Oceanic 

Atmospheric Administration, Department of 

Defense, Department of Interior, Drug Enforcement Administration, several universities, state and local governments, and a 

number of domestic and international disaster relief organizations. Through satellite 

voice and data links in science and communication application experiments, support is 

provided to North and South America, most 

of the Atlantic Ocean, and a large part of the 

eastern Pacific, including Hawaii and Antarctica. 

Environmental Observations 

The Environmental Observations program 

continues to provide more information about 

the terrestrial atmosphere and environment 

which, in turn, increases our understanding 

of the processes that affect them. 

Upper Atmosphere. During 1986, NASA 

completed its portion of a comprehensive report assessing the current state of knowledge 

of the processes that control the distribution 

of atmospheric ozone and its susceptibility to 

change caused by natural and anthropogenic 

perturbations. The assessment was cosponsored by NASA, FAA, NOAA, the World 

Meteorological Organization, the United Nations Environment Program, the Commission of the European Communities, and the 

Federal Republic of Germany. 

The infrared data collected by the ATMOS 

instrument, which flew on Spacelab 3, was 

analyzed and archived. This is the most comprehensive set of data ever collected on the 

chemical composition of the upper atmosphere. Chemical species, predicted to be 

present in the atmosphere but never before 

observed, were measured quantitatively. 

In collaboration with NOAA and the Chemical Manufacturers Association, NASA cosponsored a scientific workshop to design a 

network of ground-based remote sensing instruments to monitor long-term changes in 

the chemical composition and physical structure of the stratosphere. Currently, aspects of 

the plan are being implemented. 

NASA, NOAA, NSF, and the Chemical 

Manufacturers Association co-sponsored a 

group of scientists that conducted research at 

McMurdo Station in Antarctica. While in residence, the group used remote sensing techniques and balloon-borne instrumentation to 

study the so-called ozone hole that has been 

observed by both ground and satellite instrumentation. The results of this expedition will 

help to identify the cause of the ozone hole. It 

will also determine if the Antarctic hole is a 

precursor of changes elsewhere on the globe. 

Work continued on the observatory and 

ground data handling segments of the Upper 

Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) program. Remote sensing instruments on the 

satellite will perform measurements of the 

energy input, chemical composition, and dynamics of the stratosphere and mesosphere. 

UARS is a critical component of NASA’s efforts to understand the upper atmosphere 

well enough to assess its susceptibility to 

chemical change. The UARS is scheduled for 

launch in 1991. 

In 1985, NASA completed the second 

Global Tropospheric ExperimentKhemical 

Instrumentation Test Evaluation (GTE/ 

CITE-2) project, an aircraft-based effort to 

validate sensitive instruments required to 

study global tropospheric chemistry. The objectives of the GTE are to assess the role of 

tropospheric chemistry in biogeochemical cycles; the troposhere’s role as the ultimate 

source for chemical species in the stratosphere; and the contribution of tropospheric 

ozone compared to total ozone content in the 

atmosphere. 

Interdisciplinary Research. NASA continued its Interdisciplinary Research program 

in Earth Science to investigate and understand long-term physical, chemical, and biological changes in the Earth’s environment. 

Based upon their importance to science, areas that have been selected for new investigation include research to understand the 

26 
origins and consequences of increases in atmospheric concentrations of methane; to understand the extent to which changes are 

taking place in climatologically important 

properties of land surfaces; and to develop a 

better Understanding of the magnitude and 

variability of oceanic carbon fluxes on a basin 

to global scale. Under existing programs, 

complementary investigations are being conducted in the areas of atmospheric dynamics 

and radiation, oceanic processes, global biology, tropospheric chemistry, climate, and 

land processes. 

Geodynamics. Geodynamics involves the 

study of the solid Earth, its global gravity 

and magnetic fields, the movement and deformation of its crust, and its rotational dynamics. This research contributes to our 

understanding of earthquakes, the evolution 

of the Earth, and the interaction between the 

solid Earth, the oceans and atmosphere. Over 

30 countries participate in NASA's geodynamics research, and there is intergovernmental cooperation between NSF, USGS, 

NOAA, and DOD. The Crustal Dynamics project involved 20 investigators from Australia, 

Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Italy, Mexico, the 

Netherlands, New Zealand, Peru, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and 

Venezuela. In 1986, joint projects and programs included measuring tectonic plate motion and Earth rotation, using fixed and 

mobile laser ranging systems, with Italy, 

France, Israel, and Mexico; using techniques 

of Very Long Baseline Interferometry, with 

Japan and Italy; lunar and satellite laser 

ranging operations, with Australia; data exchanges, with China; and a study of earthquake hazards in the Caribbean Basin, with 

several nations. 

Operational Meteor0 logical Satel 1 ites. Due 

to a premature shutdown of the Delta launch 

vehicle's main engine, the GOES-G launch 

attempt on May 3, 1986 ended in failure. To 

complete the operatima1 complement of two 

geostationary satellites, the GOES-G satellite was expected to join the GOES-6 satellite 

in orbit. The GOES-6 satellite will continue 

to operate in a mid-country geosynchronous 

orbit until GOES-H, the last of the current 

generation of geostationary satellites, is 

launched in February 1987. The GOES-H 

satellite will be stationed at 75 degrees west 

longitude, providing coverage for the eastern 

United States, and GOES-6 will be moved 

back to 135 degrees west longitude to provide 

west coast coverage. 

In September 1986, the NOAA-10 satellite 

was launched into a polar orbit from Vandenberg Air Force Base. It will replace the 

NOAA-6 satellite and provide early morning 

global coverage. It is anticipated that 

NOAA-H will replace NOAA-9 in December 

1987. 

The current series of NOAA satellites are 

launched on Air Force Atlas-E expendable 

rockets. In 1986, plans were initiated to 

launch these satellites on Air Force Titan-I1 

vehicles beginning with the NOAA-K satellite, and possibly with the NOAA-I satellite. 

Climate Research. The primary focus of the 

Climate Research program is to understand 

the physical processes that influence climate. 

During 1986, the Earth Radiation Budget 

Experiment (ERBE) received and processed 

data from the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, launched in October 1984, and the 

ERBE instruments aboard the NOAA-9 and 

NOAA-10 operational meteorological satellites, launched in December 1984 and October 1986, respectively. Thus far, the 

international science team has devoted most 

of its efforts to validation of the global ERBE 

data products. It is expected that ERBE will 

help establish the role of clouds in the Earth's 

radiation budget, particularly in response to 

increasing concentrations of trace gases such 

as carbon dioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. 

Uncertainties about the geographical and 

temporal distributions of clouds are recognized as major impediments to improved climate prediction. In 1986, the International 

Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) 

continued its third year of operation, collecting and processing data on the global distribution of cloudiness. The data was obtained 

from an international array of operational 

polar-orbiting and geostationary meteorological satellites. NASA plays a central role in 

the ISCCP through its support of the Global 

Processing Center that serves as the hub of 

international climatology operations. 

Final planning was completed and implementation is underway for Project FIRE 

(First ISCCP Regional Experiment), a multiagency research program located at NASA's 

Langley Research Center. The program seeks 

a better understanding of the roles played by 

physical processes in controlling life cycles of 

climatically important cloud systems. Also, it 

attempts to improve the parameterization of 

clouds in climate models, and to contribute to 

27 
the validation, on a regional basis, of the 

ISCCl? In October 1986, the first field experiment was conducted by the universitygovernment FIRE science team. It focused on 

cirrus cloud systems that, along with marine 

stratocumulus cloud systems, are believed to 

be particularly important to the Earth’s radiation budget climate. 

Global Scale Atmospheric Processes. Advanced remote sensing techniques, both active and passive, are being developed for 

satellite observations of the Earth’s atmosphere. The active remote sensing techniques 

apply to both Laser Interferometric Detection and Ranging (LIDAR’S) radars and to 

sensing atmospheric parameters. Emphasis 

is placed on the application of laser techniques, tested on aircraft platforms during 

1986, that remotely observed atmospheric 

temperature, pressure, and moisture profiles. 

A logical progression of development of LIDAR instruments starts from testing on aircraft platforms, and Shuttle pallets, to using 

on low or high inclination Space Station polar platforms. Development of additional laser techniques, using coherent LIDAR’S to 

observe wind profiles, continues. In 1986, a 

preliminary design study for placing a coherent LIDAR wind sensor on the Shuttle was 

completed. This study provided a positive indication of the maturity of the technology, 

and allowed serious consideration of its use 

in a satellite global wind sensor. 

In concert with the capabilities of computational hardware, mathematical techniques to 

model physical processes in the Earth’s atmosphere have improved. Studies of modeling 

techniques to improve use of satellite observations for large-scale atmospheric processes, 

completed and reported in 1985 and 1986, 

demonstrated that satellite observations of 

global wind profiles will dramatically improve our understanding of large-scale atmospheric processes. The improved capability to 

observe atmospheric motions and atmospheric moisture will increase our understanding of a portion of the hydrological 

cycle. 

The Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC). 

The Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell, an experiment to model fundamental fluid dynamical 

processes representative of stellar and planetary atmospheres, was flown as part of the 

Spacelab-3 payload launched in 1985. The experiment exceeded its objectives and provided 

a wealth of data to be analyzed over the next 

several years. Early analyses presented at 

several scientific meetings and reported in 

the Journal of Science in 1986 show the utility of the experiment in identifying and 

studying a large variety of atmospheric motion regimes in rotating planets and stars. 

The success of GFFC and the large number of 

cases that could be studied interactively, with 

minor modification to the Spacelab-3 hardware, have encouraged consideration of this 

experiment for future Spacelab missions. 

Mesoscale Atmospheric Research. In 1986, 

extensive field research was undertaken, 

such as the study of the East Coast winter 

storm sudden-intensification phenomenon, 

and the study of several storm characteristics 

and interactions off the shore of the southeastern United States. In the former case, 

NASA participated in the Genesis of Atlantic 

Lows Experiment (GALE) and, in the latter, 

supported both the Microburst and Severe 

Thunderstorm (MIST) and Satellite Precipitation and Cloud Experiment (SPACE). These 

experiments were two of the three elements 

of the Cooperative Huntsville Mesoscale Experiment (COHMEX). 

During the COHMEX experiments, conducted in the Tennessee Valley near Huntsville, Alabama, the most extensive set of high 

altitude aircraft measurments of weather 

systems ever taken was recorded. Numerous 

experiments to measure the storms’ visible, 

infrared, microwave, and lightning-produced 

emissions were measured. This was done simultaneously to allow future interpretation 

of storm intensification, rainfall rates, damaging high winds and hail, dynamic interaction between storms, and development of 

storms from moist, unstable environments. 

During 1986, both the Bangladesh AgroClimatic/Environmental Monitoring Project 

and the Fiji Storm detection and Warning 

System Project for the South Pacific were 

completed. Subsequently, the systems began 

routine observations. 

Oceanic Processes. Spaceflight activities in 

the oceanography program focused on the 

Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere and 

World Ocean Circulation Experiments, and 

the Global Ocean Flux Study; a number of 

spaceflight missions in the program are 

planned for launch in the early 1990’s. The 

first of two oceanic missions in the Physical 

Oceanography program, the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) is scheduled for launch 

aboard the Navy’s NROSS mission. The Science Working Team, comprised of successful 

respondents to the NSCAT Announcement of 

28 
Opportunity (AO) was selected and the scientists are actively involved in pre-launch research efforts. The second mission, the Ocean 

Topography Experiment (TOPEX), will be 

jointly conducted with the French Space 

Agency’s POSEIDON project. The TOPEX 

satellite with POSEIDON sensors aboard 

will be launched by a French Ariane rocket 

in late 1991. In response to the recently issued “Request for Proposal” for the single 

satellite contractor, proposals from U.S. industry were received; and selection is anticipated within the next few months. Also, the 

A0 has been issued to initiate the process for 

selection of the TOPEXPOSEIDON Science 

Working Team. 

In the Ocean Productivity Program, processing Nimbus-7 Coastal Zone Color Scanner 

(CZCS) imagery into ocean-basin maps of 

chlorophyll is well underway; and the first 

such map covering the North Atlantic has 

been produced. Launched in 1978, Nimbus-7 

has performed well beyond its one-year design lifetime. 

Space Plasma Physics. Plasmas exist 

throughout the universe and occupy more 

than 99 percent of its volume. Space plasma 

physics involve the systematic study of 

plasma environments that can be directly 

sampled by balloons, rockets and spacecraft 

from just above the Earth’s atmosphere, 

through the Earth’s magnetosphere and the 

interplanetary medium to the solar atmosphere, and into the atmospheres and magnetospheres of other planets. Due to its effect on 

communications, power transmission, energy 

production, transport, and weather, the solarterrestrial plasma environment is especially 

relevant to modern, technologically oriented 

society. Research in space plasma physics focuses on using the plasma environment as a 

laboratory, especially through active experiments to simulate plasma phenomena and in 

situ measurements of natural plasma environments. 

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics program (ISTP). The National Academy of Sciences has completed a study entitled “An 

Implementation Plan for Priorities in SolarSystem Space Physics’’ (National Academy 

Press, 1985) which proposes a systematic 

plan of solar and space plasma physics research until 1995. It gives the ISTP program 

the highest priority and support efforts to define U.S. contributions through the use of satellites, instruments, data handling and 

modeling. During 1986, significant planning 

for the program was done with the Japanese 

Institute of Space and Astronautical Sciences 

(ISAS) and the European Space Agency 

(ESA). ISAS is developing the Geotail spacecraft designed to explore the geomagnetic 

tail of the Earth. ESA continues to develop 

the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory 

(SOHO), a. solar-pointed spacecraft to measure basic physical processes of the Sun, and 

Cluster, a set of four spacecraft to study basic 

plasma phenomena that will employ multipoint measurements to resolve space and 

time variations near magnetospheric boundaries. A Cooperative Solar Terrestrial Research effort has begun, in which NASA will 

provide support for U.S. investigators on the 

Geotail, SOHO, and Cluster missions. 

Operational Explorers. Perhaps the most 

cost-effective spacecraft ever launched by 

NASA is the 13 year old Interplanetary Monitoring Platform (IMP-8) satellite, the workhorse of Explorers. It continues to function 

well as the only existing monitor of solar 

wind interactions with the Earth’s magnetosphere, and provides a crucial baseline for 

missions to the other planets. 

The International Cometary Explorer (ICE) 

(the retargeted Sun-Earth Explorer-3), 

launched in 1977, continues to operate; from 

the large amount of data it generates, over 

100 scientific papers per year are published. 

The papers cover the full range of space 

plasma phenomena, from collisionless shock 

and boundary layers to wave-particle interactions and currents along auroral field lines. 

In September 1985, ICE intercepted Comet 

Giacobini-Zinner. The research analyses conducted on the ICE data were a critical complement to the Comet Halley encounter in 

March 1986. In particular, the ion tail model 

of dual lobes of opposite polarity, separated 

by a neutral sheet, was validated; and dust 

levels were found to be several orders of magnitude less than the predicted rate. Also, ICE 

detected waves and energetic particles millions of kilometers upstream from the Comet. 

The Dynamics Explorer (DE) spacecraft 

continued to provide new, unique data on ionosphere-magnetosphere interactions and auroral morphology, as well as on global 

airglow’ and ozone measurements. A special 

campaign of ground-based, rocket, balloon, 

and satellite observations was implemented 

between April and June 1986 in which DE 

was a key player. Also, Global auroral imaging of the southern pole was conducted by 

DE. Similar imaging of the northern pole was 

29 
conducted by the Swedish Viking polor orbiter, launched in January 1986. This campaign, called PROMIS (Polar Region and 

Outer Magnetosphere International Study) 

demonstrated the utility of making carefully 

coordinated measurements in the geospace 

environment, the core theme of the ISTP program. 

During 1986, the Active Magnetosphere 

"racer Explorer (AMPTE) began its extended 

mission phase that involved passive measurements of the inner magnetosphere. Continued analysis of observations made during the 

active phase provided important tests of cometary models, and information on plasmafield interactions in the outer 

magnetosphere. Ion composition measurements from AMPTE are especially valuable 

because they have demonstrated the important role of the ionosphere as a source of ions 

for the magnetosphere. 

Sounding Rockets and Balloons. During 

1986,14 space plasma physics sounding rockets and two balloons were launched to study 

properties of the middle atmosphere and the 

auroral regions. In May 1986, a rocket was 

launched with two payloads that separated in 

flight. Forty-two different, but major elements of the mission operated flawlessly. 

This very successful mission provided important evidence to support the Critical Ionization Velocity effect which has implications for 

Cosmological and Astrophysical systems and 

for basic plasma physics. 

Land Processes. The Land Processes Program consists of four interrelated elements: 

studies of terrestrial ecosystems, hydrologic 

cycle, continental geology, and remote sensing science. The first three represent the 

space-based components of classical science 

disciplines. The last element is the study of 

the physics and biology of the land surface as 

it relates to the interaction of electromagnetic radiation. The major focus is to conduct 

research in the Earth Sciences that concentrates on developing methodologies, rather 

than instruments and techniques for scientific or applied use. 

Extensive use is made of data from operating satellite sensors, such as the Landsat 

Multispectral Scanner System (MSS) and 

Thematic Mapper (TM), the Advanced Very 

High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) on 

NOAA polar orbiting satellites, and sensors 

aboard the French SPOT satellite. Equally 

important are data from experiments on 

Shuttle flights such as the Shuttle Imaging 

Radar (SIR) series, SIR-A and SIR-B, the 

Airborne Imaging Spectrometer, the Advanced Solid State Array Spectrometer, the 

Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner, and 

the L-Band Pushbroom Microwave Radiometer. The L-IC-band synthetic aperture radar, 

which was destroyed in the crash of the 

NASA CV-990 aircraft in 1985, is being replaced. 

As a result of several interrelated studies, 

use of visible and near infrared radiances to 

monitor the productivity of natural biological 

systems improved. A simple function of selected satellite bands proved to be directly 

related to photosynthetic capacity and the 

transpiration of water vapor. This method 

was applied to measurements of the North 

American Continent during the growing season of 1982, and the results were compared to 

published values of ecosystem productivity. 

Previous studies only concentrated on the relatively simple system of the grasslands. This 

study extended application of the method 

over ecosystems as diverse as tundra, highly 

productive, temperate agricultural regions, 

and deserts. In a further test of this model, 

global ecosystem dynamics over a 31-month 

period were compared to interannual variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide. In the 

future, more rigorous physical modeling of diverse ecosystems will be needed. 

Data on the Northern Hemisphere from 

1979 to 1983, obtained by the Nimbus-7 

Scanning Multispectral Microwave Radiometer (SMMR), were used to produce assessments of the extent and magnitude of 

seasonal snow cover. Measurements from the 

18-GHz and 37-GHz frequencies were used 

to evaluate equivalent snow depth. These 

measurements were based on results from 

field studies and theoretical modeling of microwave emissions from snow packs. In general, microwave emissions decrease with 

increasing snow cover. The two-frequency approach is used to account for the effects of 

surface temperature variations which disrupt the snow depth and microwave emission 

relationship. Monthly assessments (the mean 

of 5 days) of Northern Hemisphere snow 

fields were produced for four years and the 

results compare favorably with the standard 

NOAA snow extent maps. In addition, the 

results are of significantly greater value because they are not subject to the errors inherent in the NOAA visual interpretation of 

AVHRR solar reflectance data, such as subjectivity and inability to distinguish between 

30 
snow cover and clouds; and, the SMMR data 

can evaluate snow depth, a capability that 

was not previously available from satellite 

observations. Considerable interannual variability in seasonal snow cover is observed in 

these measurements that is attributable to 

the dynamics of Northern Hemisphere 

weather patterns during winter. Knowledge 

of this variability is of great importance to 

understanding the hydrology and climatology of the Earth. It is now known that snow 

fields contain a significant portion of the 

planetary water, and the albedo of snow is 

much greater than that of other land materials. In addition, snow requires a considerable 

amount of heat to melt; therefore, the 

amount of snow accumulated in the winter 

determines, at least in part, the time required to heat up the Northern Hemisphere 

in the spring. 

Analysis of the Earth’s magnetic field, from 

data obtained by the Magsat spacecraft, continued to offer new insights into the structure 

of the Earth’s crust and mantle. This information provides a better picture of the manner in which continents were assembled by 

the movement of tectonic plates that make up 

the crust of the Earth. A particularly interesting discovery was the detection of remnant 

magnetization in the Kursk Anomaly, USSR. 

Previously, it was believed that only the 

present-day magnetic field of the Earth could 

be detected from space. 

The Landsat Thematic Mapper program, 

established to promote the scientific use of 

sensors, led to some spectacular discoveries. 

Volcanic eruptions, most notably in the 

South American Andes mountains, have produced massive volcanic landslides that were 

10 to 15 times larger than the Mount St. Helens lateral-blast deposits that occurred in 

the State of Washington in 1980. Analysis of 

this phenomena clearly shows that the 

Mount St. Helens style of eruption is much 

more common than was previously believed. 

In fact, this information resulted in a reassessment of unusual deposits around Mount 

Lassen in northern California. In addition, 

some Andean volcanoes are not as inactive as 

believed. Measurements made by Landsat’s 

Thematic Mapper show that the temperature 

of some lakes in the summit craters of the 

volcanoes are as much as 13 degrees centigrade warmer than they should be. This indicates that mild warming by heat generated 

internally is occurring, and may mark the 

beginning of more vigorous activity. 

A new technique for using polarized radar 

signals to conduct detailed studies of different landforms has been perfected. By using 

the variable echo strength at different angles 

of polarization in a single radar image, scientists can construct a matrix that compares 

the rads data to theoretical models of surface reflectivity. This determines such attributes as surface roughness (at a scale of 

centimeters to decameters), electrical properties of soils and rocks, and physical characteristics of a tree canopy. The technique is likely 

to have many applications, not only in geology, but also in fields such as ecology and 

hydrology. A single polarized radar image 

can be manipulated by the scientist so that 

the maximum degree of contrast between two 

targets of interest can be obtained, a process 

that allows comparison of the different properties of the two surfaces. 

Micrograviiy Science and Applications 

The Microgravity Science and Applications 

program conducts research into the effects of 

reduced gravity on basic physical phenomena 

and processes. The program is structured into 

six primary scientific disciplines: combustion, metals and alloys, electronic materials, 

glasses and ceramics, biotechnology, and 

fluid dynamics and transport phenomena. 

The goal of the program is to quantify the 

effects imposed by gravity on physical phenomena and processes and, subsequently, to 

apply results obtained to specific ground- and 

space-based processes and products. Advances in research and analysis have expanded to 70 the number of high-quality 

ground-based investigations that are funded. 

Also, there are a large number of high-quality proposals that have been submitted in the 

six discipline areas; however, new research 

efforts in the Microgravity program will require growth in program resources. 

SpaceBased Research. During Space Shuttle flight 61-C, in January 1986, experiments were conducted in the areas of metals 

and alloys, biotechnology, and fluid dynamics 

and transport phenomena. Three of the experiments were flown aboard the Materials 

Science Laboratory, a cargo bay carrier, and 

two were performed middeck. Results of these 

experiments are under evaluation, and will 

be published in the appropriate scientific 

journals. 

31 
Development of new experimental apparatus to perform reduced gravity scientific research in space continued. Among the areas 

that the new apparatus will support are experiments in physics and chemistry; combustion science; metals and alloys; and, 

electronic materials. However, the Challenger accident has necessitated a complete 

reassessment of flight activity for the microgravity program. One consequence of the 

Challenger accident is the reduction of flight 

opportunities for microgravity science. This 

adversely affects development of the reduced 

gravity scientific data base that is required 

by the scientific and commercial communities to prepare for future activity aboard the 

Space Station. 

Information Systems 

The Information Systems Office (IS01 manages a data systems program to serve the 

data management and information processing needs of the Office of Space Science and 

Applications. In 1986, ISO’s computer networks allowed real time science analysis during Voyager 2’s encounter with Uranus, and 

its advanced processing systems and data bases supported modeling and analyses for the 

oceans, planetary, and climate programs. 

IS0 programs complement the data systems capabilities developed by OSSA flight 

projects. Systems and technologies developed 

by IS0 are transferred to the host discipline 

programs for subsequent operational use, becoming part of the data systems in new flight 

projects. In general, through improved access 

to and use and management of spaceacquired data, the IS0 organization provides 

the technologies, tools, and techniques that 

are essential for productive scientific research. 

Spacelab Flight Program 

Following the Challenger accident, there 

was a reassessment of the Spacelab Flight 

program. This was required in order to maximize limited opportunities to accommodate 

the payloads that were previously manifested 

on the Shuttle. Many outstanding investigations, representing a wide variety of institutions and organizations that are at critical 

stages of their evolution, will experience 

launch delays of 3 to 5 years. 

The Astronomical Observations payload 

(ASTRO) was completely integrated and 

ready for a 1986 flight. However, due to 

changes in the manifest, it must now wait for 

a 1991 launch. ASTRO’s three independent 

ultraviolet telescopes that operate on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) will conduct 

independent but complementary measurements of ultraviolet data. 

Science and applications payloads planned 

for early Spacelab flights include the Materials Science Laboratory, International Microgravity Laboratory, Space Life Sciences, and 

Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications 

and Science. Work that will continue over the 

next several years is geared toward preserving a limited number of Spacelab missions. 

Detailed analysis of data from the three 

flights of Spacelab in 1985 began to emerge 

in technical and scientific media. 

Negotiations continued with Japan over a 

reimbursable Spacelab Shuttle Flight (Spacelab-J). Using original launch schedules, Japan is proceeding with development of the 

hardware; and the science working groups, 

consisting of participants from Japan and the 

U.S., are proceeding with hopes of an earlier 

flight date. 

Space Station 

The Office of Space Science and Applications (OSSA) plans to be a major user of the 

resources offered by both the space and 

ground elements of the Space Station program. The Office visualizes the Space Station 

as a NASA institutional laboratory in space 

that will work with established ground laboratories, such as the Goddard Space Flight 

Center and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. In 

1986, a Space Station integration function 

was established to help consolidate OSSA 

plans and provide technical support for the 

conduct and management of multi-discipline 

studies related to use of the Station. A Science Operations ‘hsk Team was established 

to develop a science operations concept and 

plan. Use of the Space Station will allow researchers to conduct experiments in space 

from their own laboratories through a capability called “telescience,” a concept developed by the advisory %sk Force on Scientific 

Use of the Space Station (TFSUSS). 

During 1986, important technical studies 

that were undertaken include defining 

sources of contamination that arise from or 

32 
affect the operation of scientific payloads on 

the Space Station; cataloging potential waste 

products, and providing alternatives for their 

management and disposal; using the pressurized volume effectively on the Space Station; 

and defining an approach to logistics and resupply concepts. Conducting these studies 

helps to define parameters of payloads and 

experiments, and to understand how they 

will be affected by the Space Station environment. In addition, Congress urged that the 

Space Station program be organized as early 

as possible to provide useful scientific research during the flight operations phase. 

The focus will be on identifying how the experimental facilities will be equipped, so that 

useful scientific research can be conducted 

before completion of the entire assembly sequence. 

Space Wansportation 

Customer Services 

On January 12, 1986, flight 61-C was 

launched on Space Shuttle Columbia carrying a communications satellite (RCA Satcom 

KU-11, a Materials Science Laboratory, and 

several small experiments. It was the last 

flight before the ill-fated 51-L Challenger 

mission. 

Subsequently, most of the year’s activity 

centered around analysis of Challenger’s accident, the Space Transportation System 

(STS) program, and a return to flight status. 

After a thorough analysis of the entire STS 

program, a reduced flight rate was established, particularly for the years immediately following resumption of Shuttle 

operations. Based on the revised flight rate, a 

new manifest was published, and several major changes were incorporated into it. One of 

the most significant was the President’s new 

policy on the commercialization of space in 

which he announced that NASA would no 

longer launch commercial satellites, except 

for those that are unique to the Shuttle or 

have national security or foreign policy implications. With NASA no longer competing in 

the business of launching commercial satellites, the new policy allows private industry 

to play an increasingly important role in 

space. At the time of Challenger’s accident, 

NASA had 44 commercial and foreign launch 

commitments. The President’s Economic Policy Council selected 20 payloads that met the 

criteria for flight, and they were reflected in 

the published manifest. 

In addition to the President’s new commercial policy, a change in priorities for flying on 

the Shuttle was instituted in the following 

order: national security payloads, major scientific and interplanetary payloads, and 

other science and foreign and commercial 

payloads. 

Launch and Landing Operations 

In January 1986, two Shuttle vehicles were 

processed and launched. The first was the 

seventh Columbia mission, which was also 

the 24th successful Shuttle mission. The second launched the tenth Challenger mission 

that, unfortunately, led to the tragic accident, and loss of the spacecraft and her crew. 

Subsequently, launch and landing operations 

supported the accident investigation with 

salvage operations, vehicle assembly and disassembly activities, and facilities and processing evaluations. Addilional effort was 

devoted to reevaluating, improving, and recertifying Shuttle processing facilities and 

procedures. This effort included additional 

assembly and disassembly of solid rocket 

boosters, and moving a complete Shuttle vehicle to Launch Pad B for revalidations. The 

Launch Pad B and the Payload Hazardous 

Servicing Facility were completed in 1986. 

Construction of an Orbiter Maintenance and 

Refurbishment Facility, and a Thermal Protection System Facility should be completed 

early in 1987. 

Flight Operations 

The Space Transportation System’s flight 

operations include mission planning and control, crew training, and flight software production. As a result of the accident, a 

substantid effort to audit critical items is underway to assure that there are no latent 

flight safety problems. The hiatus in flight 

activities has allowed changes to be made in 

operations hardware and software. A significant number of these changes is now judged 

to be mandatory for the next flight. In addition, proficiency training of crews and flight 

controllers is continuing. 

33 
Improvements to operations facilities at the 

Johnson Space Center continued, with emphasis placed on the Shuttle Mission Simulator and the Mission Control Center. 

Replacement of old data processors in the 

Mission Control Center was completed with 

the installation of four IBM 3083 computers. 

This relieves a serious limit on capacity, is 

expected to lower maintenance expense, and 

significantly reduces unscheduled downtime. 

In the aftermath of the accident, plans to upgrade the Shuttle Mission Simulator were revised and accelerated. Due to capacity 

limitations, mandatory critical systems 

changes cannot be accommodated on the 

present mainframes. Accordingly, immediate 

procurement requests were made for higher 

capacity machines. 

The Space Transportation System operations contract at Johnson Space Center completed its transition to consolidation of 22 

support contracts involving 16 firms. Due to 

the flight operations changes resulting from 

Challenger’s accident, renegotiation of the 

contract is underway. 

Orbiter 

During 1986, concentration of effort was on 

returning the orbiter to flight status. A total 

Systems Design Review (SDR) of the orbiter 

was conducted, and resulted in the identification of a number of design modifications to 

enhance safety. The SDR activities will continue in 1987. In addition, crew escape studies, hazard analyses, and critical items list 

reviews were conducted to improve safety 

margins. Near-term and long-term crew escape systems are being studied. For the nearterm, approval has been given to provide for 

crew bailout through the orbiter side hatch 

during controlled gliding flight. The decision 

on which flight to incorporate such a system 

is pending. Previous initiatives to improve 

the general purpose computer, inertial measuring unit, auxiliary power unit, fuel cells, 

and brakes are continuing. 

Approval was granted to procure a replacement orbiter. Production of this vehicle will 

begin in August 1987, with activity in late 

1986 limited to retaining approximately 15 

critical subcontractors and initiation of production planning. Delivery of the vehicle is 

expected in 1991. 

External lbnk 

The external tank flown on flight 61-C performed as expected. Seven tanks were manufactured and delivered on or ahead of 

schedule. However, as a result of Challenger’s 

accident, production requirements were reduced significantly and resulted in a major 

reduction-in-force of contractor personnel at 

the Michoud Assembly Facility. Also, The 5th 

Production Buy Contract, negotiated in late 

1985, was held in abeyance, and is expected 

to be settled in 1987. 

Solid Rocket Booster (SRB) 

On flight 61-C the SRB’s performed satisfactorily. As a result of Challenger’s failure, 

production of boosters and motors stopped, 

and agency and contractor efforts concentrated on the failure investigation and recovery actions necessary to redesign and 

recertify the boosters. A complete reassessment of the program was initiated, including 

recertification of all SRB hardware, and reassessment of the Failure Mode and Effects 

Analysis and Critical Items List. Redesign of 

the critical seals on the Solid Rocket Motor 

was initiated; a baseline design, and return 

to flight program schedule was established; 

construction of the SRB Assembly and Refurbishment Facility was completed; and installation of support equipment was initiated. 

Since the Air Force decided that the first 

Space Shuttle will not be launched before 

1992 from Vandenberg Air Force Base, the 

Filament Wound Case (FWC) production program was “mothballed.” However, in order to 

resume production effectively when required, 

the FWC development program will be completed. 

Also, a thorough investigation and evaluation of other possible suppliers and alternate 

Solid Rocket Motor design concepts were undertaken. 

Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) 

A program was initiated to address key 

problem areas of the SSME that were identified following Challenger’s accident, along 

with coincidental findings of new critical tubine blade cracks and marginal turbopump 

bearing temperature. These issues will be re34 
solved prior to the resumption of flight in 

early 1988, 

Improvements at the SSME manufacturer’s 

plant were significant. Robotic welding process development was accomplished on 22 

welds; and the turbopump Fabrication/ 

Overhaul Center that will streamline and 

improve turbopump supply, and the engine 

overhaul facility were fully activated. 

The alternate source for high pressure turbopumps was selected. The pumps will be designed for greater reliability, safety margin, 

lower operational costs, and potential incorporation into the flight program in the early 

1990’s. 

The Technology Test Bed program was initiated, and will provide an independent means 

to evaluate technical advances arising from 

the development program, work on alternate 

pumps, and the technology program of the 

Ofice of Aeronautics and Space Technology. 

Upper Stages 

Following Challenger’s accident, an extensive safety assessment of the cryogen-fueled 

STSKentaur G prime upper stage was conducted that identified numerous modifications to enhance its safety; however, it was 

concluded that even with these changes, the 

degree 03 safety necessary for Shuttle flight 

could not be assured. Therefore, the Centaur 

G prime upper stage program was terminated. The Centaur G prime stages for the 

Galileo and Ulysses spacecraft were returned 

to the contractor plants for storage. The design of the Centaur G prime is expected to be 

used as one of the upper stages for the Defense Department’s Titan IV launch vehicle. 

Aboard flight 51-L was an Inertial Upper 

Stage (IUS), and a Tracking and Data Relay 

Satellite (TDRS). Developed by the Air Force, 

the IUS is used to boost TDRS spacecraft into 

geosynchronous orbit, and to boost spacecraft 

into planetary trajectories. In lieu of the STS/ 

Centaur, the IUS was selected in late 1986 as 

the upper stage for the Magellan, Galileo, 

and Ulysses planetary missions. Due to mission requirements, the Ulysses mission will 

require a modified Payload Assist Module 

0 in addition to the IUS. 

Commercially developed upper stages play 

a significant role in the Nation’s space activities. Since 1980, the PAM-D and PAM-DII 

Payload Assist Modules, developed by McDonne11 Douglas, performed successfully on 

Artlat’a deplctlon of the 3anafer Orblt Stage, the upper 

atage that will be used for the Man Obaerver planetary mlc 

don. 

38 missions launched by expendable launch 

vehicles and the Shuttle. Orbital Sciences 

Corporation is developing two upper stages. 

One, the Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS), will 

have greater capability than the PAM stages 

and, in 1986, was selected by a Source Selection Board as the upper stage for the Mars 

Observer planetary mission. The other is the 

Apogee Maneuvering Stage, whose capability, when used as a second stage with TOS, 

will exceed that of the IUS. 

Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle 

In 1986, TRW was selected as the prime 

contractor for the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle (OW). The OW will perform payload 

delivery to and retrieval from the Shuttle orbiter. It will be available for flight late in 

Attachment polnts of the Orbltal Maneuvering Whlclo that 

wlll peltorm payload dellwry to and mtrltrlsval from the Space 

Shuttle. 
1991, and its first primary mission is expected to be an orbital reboost of the Hubble 

Space Telescope. A second OMV may be acquired for the Space Station. 

Tethered Satellite System 

The %thered Satellite System is a cooperative development between NASA and Italy to 

provide a capability for conducting experiments in the upper atmosphere and ionosphere. It will be capable of deploying and 

retrieving a tethered satellite up to 100 kilometers below or above the Space Shuttle 

which will serve as the orbiting base. 

In 1986, Critical Design and Manufacturing Reviews were conducted on the satellite 

and the deployer, supplied by Italy and 

NASA, respectively. Deployable boom qualification was nearly completed, and delivery of 

the tether is expected in January 1987. In 

late 1986, science investigations were initiated for the first mission, scheduled for October 1990. 

Spacelab 

In 1985, there were three successful flights 

using the module and igloo pallets. After 

Challenger’s accident, Spacelab 2’s flight 

hardware, consisting of the igloo, three pallets, and the Instrument Pointing System 

(IPS), was disassembled and placed in storage 

awaiting resumption of Space Shuttle operations. The design for operating the Spacelab 

Igloo Pallet configuration’s mixed cargo 

mode, to support the Astro 1 mission, was 

completed and reviewed. In this configuration, using an igloo, two pallets, and the IPS, 

the Spacelab is scheduled to fly in January 

1989. Development of the configuration for 

the Spacelab Enhanced Pallet continued; it 

will be used for missions of the Space Technology Experiment Platform and Tethered 

Satellite System. 

The development of Goddard Space Flight 

Center’s “Hitchhiker” was completed. The 

first Hitchhiker, a Shuttle Payload of Opportunity carrier, was flown on flight 61-C. Also, 

this flight carried a Materials Science Laboratory using the Multi-Purpose Experiment 

Support Structure provided by the Spacelab. 

The new Payload Operations Control Center 

was completed at Marshall Space Flight Center, and preparations are underway for it to 

support the Astro 1 mission. 

An agreement was negotiated with the 

Strategic Defense Initiative Office to provide 

integration, operations, training, and associated launch support for a Spacelab mission 

scheduled for 1989. In June, the Spacelab 

program initiated the Spacelab Recertification program as part of the efforts to resume 

flight operations. 

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV 

NASA’s ELV’s were used to fulfill commitments to launch space application missions 

for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

Administration, and the Department of Defense. In 1986, a total of five launches was 

conducted, consisting of a Scout, an Atlad 

Centaur, an Atlas-Em, and two Delta vehicles. One of the Delta vehicles failed during 

launch and was destroyed before boosting a 

NOMGOES-G satellite into transfer orbit. 

An investigation concluded that the failure 

was caused by an electrical short in the vehicle wiring. Wiring modifications were incorporated into all remaining Delta vehicles; in 

September, a Delta vehicle successfully 

launched a DOD mission. 

As a result of the Challenger tragedy, 

NASA initiated studies on the need to establish a Mixed Fleet Transportation System 

consisting of the Space Shuttle and existing 

or new ELV’s. The studies should be completed early in 1987. 

Advanced Planning 

Under a White House directive to define 

technology that would subtantially lower the 

costs of launch capability in the post-1995 

period, examination of future launch vehicles 

is continuing. ‘Ib fulfill these objectives, 

NASA and DOD are managing contracts to 

study systems architecture. Concurrently, 

studies were initiated by NASA in areas of 

key technology, such as those related to developing new rocket engines and advanced 

recovery systems, and defining a secondgeneration Shuttle with advanced technology. 

The National Commission on Space outlined a program and goals for the U.S. civilian space program for the next few decades. 

Initial studies were completed of a spacebased Orbital Transfer Vehicle with an aerobrake that cuts propellant requirements in 

36 
half. An aerobrake flight experiment was defined as a possible new start in 1988. 

Development continues on a series of flight 

demonstrations that include a plasma motor/ 

generator, an internal Shuttle communications system, using infrared light waves to 

replace wiring, a laser docking sensor to improve efficiency of the Shuttle during rendezvous and docking with a target, and a voice 

command system to control equipment and 

reduce current hands-on requirements. A 

flight unit of the standard hydrazine fluid 

coupling was delivered to TRW for use on the 

Gamma Ray Observatory. The coupling will 

be installed in the spacecraft during assembly to allow on-orbit servicing after launch. 

Three parallel Phase B studies have been 

completed on a tanker to refuel satellites onorbit. Planning will proceed in 1987 for the 

possible development of an operational 

tanker to support refueling the Gamma Ray 

Observatory. 

The problem of orbital debris resulting 

from man-made structures and operations in 

space continued to be examined, from both 

technical and policy standpoints, by an Orbital Debris Working Group. The group continued to examine options for ground- and 

space-based tests and observations, NASA 

policy implementation, and provided technical support for the development of national 

and international debris policies. 

A study and laboratory program to define 

and evaluate several highly promising applications of tethers in space continued in 1986. 

The focus of these efforts has been directed 

toward defining and implementing flight experiments and demonstrations. Applications 

being investigated include power generation, 

orbital altitude changes without the use of 

propellants, artificial gravity, and space platforms. 

Commercial Use of Space 

The focal point for NASA's program to encourage commercial space activities is the Office of Commercial Programs (OCP). The 

major objectives of OCP are to encourage U.S. 

private sector involvement and investment in 

commercial space ventures, and to facilitate 

commercial application and transfer of existing aeronautics and space technology to the 

private sector. 

Centers fir the Commercial Development of 

Space 

In 1986, OCP established and funded four 

additional Centers for the Commercial Development of Space (CCDS), for a current total of 

nine. As an alliance of industry, academia, 

and government, the CCDS's will use the 

space environment to stimulate high technology research that may lead to the develop 

ment of new products and services with 

commercial potential. If certain performance 

criteria are met, the Centers will be funded 

up to five years, after which each Center will 

be self-supporting. 

Federal Research Facilities 

In 1986, OCP began designing and fabricating space experimentation hardware, facilities, and programs to assist private sector 

commercial researchers in the area of materials processing. They include an advanced automated directional solidification furnace, a 

multiple experiment processing facility, a 

chemical vapor deposition facility, an organic 

protein crystal growth system, and a sounuing rocket flight program. When completed, 

they will be available, at no charge to U.S. 

industry, to support space-related research 

and development programs. 

More than 30 agreements have been executed with U.S. firms interested in conducting space-related research and development 

in the areas of pharmaceuticals, semiconductor electronic materials, metals and alloys, 

and organic polymers. Under additional 

agreements, U.S. firms will develop, with private funds, a man-tended industrial space facility, available for lease or purchase, and an 

interactive radio determination satellite system that will provide real time, satellitebased position information and digital 

message service. 

Technology Utilization Program 

Cooperation with industry is the cornerstone of a successful technology transfer program. Over the years, NASA's Technology 

Utilization program created an extraordinary base of cooperation with broad sectors of 

U.S. industry. It accomplished this through 

its nationwide network of Industrial Applications Centers (IAC's), the dissemination of 

37 
publications and computer software, conferences and seminars on the subject of technology transfer, and technology applications 

projects. In 1986, NASA continued these efforts, strengthening the outreach activities 

to develop increased industrial interest and 

participation in the commercial uses of space. 

In addition, the non-aerospace industrial 

community will have more opportunity to 

participate in activities with NASA in the 

areas of technology transfer, and the commercial uses of space. 

The successful privatization of NASA Zkch 

Brie)%, the agency’s primary publication on 

technology transfer, has enhanced and supported NASA’s interaction with industry. By 

the end of 1986, the number of industrial and 

business subscribers exceeded 130,000, reflecting a 70 percent increase over the previous two years. Other signs of continued 

expansion are the linkages that were established between the NASA IAC’s and statefunded organizations involved in industrial 

and economic growth. Currently, the IAC’s 

have formal relationships established with 

industries in nearly 20 states that provide 

computerized information access to NASA, 

and other technical data bases. These efforts 

have created a nationwide technology transfer network, allowing U.S. industry direct access to useful technology through scientific 

and technical information. In addition, under 

the Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986, 

NASA entered into an agreement with the 

Federal Laboratory Consortium that links 

IAC’s with federal laboratories, and their 

personnel, engaged in research and development activities that may have specific application to private sector needs. 

In 1986, an experimental program in technology transfer was initiated at NASA’s Jet 

Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). Administered 

by the Research Institute for the Management of ‘hchnology, this program allows companies to use JPL‘s extensive technical 

resources and, thereby, accelerate the transfer of NASA developed technology to the commercial sector. Currently, eight companies in 

Southern California are active in the program; a total of 20 are expected to participate 

by the summer of 1987. 

In an attempt to solve industrial and public 

sector problems of national significance, 

NASA, other federal agencies, and the private sector use existing aerospace technology. 

In 1986, several prototypes from biomedical 

applications projects were completed, and are 

Based on technology developed for space systems, the Plogrnmmable Implantable Medlcetlon System wlll be used to 

deliver placlw doses of medlcatlon to control dlabetes and 

other dlmses. 

undergoing clinical evaluation. They include 

a Programmable Implantable Medication 

System, a burn diagnostic system, and a blad, 

der dystension system for the handicapped. 

In addition, NASA entered into a joint project 

with the Veterans’ Administration, the National Institutes of Health’s National Institute of Aging, and the Administration on 

Aging to develop a device to alleviate the 

problems of wandering in the elderly. Also, 

this group has initiated an applications project to help the elderly with low vision problems. Currently, NASA and the U.S. steel 

industry are exploring the use of aerospace 

technology to resolve problems of abrasion 

and material fatigue associated with the 

steel casting process. 

Small Business Innovation Research 

During 1986, OCP continued to manage 

NASA’s Small Business Innovation Research 

(SBIR) Program. The program’s objective is to 

achieve greater participation by small, innovative businesses in NASA’s research and development activities, providing mutual 

benefits to the agency and small businesses, 

and to the Nation’s economy as a whole. As 

specified by law, program funding for the 

year was 1.25 percent of NASA’s extramural 

research and development budget. The year’s 

annual program solicitation was open between May l and June 30. It yielded 1,628 

research proposals from which 172 were selected for award of Phase I SBIR contracts. 

Phase I SBIR contracts are intended to explore the feasibility of research innovations, 

30 
and are awarded for 6-month periods, averaging approximately $50,000 each. Phase 11 

SBIR contracts continue development of the 

most promising Phase I projects, lasting as 

long as two years, with funding to $500,000 

each. During 1986, 71 Phase I1 contracts 

were let for selections that were made in late 

1985 as extensions of Phase I contracts. At 

the end of 1986, 49 additional Phase I1 projects were selected to continue promising 

Phase I contracts that were completed in 

1986. It is anticipated that early in 1987, 30 

additional proposals will be selected for 

Phase I1 awards. 

As in the past, the year’s SBIR Program 

solicitation and awards included every area 

of research and technology in which NASA is 

involved. However, the proposals that were 

received reflected increased interest in potential commericial uses of space. Fifty-five of 

the research proposals for Phase I contracts 

involved materials processing in microgravity, and commercial applications of space; 

eight of the proposals were selected for Phase 

I awards. 

Space Statlon 

assure free world leadership in space 

during the 1990’s and beyond 

stimulate technological advances 

promote international cooperation 

enhance capabilities for space science 

and applications 

develop the commercial potential of 

space 

contribute to American pride and prestige 

stimulate interest in science and engineering education 

The Space Station will consist of a manned 

base, with pressurized modules, and an integrating truss structure, inclined at 28.5 degrees. The base will consist of a servicing 

structure, habitat, logistics and laboratory 

mlAR PLATFORMISI 

SPACE SHUTTLE 

During 1986, NASA’s efforts continued on 

the Space Station program. The agency’s goal 

is to fulfill President Reagan’s 1984 directive 

to establish a permanently manned presence 

in space in the mid-1990’s. Most of the work 

on the definition and preliminary design portion of the schedule was completed. Changes 

were made to the assembly sequence and 

management structure; technical and management issues were identified and resolved; 

and U.S. Government and NASA’s negotiators made progress on agreements for hardware development with its international 

partners: the European Space Agency, Canada, and Japan. At the end of 1986, NASA 

was developing for industry a Request for 

Proposals to design and build the Space Station. 

hgram Goals and System Description 

The Space Station is unlike any previous 

NASA undertaking. As a multi-purpose facility, it will satisfy the goals of many users. 

The program’s goals are to: 

Inltlal Space Statlon Complex. 

modules; berthing and assembly fixtures; 

power generating solar arrays; and an advanced mobile remote manipulator system. 

For near polar orbits, two or more platforms 

will be developed and serviced by the Space 

Shuttle; and all elements will be ferried to 

orbit by this spacecraft. 

Adhering to some of NASA’s earlier architectural concepts, the Space Station will be 

an orbiting scientific laboratory, and a permanent observatory in space. The facility 

could be used to process materials, manufacture commercial products, and service satellites; and, with enhancements, could 

assemble large spacecraft; stage deep-space 

missions; and service and deploy satellites 

and upper stage rockets. 

Above all, the Space Station is planned as 

an evolutionary facility that will allow 

growth and technological innovations. Although it is difficult to incorporate specific 

design provisions for all potential endeavors, 

39 
Space Station planners will consider carefully the implications of evolutionary 

changes in their design of the Space Station 

complex. 

The Space Station is a civil program, and 

the Department of Defense (DOD) has not as 

yet identified any requirements. However, 

the United States reserves its option to use 

the U.S. provided elements and Space Station 

infrastructure for peaceful purposes, consistent with international obligations. 

Program Status 

In 1986, the most significant event in the 

Space Station program was the selection of a 

Space Station "dual keel" configuration. 

baseline configuration for detailed design 

and development activities. Six contractors 

at four NASA "work package" Centers were 

involved, and studies on possible hardware 

contributions were conducted by NASA's international partners. 

Through trade studies and analyses, NASA 

and industry teams examined the merits of 

various design options. As a result of the System Requirements Review, a recommended 

baseline configuration for the Space Station 

emerged. The original "power tower" concept 

evolved into the "dual keel" configuration. In 

addition, a hybrid power-generation arrangement was defined, consisting of both photovoltaic and solar dynamic components; 400 

kilometers was chosen as the operating orbital altitude; and an assembly sequence was 

selected. 

User requirements were a prime consideration in defining capabilities and designing 

the Space Station. The objective remains to 

PHOTOVOLTAIC 1 SOLAR DVN4MIC 

Space Station Program Solar Power Options. 

create a facility that is user friendly. Potential users from the scientific and commercial 

communities continued to update their contributions to the Mission Requirements Data 

Base (MRDB). In 1986, over 300 proposed 

missions of various sizes were identified and 

included in the data base. Each entry describes the mission and its objective, physical 

characteristics of equipment, and requirements of Space Station resources such as 

power, thermal dissipation, crew assistance, 

and data handling. There can be as many as 

200 parameters to define a particular mission. The information provided in the MRDB 

was used to evaluate potential designs of the 

Space Station and associated platforms. In 

1986, the reliability of the data base increased significantly. 

Because the dual keel baseline design involved a large number of technical and programmatic considerations, Space Station 

Artist's rendition of Space Station Solar Dynamic System in 

lower right. 

contractors, international partners, and potential users assisted NASA's Critical Evaluation %sk Force (CETF) in conducting a 

40 
comprehensive review of the dual keel design. Also, options and assembly scenarios 

were identified that addressed the issues of 

transportation capability, constraints on extravehicular activity (EVA), resource allocation, safety, and cost. In September, the 

CETF’s recommendations were presented to 

the Administrator, and further analyses were 

requested. By year’s end, the studies were 

completed; the CETF configuration reflected 

key changes to the assembly sequence, subsystem hardware locations, and expanded use 

of resource nodes. 

A revised flight sequence was adopted to 

accompany CETF’s recommendations. A total of 32 Space Shuttle flights were identified 

to assemble, service, and resupply all elements of the Space Station. The facility will 

attain a man-tended capability in six flights, 

and will meet the target for a permanently 

manned station by flight eleven. 

During the last four months of 1986, a 

Space Station Cost Commitment Review 

(CCR) was undertaken to establish a detailed 

cost estimate as the program evolves from the 

definition and preliminary design phase to 

actual design and development. Emphasis 

was placed upon obtaining more accurate development costs for flight hardware and software. To this end, CETF’s recommendations 

were converted into guidelines for work required at each of the work package centers. A 

final report is expected in early 1987 that 

will contain a revised program, and associated costs and schedule. 

Progress was made in laying the groundwork for U.S. industry to benefit from space 

in the future. The internal Commercial Advocacy Group conducted workshops to identify 

and encourage potential commercial users of 

the Space Station. The Group supported activities to foster private sector interest in using the Space Station for materials 

processing, Earth and ocean remote sensing, 

communications satellite delivery, and industrial services. In August 1986, “Guidelines 

for United States Commercial Enterprises for 

Space Station Development and Operations” 

were established. They are intended to encourage U.S. private sector investment and 

involvement in the development and operations of Space Station systems and services. 

Advanced Development Programs played a 

major role in decisions to incorporate new 

technologies into the Space Station preliminary design. In October and November of 

1986, a review was made of Advanced Development Programs that focused on highleverage technologies for specific Space Station applications. Evaluation and testing 

were conducted in areas such as attitude control and stabilization, data management, 

communication and tracking, environmental 

control and life support systems, extravehicular activity, fluids, manned systems, materials, mechanisms, power, propulsion, 

structures, and thermal control. The aim is to 

develop these technologies so that they can be 

tested on the ground or in the Space Shuttle. 

An Operations Management Concept was 

formulated that outlines the philosophy and 

management approaches to Space Station operations. Using the Concept as a point of departure, an Operations Task Force was 

established to perform a functional analysis 

of future Space Station operations. Expected 

in early 1987, the %sk Force report will provide an operations concept that examines all 

functions, and integrates them into requirements for implementation. The %sk Force 

will provide a separate document offering design and development recommendations for 

Space Station hardware contracts. 

The Space Station Information System 

(SSIS) will allow the acquisition, transmission, recording, processing, accounting, and 

storage of information generated by orbital 

and ground systems. In 1986, an architecture 

definition was developed for the total integrated system. The Qchnical Management 

and Information System (TMIS) is part of the 

SSIS that will support the flow of technical 

and program management information; in 

July, the Request for Proposals (RFP) for the 

TMIS was released. Responses from industry 

were received in October, and a contract 

award is expected early in 1987. The Software Support Environment (SSE) is the software, training materials, and other required 

documentation that will provide the “environment” for the life cycle management of all 

program software. Responses to the RFP’s for 

the SSE were received in November, and are 

currently under review. 

Oversight Activity 

Planning for the Space Station involved a 

number of scientific advisory groups such as 

the ask Force on Scientific Uses of the Space 

Station (TFSUSS), created under the auspices of the NASA Advisory Council. Chaired 

41 
by Dr. Peter Banks of the Space, Telecommunications and Radioscience Laboratory at 

Stanford University, TFSUSS consists of 20 

U.S. scientists and several international observers. The TFSUSS recommended that the 

Station’s manned base and platforms provide 

important new capabilities for the conduct of 

scientific research in space. In 1986, NASA 

reported to Congress on the TFSUSS recommendations that it intends to implement. 

At the request of Congress, NASA prepared 

a technical study of an approach that phases 

in the permanently manned features of the 

Space Station. Completed in May 1986, the 

study demonstrated that a man-tended Station, one visited occasionally by astronauts, 

could be developed and would provide some 

useful capabilities. There would be a single, 

multi-purpose laboratory module equipped 

with a partial environmental control system. 

Artist’s conception of Space Station crew at work in a preswrized module. 

The power capability of 37.5 kilowatts would 

be one-half the power planned for the final 

configuration, and consist of solar cells only. 

A cost analysis revealed that a cost deferral, 

by delaying fabrication of facilities that 

would allow continuous crew presence, would 

be offset by both the cost of operating the Station in the man-tended mode and maintaining the industrial base during the delay 

period. The man-tended mode remains a viable option in the drive to achieve a fully productive and useful manned Space Station. 

‘Ib ensure that the Space Station program 

fosters automation and robotics technologies 

in the United States, Congress requested the 

formation of an Advanced Technology Advisory Committee (ATAC). In response to 

ATAC’s recommendations, NASA continued 

to refine its “Automation and Robotics Implementation Plan for the Space Station Definition and Preliminary Design Phase.” The 

goal is to facilitate the integration and use of 

future automation and robotics technologies 

as the Space Station evolves. Principal areas 

of interest for automation and robotics include: system management and crew activity; data base management; power system 

control and management; monitoring and 

fault detection for life support systems; Space 

Station assembly, inspection and repair; and 

payload servicing and docking. The Flight 

Telerobotic Servicer Program was mandated by Congress, and is a direct outgrowth 

of the automation and robotics initiative. The 

FTS is a highly automated telerobotic device, 

capable of precise manipulations in space, 

that will be used with the Mobile Servicing 

Center and the Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle 

to assist in assembly and servicing operations. Late in 1986, a preliminary program 

plan for the FTS was submitted to Congress. 

In 1986, a Space Station Engineering and 

Operations Safety Oversight Panel was established that examined the implications of 

the Challenger accident for the Space Station 

program. It addressed the question of 

whether the Space Station requires a Crew 

Emergency Return Vehicle. The issue is still 

under review. 

Program Management 

In order to distribute work more equitably, 

enhance accountability, and capitalize upon 

the expertise available at NASA’s Centers, it 

became appropriate to alter the Space Station’s management structure. 

In May 1986, NASA enlisted the aid of 

former Apollo Program Manager, General Samuel Phillips, to review the program’s management structure. His goal was to 

recommend a management structure that 

would secure accountability, efficiency and 

economy in the design, development, test, 

and integration of the Space Station. He 

formed a committee of experienced managers 

from the aerospace industry to assist him. 

Among the Committee recommendations 

were the establishment of a Program Management Office at NASA Headquarters, 

headed by a Program Director, and supported 

by a contractor with expertise in system engineering and analysis; and line direction from 

the Headquarters Program Office to Center 

project managers. 
Based upon the Phillips recommendations, 

NASA's senior management delegated responsibilities for development to: Marshall 

Space Flight Center-laboratory module, 

habitation module, logistics module, and resource node structure; Johnson Space Center-external truss, distributed subsystems, 

EVA systems, airlock and node outfitting; 

Goddard Space Flight Center-platforms, attached payloads, and Flight Blerobotic Servicer; and Lewis Research Center-power 

system. 

The Space Station program stayed on 

schedule during the definition phase. The 

varied challenges to the technical configuration, and to the program's management 

structure were met. The result is a preliminary design, and an organizational structure 

better able to satisfy the needs of Space Station users, and a program that will be the 

focus of NASA planning activities for many 

years to come. 

International Cooperation 

Significant progress has been made since 

the Spring of 1985, when Memoranda of Understanding for Phase B cooperation were 

signed between NASA and the space agencies 

of Canada, Europe, and Japan. 

Canada proceeded with the definition and 

design of a Mobile Servicing Center (MSC) 

that includes remotely controlled manipulator arms and a maintenance facility. The 

MSC will be used in orbit to assist in assembling and maintaining the manned base; 

service external payloads attached to the 

truss structure; and provide transportation 

and EVA support. NASA will provide a carrier platform for moving the servicing system 

to different locations on the base. 

The European Space Agency (ESA) continued definition and design studies of a permanently attached pressurized laboratory 

module. Design efforts continued on an unmanned polar-orbiting platform for Earth observations. Jointly, ESA and NASA are 

studying a proposed man-tended, free-flying 

facility that would provide a very low gravity 

environment for extended periods of time. 

Japan proceeded with definition and design 

studies of a pressurized laboratory module to 

conduct general science and technology research. It features both an external deck to 

mount experiments requiring exposure to 

space, and an airlock to move experiments in 

and out. Also, Japan is continuing to define 

and design an experiment logistics module to 

resupply its facilities. 

Bilateral negotiations began between 

NASA, Canada, ESA, and Japan on the programmatidtechnical parameters of the program, and on legal issues, such as liability 

and patent law. Agreements from the negotiations are expected to commit all partners to 

hardware investments, operational roles, and 

use of the Space Station for many years. 

Model of Japanese Experiment Module. 

Space Tlracklng and Data System8 

The Space Tracking and Data Systems program is responsible for planning, implement 

ing, and operating worldwide tracking, data 

handling and communications facilities and 

services that support flight programs of 

NASA and other agencies. During 1986, the 

program continued to provide support for 

planetary spacecraft, Earth orbiting satellites, Shuttle missions, sounding rockets and 

balloons, and aeronautics test vehicles. 

The Space and Ground Networks continued 

to provide vital tracking, command, telemetry, and data acquisition support to meet the 

requirements of NASA's flight programs. 

Two Tracking and Data Relay Satellites 

(TDRS) that were scheduled for their respective launches in January and July 1986 

would have completed the operational satellite constellation of three in orbit. The TDRS 

aboard Space Shuttle 51-L, launched on January 28, 1986, was lost. However, the two 

TDRS spacecraft are scheduled for launch 
and third spacecraft are located in the east 

and west service positions in geosynchronous 

orbit. The first TDRS has been moved to the 

central service position as the on-orbit spare, 

and that spacecraft, and the ground terminal, have completed their individual and systems tests. Approximately three to four 

months after launch of the third spacecraft, 

full operational status is expected. 

In 1986, the TDRSS program initiated 

plans for a second ground terminal, and released a Request for Proposals on competitive 

design studies. In the event of a catastrophic 

failure of the existing station, this ground 

terminal will provide a backup. In addition, it 

could provide expanded capabilities in the 

mid-1990's when mission requirements may 

exceed current TDRSS system capacities. 

The second terminal will be located near the 

first to reduce costs, and simplify operations 

and maintenance. Also, procurement of a 

spacecraft to replace the TDRS that was lost 

in the Challenger accident was initiated. 

Tracking and Data Acquisition Functions. 

when Shuttle operations resume in 1988. 

Ground based tracking operations that support spacecraft in low Earth orbit were extended to provide coverage until the TDRS 

system becomes operational. 

The Deep Space Network (DSN) continued 

to support missions to explore the solar system. A modification of the DSN was key to 

the impressive success of Voyager 2's January 1986 encounter with Uranus, and its 

rings and moons. Also, in 1986, the DSN supported the Interagency Consultative Group 

(IACG) during the international observation 

of Halley's Comet. 

The Communications and Data Systems 

program continued its support of NASA missions. The International Ultraviolet Explorer 

(IUE) telescope was restored to service after 

an equipment failure. In 1986, reprogramming the computer on the International 

Cometary Explorer (ICE) spacecraft from the 

control center extended the spacecraft's communications capability as it travels farther 

from Earth on its twenty-year orbit. 

Ground Network 

The Ground Network continued to provide 

tracking and data support for NASA's missions. It consists of the Spaceflight Tracking 

and Data Network (STDN), the Deep Space 

Network (DSN), and ground tracking and 

data acquisition facilities that support aeronautics, balloon, and sounding rocket programs. In order to provide coverage, phasing 

out most of the existing STDN will be delayed 

until the TDRSS becomes operational. 

Space Network 

The Space Network is comprised of the 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System 

(TDRSS), and NASA ground elements that 

include a Network Control Center, Ground 

lkrminal, Flight Dynamics Facility, and Simulation Operations Center. Logistics, mission 

planning, and documentation support are 

provided to maintain operations. 

The one TDRS spacecraft operating in 

space continued to support Landsat, Solar 

Mesopheric Explorer, and Earth Radiation 

Budget Satellite missions. The Tracking and 

Data Relay Satellite System will be considered fully operational when the second 

Arraying of Deep Space Network antennas in Australla to 

support Voyager 2's encounter with Uranus. 

Its flawless support of Voyager 2's encounter with Uranus in January was the high 

point of the year for the Deep Space Network. 

This support relied on a new method of arraying large antennas, and combining NASA's 

44 
own signals with those from a large antenna 

in Australia. Also, during the international 

observations of Halley's Comet in March and 

April, the DSN supported Japanese efforts to 

track their two spacecraft; provided backup 

tracking of the European Space Agency's 

@SA) Giotto spacecraft; and tracked the Soviet Vega spacecraft as they approached the 

Comet. Data from the Vega orbit, supplied by 

the Soviets, was used to refine the trajectory 

of the Comet, which allowed ESA to retarget 

Giotto to achieve a closer encounter. This exemplified international cooperation at its 

best, providing greater scientific return than 

would have been possible from individual efforts. In addition, the DSN supported other 

spacecraft that observed the Comet, namely 

NASA's Pioneer-Venus and International 

Cometary Explorer (ICE). 

lite, that can be used by NASA's facilities, as 

workloads require. Second, a Program Support Communications Network (PSCN), handles the non-operational communications 

needs of NASA's Centers. The services provided include voice, management and administrative traffic, and technical data 

interchange. 

In 1986, major accomplishments included 

operational control of nine orbiting spacecraft; the development of facilities in preparation for launches of future spacecraft that 

include the Hubble Space Telescope, Cosmic 

Background Explorer, Gamma Ray Observatory, and Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite; and plans were initiated to develop 

facilities for platform control, communications, and data capture for use by the Space 

Station. 

Arrayed and non-arreyed images of Uranus obtained by Myager. 

In 1986, efforts were underway to increase 

the sensitivity of the DSN in preparation for 

Voyager 2's encounter with Neptune in 1989. 

At that time, signals received on Earth will 

be less than one-half as strong as they were 

from Uranus. Improved efficiency will be accomplished by increasing the large DSN antennas from 64 to 70 meters, and, during the 

encounter, by simultaneously combining signals received by DSN antennas with those 

received by antennas at non-NASA facilities. 

Communications and Data Systems 

The basic elements of the Communications 

and Data Systems program form the vital 

link between data acquisition stations and 

users, and include communications, mission 

control, and data processing. 

In 1986, two major projects in NASA's Communications program that became operational used advanced technologies developed 

by the communications industry. First, a 

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) system, provides operational circuits, via satelSpace Research and Technology 

The goal of the Space Research and 'lkchnology program is to conduct effective, productive, and critical research that 

contributes materially to U.S. leadership and 

security in space. Achieving this goal requires a strong commitment to advancing the 

technology base; maintaining technical 

strength in the scientific and engineering 

disciplines; developing more capable, less 

costly space transportation systems, and 

large space systems with growth potential; 

promoting scientific and planetary exploration to improve understanding of Earth and 

the solar system; and supporting the commercial exploitation of space. Disciplines included in the program are propulsion, space 

energy conversion, aerothermodynamics, advanced materials and structures, controls 

and guidance, automation and robotics, space 

human factors, computer science, sensors, 

and data, communications and space flight 

systems. All NASA Centers are involved in 

the Space Research and 'lkchnology program, 

along with signikant participation by industry and universities. 

Propulsion. Research in this area has improved the technology base by contributing 

considerable data on all types of chemical 

and electrical propulsion systems. Earth-toorbit propulsion research emphasizes highperformance and extended service life. In 

this critical area, a cryogenic engine bearing 

model was developed to determine cooling, lu45 
brication, and bearing design characteristics. 

Another new model predicts the life of materials subjected to both low-cycle and highcycle fatigue. Optical sensors were demonstrated for tracking bearing wear, and measuring turbine blade temperatures and rotor 

speed. Redesign of turbine blade materials 

demonstrated the potential to sustain up to 

20 times the fatigue life of existing blade materials. Computational Fluid Dynamics 

(CFD) codes for rocket engine hot gas flows 

were used to optimize minimum pressure 

drop in flow passages. In addition, the combustion characteristics of turbine drive gas 

generators, operating with LOWpropane, 

were determined. Application of this technology to Space Shuttle Main Engines, and to 

other propulsion systems, is expected to improve the ability to predict the life expectancy 

of reusable propulsion systems. 

Orbit transfer propulsion research focused 

on developing high-performance, highpressure, variable-thrust engines that will be 

stored and fueled in space. For example, technology for space-based LOXhydrogen expander cycle engines advanced in the areas of 

combustion, heat transfer, materials compatibility, high-expansion ratio nozzle performance, and engine level system testing. The 

test firing of an expander cycle engine verified that high-pressure operation for highperformance can be achieved. 

In 1986, the technology for small chemical 

thrusters in low-thrust propulsion advanced 

Hydmgenloxygen thruster deslgn tor the Space Station's 

maneuvering system. 

significantly. Successful test firings of storable bipropellants that allow higher burning 

efficiency and deliver 10 percent more energy 

are of particular significance to future planetary missions. Areas in spacecraft previously 

reserved for propellants can now be used for 

scientific payloads. In addition, the performance during tests of hydrogedoxygen thrusters was so impressive that they were accepted 

as the baseline design for the Space Station's 

major maneuvering system. 

In electrical propulsion, advances were 

made from research on resistojets, arcjets, ion 

and magnetoplasmadynamic (MPD) thrusters. Electric propulsion devices are most useful to planetary missions requiring 

high-specific impulses. They are also used for 

satellite altitude control, orbit changing, 

power, and guidance and control of large 

structures. A new platinum-alloy resistojet 

heater was selected as the drag-neutralizing 

thruster for the Space Station, an action that 

is considered significant because a resistojet 

can operate on waste gases from the Space 

Station to compensate for drag forces. Small 

arcjets operating on less than one kilowatt of 

power demonstrated smooth starting and operating characteristics at performance levels 

Flnal adjustments to a test stand befom vacuum chamber 

testing of msistoJet. 

of up to 700 seconds of impulse. This assures 

their application to future satellite systems 

because existing systems develop only 300 

seconds of impulse. By tripling power thrust 

levels, and initiating a two-thruster, computer-controlled simulated stage to investigate component interactions, ion thrusters 

became more acceptable. Compared to chemical systems, the MPD thruster proposed for 

advanced propulsion systems has the potential to provide a two to fourfold reduction in 

propellant mass. New testing, at low-power 

levels, resulted in a better understanding of 

MPD component life. 

Space Energy Conversion. This research 

provides the design base for high-performance, long-life power systems for space appli- 
cations that include solar power, nuclear 

power, batteries, and thermal systems. Progress continues to be made in improving the 

performance of solar photovoltaic (PV) cells 

and arrays; recent success in testing includes 

the reduction of output lost due to natural 

radiation. In geosynchronous orbit, a conventional silicon PV system can lose up to 25 

percent of its output during a seven-year life; 

and in the radiation belts, the loss can be as 

Photovoltaic minitassegranlan lenses. 

high as 80 percent. Approaches taken to improve this problem include use of a PV concentrator array, with mini-cassegranian 

lenses and concentrated sunlight, to deliver 

100 watts per kilogram of weight. In this 

case, the lenses blocked all damaging radiation. In another approach, materials such as 

gallium arsenide (GaAs) that are less susceptible to radiation were used; of these materials, GaAs is the best because it degrades less 

than half as much as silicon. In 1986, a small 

GaAs cell was exposed to a 100-to-1 solar concentration, resulting in the highest output 

ever produced by a space PV cell. A new material, indium phosphide (InP), showed promise of degrading even less than GaAs. A flight 

experiment with InP cells was developed and 

will be space-tested for radiation resistance. 

In 1986, Phase I1 of the joint DOD/DOE/ 

NASA Space Nuclear Reactor Power System 

Development Program (SP-100) began. The 

goal is to provide advanced technology options to achieve higher power levels, improved system efficiency, and increased 

reliability and lifetime, while reducing mass 

and volume. In the area of thermal power, 

validation testing of the 25-kilowatt freepiston Stirling engine, the largest of its kind 

in the world, was conducted. In the area of 

materials, tungsten fiber-reinforced niobium 

matrix composites were fabricated and tested 

to a StrengtWdensity ratio of more than three 

times that of the current baseline SP-100 

material. Research efforts in the areas of 

structures and materials can pay handsome 

dividends for the high-temperature, weightcritical SP-100 power system. 

Advanced solar dynamic power systems for 

small and larger power needs of up to 300 

kilowatts were explored in subscale tests in 

the critical technology area of concentrators 

such as Fresnel lenses, microsheet materials, 

heat receivers and related thermal energy 

storage materials. From the standpoint of 

performance, longevity, and power systems 

integration, use of the free-piston Stirling engine cycle looks very promising. 

For the high-power and high-voltage that 

will be required in future space applications, 

tests confirmed that the bi-polar nickel 

hydrogen battery is an attractive alternative 

Cell stack of nickel-hydrogen batteries. 

to the individual pressure vessel nickelhydrogen battery; and results of designs 

tested indicated an improved weight and volume energy density of about 20 percent. 

Component improvements will also enhance 

battery life for use in low-Earth and geosynchronous orbits. 

In 1986, significant progress was made in 

developing thermal management systems 

which consist of heat pipes, thermal loops, 

and radiators. To avoid excessive and damaging temperatures, excess heat from electric 

energy must be removed. High-temperature 

heat pipes are very efficient, although heavy 

and limited in use to about 700OC. New lightweight composite materials proved feasible 

in the fabrication of heat pipes for use at 

looooc. 

47 
Thermal loops are used to transfer heat 

from a point of generation to a distant radiator. A very efficient heat loop system was developed in which the circulating fluid is 

pumped by capillary action, eliminating mechanical pumps and increasing reliability. 

Key components of this system were flown on 

a Space Shuttle experiment in January 1986, 

and the system is a prime candidate for use 

on the Space Station. 

Liquid droplet radiator components were 

tested in drop towers simulating near-zero 

gravity for about 5 seconds. The tests proved 

that a uniform stream of properly directed 

droplets could be formed. The significance of 

liquid droplets is that they lose heat while 

moving through space to a thermal collector. 

The cooled liquid is pumped back to the heat 

source and the process is repeated. 

Aerothermodynamics. Research in this field 

improves understanding of the flow phenomena of advanced aerospace vehicles. The development of advanced aerospace vehicle 

systems requires well chosen, ground-based 

experiments and use of the most advanced 

computational codes. One aerospace vehicle 

in the concept stage that is expected to result 

in space-based operation is the Aeroassisted 

Orbital Transfer Vehicle (AOTV). In 1986, 

critical wind tunnel tests were completed to 

assess the effects of the flow impingement 

problems of various AOTV concepts. The 

Wind tunnel test for oil flow patterns for aeroassist flight 

experiment. 

tests, conducted at Mach 10, confirmed the 

presence of flow impingement on the base region of an aeroassist flight experiment. The 

impingement was of sufficient severity to affect pitching and would affect the mounted 

payloads. Results confirmed the need to apply advanced codes to analyze further the 

base flow that is scaled to flight conditions. 

Materials and Structures. During 1986, a 

significant effort was focused on the development of advanced thermal protection systems 

(TPS), with improved durability and hightemperature capability, for use in space 

transportation systems. In particular, a 

chemical vapor deposition approach showed 

great promise for producing high-performance ceramic composite TPS. In addition, 

new methodology was developed to better 

predict the thermostructural loading and 

response of TPS and space structures, in 

general. 

In 1986, research on erectable and deployable structures resulted in the development of 

a concept for a mobile remote manipulator 

system that will be used to erect large trusstype structures in space. This highly flexible 

device is expected to reduce workloads significantly and allow efficient space operations. 

Controls and Guidance. This research focused on control of large, flexible space systems, large antennas, and large, segmented 

astrophysics telescopes. During 1986, algorithm evaluations continued for later validation in the planned Control of Flexible 

Structures flight experiment. The submillimeter ranging capability of the Spatial, High 

Accuracy, Position-Encoding Sensor advanced 

from one to eight positions in determining 

three-dimensional positioning of large space 

structures. The Spacecraft Control Laboratory Experiment, which resembles a large 

offset antenna attached to a model of the 

Shuttle, continued to validate several unique 

and innovative control-technique approaches. 

Passive integrated optical chip elements for 

a highly accurate guidance sensor called the 

Fiber Optic Rotation Sensor were developed. 

When operational, this sensor will be more 

accurate and more stable than existing sensors. 

Also completed were the hardware and software for a proof-of-concept model of a faulttolerant control system called the Advanced 

Information Processing System. This system 

will provide onboard central control for the 

Space Station and advanced transportation 

systems. 

Automation and Robotics. The goals of the 

Automation and Robotics program are to reduce costs, improve performance of future 

missions, and provide safer, more efficient 

methods for accomplishing mission objectives 

48 
through the use of autonomous control and 

robotic systems. The program is developing 

and demonstrating technology applicable to 

the Space Station, the Orbital Maneuvering 

Vehicle, the Orbital Transfer Vehicle, the Mobile Remote Manipulator System, geostationary satellite systems, and planetary 

rovers. It will also address the automation 

needs of ancillary systems such as prelaunch 

and mission operations and related ground 

systems. 

The program’s two foci are Blerobotics, 

which will develop and demonstrate technology to evolve teleoperation through supervisory control of in-orbit robots, and Systems 

Autonomy, which will develop technology to 

reduce the need for ground control crews and 

automate onboard subsystems through the 

use of artificial intelligence and expert systems. Both the “blerobotics and Systems Autonomy parts of the program are involved in a 

series of demonstrations to validate evolving 

technological capabilities. They also share a 

core technology research program that is divided into the areas of sensing and perception, planning and reasoning, control 

execution, operator interface, and system architecture and integration. 

In 1986, the preliminary design and development of the Telerobotic Demonstration Facility was completed, and a sequence of 

demonstrations for 1988 was defined. Also, 

significant progress was made in establishing sophisticated hierarchical computer architecture to control a robot. 

In the core research program, a prototype of 

the Programmable Image Feature Extractor 

was demonstrated which will provide the extensive visual capabilities needed for autonomous robots. Two stand-alone expert systems 

were integrated; one predicts behavior, and 

the other is an error diagnostician. This is 

the first time two separate expert systems 

have cooperated with each other using a 

common or shared knowledge base. Other 

noteworthy accomplishments included rudimentary learning by the expert system planner, DEVISER, and a telerobotic operation 

involving fuel transfer and node coupling. 

In the Systems Autonomy Program, a prototype knowledge base for the Space Station 

Thermal Control System was demonstrated 

on a Symbolics 3640 computer using artificial intelligence advanced software tools. The 

thermal control system is one of the primary 

subsystems being developed for a future Systems Autonomy demonstration project. 

Achievements in corresponding research 

programs include the development of an expert system with the capability to learn by 

example, and a prototype spaceborne symbolic and numeric processor. The combined 

processor uses reconfigurable, fault-tolerant 

multiprocessor architecture, and is capable of 

10 million instructions per second. It will 

support the COMMON LISP, ADA, PROLOG, and C software environments. 

Space Human Factors. This research optimizes the allocation of functions to humans 

and computers during space missions. Highpressure space suits will allow astronauts to 

perform immediate, routine extravehicular 

activity without wasting hours breathing oxygen beforehand to purge nitrogen. ?Lvo demonstrator suits were tested and evaluated, 

and will lead to production of the first hard 

suits in NASA’s history. 

A new concept in computer terminals, the 

“Virtual Workstation,” was developed to allow scientists and engineers, working from a 

ground base, to control, remotely, experiments and equipment in space. Other developments showed that advanced concepts in 

displays and controls will significantly improve productivity and astronaut safety, both 

in training and in time-critical situations. 

Measurements of human strength in weightless conditions were taken aboard a Boeing 

KC-135. This work was performed in order to 

establish baseline data for extravehicular activity and tool design. 

Computer Science. NASA has experienced 

explosive growth in the volume of space science data, and computer science is one of the 

information sciences which advances the 

management and use of space-derived information. Strained information processing systems have limited the ability to analyze but a 

small fraction of the archived data. The systems are further complicated by space scientists’ increasing practice of integrating 

sensor measurements and sensor control. To 

find a solution, research is underway to implement a new, low-cost satellite network using the concepts of telescience for the remote 

control of and access to data on space experiments. A new scientific data base system will 

permit uniform remote access to archived 

space data from dissimilar data base management systems. This concept will be applied first to the Space Telescope project. 

NASA has been involved in the development of large, complex software systems. A 

major focus of computer science research has 

49 
been to develop and implement software 

management techniques to improve the reliability of software systems and reduce lifecycle costs. NASA developed a prototype of an 

expert system-based software management 

aid which includes a memory of past experiences and a feature on lessons learned. 

Sensors. Major advances in sensors research resulted in the selection of titaniumdoped sapphire as a candidate laser material 

for use in active remote sensing of terrestrial 

and planetary atmospheres. It was discovered 

that the anomalous self-absorption losses observed in these crystals are caused by impurities in the material, and subsequent crystal 

growth was tailored to rectify this problem. 

In the detector device area, a silicon array 

was tested in the wavelength region for space 

astronomical sensing applications. For detection in the far infrared portion of the spectrum, a mercury-cadmium-telluride alloy 

frequency mixer was built. In the area of 

sensor materials research, a new artificial 

material, an indium arsenide/indiumgallium-arsenide strained layer superlattice 

shows promise as a new candidate material 

for sensing. It was grown for the first time by 

molecular beam epitaxy. 

Data Systems. Research on data systems advances the processing, storage, and use of 

space-derived information. In 1986, the 

ground-based Advanced Digital Synthetic 

Aperture Radar Processor engineering model 

was completed. This system uses over 28,000 

integrated circuits, and is tailored to process 

space synthetic aperture radar data in real 

time. It performs at a speed four times the 

original goal, and will be used to support the 

Magellan and SIR-C flight projects. 

NASA is extending DOD-developed very 

high-speed integrated circuit technology to 

support civil spaceborne applications. During 

1986, computer simulations and hardware 

verifications were completed, and future 

plans include the evaluation of circuit technology for ultra-low power consumption and 

radiation hardness. 

Communications. Research in this field 

seeks to develop microwave and optical communications devices. Fundamental materials 

research resulted in the development of new 

reservoir cathodes with longer lifetimes, 

high-emission current densities, and reduced 

operating temperatures. These cathodes will 

have applications in high-frequencyhighpower tubes for space and planetary communications and remote sensing. Other 

60 GHz traveling wave tube for intersateillte communications. 

materials research led to a technique that applies a pyrolytic graphite coating to copper 

electrodes in a depressed collector. This technique has improved the efficiency of traveling 

wave tubes by providing a surface with extremely low electron emission properties. A 

digital filter processor integrated on a silicon 

chip was developed which replaces the cumbersome and unreliable loop capacitators 

found in past transponders. The new processor will provide, on command, numerical oscillator control. It is hardened to radiation 

and is a generic technology that can perform 

other functions, such as automatic signal acquisition and ranging. 

An algorithm was developed to calculate 

deformations in large, Earth-orbiting antennas caused by repeated cycling through the 

Sun’s shadow. In addition, mathematical solutions provided information to correct physical distortions in antenna reflectors, 

allowing less active control of large antennas. A 30-GHz integrated gallium arsenide 

receiver module was fabricated that provides 

basic receiver functions such as low noise amplification, phase shifting, down conversion, 

intermediate frequency amplification, and 

output power control. 

50 

. .. . . . . 
Space Flight Systems. Space Flight systems 

allow flight verification and evaluation of advanced technologies for future space transportation systems. The Shuttle accident, in 

January 1986, curtailed flight operations 

and several scheduled technology experiments. However, the Shuttle Entry Air Data 

System (SEADS) and the Capillary Pump 

Loop experiments, conducted prior to the accident, provided important data to the technology community. 

The SEADS experiment provided accurate 

measurement of air data across the entry 

speed range from an altitude of approximately 300,000 feet to landing. The results of 

this experiment, along with data obtained 

from five future flights, will be used in the 

Orbiter postflight aerodynamic performance 

analysis and data base validation. In addition, the information will help to determine 

the suitability of the air data system for advanced entry and upper atmospheric flight 

systems. This important technology advancement and system concept demonstration will 

influence the design of future entry and 

flight systems. 

In January 1986, the Capillary Pump Loop 

experiment was flown on the Shuttle, providing systems and component research data important to the development of two-phase, 

heat-pipe systems that will transport large 

heat loads on the Space Station and other 

future spacecraft. 

Aeronautlcs Research 

and Technology 

Beginning with the Wright Brothers’ historic flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, 

the United States has been a world leader in 

aeronautics research and technology. Since 

World War 11, innovative research and development in aeronautics have been the driving 

forces behind U.S. economic growth and military power. lbday, however, the United States 

is facing unprecedented challenges from foreign industrial competitors and potential 

military adversaries. It is important and essential to preserve U.S. aeronautical superiority in the world marketplace and to 

enhance global security through the excellence of American aircraft. 

In 1985, the White House Office of Science 

and Technology Policy outlined goals for the 

Nation’s activity in aeronautics research and 

development that will provide opportunities 

for significant advances in civil and military 

aviation by the turn of the century. Focusing 

on those opportunities, NASA has redirected 

its research efforts toward emerging technologies that have potential for order-of-magnitude advances in aircraft capability and 

performance. The agency’s goal is to conduct 

an effective and productive aeronautics research and development program that contributes materially to civil and military 

aviation. 

NASA’s Ofice of Aeronautics and Space 

Technology conducts an Aeronautics Research and Technology program in disciplines that have been traditionally important 

to aviation, such as aerodynamics, structures 

and materials, and propulsion. Also, the Office made considerable progress in applying 

newer disciplines to aeronautics, such as artificial intelligence and advanced computational simulation. NASA’s aeronautics 

research facilities at Ames Research Center, 

Langley Research Center, and Lewis Research Center are considered the most comprehensive in the world. These facilities are 

essential national resources and provide 

many unique test capabilities for aeronautics 

research and development. The focus of 

NASA’s Aeronautics Research and Technology program is on providing technology 

results well in advance of specific application 

needs, and on conducting long-term, independent research that is not driven by the development and operational pressures often 

encountered by the Department of Defense 

and industry. 

Both fundamental disciplinary research 

and vehicle-specific research are conducted at 

NASA. Disciplinary research may be generically applicable to all classes of vehicles, or 

may be enabling for entirely new capabilities 

that are not yet defined. Vehicle-specific research relates to technology that has the potential for enhancing the capabilities of 

specific classes of vehicles, such as subsonic 

transport, rotorcraft, high-performance military aircraft, and supersonic and hypersonic 

vehicles. 

Disciplinary Research and Tkchnology 

NASA’s disciplinary aeronautics research 

activities provide the technological base for 

new and innovative ideas necessary for future advances. The research seeks to improve 

81 
understanding of basic physical phenomena 

and to develop new concepts in fluid and thermal physics, materials and structures, propulsion, controls and guidance, human 

factors, and information sciences. 

The increased availability of supercomputers has allowed the discipline of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to provide 

powerful analytical, simulation, and predictive tools to address the basic physics of aerodynamic flow fields. New CFD tools are used 

to advance understanding of the complex 

flow environment of advanced aircraft config 

urations, and to permit aerodynamic optimization of new aircraft designs. In 1986, new 

CFD techniques were used at Ames Research 

Center to calculate the stream trace lines 

over an F-16 high-performance aircraft configuration. Use of these techniques resulted 

in the first complete flow field solution for 

three-dimensional flows around an actual 

aircraft configuration. Also in 1986, the 

world’s most powerful supercomputer facility, 

the Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation 

WAS) system, located at Ames Research Center, became operational and was made available to scientists and engineers throughout 

the United States. Currently, the NAS system uses a Cray-2 supercomputer that can 

perform 250 million computations a second, 

and has a 256-million word memory, the largest yet available. 

In a related activity, use of the Program 

Support Communications Network (PSCN), a 

high-speed data communications network, 

began in 1986. The PSCN enables real-time 

access to NASA’s supercomputers by government, industry, and universities at locations 

throughout the United States. It is designed 

to improve the effectiveness and productivity 

of large mainframe computers that support 

the Aeronautics Research and Technology 

program. 

In 1986, use of the National Transonic Facility (NTF) at Langley Research Center improved the ability to validate new CFD 

computer codes, and several were validated 

in the NTF during an experiment with a 

laminar flow glove; subsequently, these codes 

were used to predict aircraft stability during 

flight testing of the laminar flow glove on an 

F-14 aircraft. 

Current propulsion research focuses on analytical and experimental work in high-speed 

fluid flows, turbomachinery internal aerodynamics, chemically reacting and mixed fluid 

flows, and high-speed inlet and nozzle aerodynamics. In 1986, an analytical model, developed to simulate internal aerodynamic flows 

in multistage turbomachinery, was used to 

analyze flow fields in a high-speed fan stator, 

high-speed counter-rotating propellers, and 

in the first stage of the Space Shuttle Main 

Engine fuel turbine. In related research on 

internal combustion engines, 160 horsepower 

was obtained from a 40 cubic inch, single rotor, stratified-charged rotary engine, the 

highest power density ever achieved in this 

type of engine. 

Because they are lighter and stiffer than 

conventional metallic aircraft structural materials, composite materials are used increasingly in airframe designs. In 1986, a 

breakthrough in composite structures research occurred with the fabrication of a geodesic stiffened compression wall panel that is 

about 30 percent lighter than a skidstringer 

aluminum structure, and 40 percent cheaper. 

Also, considerable progress was made in ceramic composite technology. Ceramics are attractive structural materials because of their 

strength, low-density, and ability to resist environmental influences, but their brittle nature, makes them sensitive to minute flaws 

and defects. To remedy this problem, Lewis 

Research Center developed an approach to 

fabricating strong, tough, ceramic composites that are able to withstand high-temperatures, eliminating the possibility of 

catastrophic fractures. 

The avoidance or control of unstable aeroelastic phenomena known as divergence and 

flutter are critical to the successful flight of 

advanced aircraft. An innovative approach to 

controlling aeroelastic response involves deforming the wing shape elastically instead of 

moving control surfaces. The approach has 

the potential of saving several thousand 

pounds of structural weight in high-performance aircraft. In 1986, a model of an “active 

flexible wing” was tested in the Transonic 

Dynamics Tunnel (TDT) at Langley Research 

Center, and the predicted advantages of the 

concept were validated. To support the development of a complete control system for aeroelastic tailoring, additional testing will be 

conducted in the TDT. 

In cooperation with the Federal Aviation 

Administration (FAA), NASA is conducting 

research to increase the capacity of the Air 

Traffic Control (ATC) system in the United 

States. In 1986, a time-based, terminal-area 

flow control concept was developed for use in 

the ATC simulation system at Ames Re52 
search Center. The simulation system’s algorithm will investigate new ways to use runway capacity, improve fleet operational 

efficiency, and enhance operational safety 

within the National Airspace System. 

In 1986, research on human factors and automation explored the possibility of using 

computer systems for artificial intelligence 

(AD and radically different methods of con- ’ 

trol to allow humans and automated machines to work together. An example of 

man-machine integration is the ArmyNASA 

Aircraft Aircrew Integration (ASI) program, 

at Ames Research Center, that focuses on the 

development of predictive methodology for 

helicopter cockpit system design. In 1986, an 

initial version of the A31 workstation was developed that generates predictive methodologies for systems design based on mission 

requirements and pilot training levels. 

Studies on natural phenomena as they affect operational flight systems are considered 

vital to improving flight safety. Current research on storm hazards concentrates on 

lightning and rain effects, and NASA’s Aircraft Icing Program focuses on problems 

caused by ice. Heavy rain can modify airfoil 

shapes, change the airflow, and cause the loss 

of airplane performance to such an extent 

that safety is affected. In 1986, using a wing 

Wlnd tunnel test of effects of heavy rain on wing sectlon 

model. 

section model, tests were conducted in the 

Langley Research Center’s 4 by 7 meter wind 

tunnel on the effects of rain on airplane aerodynamics. The data revealed that during periods of very heavy rainfall, maximum lift 

capacity was reduced by 20 percent. Further 

tests will be conducted on a larger wing section mounted on an outdoor moving carriage 

facility. Because little quantitative data exists that would be useful for engineering 

analyses, NASA’s Aircraft Icing Research 

program develops analytical and experimental methods to determine changes in aircraft 

performance due to icing. In 1986, using artificial ice shapes attached to the horizontal 

tail of a Twin Otter aircraft, air flight tests 

were conducted at Lewis Research Center to 

measure changes in the static stability margin of the aircraft. The “double-horned” ice 

shapes, characteristic of glaze ice, caused the 

greatest reduction in static stability margin, 

while the surface roughness produced by 

rime (granular) ice shapes showed a negligible deviation from the baseline. 

Significant progress was made in using the 

power of new aerodynamic computational 

methods to analyze low-altitude wind shear. 

Characterized by rapid changes in wind mag 

nitude and direction, this atmospheric phenomenon is a potential hazard to all aircraft 

during takeoff and landing. During 1986, a 

wind shear computer model was applied to 

several wind shear accidents to improve understanding of the phenomenon and to develop a data base for future investigations. 

The wind patterns derived from these computations also proved valuable in developing 

forecast and wind shear models for simulators used in aircraft detection systems and 

pilot training. 

Vehicle Technology 

Vehicle-specific research identifies and concentrates on emerging technologies with potential for major advances in aircraft 

capability and performance. The key or enabling technological developments are described in the specific classes of aircraft, such 

as transport, rotorcraft, high-performance, 

supersonic, and hypersonic. 

Transport. To advance technology and insure that the United States maintains its 

preeminent position in the world market for 

subsonic transport aircraft, NASA conducts 

research with manufacturers, airlines, and 

the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). 

The immediate goals of the joint research 

are to establish the technology readiness 

and designs that will double the fuel efficiency of today’s best transport aircraft, while 

substantially increasing productivity and affordability. 

In 1986, as part of the Advanced Turboprop 

Program, ground testing and flight demon53 
strations of a full-scale propfan propulsion 

system were conducted by NASA and industry. Ground testing of a large-scale (9-foot 

diameter) propfan was completed in preparation for its flight test on a Gulfstream I1 twinjet aircraft. Wind tunnel data from a scale 

model of the propfan validated the theoretical design and analysis methods used to predict the nacelle and slipstream flow, defined 

the potential affects on aerodynamic performance for a complete aircraft configuration, and provided safety-of-flight 

information for the future flight test. 

Significant progress was made in the joint 

NAWGeneral Electric Unducted Fan (UDF) 

program that incorporates two unducted, 

counter-rotating fans with eight highly-swept 

blades on each fan. This configuration has 

Flight teat of NASAlGeneral Electrlc Unducted Fan on modlfled Booing 727 aircraft. 

promise because it reduces the wake swirl 

common to single-rotation designs and increases the propulsive efficiency. The UDF 

system was successfully ground tested, and 

the first flight tests on a modified Boeing 727 

were completed in August 1986. In conjunction with McDonnell Douglas, General Electric is preparing for additional flight 

evaluations on a modified McDonnell 

Douglas MD-80 aircraft. 

During the cruise phase of subsonic transports, approximately one-half of the total 

drag is caused by skin friction. The magnitude of friction drag is dependent upon 

whether the airflow over the aircraft surface 

is laminar (smooth) or turbulent. By maintaining laminar flow, friction drag is reduced. 

Three concepts being investigated for maintaining laminar flow over aircraft surfaces 

include passive natural laminar flow (NLF), 

Cessna 210 with natural lamlnar flow (NLF) wing undogoing 

wlnd tunnel Wing. 

achieved with careful airfoil design, applicable to small airplanes; active laminar flow 

control (LFC), achieved by suction through 

tiny slots or perforations in the surface, applicable to large transports; and hybrid laminar 

flow (HLF) using both active and passive 

technology, applicable to medium transports. 

Wind tunnel and flight testing of a full-size, 

proof-of-concept NLF wing on a Cessna 210 

aircraft was conducted. These tests confirmed 

that the new airfoil achieves natural laminar 

flow over 70 percent of the upper and lower 

surfaces over a broad range of operating conditions. A contoured NLF glove, installed on 

the wing of a Boeing 757 aircraft, in the region of intense acoustic radiation from the 

turbofan engine, was also flight tested; this 

activity confirmed that the laminar flow can 

be maintained in close proximity to engine 

noise. In 1986, an important milestone in 

LFC technology was reached when flight 

evaluations verified the effectiveness and 

practicality of using two system concepts to 

maintain laminar flow over the critical leading edge of the wing, while operating under 

typical commercial aircraft conditions. Research on viscous drag reduction, conducted 

during 1986, set the stage for the next phase 

of research that will concentrate on hybrid 

laminar flow-combining the best features of 

active laminar flow control and natural 

laminar flow design-to achieve substantial 

drag reduction. 

Rotorcraft. The Nation’s continued leadership in military and civil rotary wing technology depends on a strong and broad-based 

research program. In cooperation with other 

government agencies and industry, NASA 

conducts a rotorcraft research program in the 

areas of aerodynamics, structural dynamics, 

acoustics, guidance, stability and control, 
propulsion and drive, and human factors. In 

1986, there were a number of significant accomplishments in the areas of noise reduction, improved rotor performance, and 

high-speed performance. 

Reducing rotorcraft noise is essential to obtain community acceptance and to reduce 

military detectability. In 1986, a new helicopter noise prediction code called ROTONET 

became available to industry. Also, a major 

rotor system noise experiment, conducted in 

a GermadDutch wind tunnel, measured rotor broadband noise, systematically, over a 

range of conditions in a controlled environment. Results of the noise test are being included in ROTONET. In addition, 

comprehensive blade-vortex interaction (BVI) 

data were obtained that will allow the development of a semi-empirical BVI noise methA tool that will significantly reduce the internal noise caused by helicopter transmismons was developed in the form of a computer 

program. It will be used for gear tooth contact analysis and determination of gearcutting machine parameters that will allow 

production of spiral bevel gears with zero 

kinematic error. Transmission gears produced as a result of using this software will 

operate quieter and with less vibration, leading to mrall internal noise reduction in heliCOpt0l-S. 

In 1986, a major rotor system improvement 

was demonstrated when advanced-design rotor blades were flown on a scale model UH60 helicopter. The model blades utilized 

advanced airfoils, a unique planform shape, 

and a high degree of twist and aeroelastic 

tailoring to increase rotor performance and 

reduce vibrations. Wind tunnel tests showed 

such a significant performance improvement, 

especially at high altitudes, that the Army is 

considering the initiation of a product improvement program for the UH-GOA Black 

Hawk helicopter that incorporates this blade 

design. 

Technology that is used to increase forward 

flight speed can lead to new and innovative 

configurations, such as the Tilt Rotor and the 

X-Wing aircraft. By converting from a standard helicopter mode to a wing-lift mode, it is 

possible to double or even triple cruise speeds 

of rotorcraft and vastly improve their productivity. Other benefits of this technology include reduced noise and vibration, and 

enhanced military effectiveness. 

A significant advancement was made in 

odology. 

XV-15 Tilt Rotor Aircraft. 

Tilt Rotor research through an experiment 

that applied circulation control to the trailing edge of a Tilt Rotor wing, which is enmeshed in the downward flow of its rotors. 

The results verified analytical calculations 

that the downward force on the wing can be 

reduced by 25 percent, demonstrating potential for even more efficient and productive 

Tilt Rotor aircraft. 

In August 1986, an important rotorcraft 

milestone was reached with the fabrication 

and assembly of the Rotor Systems Research 

Aircraft RSRA/X-Wing research vehicle. The 

X-Wing rotor consists of a four blade, extremely stiff rotor system that utilizes circulation control aerodynamics for lift and 

control. In hover and low-speed flight, the rotor system rotates as a conventional helicopter rotor. For high-speed forward flight the 

rotor is stopped, converting into a fixed, XWing configuration. This joint DODNASA 

program is a continuing effort to advance the 

state of technology in high-speed rotorcraft 

flight and several other key technology areas. 

The X-Wing rotor is a fully composite rotor/ 

wing that consists of extremely thick, loadbearing composite structures. In addition, 

the advanced, all-digital, quadruply redundant flight control system contains over 60 

control effectors that regulate complex pneumodynamics and circulation control aerody55 

.-. 
Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA)X-Wing research vehicle. 

namics. In 1986, the RSRA/X-Wing vehicle 

was shipped to Dryden Flight Research Facility to prepare for flight tests. 

High-Perfbrmance. Through close coordination with the DOD, NASA's high-performance aircraft research program is structured 

to support the development of superior military aircraft. The technology spinoffs from 

such research have consistently advanced the 

state of civil aviation. 

Work on the Highly Integrated Digital 

Electronic Control (HIDEC) program resulted in the first fully integrated propulsion 

and flight control system. "ksted on a NASA 

F-15 airplane, the HIDEC system demonstrated that, in addition to very low recurring 

costs and no weight penalty, significant performance improvements are achievable. 

High angleof-attack wind tunnel testing. 

In 1986, work on high angle-of-attack (highalpha) flight technology for high-performance aircraft was accelerated. Tests in 

Langley Research Center's 30 by 60 foot wind 

tunnel, using an F-18 model with propulsive 

flight control, confirmed the ability to 

achieve highly stable performance, and full 

maneuverability, at an 80-degree noseup angle-of-attack. The wind tunnel model 

and simulation investigations were complemented by experimental and computational 

analyses of forebody flows and vortex flows to 

study the aerodynamics of high-alpha flight. 

Water tunnel model tests of the F-18 configuration, conducted at the Dryden Flight Research Facility, confirmed that flow 

injections in the airstream near the nose of 

the aircraft can alter vortex flow over the vehicle, allowing favorable aerodynamic 

changes and overall drag reduction. Currently, preparations are underway to conduct 

a full-scale flight research program utilizing 

a modified Navy F-18 aircraft. 

Developments in propulsion system thrustto-weight ratios, propulsive lift control, and 

understanding low-speed aerodynamics allow 

new opportunities for state-of-the-art advances in vertical and short takeoff and landing (V/STOL) and short takeoff and vertical 

landing aircraft (STOVL) technology. In 

1986, the United States and the United Kingdom signed a joint research agreement to foster collaboration in the development of 

advanced STOVL technologies and to reduce 

the risk associated with developing this type 

of aircraft. Also, NASA and Canada agreed to 

test a full-scale STOVL model designated as 

the E-7. Configured as a transonic aircraft, 

the model utilizes vectored thrust and thrust 

augmentation systems for low-speed operations. Wind tunnel tests of the E-7 model 

conducted at Ames Research Center confirmed the viability of the design as a highperformance fighter aircraft. 

In 1986, the successful integration of advanced technologies that include a composite, supercritical variable camber, 

aeroelastically tailored wing, canards, and 

straked flaps were demonstrated in flight 

tests of the X-29A Forward-Swept Wing aircraft. This aircraft also incorporates an advanced fly-by-wire digital flight control 

system that integrates active control of flaperons and canard surfaces. Areas of research 

emphasis include agility, maneuverability, 

high angle-of-attack stability and control, 

low-speed control, and transonic aerodynamic efficiency. The X-29A flight envelope 

was expanded to Mach 1.4 at 40,000 feet, and 

a follow-on NAWAir Force flight research 

program was initiated. 

Frequently, NASA's personnel and facilities 

are used to solve technical problems and improve the operation of military aircraft. In 

56 
X-29A Forward-Swept Wing aircraft. 

1986, at the request of the Navy, NASA developed and tested aerodynamic modifications 

to the EA-6B aircraft, and completed wind 

tunnel studies of the aircraft's configuration 

at the National Transonic Facility, Langley 

Research Center. As a result of these tests, 

recommendations were made for configuration modifications in an airfoil leading and 

trailing edge, the addition of a small vertical 

tail extension, and the addition of a wing 

roothody strake. These changes will improve 

EA-BB aircraft model in National Transonic Facility cryogenic wind tunnel. 

the EA-6B lift at low speed, increase the directional control at high angles-of-attack, 

and reduce staluspin tendencies. Currently, 

the Navy is initiating an EA-6B in-flight test 

program to evaluate the recommended modifications prior to incorporating them into the 

aircraft fleet. 

Supersonic Achieving supersonic air transportation that is economical has eluded the 

technical community for some time. However, 

the outlook for improved supersonic transportation appears bright. The key enabling technologies for an economically viable 

supersonic transport include: variable cycle 

propulsion providing noise levels acceptable 

to the community and with substantial reduction in fuel consumption and extendedlife at high sustained operating 

temperatures; reduction in airframe structures weight fraction; and increasing cruise 

lifehag through improved aerodynamics, including supersonic laminar flow. 

In 1986, NASA launched the High-speed 

Civil Transport Study to identify the most 

promising concepts for vehicle and propulsion systems for future long-term, high-speed 

Artist's conception of high-speed civil transport. 

civil transports (Mach 2.0 to hypersonic), and 

to guide U.S. technology development and 

production planning. The study will consider 

market needs and opportunities, economics, 

airplane concepts, technology projections, 

and national issues such as safety and environment. 

Hypersonic. Establishing the technology 

foundation for hypersonic vehicles is a major 

goal of NASA's Aeronautics Research and 

Technology program. The program focuses on 

vehicle configuration studies, propulsion, 

and materials and structures. In addition to 

earlier progress in hypersonic research, recent accomplishments in these areas have 

contributed to the state of readiness for the 

National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program 

that is funded jointly by NASA and the Department of Defense. The NASP program 

will develop a hypersonic flight research vehicle that will be used to validate and demonstrate the successful merging of aeronautics 

and space technologies. NASA maintains a 

strong aeronautics research and technology 

base to support development of the NASP and 

to advance new technologies for future progress in hypersonic flight. 

57 
During 1986, testing in the Langley Research Center’s hypersonic propulsion wind 

tunnels demonstrated that measured thrust 

levels agreed with theoretical predictions for 

airframe-integrated, supersonic combustion 

ramjet (scramjet) engines. Significant progress on variable geometry scramjet configurations was made with the successful testing 

of the variable geometry inlet configuration 

at Mach 4, and with a Navier-Stokes flow 

analysis for the transition area of the engine 

combustion section. These accomplishments 

are significant steps toward achieving a hypersonic propulsion system that can be operated over a broad range of speed-altitude 

combinations. 

In related structures research, using a complex brazing process, an advanced technology 

fuel injection side strut was fabricated for the 

scramjet engine; and two shortened versions 

of a full-size, flight-weight article were assembled. This effort demonstrated the feasibility of using this design approach; and 

preparations are underway to test the strut 

assembly, using burning fuel, in Langley Research Center’s test facilities. Accomplishments in hypersonic structures also included 

fabricating load-carrying honeycomb panels 

of high-temperature superalloys. In 1986, 

a panel array of superalloy honeycomb material was tested successfully, at extremely hot 

temperatures, under hypersonic flow conditions. 

NASA’s Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation (NAS) facility lent vital support to the 

technology development program by calculating the pressure contours on a baseline 

NASP configuration. The ability of the NAS 

to provide such an analytical solution for the 

NASP codiguration at high Mach numbers 

permits the analysis and prediction of vehicle 

aerodynamic loadings and aerothermodynamic interactions at Mach numbers that are 

beyond the current capability of other ground 

test facilities. 

National AereSpace Plane Program 

In 1986, NASA and the DOD initiated the 

National Aero-Space Plane (NASP) program. 

The goal of the NASP program is to develop 

hypersonic and transatmospheric technology 

for a new class of aerospace vehicles that are 

powered by airbreathing rather than rocket 

propulsion. The program is structured to provide a validated technology base by the mid1990’s for single-stage-to-orbit vehicles using 

airbreathing propulsion as an option for the 

next-generation manned vehicle. Using the 

technology developed for the National AeroSpace Plane, a family of vehicles could include a next-generation space transportation 

system, high-altitude, high-speed military interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft, and 

hypersonic cruise transport. 

Currently, the NASP program focus is on 

accelerating the ground-based development 

of key enabling technologies in propulsion, 

materials and structures, and aerodynamics; 

evaluating various vehicle configuration concepts; and designing and testing propulsion 

Artist’s depiction of the National AeroSpce Plane In the 

vlcinlty of the Space Statlon. 

system modules and airframe components. 

This technology development phase should 

be completed in the late 1980’s, and will be 

followed by a technology readiness aseewment and a decision to proceed to the next 

phase-the development and flight testing of 

the X-30 research aircraft. 

The X-30 will serve as a research vehicle to 

demonstrate the technologies developed to attain higher altitudes and Mach numbers, and 

to validate the integration of the technologies 

into an aircraft. The performance goals for 

the X-30 vehicle include horizontal takeoff 

and landing from conventional runways, sustained hypersonic cruise in the atmosphere, 

and acceleration to orbit and return, with reusable systems. 

The unique feature that distinguishes an 

aerospace plane from a rocket vehicle is the 

airbreathing propulsion system. The flight 

corridor for an airbreathing aerospace plane 

is substantially lower in altitude over most of 

the trajectory because of the need for higher 

density air to pass through the engine to pro58 
duce the required thrust. As a result, an aerospace plane must have an airframe and engine structure that can withstand much 

greater pressures and thermal loads than a 

rocket-powered vehicle. 

The NASP is characterized as an airplane 

that will fly to orbit, but there are major differences between it and previous aircraft. In 

addition to the advanced airbreathing propulsion system, the degree of integration required between the airframe and the 

propulsion system is substantially more complex due to the strong interdependence of the 

vehicle and engine flow fields. "he NASP design takes advantage of the flow compression 

developed through the vehicle forebody flow 

field to produce the elevated pressures required for the combustion process, and uses 

the aft undersurface of the vehicle as part of 

the engine exhaust nozzle. As a result, the 

performance of the airframe and the engine 

is strongly coupled. 

The primary enabling technology for the 

NASP is the scramjet, which is needed for 

airbreathing operation at speeds beyond 

Mach 6. Scramjet design and operation have 

been optimized in subscale tests for internal 

geometric configuration, fuel injection and 

mixing, and ignition and combustion efficiency. Although there are several facilities 

in which the lower speed propulsion technology can be verified, there are no ground facilities for testing the scramjet beyond Mach 8. 

Therefore, performance predictions for the 

higher Mach numbers will be based on computational analyses verified by partial simulation of selected parameters in wind 

tunnels. The X-30 flight research program 

is necessary to continue developing and 

demonstrating this hypersonic propulsion 

technology. 

Both experimental and computational tools 

are being used to identify and develop technologies, but computational capability is 

playing a more significant role than in the 

past. Because wind tunnel simulation capability is limited, compters will be the primary tool used for designing the NASP and 

analyzing very high Mach numbers and altitude conditions. The Numerical Aerodynamic Simulation system, and other 

supercomputers at NASA's Centers, government laboratories, and industry facilities are 

being used extensively for analyses of NASP 

configuration aerodynamics, trajectories, 

controls, structural concepts, and subsystem 

benefits and penalties. With this capability, 

full three-dimensional viscous flow fields are 

being calculated for candidate configurations, including internal flows, boundary layers, and shock interactions. 

A variety of design approaches for both the 

airframe and engine are being evaluated, including the use of structures made of advanced materials that carry both pressure 

and thermal loads, and insulated structures, 

in which low-temperature, load-carrying materials require a thermal protection system. 

High-temperature metals, advanced carboncarbon, and high-temperature composites are 

being evaluated for use on the fuselage, tank, 

and engine structure. 

For areas of the vehicle where thermal energy will adversely affect available structural materials, such as the leading edges of 

engine fuel struts, inlets, control surfaces, 

and fuselage nose, cooling will be required. 

Various cooling techniques and technologies 

are being evaluated for application to the X30 vehicle. Techniques that are under study 

include regenerative cooling that requires 

the circulation of cold fuel through the aircraft skin to absorb heat before injecting it 

into the engine and film cooling for localized 

hot spots, heat pipes, and liquid metal heat 

exchanges. 

The NASP program will also require advances in the area of highly-integrated control systems. With the exception of 

airbreathing propulsion, technology developed in the NASP program should be directly 

transferrable to future rocket-powered space 

transportation systems. 

59 
Department of Defense 

The loss of the Space Shuttle Challenger on 

January 28 shocked the Nation, and resulted 

in an unprecedented setback for the U.S. 

space program. The grounding of the Shuttle 

fleet severely impeded access to space for the 

Nation’s military, scientific, and commercial 

payloads. Further compounding the problem 

were the two Titan 34D launch failures, resulting in the cessation of this launch capability for the year. This series of accidents led 

to the development of a national space launch 

strategy that does not rely on a single launch 

system as the primary means to reach space. 

Over the past year the Department of Defense (DoD), NASA, and the Department of 

Transportation, as well as the commercial 

and scientific communities, have worked 

closely to develop the Space Launch Recovery 

Plan that will balance use of the Shuttle and 

expendable launch vehicles (ELV’s), to 

achieve efficiency and economy. Shuttle 

launches will be used to exploit the flexibility 

of having man-in-the-loop, while ELV’s will 

be used for more routine missions or for those 

involving higher risks. 

The purpose of the recovery plan, now well 

underway, is to satisfy national security requirements as well as scientific and commercial launch needs. The DoD commitment to 

the recovery plan places renewed emphasis 

on use of expendable launch vehicles. The 

plan includes procurement of a fourth orbiter, 

procurement of 23 Titan IV’s (previously 

known as the Complementary Expendable 

Launch Vehicle (CELV)), with a production 

rate of five to six Titan IV vehicles per year, 

and procurement of 12 medium launch vehicles (known as the Delta 11) over the next 

three years. While procurement of the Delta 

I1 is required to support launches of Global 

Positioning System (GPS) satellites, this effort has also been structured to stimulate a 

commercial space launch capability. The plan 

also includes ensuring that some payloads 

are dual-compatible with the Shuttle and 

Ens; transferring some Shuttle missions to 

ELV’s; and expanding to a Titan IV launch 

capability at both the east and west coast 

launch facilities. 

While the ultimate goal of the Space 

Launch Recovery Plan is to close the gap between requirements for access to space and 

capability for launch, merely acquiring additional launch vehicles does not solve the 

problems of assured access to space. A mixed 

fleet of launch vehicles is being developed 

and procured, and will be maintained; future 

launch systems must be free of single point 

system failures, so major components of one 

launch vehicle are independent of another’s 

design; and future heavy-lift launch requirements are being analyzed and supported. In 

addition, innovative new ways for payload 

and launch vehicle processing and integration should be devised, approaching the 

methods used in cargo aircraft systems, to ensure faster, more reliable turn-around of 

space systems and associated launch facilities. The future U.S. space transportation 

system designs must be driven by the need 

for operations and support efficiencies, in order to achieve substantial reductions in the 

recurring costs of space launch operations. 

Far-term national space launch alternatives 

are currently being developed in the joint 

DoD/NASA Space Transportation Architecture Study (STAS). The STAS is examining 

all aspects of space launches that include requirements, vehicles, operations, and technology; it will develop a framework for 

technological advances in areas such as propulsion, lightweight structures, automated 

operations, and advanced avionics. Incorporation of these advances into innovative system concepts will allow the United States to 

define a more cost-effective space launch program for the post-1995 period. 

Space Activities 

Military Satellite Communications 

MILSATCOM. Military Satellite Communications requirements are satisfied with a 

combination of satellite systems that provide 

a variety of services in several frequency 

bands. In the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 

band, the Fleet Satellite Communications 

(FLWTCOM) System, augmented by leased 

81 
satellites (LEASAT), provide low-capacity, 

worldwide command and control to a large 

community using small, mobile terminals. 

The Air Force Satellite Communications 

(AFSATCOM) System provides special capabilities to U.S. nuclear forces, using communication packages on FLTSATCOM and other 

host satellites. At the Super High Frequency 

(SHF) band, the Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCS) provides high capacity command and control, intelligence, and 

multichannel communications service to a 

wide range of strategic, tactical, and nonDoD users. In the future, using the Extremely High Frequency (EHF) band, the 

Milstar Satellite Communication System 

will provide highly survivable and enduring 

thin line communications for critical users. 

During 1986, MILSATCOM focused on enhancing the survivability and improving the 

availability of service to all users. In addition, planning efforts were initiated on two 

new programs; one is expected to ensure interoperable communications among all 

DSCS users under the most severe, hostile 

conditions; and the other is designated to satisfy very high speed digital communications 

requirements. ‘lh integrate current activities 

with future needs, a comprehensive MILSATCOM architecture document was prepared. 

This document describes the plans and programs needed to ensure continued MILSAT 

COM service through the year 2010. 

Defense Satellite Communications Systems 

(DSCS). The DSCS constellation provides 

worldwide coverage between latitudes 75O 

north and 75O south. In 1986, the second 

DSCS 111 satellite became operational, allowing the DSCS system to evolve into a more 

robust system. This new capability, which 

significantly enhances DSCS support in the 

Atlantic area that covers Europe, Eastern 

United States and the Caribbean, includes 

increased capacity, flexibility, and wartime 

survivability. 

Replacing older, Phase I1 satellites with 

jam-resistant, electromagnetic pulse (EMP) 

hardened Phase I11 satellites was delayed due 

to a lack of launch capability. However, there 

are sufficient Phase I1 satellites in orbit, with 

reliabilities greatly exceeding specifications, 

to allow continued service. 

During 1986, the United States and the 

United Kingdom conducted a joint evaluation of requirements for a new survivable, 

jam-resistant modem for use in all strategic 

and tactical terminals of their respective military forces. Referred to as the Universal Modem, this equipment will ensure survivable, 

interoperable communications, and will operate in the worst-case wartime environments. 

A new concept for a ground terminal was 

considered using a “modular building block” 

design to allow near real-time adjustment 

(tailoring) of its operational configuration. 

The adjustment allows the terminal to operate using any of the standard DSCS modulation and access techniques. A limited number 

of terminals are expected to provide a quick 

reaction capability to meet urgent critical requirements. A final decision on procurement 

is pending. 

The ground environment of the DSCS was 

expanded and modernized for increased survivability, capacity, and reliability. In 1986, 

14 new Medium Earth terminals were accepted for deployment, and 24 additional terminals are expected by 1988. Acquisition of 

12 net control and 83 nodal terminals for the 

DSCS Frequency Division Multiple Access 

Control Subsystem was initiated, and deliveries will extend through 1989. The fifth and 

final DSCS Ground Mobile Forces Control 

Link was delivered to Oakhanger RAF, in the 

United Kingdom. In addition, acquisition of 

subsystems and components for increased 

communications capacity and more responsive and survivable control subsystems continued. 

Air Force Satellite Communication System 

(AFSATCOM)/Single Channel Transponder 

(SCT). The AFSATCOM is a SATCOM capability that provides reliable global communications between the National Command 

Authorities and nuclear-capable forces. The 

system includes a space segment composed of 

transponders on host satellites, a terminal 

segment consisting of fixed and transportable ground terminals and airborne terminals; and a control segment. The Single 

Channel Transponder Injection System is a 

new capability evolving as DSCS I11 satellites become operational, which will provide 

a limited number of command elements with 

a highly survivable capability to broadcast 

essential messages to a large number of 

forces. There are three sites under contract 

for the installation of the Single Channel 

Transponder Injection (Broadcast) capability; 

the remaining injection sites will be under 

contract in 1987. Also, efforts are under way 

to procure additional receiver equipment for 

ICBM Launch Command Centers and selected nonstrategic nuclear forces; contract 

62 
award is expected in 1987. 

Milstar. Milstar is a multichannel, Extremely High Frequency (EHF)/Ultra High 

Frequency (UHF’) satellite communications 

system that will provide survivable, enduring, jam-resistant, and secure voice/data communications for the President, Joint 

Chiefs-of-Staff, and the Commanders-inChief. It will be used for the worldwide command and control of U.S. strategic and 

tactical forces in all levels of conflict. Milstar 

satellites, which contain special survivability features, will be launched into high and 

low inclination orbits to provide full Earth 

coverage. Full-scale development of the space 

and mission control segments continued in 

1986, with critical design reviews scheduled 

for mid-1987 and early 1988. Detailed planning for payloads and their integration into 

the satellite bus received major emphasis. 

Nuclear-hardened Milstar terminals will be 

provided to command facilities, surveillance 

outposts, and to strategic and tactical forces 

during the 1990’s. Modifications to existing 

AFSATCOM terminals that are currently in 

progress will provide an early jam-resistant 

UHF capability, and a smooth transition between AFSATCOM and Milstar. When completed, Milstar will provide the Nation’s most 

survivable wartime communications capability. The Air Force is the lead service for the 

procurement of Milstar satellites, the dispersed mission control network, and most of 

its own terminals. The Army and Navy also 

have their own terminal development and 

procurement programs. The terminal programs of all three services are coordinated 

through the Navy’s Joint Terminal Program 

Office, which has the responsibility to ensure 

interoperability and common specifications 

among the three designs. 

Fleet Satellite Communications System. 

This system provides low-capacity voice and 

data capabilities for small, mobile users, 

such as the Navy and those who require manpack terminals. This satellite system consists 

of five FLTSAT satellites and three leased satellites (LEASA!) in synchronous equatorial 

orbits which provide worldwide coverage between 70° north latitude and 70° south latitude. 

FLTSAT spacecraft will approach their endof-life in the early 1990’s while the requirement for UHF MILSATCOM services is 

projected to rise significantly and continue 

through the foreseeable future. ‘Ib satisfy 

these requirements, planning began for a 

follow-on satellite to provide continued service through the 1990’s. Two follow-on UHF 

spacecraft will provide a greater number of 

25-KHz and 5-KHz channels than the current 

FLTSAT/LEASAT combination. Contract 

award for procurement of these satellites is 

expected in 1987. 

After numerous delays caused by launch 

failures of the Space Shuttle, and Delta and 

Titan 34D rockets earlier in the year, the 

Fleet Satellite (FLTSAT) 7 was launched on 

December 4, 1986. FLTSAT 7 was launched 

out of sequence ahead of FLTSAT 6 because 

FLTSAT 7 carried an additional payload, the 

FLWT Extremely High Frequency package 

PEP), designed to allow testing of Milstarcompatible EHF terminals. EHF terminal 

testing will begin in the spring of 1987. 

Satellite Laser Communications. The Satellite Laser Communications (SLC) system is a 

joint technology demonstration effort between the Navy and the Defense Advanced 

Research Projects Agency (DARPA) to provide 

the capability to communicate with a submerged submarine from space using a laser 

beam as the transmitting medium. To date, 

the basic capability has been proven by sending messages to a submerged submarine 

from an aircraft using green laser light. An 

operational system will use blue laser light 

which provides greater transmission efficiency. An aircraft-to-submarine test using a 

blue laser, scheduled for the spring of 1988, 

will complete the joint technology demonstration. SLC has been approved as a Navy 

new-start program for 1988. 

Navigation and Geodesy 

Global Positioning System (GPS). No additional GPS satellites were launched during 

1986. The last development GPS satellite, 

Navstar 11, was launched in October 1985. 

Currently, five GPS developmental satellites 

are performing well. Two developmental satellites, operating well beyond their design 

lifetimes, showed the effects of age and performed marginally. Procurement of operational satellites was in its fifth year under a 

multiyear, 28 spacecraft, contract. The first 

operational launch is scheduled for 1988, 

with full operational capability planned for 

1990. These dates reflect an approximate 2- 

year delay due to the lack of Space Shuttle 

Launch capability. 
In June 1986, Low Rate Initial Production 

(LRIP) of GPS user equipment was approved 

by the DoD Joint Requirements and Management Board. LRIP will continue through 

1988, pending verification of correction of reliability and maintainability problems encountered during 1985 field testing. In 1989, 

another DoD review is planned for user 

equipment performance before approving 

full-rate production. In 1986, the master control station, which supports the current GPS 

constellation, became operational at the Consolidated Space Operations Center at Falcon 

Air Force Station, Colorado. Full operational 

capability of the control station is planned 

concurrent with full GPS capability. 

Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite. In September 1986, the Navy’s Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite (GEOSAT) completed its 

primary 18-month mission, which was to provide the Navy and the Defense Mapping 

Agency with a large quantity of global altimeter data to be used in improving the 

Earth’s gravitational models. At the conclusion of this primary mission, GEOSAT was 

repositioned to a new orbit. This new.orbit, 

with a 17-day repeat cycle, is the same one 

used by NASA’s previous SEASAT, and is a 

favorable one for collecting oceanographic topography data. Data obtained will assist in 

the measurement of significant wave heights, 

surface winds, and ocean thermal features. 

GEOSAT will continue this valuable oceanographic mission until it reaches its end-oflife. 

Meteorology and Oceanography 

Navy Remote Ocean Sensing System (NROSS). Near the end of 1986, the Navy had 

been reviewing contractor proposals for the 

construction of N-ROSS, with an expected 

contract award to have been early 1987. In 

late December 1986, the Secretary of the 

Navy canceled the N-ROSS program due to 

severe budgetary constraints. Therefore, NROSS was not a development program at the 

end of 1986. However, the Navy plans to 

bring the proposed program before the Defense Acquisition Board (DAB) and the Defense Resources Board (DRB) in early 1987. If 

approved, the N-ROSS satellite is planned to 

have four principal sensors, a Low-Frequency 

Microwave Radiometer, a Special Sensor Microwave Imager, a precision radar altimeter, 

and a NASA-developed scatterometer. This 

sensor suite would give N-ROSS the capability to measure sea surface temperatures, 

ocean surface winds, significant wave 

heights, ocean fronts and eddies, polar ice 

conditions, and atmospheric water vapor. Under the original Navy plan, N-ROSS was 

scheduled for launch in September 1990. Under a revised plan, launch is now scheduled 

for mid-1992. 

Defense Meterological Satellite Program 

(DMSP). DMSP is the DoD’s most important 

source of weather data. In 1986, DMSP 

reached several significant milestones. The 

first two Block 5D-2 satellites, F-6 and F-7, 

launched in December 1982 and November 

1983, respectively, exceeded expected onorbit life. Also, in late 1986, the F-9 satellite 

was delivered, joining F-8 in ground storage 

awaiting launch requirements. Production of 

follow-on satellites, including a successful 

multiyear procurement, continued. In July 

1986, a contract was awarded to RCA for the 

prototype improved Block 5D-3 satellite, S15. Also in 1986, initial operational capability was achieved for the interactive Satellite 

Data Handling System at the Air Force 

Global Weather Central, Offutt Air Force 

Base, Nebraska. 

Surveillance and Warning 

Early warning satellites, complemented by 

ground-based radars and sensors, warn of potential ballistic missile attacks. In 1986, an 

Air Defense Initiative program was organized to develop technologies to detect, identify, and negate air threats to North America, 

including cruise missiles. Airborne, groundbased, and space-based surveillance techniques that will allow detection of cruise 

missiles are under study. Included in the 

studies is the feasibility of detecting and 

tracking cruise missiles from space platforms 

using radar and infrared sensors. Surveillance and warning for continental air defense 

is currently provided by a system of radar 

sites and Sectorfigional Operations Control 

Centers located in the United States and 

Canada. The radar systems include the Joint 

Surveillance System and, under development, the North Warning System, and Overthe-Horizon Backscatter Radar System. The 

joint Air Forcemefense Advanced Research 

Project Agency’s ‘ha1 Ruby program is designed to detect airbreathing vehicles from 

an orbiting platform. 

64 
Antisatellite (ASAT) Program. The Space 

Defense program continued to develop a lowaltitude, miniature-vehicle ASAT system. 

The primary purposes of an ASAT capability 

are to deter threats to space systems belonging to the United States and its allies, and to 

deny use by an adversary of space-based systems that provide support to hostile military 

forces. ASAT will be launched from F-15 aircraft. As a result of a FY 1986 congressional 

restriction prohibiting testing against objects 

in space, the testing effort was reoriented. 

Infrared phenomenology flights, to assess the 

performance of the sensor at low altitudes, 

were successfully completed in August and 

September 1986. 

Strategic Defense Initiative 

The Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO) has established an integrated 

program around the five key areas of Surveillance, Acquisition, Tracking, and Kill Assessment (SATKA); Directed Energy Weapons 

(DEW); Kinetic Energy Weapons (KEW); Survivability, Lethality, and Key Technologies 

(SLKT); Systems Analysis and Battle Management (SA/BM). It has also established the 

Innovative Science and Technology Office 

(IST) to manage fundamental research. Each 

represents an essential component in the 

development of a robust strategic defense 

system. 

KEW sponsored two successful flight tests 

in 1986. The first experiment conducted a 

hit-to-kill intercept on a missile target at low 

altitude, using a millimeter wave radar 

seeker in the interceptor. The program, called 

Flexible Lightweight Agile-guided Experiment, made three successful intercepts in 

three attempts, the last of which destroyed an 

actual air-launched reentry vehicle. In the 

second experiment, critical space observation 

data were obtained, and an actual space intercept was conducted. 

U. S. Army Strategic Defense Command 

WSASDC). The Army executing agency for 

SDI, USASDC, conducts a continuing research program to build a strong technological foundation from which a wide range of 

strategic defense options can be developed. In 

1986, high Endoatmospheric Interceptor and 

Exoatmospheric Reentry Vehicle Interceptor 

System contracts were awarded. The Free 

Electron Laser initiated a major new experiment at White Sands Missile Range; and the 

Neutron Particle Beam Accelerator Test 

Stand attained operating levels making it 

the most powerful ion beam generator in the 

world. 

Space Transportation 

Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELVs). DoD 

proceeded with activities that will lead to the 

acquisition and launch of 23 Titan IV’s between 1988 and 1993. By complementing the 

Space Shuttle, they will support the President’s national policy for assured access to 

space, and help to reduce the backlog of DoD 

payloads that were scheduled for launch on 

the Space Shuttle. 

Fifty-six existing Titan I1 missiles were 

moved to storage at Norton Air Force Base, 

California. Fourteen of the Titan 11’s will be 

converted to a space launch configuration to 

support small payloads that require unique 

orbits. The remaining Titan 11’s are available 

for future conversion. 

A program was initiated to acquire a Medium Launch Vehicle to support the Global 

Positioning System (GPS) program that faces 

significant launch delays as a result of the 

Challenger accident. A contract for the Delta 

I1 to launch 20 GPS satellites will be awarded 

in early 1987. 

Significant progress was made in recovering from a Titan 34D failure in April 1986, 

including development and verification of 

state-of-the-art, non-destructive tests for 

large solid rocket motors. 

Space Shuttle. The close working relationship between the Department of Defense and 

NASA on the Nation’s Space Transportation 

System proved invaluable during the period 

of crisis following the Challenger accident. 

Together, an approved Shuttle launch manifest was developed that meets, as much as 

possible, priority DoD and NASA satellite 

needs when Shuttle flights resume in 1988. 

The DoD placed the Vandenberg Shuttle 

Launch Site in minimum facility caretaker 

status to allow the remaining orbiter fleet to 

concentrate on east coast operations and to 

gain maximum efficiency in reducing the 

backlog of DoD and NASA payloads. Current 

funding will facilitate reactivation of the 

Vandenberg complex when the requirements 

and Shuttle capabilities dictate. 

Upper Stage Programs. The Space Shuttle 

utilizes upper stages to boost payloads from 

low Earth orbit to higher orbits up to geosy65 
nchronous (GEO) and beyond. The current 

family of Shuttle-compatible upper stages include the commercial Payload Assist Modules, which can carry 450 to 1,400 kilograms 

to GEO and Air Force Intertial Upper Stage 

(IUS), capable of boosting 2,300 kilograms to 

GEO. As a result of NASA’s cancellation of 

the Shuttle-Centaur Program in 1986, the 

DoD began efforts to acquire more capable 

(2,430 to 4,550 kilogram class) upper stages 

to meet DoD Shuttle mission needs in the 

1990’s. 

Advanced Spacecraft l’kchnohgy. The primary objective of this activity is increased 

satellite survivability, autonomy, performance reliability, and lifetime. The program 

focuses on computers, electronics, and power 

subsystems. In 1986, the first phase of the 

program to develop technology for space-qualified Very High Speed Integrated Circuits 

was successfully completed, and the qualification of a longer life, space-qualified battery 

was completed. This battery design has resulted in a 5-year life test program. 

Space Test Program Three Space Test Program (STP) missions that carried 19 DoD experiments remained in orbit collecting data 

applicable to the design of future DoD space 

systems. In 1986, two experiments were 

flown on the Shuttle, providing information 

on contamination in the Shuttle environment, and the effects of space on large structures. In November 1986, the Scout-launched 

Polar Experiment and Auroral Research Satellite carried three additional experiments 

into space to image the aurora, and provide 

forecasts of communications disturbances in 

the polar region. STP initiated procurement 

of a dedicated DoD Spartan experiment carrier through NASA’s Goddard Space Flight 

Center. The first flight will occur in 1989. 

Military Space Crews. As space-related 

technology improves, the role of man in supporting and using that technology will mature. Military functions in space may closely 

parallel those of civilian counterparts in such 

areas as transportation, observation, construction, and satellite launch or repair. The 

Department of Defense continues to work 

with NASA to train military space crew 

members, and to solve many human-centered 

space technology problems. In 1986, the Air 

Force formulated a Military Man in Space 

Program to help assess the operational capabilities of man in space. The Air Force also 

extended prior exploratory development into 

advanced technology development of military-specific modifications of equipment and 

new systems to ensure crew performance and 

protection in the space environment. 

Aeronautical Act lvlt les 

Fixed Wing Programs 

Bomber Development (B-1 B). In June 1985, 

the first B-1B was delivered to the Strategic 

Air Command. In September 1986,15 operational aircraft were delivered to Dyess Air 

Force Base, near Abilene, Texas. As part of 

the Strategic Air Command’s strategic deterrent force at Dyess AFB, the first B-1B’s 

were on constant alert status. Testing of B1B’s continues at Dyess AFB and Edwards 

AFB, California. Full operational capability 

will occur in 1988 with the delivery of the 

100th and final B-1B. 

Advanced Rctical Fighter (ATF). The ATF 

program is developing the next-generation 

Air Force fighter to counter the Soviet threat 

projected for the late 1990’s and beyond. As a 

follow-on to the F-15, the ATF is being designed to penetrate high-threat enemy airspace and support of the air-land battle forces 

with “first-look, first-kill” capability against 

a technologically advanced, numerically superior enemy. The ATF’s improved capabilities will be made possible by significant 

technological advances in the areas of signature reduction, aerodynamic design, flight 

controls, materials, propulsion, sensors, and 

integrated avionics. It will reach an initial 

operational capability in the mid-1990’s. 

In April 1986, the ATF program was restructured to include flying prototypes and 

ground-based avionics prototypes in the Demonstratioflalidation (DemNal) phase of the 

program. The restructured program implements Packard Commission recommendations, emphasizes fly-before-buy, a 

competition, and provides the means to reduce technical and cost risks prior to entering fullscale development in 1991. 

In October 1986, the ATF program completed a Joint Requirements Management 

Board Milestone I, and received Ofice of Secretary of Defense approval to award the Ded 

Val contracts. Contracts were awarded to 

Lockheed and Northrop, and flight demonstrations of their prototype aircraft, designated YF-22A and YF-23A respectively, will 

begin in 1990. General Electric and Pratt 

66 
and Whitney are providing the prototype engines for the ATF aircraft. 

C-17. The C-17 aircraft will provide a capability for intertheater airlift of light and 

heavy combat units, including outsize equipment, and direct delivery into the forward areas. In the late 19907s, the c-17 is expected 

to satisfy the shortfall from the intertheater 

airlife requirement identified in the Congressionally Mandated Mobility Study. It will 

provide an increase in intratheater capability. The C-17 is now in its second year of fullscale development, with first flight planned 

in 1990, and an initial operational capability 

in 1992, using 12 aircraft. 

Remotely Piloted Vehicle. The Navy and Air 

Force are jointly developing a medium-range, 

unmanned reconnaissance vehicle. The Navy 

is developing the unmanned vehicle, and the 

Air Force is developing an electro-optical sensor suite to be carried by Air Force and Navy 

manned and unmanned tactical reconnaissance vehicles. In 1987, two contractors will 

be selected to participate in a competitive flyoff of their unmanned vehicles that will occur 

during 1988. 

Cruise Missile Programs 

Air Lczunched Cruise Missile (ALCM). The 

ALCM is a long-range, subsonic missile designed for deployment from the B-52G and H 

models. An inertial guidance system, which 

is updated after launch by terrain correlation 

matching, guides the missile to the target. A 

total of 1,715 missiles have been delivered to 

the Strategic Air Command. Missiles are currently deployed at five B-52 bases, and deployment is under way at two additional 

bases. 

Ground Launched Cruise Missile (GLCW. 

Air Force deployment of GLCM’s continues 

on schedule. Initial operational capabilities 

have been established in the United Kingdom, Italy, Belgium, and the Federal Republic of Germany. Deployment to the 

Netherlands is on schedule for 1988. 

Helicopter Programs 

AH-64A (Apache) Advanced Attack Helt 

copter: In November 1986, the 162nd AH64A Apache helicopter was delivered to the 

Army. The first AH-64A attack helicopter 

battalion was fielded at Ft. Hood, ‘bxas in 

April 1986; the second battalion was fielded 

120 days later, and by November 1986, a 

third battalion based at Ft. Hood began accepting aircraft and equipment in preparation for fielding. These aircraft are being 

delivered in compliance with the fourth production contract, which will procure 309 aircraft. Currently, contract negotiations are 

under way for procurement of aircraft as the 

Army moves closer to its procurement objective of over 593 AH-64’s. 

CH-47 Modernization, In April 1985, a 

5-year multiyear procurement (MYP) contract was awarded to modernize 240 CH47A, B, and C model cargo helicopters to the 

D model configuration. The CH-47D provides substantial improvements in reliability, availability, maintainability, flight safety 

and survivability. By November 1986, as the 

program moved through the second year of 

the 5-year MYP, 58 CH-47’s had been delivered to the Army. A proposed second MYF’ 

contract from 1990 to 1992 would complete a 

procurement objective of 472 CH-47D’s. 

UH-GOA Blackhawk. By November 1986, a 

total of 826 UH-GOA’S had been accepted by 

the Army. These aircraft were distributed to 

priority units in the United States, Europe, 

Japan, Korea, Panama, the Army National 

Guard, the Army Reserve, and to the Training and Doctrine Command. The UH-GOA is 

in its third MYP contract. 

Light Helicopter Family (LHX). The Army 

initiated a technology development program 

called Advanced btocraft ‘bchnology Integration (ARTI). ART1 supports full-scale development in 1988 of a family of light 

helicopters, planned for deployment in 1995. 

Previous research efforts have shown that an 

integrated and automated cockpit, and associated electronic architecture, will provide 

the LHX and existing helicopters with improved characteristics. The Army awarded 

contracts to two teams for full-scale development of the LHX engine, designated the 

T8OO. The T800 is a 1,200 shaft horsepower, 

nonregenerative, free power turbine, turboshaft engine of advanced technology and 

high power to weight ratio coupled with lowspecific fuel consumption. In August 1986, 

the Army awarded contracts to two teams for 

the purpose of reducing risk for initiation of 

the LHX competitive development program. 

These risk-reduction efforts are concentrated 

in the areas of simulation, wind tunnel and 

67 
Mission Equipment Package design, and ’ brassboard demonstrations. All efforts are 

designed to ensure that LHX will enter the 

competitive development phase with no highrisk technology components. Full-scale development of the LHX airframe and mission 

equipment will begin in 1988. The Army will 

conduct a competitive program for LHX 

through development, and competition for 

production contracts begins with the third lot 

buy. 

V/STOL Programs 

V-22 Osprey (fbrmerly JVX). The Osprey is 

designed to provide the Marine Corps, Navy, 

Air Force, and Army with a multimission 

VerticaUShort lhkeoff and Landing (V/STOL) 

capability for the 1990’s and beyond. It will 

satisfy operational requirements such as Marine Corps assault vertical lift, Navy combat 

search and rescue, Air Force special operations, and Army medium cargo assault lift. In 

April 1983, the Preliminary Design Phase 

began; in 1986, a decision leading to fullscale development was made. Powered model, 

aeroelasticity, and large-scale rotor performance tests were completed. Results of these 

tests will lead to detail design of the Ground 

Test Vehicle. 

Aeronautics Technology 

Microwave Landing System (MLS). MLS is 

the precision approach landing system of the 

future. It will replace the existing instrument landing system ULS) and precision approach radar by the year 2000. Both fixed and 

mobile MLS ground equipment will be acquired as well as MLS avionics for DoD aircraft. The Federal Aviation Administration 

has overall responsibility for the national 

MLS program, and the Air Force was designated the lead service for the DoD. In 1986, 

the Air Force completed preparation of Requests for hoposals for modified commercial 

MLS avionics and a mobile MLS. The modified commercial MLS avionics will be used in 

cargo, tanker, trainer, and support aircraft. 

The mobile MLS will replace the existing 

fixed and mobile precision approach radars. 

The modified commercial avionics Request 

for Proposal was released in December 1986, 

and a contract award is scheduled for May 

1987. In March 1987, the mobile MLS Request for Proposal will be released concurrently with the FAA’s Request for Proposal 

for Fixed Base MLS equipment. The FAA 

Base MLS Request for Proposal will include 

equipment for the DoD, and contract award 

for both systems is planned for early 1988. 

An MLS avionics architecture study, completed in 1986, considered MLS avionics alternatives for high-performance aircraft that 

are environmentally and space-constrained. 

As a result of this study, the Air Force will 

conduct a concept definition effort for a high 

reliability (20,000 hour, mean time between 

failure) MLS/ILS receiver. The ILS capability 

will be retained until the transition to MLS 

is completed in the year 2000. 

Advanced Fighter nchnology Integration 

(AFTfl. In 1986, the AFTW-16 completed its 

last full year of testing at Edwards Air Force 

Base. Its Automated Maneuvering Attack 

System provides highly accurate maneuvering attack against ground targets from very 

low altitudes and improved air-to-air effectiveness. Technologies in the AFT1 program 

will be used to improve the performance of 

future aircraft such as the Advanced ‘hctical 

Fighter. 

X-29 Advanced nchnology Demonstrator: 

The forward-swept wing X-29 aircraft has 

completed its second year of flight testing. 

This innovative program demonstrates advanced high-risk, high-payoff technologies for 

future consideration. Exploitation of these 

technologies will improve future fighter aircraft performance and will reduce the time, 

risk, and cost of future development. It is a 

joint DARPMNAWAir Force program that 

expands significantly the existing data bases 

for advanced composite research, aerodynamic and structural analytic design methods, design techniques of digital flight 

control systems, systems integration, and 

test and evaluation capabilities. The flight 

testing is being conducted by a joint Governmenthndustry team at NASA‘s Dryden 

Flight Research Facility at Edwards Air 

Force Base, California. 

During 1986, the X-29A completed more 

than 85 test flights to expand fully its flight 

envelope to a maximum altitude of 40,000 

feet and a maximum Mach number of 1.45. 

Considerable testing was conducted at highdynamic pressures, a combination of low altitude, high speed, and high-G load factors 

that stressed the capability of the aircraft 

68 
structure, flight control system, and aerodynamic stability. Test results indicate that vehicle drag levels are significantly lower than 

predicted, and that vehicle stability is better 

than analysis has predicted through the 

flight envelope. A follow-on program has 

been defined and approved to flight test the 

second X-29A aircraft in a high angle of attack program. 

National Aerospace Plane (NASP). This 

joint program including DARPA, Air Force, 

Navy, Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, and NASA is developing advanced technologies for a new generation of aerospace 

vehicles. After a horizontal take-off, these 

liquid-hydrogen fueled, airbreathing, ramjet/ 

scramjet-powered vehicles will be capable of 

operating at hypersonic speeds (Mach 6 to 12) 

in the atmosphere or in space as a singlestage-to-orbit launch vehicle. 

Between 1986 and 1989, the main goal of 

the technology development phase (Phase 11) 

is development and proof-of-concept test of an 

integrated airframe/propulsion system capable of operating efficiently from takeoff to 

Model of the National Aero-Space Plane. 

orbit. New technologies needed to usher in 

this new generation of airbreathing aerospace vehicles will be developed, such as advanced propulsion engines, advanced 

low-drag airframe configurations, advanced 

high-temperature materials, actively cooled 

structures, lightweight cryogenic tankage, 

and computer fluid dynamics techniques. 

These technologies being developed offer the 

potential of a future space launcher having 

substantially reduced costs per pound delivered to orbit, and a future hypersonic cruise 

aircraft having two-hour flight time (or less) 

from the United States to any point on the 

globe. 

The next phase (Phase III), the detail design, construction, and flight test of an experimental aircraft, will begin in 1989. First 

flight of this experimental vehicle, designated the X-30, is planned for 1993. The goal 

of Phase 111 is to accomplish sufficient flight 

demonstration to provide a verified technological basis for future operational vehicles. 

The many spinoffs from NASP technologies 

will enhance U.S. leadership in aeronautics 

and in the commercial use of space during 

the early decades of the next century. Reduced space launch costs and dramatically 

reduced transit times on long-haul airline 

routes will result in significant economic 

benefits. 

X-Wing. The X-Wing rotor system will be 

flight-tested on the NAWArmy Rotor Systems Research Aircraft (RSRA). Successful 

testing of the X-Wing/RSRA will provide the 

basis for a whole new generation of air vehicles that combine the best features of both 

helicopter and fixed-wing aircraft. In the helicopter mode, the X-Wing rotates like conventional helicopter blades. While airborne, the 

blades stop rotating and the aircraft will fly 

in a fixed-wing mode. In order to accomplish 

this feat, four emerging technologies will be 

refined and integrated: digital flight controls 

that can maneuver an airframe with both 

helicopter and fixed-wing features; composite 

materials that are both lightweight and extremely rigid; air that circulates around the 

rotor blades to increase lift; and propulsion 

techniques that provide both shaft horse 

power and thrust from a single engine. 

During 1986, the X-WingRSRA was delivered to the Dryden Flight Test Center for final assembly under NASA supervision. This 

facility ensures safety by conducting several 

hours of operational testing to uncover component degradation that might affect flight 

tests. A second facility at NASA's Ames Research Center, which contains a manned simulator to explore the handling qualities of the 

X-Wing/RSRA, is being used for pilot training and flight readiness review. 

Army Aeronautical nchnology Research. 

The purpose of this program is to increase 

operational effectiveness of helicopters, reduce life cycle costs, and improve systems integration analysis and flight simulation 

capabilities. The program includes research 

in the areas of aerodynamics, structures, propulsion, reliability, maintainability, safety 

and survivability, subsystems, mission support, flight simulation, and man-machine integration. In 1986, research projects 

, 

69 
undertaken or completed are as follows: 

A 15:l centrifugal compressor test for 

Army aircraft power plants was successfully 

completed, demonstrating that program development goals were exceeded for compressor efficiencies and surge margin. If this new 

compressor is placed in a new Army aircraft 

engine, it will mean significant improvements in power plant efficiency and reductions in complexity. 

In laboratory testing, a high-speed 

(greater than 30,000 RPM) aircraft transmission clutch concept was validated that can 

significantly reduce clutch weight and improve capability and reliability. 

Aircraft structures testing was completed that included tests of a new 

crashworthy, cyclic flight control stick and 

UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter floor armor. 

Aircraft Combat Maintenancemattle 

Damage Repair design guides were completed for Army aircraft fluid lines (fuel, hydraulic fluid, and oil) and for mechanical 

flight control components. 

Four computer simulations were conducted to support advanced Army rotorcraft: 

Light Helicopter Family (LHX) Flight Control System; single crew member advanced 

cockpit engineering to support the LHX program; roll control effectiveness evaluations; 

and UH-60 Blackhawk helicopter validations to support aircraft accident investigations. 

Advanced Digital Optical Control System 

(ADOCS). The task of the Advanced Digital 

Optical Control System is to advance technology to provide a battlefield-compatible flight 

control system for new Army aircrafl. The 

ADOCS will allow survivability of the control system in the natural and man-made 

electromagnetic environment of the future 

battlefield. The ADOCS also will provide improved capability, reliability, maintainability, and reduced ballistic vulnerability. 

Mission-tailored handling qualities combined with improved soldier-machine interfaces will significantly improve rotorcraft 

mission performance. A ground test of the 

ADOCS, using a UH-60 flight demonstrator, 

was completed and flight tests were initiated. 

The development of an Optohydraulic Servovalve was completed and work on a number 

of additional improved optical components 

was initiated. These components will be designed to upgrade and replace large, heavy, 

inefficient prototype components in the original flight demonstrator. The testing of the 

ADOCS Flight Demonstrator configuration 

was completed in 1986. Development of advanced optical components will continue, 

along with a Tri-Service program to develop 

approaches to Atmospheric Electrical Hazard 

Protection for the Digital Optical Control 

System. 

Advanced Composite Aircraft Program 

(ACAP). ACAP was formulated to demonstrate the benefits of applying composite materials to a primary helicopter airframe 

structure. The program goals of achieving a 

17-percent reduction in airframe cost and a 

22-percent reduction in airframe weight were 

met or exceeded by the two helicopter manufacturers conducting this demonstration. In 

1986, Sikorsky and Bell completed their 

ACAP flight test programs. The program 

then proceeded to the initiation of the militarization phase in which avionicdightning 

compatibility issues will be addressed; landing gear and crashworthy characteristics will 

be demonstrated; and acoustics and maintainability improvements will be developed 

to ensure battlefield sustainability of composite materials used as a primary airframe 

structure. Due to the inherent high stiffness 

of composite materials, acoustic energy 

(noise) may be more readily transmitted than 

it is in metal structures. Acoustic isolation 

modifications for the ACAP aircraft will be 

fabricated and installed in the flight test vehicle; tests of the avionics, electronmagnetic 

interference, and lightning characteristics of 

the airframe will be completed; and a concept 

for enhancing maintainability will be developed. 

Low Speed Data Modem In 1986, a contract was awarded to the Harris Corporation 

to fabricate two low-data-rate (75 bits per second) robust brassboard modems. The units 

will employ Harris serial modem technology 

and a computer-based message system that 

will provide “connect messages” and electronically synthesized voice to transmit commands, flight status, other Command and 

Control (C2) information, and targeting information to and from Army aircraft. Because of 

the robust signal processing nature of the 

units, a very reliable data communication 

link will be established. The technology will 

be studied and may become an integral part 

of the advanced communication prototype 

system. 

70 
Space and Aeronautlcs Support 

Consolidated Space Operations Center 

(CSOC). CSOC was originally planned to consist of a Satellite Operations Complex (SOC) 

and a Shuttle Operations and Planning Complex (SOPC). The SOC will share the satellite 

Conaoiidatml Space Operatlons Center, Falcon Air Force 

Station, Colorado. 

control work load with the Satellite Test 

Center (STC), and the SOPC would have provided facilities for secure flight planning and 

flight control for DoD Shuttle flights in conjunction with NASA’s Johnson Space Center. 

Reduced DoD dependence on the Space Shuttle, a key aspect of the space launch recovery 

plan, coupled with budgetary constraints, 

caused the Air Force to cancel the SOPC portion of the CSOC development. Despite this 

cancellation, the CSOC/SOC will augment 

present control capacities and will 

strengthen U.S. space posture by eliminating 

vulnerabilities in the existing satellite control architecture. 

Construction of CSOC’s building, near Colorado Springs, Colorado, was completed in 

1985. The Global Positioning System Master 

Control Station, a tenant at CSOC, began 

satellite operations in January 1986. The 

first of the CSOC’s two Satellite Mission Control Centers will be activated in 1987, followed by the second in 1988. As described 

above, due to reduced Shuttle planning requirements and fiscal constraints, SOPC 

funding has been deleted from the CSOC program beginning in fiscal year 1988. 

US. Army Space Agency (USAS&. The 

USASA was provisionally activated in August 1986, at Colorado Springs, Colorado, as 

the Army component of the U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM). The unit is a field 

operating agency of the Office of the Deputy 

Chief of Staff for Operations and Plans, 

HQDA, and is under operational command of 

USCINCSPACE. By the time of its formal activation in October 1987, the agency will consist of 35 personnel and two detachments. 

One detachment, stationed at Falcon AFS, 

Colorado, will conduct satellite control operations; the other, located at Johnson Space 

Center (JSC), Houston, Texas, will consist of 

Army astronauts and other Army personnel 

assigned to JSC. As Army space operational 

requirements evolve, USASA will command 

forces developed to meet those requirements. 

Currently, the USASA provides USSPACECOM an Army perspective in planning DoD 

space system support for land forces and for 

strategic defense. The agency also will ensure integration of Army requirements into 

USSPACECOM planning and operations, 

and respond to needs of USCINCSPACE, 

such as providing operational forces, as 

appropriate. 

As part of the Army’s organization for 

space, the Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) activated the Army Space 

Institute (USASI) in June 1986, at Fort 

Leavenworth, Kansas, to represent Army interests in the process of defining military 

space requirements. The USASI represents 

the Army user community in developing and 

integrating space-related concepts and doctrine across all Army mission areas; it is the 

Army’s proponent for space-related doctrine 

development, combat development, training 

support, and personnel functions; and it is 

integrative in nature, and is subordinate to 

TRADOC’s Combat Arms Development 

Activity. 

Eastern Space and Missile Center (ESMC). 

ESMC, at Patrick Air Force Base, Florida, 

provides developmental and operational 

launch services for the Army’s Pershing missile, the Navy’s Poseidon and Trident missiles, and the Air Force’s short-range attack 

missiles. It also supplies launch and support 

services for NASA and DoD satellites, and 

continuous tracking of space objects. In 1986, 

ESMC supported 17 ballistic missile tests, 

four major space test operations, and one 

Space Shuttle launch. 

Western Space and Missile Center (WSMC). 

WSMC, at Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, provides developmental and operational launch services for the Air Force’s 

Minuteman and Peacekeeper missiles, space 

vehicles of NASA and DoD that require polar 

orbits, and tracking and data acquisition support for aeronautical tests of the B-B1 and 

71 
cruise missiles. In 1986, WSMC supported 4 

major space launches and 14 ballistic missile 

launches. 

White Sands Missile Range (WSMR). In 

1986, WSMR provided developmental and operational launch and testing services for a 

variety of DoD and NASA systems. Launch, 

flight, and recovery services included ground 

and flight safety, range surveillance, command and control activities, and associated 

data acquisition and analysis for numerous 

short- to medium-range surface-to-surface, 

surface-to-air, and air-to-surface missiles and 

rockets of the Army, Navy, Air Force, and 

commercial users. Nonflight hardware testing was conducted on these same systems, on 

the PeacekeepedMinuteman and Small 

ICBM, and on the Shuttle orbiter and launch 

systems. Other activities included upper atmospheric soundings using rockets and balloons, a variety of astronomical test 

programs, precision aircraft positioning and 

tracking, and tests involving both groundand space-based laser and directed energy 

systems. Shuttle-related activities included 

operation of the ground terminal of the 

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite system, 

and Shuttle flight and landing support. 

US. Army Kwajalein Atoll (USAKA). Systems and projects supported at USAKA in 

1986 included Minuteman and Peacekeeper 

testing, and the SDI's Delta 180 twin-satellite space mission. Implementation of the 

Compact of Free Association between the 

United States and the Republic of the Marshall Islands ensures that USAKA will continue to be available to support the 

requirements of the SDI and the developmental and operational testing of U.S. strategic 

offensive missiles. USAKA is one of two DoD 

ranges agreed to in the ABM Treaty for ballistic missile defense testing. USAKA has 

unique capabilities for collecting signature 

data on objects in space, recording missile reentry phenomena, providing terminal trajectory and impact data, and recovering reentry 

vehicles. 

Armament Division (AD). The AD, at Eglin 

Air Force Base, Florida, conducts research, 

engineering development, test evaluation, 

and initial acquisition of Air Force nonnuclear munitions. It operates 43 aircraft, 

and uses 50 instrumented test ranges covering 724 square miles of land, and 86,500 

square miles of water, extending nearly 240 

miles south into the Gulf of Mexico. In 1986, 

AD tested the Advanced Medium Range Airto-Air Missile, the Airborne Self Protection 

Jammer, IR Maverick AGM-130 Munition, 

and the Joint !kctical Information Distribution System. 

Arnold Engineering Development Center 

(AEDC). The AEDC, at Arnold Air Force Station, %nnessee, conducts engineering development tests for both Government and 

commercial users. In 1986, programs it supported included Peacekeeper, Space Shuttle, 

Small Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, Advanced !kctical Fighter, Strategic Defense 

Initiative, and Short Thkeoff and Landing 

fighter technology. 

Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC). AFFTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, California, 

is an ideal test area with a large air space, 

dry lake beds, isolation, and highly instrumented ranges. This unique facility provides 

support for many users, including NASA's 

Dryden Flight Research Facility, the Army 

Aviation Engineering Flight Activity, and 

the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory. 

In 1986, the Center supported tactical and 

strategic systems activities such as the B-lB, 

F-15, F-16, F-20, X-29, B-52 avionics modifications, C-17 parachutes and load extraction systems, advanced fighter technology 

integration, and air- and ground-launched 

cruise missiles. 

4950th Test Wing. The 4950th Test Wing, 

based at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 

Ohio, tests military systems, subsystems, and 

components for the Air Force Systems Command (AFSC). In 1986, the 4950th Test Wing, 

continued support to DoD and NASA with 

the Advanced Range-Instrumentation Aircraft, which serves key telemetry, data processing, and command control functions 

during aeronautical flight testing and space 

missions. 

6585th Test Group The 6585th Test Group 

is located at Holloman Air Force Base, New 

Mexico, and is responsible for operation of the 

Central Inertial Guidance %st Facility, the 

Radar !krget Scatter Facility, and the High 

Speed Test Track. These facilities support inertial navigation system training, high-speed 

sled track simulations, and antenna and radar cross section measurements. In 1986, programs supported included the B-B1, Trident, 

Small Intercontinental Ballistic Missile, Advanced Medium Range Air-to-Air Missiles, 

and Crew Escape Systems Technology. The 

Test Group is also the airspace manager for 

the White Sands Missile Range. 

72 
Relations with NASA 

National Space Transportation and Sup 

port Study DoD participated in a joint study 

with NASA on next-generation space transportation requirements, architecture, and 

technology. Study results, which were reported in May 1986, and provided to the National Security Council, show that a mixed 

fleet, consisting of a new cargo and manned 

launch vehicles, will be required to meet the 

Nation’s civil and national security space 

transportation needs of the late 1990’s and 

early 21st century. The study results are being used to direct technology programs that 

will allow next-generation space transportation systems to be much more cost effective 

than current systems. 

73 
Department of Commerce 

Three agencies of the Department of Commerce-the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Bureau 

of Standards, and the National Telecommunications and Information Administrationmade contributions to U.S. aeronautics and 

space programs in 1986. 

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) continued its operation 

of the TIROSMOAA and GOES families of 

environmental satellites. NOAA uses these 

spacecraft to sense and collect data about 

conditions in the atmosphere, oceans, nearspace, and on land. It transmits the data, in 

raw and processed form, to the user community, which applies them to operational and 

research use. This community consists of national and international participants, includ- 

-ing the U.S. military. The most notable uses 

of NOAA satellite observations are for forecasting weather and issuing storm or natural 

disaster warnings. The TIROS/NOAA and 

GOES satellites are operated by NOAA's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service, which also archives 

TIROSINOAA spacecraft. 

the data obtained from spacecraft observations. Data and satellite-derived products 

and services are distributed by NOAA's National Weather Service, National Ocean 

Service, and National Marine Fisheries Service. In addition, the information provided by 

the satellites is used by NOAA's Oceanic and 

Atmospheric Research Laboratories to develop a better understanding of the composition and processes of the Earth's air, sea, and 

land environment. 

The primary role of the National Bureau of 

Standards (NBS) in space is to support fundamental research and testing in aerospace 

technology, particularly in the areas of materials and processes. 

As the worldwide demand for frequencies in 

the radio spedrum increases, eff&ive allocation and management of this limited resource 

are essential. The role ofthe National "blemmmunications and Information Administration 

(NTIA) is to help develop and coordinate U.S. 

policy in space communications. 

Space Systems 

Satellite Operations 

The satellites operated by NOAA include 

both polar-orbiting and geostationary spacecraft. Each of the two polar-orbiting satellites, interchangeably called TIROS and 

NOAA, move in circular, Sunsynchronous orbits 450 nautical miles above the Earth's surface and are inclined 98.7 degrees to the 

Equator. Since the spacecraft orbit the Earth 

at the same rate as the Earth moves about 

the Sun, the time of day that they view the 

Earth does not change. Each of the two satellites that comprise the TIROSMOAA system 

views every point on the globe at least twice 

daily, once in daylight, and once at night. 

The polar-orbiting satellites observe the 

Earth in the visible and infrared portions of 

the electromagnetic spectrum by means of an 

Advanced Very High Resultion Radiometer 

(AVHRR) that provides images of cloud cover, 

surface water, land masses, snow and ice, and 

measures surface temperatures. A TIFtOS 

Operational Vertical Sounder ("C)VS) senses 

radiant energy from the atmosphere to determine water vapor content and construct a 

temperature profile from the surface to the 

upper stratosphere; a Space Environment 

Monitor (SEM) measures energetic particles 

at orbital altitude; and an ARGOS Data Collection and Platform Location System (DCPLS), provided by France, collects and relaye 

information from environment-sensing platforms, such as buoys and balloons, and provides the data to track them. The Search and 

75 
Rescue System (SAR) receives and retransmits messages sent by persons in distress 

through Emergency Locator Transmitters 

and Emergency Position-Indicating Radio 

Beacons. These retransmissions are used in 

the dispatch of search and rescue parties. 

In addition to recording and storing data 

for NOAA’s Command and Data Acquisition 

Stations located at Wallops, Virginia, and 

Fairbanks, Alaska, TIROSNOAA spacecraft 

provide continuous broadcast services for domestic and foreign stations. High and low 

resolution AVHRR imagery, and TOVS 

sounding data are broadcast. They are known 

as High Resolution Picture Transmission, 

Automatic Picture Transmission, and Direct 

Sounder Broadcast services. 

With respect to the surface of the Earth, 

the Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES), remains stationary. At 

an orbital altitude of 19,300 miles, its rate of 

angular movement around the Earth equals 

that of the Earth’s rotation. Consequently, its 

observing position over the Equator remains 

fixed and the spacecraft maintains an uninterrupted view of the Earth. Sensing by the 

Visible and Infrared Spin-Scan Radiometer 

Atmospheric Sounder (VAS) on the spacecraft 

provides day and night images of the Earth, 

and allows the development of atmospheric 

temperature profiles and maps of water vapor. In addition, GOES carries a Space Environment Monitor (SEM) that reports on the 

condition of the Earth’s magnetic field and 

the energetic particle flux at its geostationary altitude; and a Data Collection System (DCS) that relays the data sensed in-situ 

by environmental reporting platforms. Unlike polar-orbiting spacecraft, the GOES has 

no platform-locating capability. Because 

some of the platforms must be interrogated, 

an interrogation signal is broadcast that includes precise National Bureau of Standards 

time. Also, GOES serves as a means to broadcast processed environmental data, such as 

imagery, charts, and alpha-numerics through 

a product distribution technique called 

Weather Facsimile (WEFAX). 

The normal operational configuration for 

the GOES system includes one spacecraft 

placed at 75 degrees west and one at 135 degrees west. From these locations they can observe the eastern and western parts of the 

United States and their adjacent ocean areas. 

Other GOES satellites, used for communications relay, may be positioned elsewhere. 

Polar-Orbiting Satellites. NOAA 6 and 

NOAA 9 provided the agency’s polar-orbiting 

service for most of the year. Originally 

launched in 1979, NOAA 6 was reactivated 

and returned to service, replacing NOAA 8 

when it became unusable. Although NOAA 6 

operated without part of its vertical sounding 

system and tape recorders, it was able to 

function until a new spacecraft, NOAA 10, 

Launch of the NOM 10 satellite from Vandenberg Air Force 

Base on September 17,1986. 

could be placed in orbit. This was accomplished in a near perfect launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base on September 17, 1986. 

NOAA 10 became operational on November 

19, 1986. 

Geostationary Satellites. As the only GOES 

satellite that was fully operational at the beginning of the year, GOES 6 continued to provide imaging and sounding data throughout 

1986. In a “one-GOES operating mode,” it 

was positioned above 98 degrees west to supply coverage for the summedfall hurricane 

season. From its alternate wintedspring position at 108 degrees west, maximum coverage of winter weather from the Pacific Ocean 

and Gulf of Alaska was achieved. WEFAX, 

DCS, and SEM services were provided using 

the standby satellites, GOES 2, 3, 4, and 5, 

which no longer had imaging capability. 

In early May 1986, an attempt was made to 

launch a new GOES satellite, GOES G, that 

would have reinstituted a full two-GOES system. The effort resulted in failure when the 

76 
GOES spacecraft. Artist’s conception of a “GOES-Next” satellite. 

main engine of the Delta launch vehicle shut 

down prematurely; subsequently, the GOES 

G satellite had to be destroyed. GOES H, the 

last of the current series of GOES spacecraft, 

is scheduled for launch in February 1987. 

GOES-Next. During 1986, the Ford Aerospace and Communications Corporation pursued the design and development of the 

next-generation GOES spacecraft, GOES IM, and associated ground equipment. 

Launch of the first in the new series of spacecraft is expected in 1989. 

LANDSAT Commercialized Operations. 

Pursuant to the Land Remote Sensing Commercialization Act of 1984, the Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT) operated 

the Landsat land remote sensing satellite 

system for NOAA in 1986. Construction of 

the next-generation Landsat 6 satellite has 

been halted pending Congressional approval 

of an Administration funding plan required 

under the FY 1987 Continuing Resolution. 

Once approved, new sensor packages will be 

developed that include the Enhanced Thematic Mapper, featuring a 15-meter resolution panchromatic band, and other spectral 

bands, including thermal infrared; and a 

Wide Field Sensor that will provide low resolution, wide area coverage suitable for land 

and ocean studies. 

EOSAT has begun to develop a satellite receiving center in Norman, Oklahoma and an 

operations and control center in Princeton, 

New Jersey to be used for ground data capture, processing, and flight control for Landsat 6. 

Satellite Data Servlces 

During 1986, NOAA provided the following 

satellite data services made possible by the 

observing and communicating capabilities of 

TIROS/NOAA and GOES spacecraft: 

GOES Data Collection System (DCS). In 

1986, the System had an increase of over 

2,000 environment-sensing data collection 

platform assignments. DCS buoy, aircraft, 

river gauge, and other data were distributed 

to 69 national and 30 international users 

which included 26 direct readout stations (20 

domestic and 5 non-U.S.). The second edition 

of the GOES DCS Users Catalog was completed and distributed, and contains the data 

collected, user identification, and addresses 

of all platforms operating within the System. 

WEFM. Using three GOES spacecraft, the 

Weather Facsimile (WEFAX) service broad- 
cast processed satellite imagery, meteorological analyses and prognoses, operational messages, and satellite ephemeris bulletins. The 

number of known WEFAX users increased to 

220 (107 domestic and 113 non-U.S.). 

Navy/NOAA Joint Ice Centel: In April 1986, 

a Letter of Agreement was signed between 

the Navy and NOAA to improve data processing capabilities at the NavyNOAA Joint Ice 

Center in Suitland, Maryland. The acquisition and installation of a digital image processing system at the Center will allow 

significantly enhanced operational ice data 

analyses and predictions for both the military and civil communities. 

GOES-VISSR Atmospheric Sounder WAS) 

Datu In mid-June 1986, a VAS Data Utilization Center was delivered to the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information 

Service to evaluate its usefulness in applying 

GOES VAS data to monitor tropical storms, 

severe weather outbreaks, and major winter 

storms. Evaluation results were extremely 

favorable, and three additional Centers have 

been proposed to support the National Meteorological, National Severe Storms, and National Hurricane Centers. 

Atmospheric Temperature and Moisture 

Sounding. The year 1986 marked the seventh 

year of atmospheric soundings produced 

through NOAA's polar-orbiting satellite system. In April, a major improvement was 

made with the implementation of the TIROS 

Operational Vertical Sounder (TOVS) Enhancement Sounding System. The System 

produces soundings at a higher horizontal 

resolution in meteorologically active areas, 

and provides additional temperature and 

moisture data where they are most needed. 

The increase in resolution was accomplished 

without compromising data accuracy. Processing efficiency was improved with new computer facilities that allow soundings to be 

provided to the user community within 1 

hour and 20 minutes of satellite data readout. 

Sea Surface Temperatures. Observations of 

sea surface temperatures, made at 8 kilometer resolution, are produced from polarorbiting satellite infrared data and 

transmitted to the National Meteorological 

Center of the National Weather Service, the 

Navy Fleet Numerical Oceanography Center, 

and the World Meteorological Organization 

for use in oceanographic and meteorological 

products. A variety of sea surface temperature analyses were added to charts that cover 

U.S. coastal waters, and are being used by 

forecast offices of the National Weather Service. In August 1986, the creation of a new 

archive on sea surface temperature observations was initiated for the Tropical Ocean 

and Global Atmosphere ("!AGO) project of the 

World Climate Research Program. 

Satellite Weather Information System 

(SWIS). The National Weather Service completed development of the Satellite Weather 

Information System (SWrS) which will provide sophisticated capabilities for display and 

animation of GOES imagery at all forecast 

offices and national centers. In early 1987, 

SWIS will be integrated with the Automation of Field Operatione and Services system 

at field sites, and will allow simultaneous 

display of GOES imagery and numerical 

guidance products, such as charts, that are 

generated from the National Meteorological 

Center. Animation of GOES images and superposition of guidance products will improve 

the ability of forecasters to monitor guidance 

material and track severe weather. 

Search and Rescue. In 1986, the international satellite search and rescue service provided by Canada, France, the United States, 

and the Soviet Union was responsible for the 

rescue of 178 people, for a total of about 700 

people, to date. In January 1986, a prototype 

user awareness program to reduce the 99 percent false alarm rate for the 121.5 MHk frequency was initiated in Alaska. In August, a 

similar program began in California; the governor proclaimed a false alarm awareness 

day, and a legislative resolution was introduced proclaiming 1987 as the year of air and 

maritime safety. 

In January 1986, the Maritime Safety 

Committee of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) approved 406 MHz as the 

primary frequency for the float-free emergency position indicating radio beacons for 

the future global maritime distress and 

safety system. 

Fisheries, Based on Coastal Zone Color 

Scanner information obtained by NASA's 

Nimbus 7 satellite, experimental charts of 

the eastern Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of 

Mexico were prepared showing the location of 

weather mass boundaries that are useful in 

locating potentially productive fishing areas. 

With this information, it was estimated that 

the Gulf commercial fishing fleet could save 

20 percent of its time and expense in longline 

fishing operations. Creation of the charts, 

78 
made at the request of the fishing industry, 

was a joint project of the National Marine 

Fisheries Service, National Ocean Service, 

Scripps Institute of Oceanography, and Goddard Space Flight Center. 

Space Environment Services. NOAA’s Space 

Environment Services Center prepares a 

weekly summary of variations in the space 

environment that includes solar activity and 

its effects on the terrestrial environment. In 

1986, a set of plots describing conditions in 

the geostationary environment that may be 

deleterious to spacecr& was added to its 

data base. 

naining. During 1986, NOAA’s commitment to training in the applications of satellite imagery increased. A major effort was 

initiated to ensure coordinated interagency 

satellite training with films, laboratory exercises, audio cassettes, and tape-slide programs. The Satellite Applications 

Laboratory of the National Environmental 

Satellite, Data, and Information Service 

(NESDIS) began conducting two training 

courses annually for U.S. Navy officers. In 

addition, training was provided to National 

Weather Service and Air Force forecasters, 

and to Navy reservists. In 1986, approximately 1,000 persons received satellite applications training from NOAA. 

The National Weather Service and NESDIS jointly developed a training program on 

satellite imagery interpretation, emphasizing imagery animation. The program’s two 

components consist of a handbook on imagery interpretation, and a collection of videotapes depicting various aspects of imagery 

analysis. The handbook entitled “NWS Forecasting Handbook #6, Satellite Imagery Interpretation for Forecasters” is a collection of 

54 papers divided into eight chapters. Each 

chapter covers a unique meteorological phenomenon ranging from basic interpretation 

and synoptic scale analysis to convection and 

fog stratus. The collection of four twentyminute videotapes covers topics on basic 

cloud identification, tropical upper-air vortex 

motion, fog and stratus indentifkation, and 

absolutehelative cloud motions. Distributed 

in the summer of 1986, the tapes supplement 

two other tapes that depict the initiation of 

convection and thunderstorm outflow boundaries from the satellite perspective. Other 

tapes, covering both synoptic and mesoscale 

frontal analysis, will be developed and distributed in early 1987. 

Stereo Physiographic Map of the World 

Techniques used for processing satellite imagery were used to create and interpret a 

stereo-physiographic map of the world. Digital elevations and bathymetry data archived 

at NOAA’s National Geophysical Data Center were processed to create the map, which 

was presented at the annual meeting of the 

Geological Society of America. The map gives 

scientists a unique perspective of the Earth’s 

physiography and is useful in interpreting 

global-scale features that may improve understanding of the Earth’s geological processes. 

lnternatlonal Actlvltles 

World Administrative Radio Conferences. 

World Administrative Radio Conferences 

(WARC’s) are conducted under the aegis of 

the International Telecommunication Union 

0, and the National Telecommunications 

and Information Administration (NTIA) of 

the Department of Commerce actively participates in them. The NTIA prepared for the 

1987 Mobile WARC and the 1988 ORB(2) 

WARC, both of which will be of major importance to US. space interests. 

Proposed changes to the ITU Radio Regulations that were proposed at the 1987 Mobile 

WARC include allocation of 1500/1600 MHz 

to the Radio Determination Satellite Service 

(RDSS) and Mobile Satellite Service (MSS). 

The RDSS would use satellites to provide users with specific information on their location for management, inventory, and safety. 

The MSS allocation would accommodate land 

mobile, aeronautical mobile, and maritime 

mobile services. The WARC on the Use of the 

Geostationary Satellite Orbit and the Planning of Space Services Utilizing It, commonly 

known as the ORB(2) WARC, will address the 

critical issue of equitable access to the geostationary orbit for all countries. 

Advanced Communication Technology Sa& 

ellite Experimentation Planning continued 

for experiments that NTIA will conduct using the Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) under development by 

NASA. Experiments projected include network and switching performance measurements, system performance measurements, 

utilizing the user-oriented performance parameters recommended by American National Standard X3.102-1983, beampointing, timing accuracy measurements, 

79 
and propagation studies. Results of these 

experiments are expected to provide idormation important to future satellite communications systems. 

Assistance to the Egyptian Government. 

NOMS National Geophysical Data Center 

(NGDC) provided technical assistance to the 

Minerals, Petroleum and Groundwater Assessment Program of the Egyptian Government, an effort sponsored by the U.S. Agency 

for International Development. NGDC assisted in processing and interpreting satellite 

imagery, and integrating satellite images 

with geophysical data for resource exploration and assessment. 

CGMS. In November 1986, the Coordination of Geostationary Meteorological Satellites (CGMS) group, consisting of 

representatives from the United States, Japan, India, the Soviet Union, and the European Meteorological Satellite (EUMETSATI 

community, met in New Delhi, India. Included in its agenda were issues such as relaying Indian satellite imagery data to the 

United States; planning for contingencies 

where one satellite replaces another; changing the schedule for Data Collection System 

(DCS) platform-reporting; and refining 

satellite-borne calibration techniques. 

ARGOS. In 1986, the Centre National 

d'Etudes Spatiales (CNES) created a subsidiary organization responsible for all promotional and operational activities of the 

ARGOS system. In the spring of 1987, a 

CNES ARGOS data processing center will 

become operational in the Washington, D.C., 

area. 

International Training. In 1986, visiting 

foreign scientists were trained by NOAA in 

applications of remote sensing data obtained 

by environmental satellites that included estimating precipitation from satellite imagery, assessing climate, forecasting weather 

and crops, and managing satellite data. 

Research 

Technology fir Space Flight. In 1986, research resources of the National Bureau of 

Standards were applied to a variety of space 

flight-related subjects: 

Studies on fluid-fluid and fluid-solid interfaces were conducted as prototype experiments for low gravity research in an orbiting 

laboratory. The feasibility of using low gravity space environments to measure very high 

temperature thermophysical properties of liquids and solids was explored. Heat transfer 

analyses made on the behavior of liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen in a low gravity environment, similar to that experienced by the 

Space Shuttle, have implications for future 

experiments that will be conducted on the 

Space Station. 

In the area of materials science, NBS provided consultation to aerospace companies on 

the feasibility of fabricating a liquid hydrogen or slush hydrogen fuel tank from allgraphite epoxy composites for the proposed 

Aero-Space Plane. In an effort to find safer 

components for launch vehicles and groundbased support systems, NBS also studied the 

ignition and combustion characteristics of 

metals that come into contact with high pressure oxygen. 

Using funding supplied by INTELSAT, 

NBS made a comparative evaluation of measurement techniques that could be used to 

determine the performance of antennas on 

the new INTELSAT VI spacecraft. The objective of the evaluation was to-find the measurement technique best suited for such a 

complex system. When completed, the evaluation will benefit measurement support for 

all emerging high-performance satellites. 

Detection of Gravitational Waves. Scientists 

at NBS assessed the practicality of using a 

laser, on an experimental basis, to detect 

gravitational waves in space that last about 

0.1 seconds or longer. The detection of such 

waves or pulses by means of a laser would 

provide an entirely new way to study events 

in the universe that involve very large 

masses. These events include collisions of 

massive black holes, thought to exist at the 

center of many galaxies, that probably provide the energy source for quasars. 

Earth's Atmospheric Chemistry. Through a 

cooperative agreement with NASA, NBS engaged in experiments on the chemical dynamics of gas phase processes (reaction rates 

and mechanisms) selected for their importance to the study of atmospheric chemistry. 

The results of these experiments are expected 

to assist in modeling various atmospheric 

phenomena, such as the effects of natural 

and atmospheric emissions on the stratospheric ozone layer, atmospheric radiation 

budget (greenhouse effect), and tropospheric 

acid precipitation. 

Planetary Atmospheres. In a program spon- 
sored by NASA, in collaboration with several 

universities, NBS investigated far infrared 

absorption spectra that result from collisions 

of nonpolar molecules found in the atmospheres of the outer planets. The investigation is expected to lead to a better 

understanding of the nature of thermal emissions from these atmospheres, the amount of 

gases such as hydrogen, helium, methane, 

and nitrogen, and to determine temperature 

profiles. 

Satellite Magnetometel: To determine the 

practicality of various designs for the Geomagnetic Autonomous Shuttle-Launched 

Probe (GASP), a three-phase study was conducted for the Navy by NOAA's National Geophysical Data Center. GASP will serve as the 

survey platform for the Naval Oceanographic 

Ofice's Project MAGNET. The study investigated cheaper and simpler ways to survey the 

geomagnetic field by satellite. 

The COHMEX Experiment. In the summer 

of 1986, the Cooperative Huntsville Mesoscale Experiment (COHMEX) was conducted 

to provide a better understanding of thunderstorms and their associated downbursts. It 

was supported by GOES and TIFtOS/NOAA 

spacecraft, Doppler radars, NOAA special rawinsonde coverage, the Federal Aviation Administration, aircraft flights sponsored by 

the National Science Foundation, and special 

Tennessee Valley Authority rain gauge and 

surface reports. The experiment included 

studies of microbursts and severe thunderstorms in a moist environment; downburst 

influence on aircraft performance; mesoscale 

environments as they affect precipitating 

storm development and evolution; and arc 

cloud lines to understand thunderstorm outflow dynamics and how outflow interacts 

with local environments to influence deep 

convective storms. 

Satellite Cloud CZimatology In a program 

that compiles a global data set of calibrated 

visible and infrared radiances, the Satellite 

Research Laboratory of NOAA's National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information 

Service collected data from international 

geostationary and polar-orbiting satellites. 

The radiances will be processed into a cloud 

data set that includes cloud top temperatures, volumes, heights, and optical thickness, helpful information to understand the 

role of clouds in the Earth's radiation budget 

and hydrological cycle. 

Hurricane Research. In its 1986 hurricane 

field program, the Hurricane Research Division of NOAA's National Hurricane Center 

used the communications capability of the 

GOES Data Collection System. Atmospheric 

sounding data from the mid- and lowertroposphere were transmitted by dropwindsondes to a NOAA aircraft and, subsequently, 

relayed by an aircraft-to-GOES data link. 

Also, the TIROS/NOAA spacecraft provided 

support by relaying data from drifting buoys. 

Aeronautical Programs 

Charting. As part of its continuing responsibility to produce charts, NOAA's National 

Ocean Service developed a Pacific Oceanic 

Route Chart, for use by Federal Aviation Administration air traffic controllers, and a 

Navigational Aid Digital Data File that contains the geographic position, type, and 

unique characteristics of every navigational 

aid in the United States, Puerto Rico, and the 

Virgin Islands. 
Department of Energy 

The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and 

predecessor agencies, (the Atomic Energy 

Commission, and the Energy Research and 

Development Administration) have supported efforts to design, develop, produce, and 

deliver Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTG's) for highly specialized space and 

terrestrial applications. In fact, 1986 marked 

the 25th anniversary of the first use of RTGs, 

previously referred to as Systems for Nuclear 

Auxiliary Power (SNAP). Over this time, the 

RTGs delivered by DOE to the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration 

(NASA), and to the Department of Defense 

(DOD) provided safe and highly reliable electrical power sources that contributed to the 

success of some of the most ambitious and 

spectacular astronautical events ever undertaken by the United States. The five SNAP27 RTGs, launched between 1969 and 1972, 

to power the Apollo lunar experimental packages, were still operational when the lunar 

stations were closed in September 1977. The 

SNAP-19 RTGs, launched in 1975 on the Viking Lander, allowed an extended mission on 

the surface of Mars. The SNAP-19 RTG's, 

launched in 1972 and 1973 on the Pioneer 10 

and 11 missions to Jupiter, are still operational. Pioneer 11 has flown past both Jupiter and Saturn, and Pioneer 10 has passed 

the orbit of Pluto, the outermost planet. The 

MultiHundred-Watt (MHW) RTG's, launched 

in 1977 on the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft, are 

still operational. This has allowed NASA to 

complete long-duration flights to Jupiter and 

Saturn; and in 1986, Voyager 2 made a spectacular flyby of Uranus. Voyager 1 is now 

headed for Neptune. 

Space Nuclear Power Systems 

Space nuclear power systems are of two basic types: reactors or isotopic, and are generally categorized by the type of energy 

conversion systems used, either static or dynamic. The RTG is a static isotopic power system that consists of a radioisotope heat 

source thermally coupled to a converter segment; it is not dependent on moving parts to 

generate electricity. Thermoelectric elements 

in the converter section convert heat, generated by decay of the radioisotope, to electricity by means of a basic material property 

referred to as the Seebeck effect. Plutonium238 fuel has been used to power all U.S. space 

RTG's launched to date. 

The remarkable success of RTG's in space 

applications can be attributed to RTG technological advances that improved systems 

safety and efficiency, as reflected in enhanced 

specific power and increased power output. 

For example, mission power was increased 

from the SNAP-3A's 2.7 watts of electricity, 

used on the TRANSIT navigational satellite 

launched in 1961, to about 158 watts of electricity from the MHW-RTG's used on NASA's 

Voyager spacecraft launched in 1977. The 

specific power for these two systems increased from 1.29 to 4.2 watts of electricity 

per kilogram. This improvement was the 

result of enhanced design features, including 

the use of silicon-germanium (SiGe) thermoelectrics in the MHW-RTG, as opposed to the 

lead-tellurium technology used in the 

SNAP-3A. The use of SiGe thermoelectrics 

increased system efficiency to 6.6 percent, 

compared to 5.1 percent in the SNAP-3A; a 

fuel change from plutonium metal to pressed 

oxide contributed to system safety, and allowed RTG systems to operate at higher temperatures (approximately 1,000 degrees 

Centigrade), which yield higher specific 

powers. The successful performance of the 

MHW-RTG's resulted in the use of SiGe 

technology for the high power, 285 watts, 

General-Purpose Heat Source RTG (GPHSRTG). The GPHS-RTG has a specific power of 

5.2 watts of electricity per kilogram, compared to the MHW-RTG's 4.2 watts of electricity per kilogram. Four flight qualified 

GPHS-RTG's were fabricated and tested by 

DOE, and are available to support NASA's 

Galileo and Ulysses missions. 

The improved designs of the RTG's have 

consistently demonstrated that they are dependable power supplies that are independent of the external environment. Designs, 

ranging from the SNAP-3A to the MHWRTG, have provided power at or exceeding requirements. The MHW-RTGs have operated 
five years beyond their projected lifetime, 

which was demonstrated in January 1986 by 

the Voyager 2 encounter with the distant 

planet Uranus. Similarly, improved design 

features are reflected in the construction of 

the newest GPHS-RTG’s. A unique feature of 

the GPHS-RTG is that it is fueled with a 

modular heat source that improves safety 

and provides a higher specific power. The 

RTG has 18 fueled modules, each containing 

250 thermal watts of plutonium-238 in the 

form of oxide pellets. DOE continues to support studies of RTG design, heat source materials, and thermoelectric materials to ensure 

optimum performance on future space missions, such as those using Mariner Mark I1 

Class spacecraft. 

In January 1986, four GPHS-RTG’s (F-1, 

F-3, F-4, F-51, were sent to the Kennedy 

Space Center (KSC) to prepare for the Galileo 

and Ulysses space missions. However, due to 

the tragic accident of the Space Shuttle Challenger, they were not used as intended. Nevertheless, the RTG’s were used at KSC to 

provide direct system integration data, such 

as matching the F-1 and F-5 RTG’s to the 

Galileo spacecraft, and experiments were 

conducted using the F-3 RTG and the U1- 

ysses spacecraft. Subsequently, the RTGs 

were returned to DOE’S Mound Plant in Ohio 

for servicing, monitoring, and safekeeping 

until required by future missions. Under simulated space conditions, testing of the 

GPHS-RTG Qualification Unit, and the electrically heated Engineering Unit continued, 

and demonstrated power performance to design specifications. The Lightweight Radioisotope Heater Units, consisting of 134 units 

of approximately 1 watt each that will be 

used to keep instruments warm on the Galileo spacecraft, also were returned for storage 

at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. 

Building upon the success of SiGe thermoelectric technology, DOE sponsored the development of a Modular RTG (MOD-RTG) that 

offers the potential of higher power per unit 

mass, based upon a modular concept compatible with the Mariner Mark I1 spacecraft. 

Also, work continued on development of a 

multicouple (a collection of thermoelectric elements bonded together), with emphasis 

placed upon improving the insulating glass 

that separates the thermoelectric elements. 

SP-100 Space Reactor Program 

The goal of the SP-100 Space Reactor program is to develop, and demonstrate the effectiveness of space nuclear reactor technology 

that can provide up to about one megawatt of 

electric power for military and civilian space 

missions in the 1990’s and beyond. Completed in 1985, Phase I of the program established technical and safety feasibility, and 

one power system concept was selected for 

further development and testing. Phase I1 activities, that will be conducted from 1986 

through 1992, involve civilian and military 

mission analyses, defining requirements, developing and testing a prototype SP-100 

space reactor power system, and pursuing advanced aerosyace technology that could improve system capability in the future. 

Under the Phase 11 agreement reached by 

DOE, DOD, and NASA, DOE is responsible for 

SP-100 Ground Engineering System (GES) development and testing; DOD’s Strategic Defense Initiative Organization, using the Air 

Force as its executing agent, is responsible for 

military mission analyses and defining requirements; and NASA is responsible for civilian missions analyses and defining 

requirements, and investigating advanced aerospace technologies that could enhance an SP100 power system in the future. 

SP-100 Ground Engineering System (GES). 

In late 1986, contract negotiations for GES 

were initiated with contract selection expected in the fall of 1987. The contract package, which represents the largest and most 

important activity of the SP-100 Phase I1 

program, contains extensive system definition requirements that must be met to satisfy 

program objectives. 

During Phase 11, a prototypical space reactor will be tested in a vacuum chamber, 

which simulates the space environment. 

Plans were made to modify facility designs, 

and to refine resource estimates to meet the 

GES schedule and test program objectives. 

Z’kchnology Development. To continue high 

priority work on thermoelectric materials 

and cell fabrication, technology contracts 

were awarded to develop and characterize 

high temperature thermoelectric cell insulator materials that are thermally and chemically compatible with long-term operation; to 

synthesize thermoelectric materials, and 

develop thermal and electrical contact bonds; 

and to design, fabricate, and test compliant 

pads for the thermoelectric cells using stateof-the-art materials and production processes. 

Testing continued on fuels and materials 

irradiation. Three fuel irradiation tests were 

84 
conducted in DOE’s Experimental Breeder 

Reactor Number I1 (EBR 11). To date, maximum burn up is 3.6 atom percent, which represents more than one-half the design life. 

Post-irradiation examination of the first two 

sets of fuel pin tests were completed, and the 

results agreed with predictions. Materials 

test specimens irradiated in EBR-I1 were removed from the reactor, and shipped to DOE’s 

Hanford Engineering Development Laboratory (now Westinghouse Hanford Company) 

for examination and testing. Also, planning 

and design of the test capsule for prototype 

fuels and materials irradiation in DOE’s Fast 

Flux Test Facility continued. Materials to 

produce fuel for the GES reactor test were 

installed. Hyperstoichiometric uranium nitride fuel pellets were fabricated in large 

batches, and analyzed at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. 

Program Planning. Program planning activities underway include the development 

and implementation of an SP-100 Project 

Plan, a Project Management Plan, a Comprehensive Safety Program Plan, detailed Safety 

Implementation Plans for each participant, 

and a rigorous Quality and Reliability Program Plan. Plans also were finalized for the 

technical work to be performed by the participating federal laboratories, particularly in 

the areas of fuel and materials fabrication 

and testing, thermoelectric materials development and testing, and characterization of 

heat transport components. 

Phase I1 activities will lead to Flight System Production, Qualification, and ApplicatiodDemonstration, the third and final 

phase of the SP-100 program, scheduled for 

1992 through 1995. Included in Phase I11 is 

actual launch and first use of the technology 

in spaceflight. 

Nuclear Test Detection 

DOE continues to support the national 

requirement to verify compliance with the 

Limited Test Ban Treaty and the Nonproliferation Treaty by producing nuclear detonation 

detection systems deployed as secondary payloads aboard DOD satellites. These systems 

consist of optical and direct radiation sensors, 

and are the primary means of monitoring nuclear testing in the atmosphere. They are 

also the only systems capable of detecting nuclear detonations in space. 

DOE laboratories, that produce the detection systems, maintain continuous programs 

to improve related technology. The goals are 

to obtain improved energy resolution, faster 

sensor response times, wider spectra coverage, compression of data processing, greater 

survivability, and development of new applications and sensors. Also, in order to enhance 

event discrimination and prevent false 

alarms, considerable research is devoted to 

the study of satellite operating environments. Many developmental experiments are 

flown aboard NASA satellites, and many are 

conducted jointly with other nations. 

85 
Department of the Interior 

As the Nation's principal conservation 

agency, the Department of the Interior is responsible for most of the nationally owned 

public lands and natural resources. This responsibility entails fostering the wisest use 

of land and water resources, protecting fish 

and wildlife, preserving the environmental 

and cultural values of national parks and historical places, and ensuring the enjoyment of 

life through outdoor recreation. The Department monitors energy and mineral resources 

to ensure that their development is in the 

Nation's best interest. Also, the Department 

has a major responsibility for residents of 

American Indian reservations and Island 

"brritories under the administration of the 

United States. 

Frequently, the Department relies on data 

acquired by satellite and aircraft sensors to 

inventory and monitor lands under its management, and maintains an active program of 

research and technique development in remote sensing, digital cartography, and geographic information systems. During 1986, 

bureaus and agencies of the Department of 

the Interior participating in remote secsing 

and digital data applications included the 

Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land 

Management, Bureau of Mines, Mineral 

Management Service, National Park Service, 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and U.S. Geological Survey. 

Remotely Sensed Data Acqulsltlon 

and Processing 

Satellite Data 

The Earth Resources Observation Systems 

(EROS) Data Center of the US. Geological 

Survey (USGS) continued to support the transition of Landsat operations, data marketing, 

and data sales from the National Oceanic 

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to 

the Earth Observation Satellite (EOSAT) 

Company, the commercial operator of Landsat. The EROS Data Center supported NOAA 

and EOSAT in archiving, processing, and distributing Landsat data products to users. 

During 1986, approximately 40,000 Landsat 

Thematic Mapper 0 and Multispectral 

Scanner (MSS) images were processed and 

added to the archive, bringing the total U.S. 

archive to 750,000 images. The EROS Data 

Center maintains a computer-based catalog 

and inquiry system for these images and listings of over 800,000 images held by certain 

foreign Landsat ground receiving stations. 

During 1986, approximately 26,000 film and 

digital Landsat products were generated and 

distributed to users worldwide. 

NOAA and the USGS have developed a system at the EROS Data Center to receive and 

process NOMS Advanced Very High Resolub 

tion Radiometer (AVHRR) data of the conterminous United States. In 1986, design and 

procurement of the system were completed, 

and operation is scheduled to begin in 1987. 

The system will generate selected AVHRR 

data that are optimized for land science applications consistent with the Department's 

research and land management responsibilities, and for other Federal research purposes. 

Aerial Photographs 

In 1986, contracting for the National High 

Altitude Photography (NHAP) program was 

completed. The initial phase, NW I, was 

begun in 1980 by participating Federal agencies to acquire simultaneous 1:80,000-scale 

black-and-white and 1:58,000-scale colorinfrared aerial photographs of the conterminous United States during the nongrowing 

(leaf-off) season. Photographs covering over 

2,900,000 square miles, or about 95 percent 

of the conterminous United States, were acquired under NHAP I and are available to 

the public from the USGS and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. It is anticipated 

that all photographic acquisitions for NHAP 

I will be completed by the end of 1987. 

The second major phase, NHAP 11, began in 

1985 as a 5-year plan to acquire 1:80,000- 

scale black-and-white and 1:58,000-scale 

color-infrared aerial photographs of the conterminous United States with two differences 

from NHAP I: image acquisition is scheduled 

during the growing (leaf-on) season, and work 

87 
is contracted by complete State units rather 

than by lo blocks. During 1985 and 1986, 

460,192 square miles were contracted; by the 

end of 1986, 80 percent of the 1985 acquisitions and 57 percent of the 1986 acquisitions 

were completed, covering a total of 200,800 

square miles. 

After a reassessment of individual Federal 

and State agency needs, the NHAP Program 

was redesigned to meet current requirements 

for higher resolution aerial photographs. The 

new program, called the National Aerial Photography Program (NAPP), will provide complete, standardized, and uniform-quality 

coverage of the 48 conterminous United 

States. New photographs will be acquired 

from an altitude of 20,000 feet with a single 

6-inch focal length camera exposing colorinfrared film at a scale of 1:40,000. The photographs will be centered on quarter sections 

of standard 7.5-minute quadrangles. NAPP 

will begin in 1987, and photographs of all or 

parts of 12 States will be acquired. 

Sidehoking Airborne Radar Data 

In 1986, the USGS Side-Looking Airborne 

Radar (SLAR) program continued, and a contract was awarded to acquire data covering 

approximately 206,000 square miles in the 

conterminous United States, Alaska, the 

Status map showing extent of coverage by the USGS Slda 

Looking Alrborno Radar (SLAR) program. 

Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. From 1980 through 1986, SLAR 

data were acquired, or contracted for acquisition, for more than 941,000 square miles in 

the United States. Acquisition areas are selected after a review of areas proposed by 

State geologists and scientists from private 

industry and the USGS. Data are available 

as image strips, lo by 2O mosaics, and, for 

selected areas, as computer-compatible tapes. 

Digital Data Processing 

and lkansmission 

Software Development and Implementation 

In 1986, the cooperative development efforts of the National Aeronautics and Space 

Administration's (NASA) Goddard Space 

Flight Center and the USGS culminated in 

the implementation and release of the Land 

Analysis System (LAS) for general use by several government and academic organizations. LAS is an image processing and 

geographic information system that provides 

a broad range of capabilities, including image processing and analysis, tabular data 

processing and analysis, geographic data capture and manipulation, and geometric registration and image mosaicking. The system is 

used for enhancing Landsat digital images, 

producing geometrically registered and mosaicked image maps, integrating raster and 

vector data sets, and merging different image 

types, such as Landsat TM and the French 

Systeme Probatoire #Observation de la Terre 

(SPOT). LAS was developed to link several 

heterogeneous computer systems, using 

local-area network file transfer over highspeed communication lines, and is used in approximately 20 facilities throughout the 

United States. NASA and the USGS are 

working together to enhance system capability and improve system portability. 

Use of LAS software in low-cost, workstation-oriented computer systems continues 

to receive high priority within the USGS, and 

is expected to result in a wide range of applications far beyond the basic image processing 

capabilities that were envisioned. The availability of workstation hardware from Digital 

Equipment Corporation (MicroVAX systems) 

allowed easy application of most of the LAS. 

Because the LAS program also supports use 

of applications modules under the UNIX 

operating system, it can be installed on a variety of 32-bit, multiprocessing, supermicrobased workstations. 

During 1986, the National Park Service 

(NPS) continued to adapt software to the 

UNIX operating system, allowing users to 

run it on very powerful, yet significantly 

lower-cost, hardware. The NPS cooperated 

88 
with NASA’s National Space Technology Lab 

oratories to produce an operational UNIXbased version of the Earth Resources 

Laboratory Applications Software (ELAS). 

ELAS is used by NPS and other Federal and 

non-Federal agencies to process and classify 

multispectral scanner, radar, and other remotely sensed data from satellite and aircraft platforms. Geographical Resources 

Analysis Support System (GRASS), developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, is 

another UNIX-based software system 

adopted by the NPS. GRASS is user friendly 

and can process both raster and vector data. 

Both ELAS and GRASS are being installed 

on UNIX-based workstations for operational 

use in national parks and other NPS units. 

Polar Satellite Communications 

The USGS is participating in a joint project 

It0 install and operate the South Pole Satellite 

Data Link, the first satellite telecommunications link from the South Pole to the United 

States. Participants include the National Science Foundation, University of Texas Applied 

Research Laboratories, Bendix Field Engineering Corporation, ITT Antarctic Services, 

NASA, and NOAA. Installed in 1985, this 

telecommunications system was the primary 

means of transmitting USGS scientific data 

daily from the South Pole during 1986. Further modifications to the system are planned, 

and it is expected that a broader range of scientific data will be transmitted in the future. 

Remote Senslng Applications 

Cooperative Federal Land Remote Sensing 

Research Program 

The USGS and NOAA signed an agreement 

to establish the Cooperative Federal Land Remote Sensing Research program that will be 

located at the EROS Data Center. The objective of this program is to conduct land remote 

sensing research, applications development, 

and user education. The program is expected 

to promote greater operational and research 

use of remotely sensed data and related technology within Federal and State governments, academia, and the private sector. 

Renewable Resources 

A cooperative research project between the 

NOAA Satellite Research Laboratory and the 

USGS is underway at the EROS Data Center 

to evaluate satellite assessment of land surface features and climatic variables. The objective of the study is to determine if 

relationships can be established between routinely available ground-based data and satellite measurements. Satellite data include 

daily and weekly composites of AVHRR 

Global Area Coverage data for the Great 

Plains region of the United States. Geographic information for the area includes political, topographic, climatic, and land 

resource data bases that will be used to stratify the satellite and ground-based observations. The satellite and ground-based data 

sets are expected to contribute to the overall 

understanding of land surface climatology. 

The National Wetlands Inventory Project of 

the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 

identifies and classifies the Nation’s wetland 

habitats with the use of high-altitude aerial 

photographs from the NHAP Program. The 

USFWS works with the Defense Department’s Computer-Assisted Photo Interpretation Laboratory, and other groups, to 

evaluate digital mapping capabilities, such 

as wetland data digitization, use of computer 

graphics, and analytical photogrammetry. 

The USFWS will use these automated methods when it becomes cost-effective to do so. 

Since the early days of the Landsat program, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has 

used remotely sensed data from satellites for 

natural resource applications. Early projects 

emphasized applications development, while 

current activities emphasize operational use. 

In spite of decreasing program budgets and 

personnel ceilings, BIA has assigned high 

priority to these activities as a means of 

achieving natural resource management objectives. BIA plans to conduct operational 

and experimental projects, using both Landsat and SPOT satellite data, that include 

both visual interpretation and digital analysis to determine information content. Projects that are already in progress on 

reservations include: San Carlos Agency, Arizona-a land cover and land use map of the 

reservation for use in a range survey; Yakima 

Agency, Washington-evaluation of SPOT 

and Landsat TM data to improve natural resource interpretation; Hopi Agency, Arizona-incorporation of remotely sensed data 

89 
into a geographic information system; and 

Warm Springs Agency, Oregon-evaluation of 

SPOT and Landsat TM data to assess forest 

resources. 

The NPS continues to acquire and use 

Landsat TM data, combined with USGS digital elevation model data, to develop digital 

data bases for more than 30 million acres of 

national parks in Alaska. In conjunction 

with the data base development, the NPS is 

experimenting with enhancement techniques for Landsat TM data to detect allterrain vehicle (ATV) trail damage to arctic 

tundra. Although the width of most ATV 

trails is less than the satellite sensor resolution, many trails are being detected because 

they contrast sharply in tone with the naturally vegetated surroundings. As satellites 

with higher spatial resolution sensors become available, these techniques may serve 

as an effective way to monitor ATV damage 

and subsequent vegetation recovery. 

Hydrology 

The USGS is using remotely sensed data in 

a variety of water resources investigations, 

including studies of groundwater, water quality, water use, evapotranspiration, and snow 

and ice. In most instances, Landsat MSS and 

TM data are used to map land use/land cover 

and terrain features as an intermediary step 

in estimating hydrologic conditions. For example, several studies are concerned with estimating the amount of ground water that is 

pumped for agricultural irrigation. In such 

studies, irrigated crop types are determined 

and their acreage calculated from a digital 

classification of Landsat data. This information is then integrated with other variables, 

such as climatic conditions, into a model that 

calculates the irrigated water demand of specific crops. 

The USGS is conducting research on use of 

ground water on the Columbia Plateau. 

Landsat MSS data were used to determine 

acreage of agricultural crops by water-use 

category; spectral classification of the MSS 

data was used to identify crop categories; and 

a geographic information system was used to 

store, analyze, and display the data. Individual crops were more accurately distinguished 

using Landsat TM data than Landsat MSS 

data. Acreage of crops by water-use category 

was summarized by quarter-township units 

and incorporated into a water-use model. 

As part of NASA's International Satellite 

Land Surface Climatology program, the 

USGS is using data collected by Landsat and 

AVHRR to study the relationship between irrigation development and climatic change in 

western Nebraska. Data collected during selected years that represent transformations 

in vegetation greenness and land surface albedo (brightness) will be analyzed and compared to changes in land cover. 

Landsat TM images are being produced by 

the USGS to support water resource investigations in California and Nevada. The images are used for mapping water-bearing 

formations and distinguishing vegetation 

that indicates the presence of ground water. 

Also, Landsat data are being analyzed to 

identify and map agricultural crops along the 

lower Colorado River Valley and to determine 

the amount of irrigation water that is used by 

the crops and returned to the atmosphere by 

evapotranspiration. The information is used 

to allocate and regulate the use of irrigation 

water. This work is being performed in conjunction with NASA and the State of Arizona. In addition, Landsat TM images are 

being used to monitor the extent of growth of 

hydrilla and other submersed aquatic vegetation in the upper Potomac River estuary near 

Washington, D.C. 

Data from active and passive microwave 

sensors are being used to develop techniques 

for characterizing and measuring snow and 

ice properties. Data from the Nimbus-7 scanning multichannel microwave radiometer are 

used to measure snow distribution, snow water equivalent, and snowmelt initiation time 

and progression patterns. These remote sensing measurements are coupled with selected 

field measurements of the vertical distribution of snow density, snow grain size, temperature, and the presence of crust and ice layers 

in the snowpack. This approach has demonstrated considerable potential for providing 

immediate information on snow characteristics to forecast snowmelt runoff in large river 

basins like the upper Colorado River. 

The USGS used image enhancement techniques to reveal detail on Landsat MSS and 

TM images of Antarctic snow and ice fields. 

This process allows both the identification of 

blue ice patches, which commonly contain 

surface concentrations of well-preserved meteorites, and tracking of specific glacial features, from which accurate glacial flow rates 

can be determined. 

90 
Rapld spring bmak-out of Ice flows Into the Bering Sea Is 

shown In these Landsat MSS band 7 images acquired on 

March 6 and March 7,1983. Ice mows southward through the 

Bering Strait from the Chukchl Sea into the northern Bering 

Sea when winds blow from north to south through the 

Oceanography 

Through the Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Assessment program of the 

Alaska Region Studies Program, the Minerals Management Service funds a remote 

sensing project that acquires, analyzes, and 

archives satellite images and other remotely 

sensed data of the U.S. Arctic region. The archive contains selected high-quality Landsat 

and AVHRR images that are used to study 

the forms, seasonal distribution, and movement of sea ice. In 1986, studies continued to 

correlate ice motion, such as ice-ridge building and formation of polynya (permanent or 

semipermanent open-water areas within an 

ice-covered sea), with meteorological conditions. Specific studies were conducted in the 

Bering Straits-ice-ridge building and ice 

movement; Yukon Delta-ice movement and 

distribution; Beaufort Sea-ice distribution 

and concentration during summer; and 

Chukchi Sea-ice behavior. Also, satellite 

data were used to delineate suspended sediment plumes, verify the presence of Ocean circulation features, and identify areas of high 

plant-pigment concentrations in the sea. 

Geology 

Geologic Mapping and Analysis. Significant advances were made by the USGS in anStrait, and the normally south-to-north oceanic current is 

twersed by sea-surface tilt induced by atmospheric pressum. Daily Ice displacements during this tlme were generally 

on the order of 35 km per day but ranged as high as 70 km 

per dw. 

alyzing satellite and airborne visible and 

near-infrared reflectance measurements for 

lithologic determinations. Certain hydroxylbearing minerals, commonly associated with 

metal deposits, exhibit diagnostic reflectance 

characteristics that can be detected in rock 

and soil. Digital analysis of images recorded 

in the visible and near-infrared parts of the 

electromagnetic spectrum allows identification of these minerals and compilation of 

maps showing their distributions. In highly 

vegetated terrain, subtle reflectance differences, caused by anomalously high copper 

content, also were detected using high spectral resolution measurements. These techniques have considerable potential for 

mineral appraisal studies, especially as 

advanced imaging systems are placed into 

orbit. 

Mine Development and Safety Monitoring. 

To improve the ability to predict ground hazards in underground coal mines, the Bureau 

of Mines continued its research on the application of Landsat MSS data to geologic 

lineament analysis. In 1986, activities concentrated on ground-data collection to verify 

correlations between surface lineament features and subsurface ground conditions. 

Based on the analysis of remotely sensed 

data, a map of potential mine hazards was 

developed for an underground coal mine near 

Orangeville, Utah. Subsequently, the map 

was compared to roof conditions in the mine 

91 
and roof failures experienced in areas of active mining. About 80 percent of the deteriorating and fallen roof areas in the mine, 

including areas of heavy water inflow, were 

found within the hazardous zones that were 

identified by lineament analysis. This result 

seems to verify the methodology that is being 

developed by the Bureau for predicting 

ground hazards in mining by using remote 

sensing techniques. On the other hand, five 

lineaments mapped from Landsat data of the 

coal mining region in southwestern Pennsylvania were compared to subsurface geologic 

conditions by using geophysical traversing 

and soil moisture sampling. The results 

failed to show any significant subsurface geologic disturbances that could be correlated 

with the lineaments. Thus, accurately predicting subsurface ground hazards, using remotely sensed data in various geographical 

regions, remains a critical issue for further 

investigation. 

Planetary Studies. In January 1986, the 

Voyager I1 spacecraft, launched in September 

1977, flew past Uranus and its satellites. Approximately 7,000 images were transmitted 

to Earth and were used to construct maps and 

to interpret the geologic history of several 

The complex geologic history of Miranda, one of the moons of 

Uranus, is revealed in this mosaic of images acquired by 

ager 2 on January 24, 1986. At least thrw terrain types of 

different age and geologic style am wldent: ancient, cratered 

terrain consisting of roiilng subdued hliis and degraded craters (right of center); a grooved terrain with linear valleys and 

ridges (right and lefl sldes); and a complex terrain in whlch 

intersecting curvilinear ridges and troughs am abruptly truncated by the linear, gmoved terrain (left of center). 

satellites of Uranus. The images show that 

the satellite Miranda has a very peculiar surface, suggesting that this body may have 

been completely broken up by large impacts, 

and that the large fragments remaining were 

reformed into the mass currently observed. 

New digital mapping techniques were developed to construct a digital image model of 

Mars at 100-meter resolution and a digital 

terrain model that has 500-meter vertical 

resolution. Both models will be used for all 

feature map compilations of Mars. The digital image model is an image map or mosaic in 

a sinusoidal equal-area projection. This projection is a convenient configuration for digital storage, and it can be transformed into 

any standard map projection for map publication. The digital terrain model will be derived from a new photogrammetric model of 

the planet Mars that has recently been completed. The model involves simultaneous solutions for 1,250 images and 5,000 control 

points, and it incorporates spacecraft occultation and Earth-based radar data. This redefinition of the shape of Mars' surface is the 

basis for a new series of topographic maps at 

1:2,000,000 scale. 

Geologic studies of Mars from image data 

indicate that ice may be present near much of 

the Martian surface, and that Mars may contain more water than has been predicted 

from studies of its atmospheric composition. 

Other geologic studies of Mars include the 

identification of potential landing sites for future manned or unmanned missions that 

might involve returning samples of Martian 

surface materials to Earth. 

Meteorite impact craters on Earth are being studied to improve understanding of the 

absolute time scale in which cratering occurred. Information gained from these studies can be compared to the surface ages of 

other planets and satellites. Detailed numerical modeling of a large meteorite impact 

that may have been responsible for the worldwide extinction of species millions of years 

Ocean Impact 50 1 50 Continental Impact F 30s 

Mantle . 

- Mantle 

-SO" ' "' '" '" " -50 

75 75 

KILOMETERS 

Computer simulation of a 10-km diameter amroid Impacting 

continental and otxanlc environments of the Earth at a speed 

of 20 km per second. in this simulation, the craters nached 

maximum depths of nearly 40 km about 30 seconds after Im 

pact, and displaced material then mbounded violently up 

wad. in the ocean impact event, the rim cmst rose almost 40 

km In altitude and rushed outward at speeds of several km per 

second to cause enormous tsunami. More than 100,OOO km' of 

rock and ocean were ejected into the atmosphere and over the 

surrounding am in the two slmuiations. 

92 
ago, such as dinosaurs, is being conducted to 

determine the nature of the resulting landforms and the amount of meteoric and terrestrial material that was ejected into the 

atmosphere. This modeling will help to determine the effects of large asteroidal or cometary impacts on past and future life on Earth. 

Cartography 

Satellite Data Processing and Image Map 

ping. In 1986, the USGS continued research 

investigations to refine procedures for producing satellite image maps. Achievements 

include incorporating deconvolution (restoration) software into the Landsat MSS and TM 

data processing system, and modifying software to process AVHRR data. In addition, 

procedures were improved for converting digital image data to hard-copy color transparency film products that are more suited to 

processing on a graphic scanner-plotter, 

which produces the halftone reproducible 

film required for lithographic printing. 

Landsat MSS and TM restoration procedures were developed by the University of Arizona under contract to the USGS. The 

restoration procedure improves image quality by removing sensor-introduced degradations, such as optical blurring and electronic 

signal smearing. This procedure is used as 

one of the steps in digital processing to produce image maps. Restoration is performed 

during the process of geometric rectification, 

where data are resampled and registered 

with other images or to a map base. Images 

rectified using the restoration procedure are 

both visibly sharper and of higher radiometric fidelity than those rectified without the 

procedure. Currently, research is under way 

at the University of Arizona to develop image 

restoration for AVHRR data. In addition, the 

USGS and the University will soon enter into 

a cooperative agreement to develop this capability for high-resolution images acquired 

from the SPOT satellite. 

The USGS continued its experimental program to produce image maps from Landsat 

MSS and TM data, incorporating digital processing techniques into their production. In 

1986, Landsat MSS image maps (scale 

1:250,000) that were printed include Denali 

National Park and Preserve, Alaska; Richmond, Virginia; and Mariposa, California. To 

produce a false-color image map of the conterminous United States, at a scale of approximately 1:4,000,000, AVHRR data were collected for the Eastern United States to merge 

with data already available for the Western 

States; and AVHRR data collection was initiated to produce a similar product for the 

State of Alaska. In addition, research was 

conducted to determine the largest scale 

AVHRR image map that can be produced to 

cover large unmapped areas of the world. 

A Landsat MSS image map of the Araxa 

area, approximately 350 miles northwest of 

Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, was printed by the 

USGS for the National Research Council of 

Brazil. The comparison printing was made at 

1:250,000 scale using halftone enlargements 

from a graphic arts color scanner-plotter and 

photographic copy camera. The halftone enlargements were made from continuous-tone, 

silver film-negative separations digitally 

processed at 1:1,000,000 scale. These test 

prints will serve as printing guides for a map 

project proposed by the Fundacao Universitaria Jose Bonifacio and the Federal University 

of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The Council plans to 

use a series of 1:250,000-scale Landsat MSS 

or TM image maps to expand the economic 

Sequential Landsat thermal infrared (band 6) images of the 

Soviet nuclear reactor site at Chernobyi. The June 6, 1985 

and April 22, 1986 Images show the normal tone pattern 

associated with warm water discharge from the reactor (arrow). Warm water (lighter tones) cools as it circulates counterclockwise in the pond. Water in the pond is uniform in 

tone on the April 29 and May 8,1986 images, indicating that 

the cooilng system had been shut down following the April 

26 disaster. 

93 
development of Brazilian mineral resources. 

The demonstration printing was completed 

in time for exhibit at the 1986 Pan American 

Institute of Geography and History (PAIGH) 

XV Consultation on Cartography in Rio de 

Janeiro, Brazil. 

Shortly after the April 26,1986 disaster involving the Soviet nuclear power plant at 

Chernobyl, the USGS EROS Data Center acquired Landsat TM data and SPOT highresolution visible (HRW panchromatic data 

on the site, and applied digital processing 

techniques to maximize the interpretability 

of images. Landsat mid-infrared TM images 

(bands 5 and 7), acquired on April 29, showed 

direct evidence of the high-temperature heat 

source associated with the damaged reactor. 

These spectral bands may be useful to detect 

other high-temperature thermal anomalies 

that might be associated with active lava 

flows and forest fires. Data in Landsat TM 

band 6 were used to observe differences in 

water temperature in the cooling pond adjacent to the power plant before and after the 

disaster. The 10-meter SPOT panchromatic 

image revealed significantly greater spatial 

detail in the vicinity of the reactor site than 

the Landsat TM data. In addition, TM and 

SPOT data were combined, using data-merging and color-transformation techniques, to 

produce a single image that presented much 

of the multispectral information available 

only from the Landsat TM data. In the future, these techniques will be used to merge 

different types of satellite data into singleimage maps. 

Sonar Image Mapping. In response to the 

Presidential Proclamation establishing the 

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) over submerged lands extending 200 nautical miles 

seaward from the coasts of the United States 

and certain possessions, the USGS continued 

to collect and analyze sonar image data. 

USGS is producing a series of reconnaissance 

maps of the sea floor of the EEZ area by using 

data from the GLORIA (Geologic Long-Range 

Inclined ASDIC) system, designed and developed by the Institute of Oceanographic Sciences, United Kingdom. As presently 

configured, the GLORIA system operates in 

water depths from 150 meters to the deepest 

parts of the ocean. 

During 1986, GLORIA data of Pacific 

Ocean areas off the West Coast of the United 

States were published in an atlas of thirtythree 2O by 2O map sheets. Also, associated 

profiles of magnetic and seismic data were 

included. In 1986, data of the Gulf of Mexico 

and offshore areas around Puerto Rico were 

analyzed, using the USGS-developed Mini 

Image Processing System. Substantial image 

processing and mosaicking are required to 

make GLORIA data useful for interpretation 

purposes. Processed data continue to reveal 

new information about the geology of the 

ocean floor. For example, analysis of data 

from the Gulf of Mexico revealed topographic 

features, such as basins and escarpments associated with the flow of salt that was mobilized from the depths by pressure from the 

weight of overlaid sediments. Other features 

include massive debris flows and meandering 

submarine channels over 100 kilometers long 

through which sediment-laden currents are 

believed to flow. 

Aerial Profiling of Terrain System. The 

USGS completed an application test program 

and managed operational projects using the 

prototype Aerial Profiling of Terrain System 

(APTS). The system demonstrated the feasibility of using an airborne precision laser 

profiling and tracking system to collect elevation data. The APTS is composed of a precise 

inertial navigation system that is used to interpolate aircraft position and orientation between laser tracker updates; a pulsed laser 

profiler measures the distance from the aircraft to the ground. The prototype system 

demonstrated that it can measure terrain 

profiles with horizontal accuracy of 60 centimeters and vertical accuracy of 15 centimeters. Because the prototype APTS has had 

extensive operational use and many components have become unreliable, the system 

will be taken out of service in 1987. Work is 

underway with the Charles Stark Draper 

Laboratory of Cambridge, Massachusetts to 

develop the design specifications for a system 

that will use the satellite-based Global Positioning System and take advantage of other 

new technology. 

Global hsitioning &stem The Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite-based navigation system under development by the 

Department of Defense, has the potential to 

revolutionize surveying technology. The USGS 

recognized this potential and helped to support 

the development of Qxas Instruments TI4100, the first portable GPS receiver system 

designed for field survey work. In 1986, five of 

these units were used to develop an operational 

capability to perform GPS surveys and begin 

applications testing. The USGS has investigated the use of GPS for crustal motion stud94 
ies, and has taken a lead role in the development of more precise satellite ephemerides. A 

50-station network was established in the Sacramento Valley to monitor land subsidence; 

and the USGS and NOAA are using the GPS to 

determine the elevations of selected points 

around Phoenix, Arizona so that land subsidence caused by extraction of ground water can 

be mapped. Future research and development 

efforts will focus on achieving maximum accuracy using the system for crustal motion studies, and for establishing a dynamic positioning 

capability. 

International Activities 

The USGS is working with the National 

Bureau of Surveying and Mapping (NBSM) of 

the People’s Republic of China under a Protocol for Scientific and Technical Cooperation 

in Surveying and Mapping Studies Concerning Scientific and Bchnical Cooperation in 

the Application of Remote Sensing Information to Cartography. Under this Protocol, four 

scientists from the NBSM visited the USGS 

during 1986, including two who spent 12 

weeks in the United States studying digital 

image processing techniques for remotely 

sensed data; subsequently, two USGS scientists visited China for four weeks to continue 

the research and training activities. Scientific exchanges under the Protocol are 

planned for three more years. 

In 1986, the USGS conducted a 5-week remote sensing workshop at the EROS Data 

Center for 10 scientists from 6 countries. The 

workshop covered applications of Landsat 

data for geologic, hydrologic, and vegetation 

analysis. 

95 
Department of Agriculture 

In 1986, the remote sensing program of the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) emphasized basic applications research and the 

effective use of data from space-based sensors. Operational activities in agencies of the 

Department, such as the Soil Conservation 

Service, were supported by the Remote Sensing Research Laboratory. The Forest Service 

continued developmental work on Geographic Information Systems, using spacebased remotely sensed data as an 

information source. The National Agricultural Statistics Service, and the Foreign Agricultural Service continued the development 

and use of space-based remotely sensed data 

to assess agricultural conditions and to provide more accurate crop statistics. 

Remote Sensing Research 

The new Remote Sensing Research Laboratory, established as part of the Agricultural 

Systems Research Institute, Agricultural Research Service (ARS), is a focal point for remote sensing research. Located at the 

Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in 

Maryland, the Laboratory’s primary mission 

is to conduct basic and applied remote sensing research that serves agencies of the Department. Currently, the Laboratory 

provides support to the Soil Conservation 

Service, for monitoring and inventorying resources, and to the Foreign Agricultural 

Service, improving that agency’s ability to 

use the environmental satellites of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Research that will provide 

long-term benefits to programs involves the 

calibration of various satellite remote sensing systems. Calibration allows consistent 

and accurate values to evaluate satellite 

data. 

Working closely with the Remote Sensing 

Research Laboratory, the Hydrology Laboratory of the ARS participated in the first International Hydrologic Atmospheric Pilot 

Experiment (HAPEX) conducted in France. 

The goal of this experiment was to improve 

climatological understanding. Remotely 

sensed data, from aircraft and multiple satellite platforms, were used to extrapolate point 

measurements of water balance. For example, forecasting the amount of water available for irrigation required timely information 

on snow cover and the extent of melting. 

Snow runoff modeling involved mapping 

snow covered areas and estimating the 

amount of snow water from data obtained by 

research satellites. In addition, using data 

from Landsat’s Multispectral Scanner NSS), 

the Hydrology Laboratory developed a procedure to estimate amounts of sediment concentration. This research will enhance efforts 

to monitor the quality of water in lakes, 

streams, and rivers. 

The ARS participated in a cooperative experiment with the U.S. Geological Survey and the 

University of Arizona’s Maricopa Agricultural 

Center on the use of remotely sensed spectral 

data for large-scale farm management. Because relationships between spectral data, soil, 

and crop properties are not sufficiently understood and documented, the use of remotely 

sensed data for operational farm management 

decisions has not yet occurred. A detailed examination of what remotely sensed data can 

provide from observations of soils and crops is a 

logical first step toward developing a farm-oriented remote sensing system. However, such 

an examination is complex because it must include remotely sensed data at Merent spectral and spatial resolutions, and a variety of 

crops at Werent growth stages and health 

conditions. 

The objective of the experiment at the 

Maricopa Agricultural Center was to collect 

a comprehensive set of remote and groundbased spectral data on agricultural fields. As 

the experiment evolved, additional research 

needs were identified, and the number of participants multiplied. The experiment evolved 

into an intensive endeavor; each day that 

Landsat-5 passed overhead, weather and 

equipment permitting, numerous measurements of the atmosphere, soil, and plants 

were made. 

In cooperation with specialists at USDA’s 

Soil Conservation Service, ARS scientists analyzed Landsat images for saline and alkaline soil problems. The images were taken 

97 
during the years 1973,1978, and 1984 in four 

counties in northwestern Oklahoma. Although specific areas of saline and alkaline 

problems could not be identified precisely, 

productive, and consistently used soils could 

be detected. 

Other research focused on relating plant 

yield characteristics and plant responses to 

environmental conditions, such as weather, 

soil, stress, and a variety of field management practices. These relationships allowed a 

sound basis for estimating the yield of important world market crops. In conjunction with 

satellite data on crop growth and yield 

models, a major research effort focused on a 

model based on infrequent observations 

made by Landsat's MSS. In an experiment, 

use of the model improved the average yield 

estimate of sample grain sorghum fields to 

within three percentage points of the observed value. Currently, this technique is being tested using observations of sample corn, 

soybean, and wheat fields in Iowa, Nebraska, 

and North Dakota. 

Traditional data bases and decision proc- 

.esses have been incapable of fully supporting 

forest fire operations in Okanogan National 

Forest in eastern Washington. However, new 

natural resource data bases, using MSS imagery, digital terrain data, and ancillary information, provided a fully integrated, 

real-time, computerized fire dispatch system. 

Additional data bases, such as those projecting timber productivity, and land-ownership, 

were acquired and installed. The value of 

data bases for other purposes also was recognized in the acquisition process. 

Using Landsat data for information, Geographic Information Systems (GIs) were developed for other National Forests. For 

example, Flathead National Forest in Montana is developing a GIs for forest management. The data base will improve and 

enhance use of data for forest classification. 

In turn, the vegetation classification from the 

project will serve as the vegetative section in 

the GIs data base. 

An unusual application of Landsat data 

was to map grizzly bear habitats in Lewis 

and Clark National Forest. This project used 

three Landsat images of the east side of the 

Continental Divide in northwestern Montana. The finished project will allow personnel at Lewis and Clark National Forest to 

manage more effectively those areas with activities ranging from oil and gas exploration 

to the habits and practices of grizzly bears. 

Satellite remote sensing activities in the 

Forest Service use both MSS and Thematic 

Mapper (TM) data from Landsat spacecraft. 

The Forest Service has two operational image 

processing systems: Region and Forest Pest 

Management, located in Atlanta, Georgia, 

and the Okanogan National Forest in the Pacific Northwest Region. Due to the development of Geographic Information Systems 

(GIs), and a general improvement in computer literacy in the Forest Service, interest 

in image processing is increasing. 

"here is a continuing effort in the pacific 

Southwest Region of the Forest Service to use 

Landsat data on vegetation to inventory timber. Initially, MSS data were used; in 1986, TM 

data were used for the first time. Image data in 

digital form are analyzed using computers, 

which facilitate the classification of vegetation 

and the stratifcation of commercial timber 

stands for mapping, area summations, and 

ground sample selection. To evaluate the 

results accurately, ground plots were estab 

lished that represented major vegetation types. 

On the first National Forest inventoried, the 

precision of the net timber volume estimate 

was plus or minus 7 percent of the total volume 

of 560 million cubic meters. 

An evaluation of MSS imagery to classify 

lodgepole pine mortality, caused by the 

mountain pine beetle, has been completed. 

This work began in 1981 by the School of Forest Resources, North Carolina State University, under a cooperative agreement with the 

Forest Service. Included in the test site were 

two Ranger districts in the 'hrghee National 

Forest, Idaho, an area that experienced onslaughts of mountain pine beetle that were 

catastrophic. Based on the percentage of potentially marketable volume killed, logepole 

pine stands were classified into three mortality classes. These classes corresponded well 

with ground conditions; 76 percent of the 

plots for which ground data were available 

were classified correctly. 

In cooperation with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the Southern 

Forest Experiment Station is finishing a pilot 

study on the use of TM data to classify forest 

cover. The study area consists of two adjacent 

parishes in northern Louisiana. 

An evaluation of the utility of TM data for 

the detection of forest damage was conducted 

by the National Vegetation Survey, an element of the Terrestrial Effects %sk Group of 

the National Acid Precipitation Assessment 

Program. Initial research indicates that mea98 
surements, based on ratios of TM bands, may 

be useful to detect and quantify forest damage at sites reported to have received acid 

precipitation. In 1986, TM data were evaluated on three sites in the eastern United 

States to determine the level of forest damage. If the analytical procedure proves to be 

valid, it may become a valuable tool for conducting surveys to detect forest damage. 

Remotely sensed data from Landsat and 

NOAA polar orbiting environmental sat& 

lites continued to be good sources of information for assessing domestic and foreign crops 

by the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), and the Foreign Agricultural 

Service (FAS), respectively. Applying results 

of recent research, as well as findings of earlier applications programs, such as AgRISTARS (Agriculture and Resources Inventory 

Surveys Through Aerospace Remote Sensing), NASS used remotely sensed data effectively to improve estimates of crop acreage 

for winter wheat, corn, soybeans, rice, and 

cotton in the states of Kansas, Oklahoma, 

Colorado, Missouri, Iowa, Arkansas, Illinois, 

and Indiana. Benefiting from the installation 

of new computer systems with increased capability, FAS continued to use data from 

Landsat and NOAA’s polar orbiting environmental satellites to analyze crop conditions 

in major agricultural regions around the 

world. In addition, the unique expertise of 

FAS’s remote sensing analysts was used by 

the U.S. Agency for International Development to improve grain crop estimates in the 

Sudan, resulting in bet,ter planning and logistical support for food production in that 

country. 
Federal Communications Commission 

The Federal Communications Commission 

(FCC) regulates interstate and foreign communications by radio, television, wire, and 

cable. It is responsible for developing and operating broadcast services, and providing 

rapid, efficient nationwide and worldwide telephone and telegraph services at reasonable 

rates. These activities include protecting life 

and property through radio communications, 

and using radio and television facilities to 

strengthen capabilities for national defense. 

Communications Satellites 

International Commercial Communications 

Sate1 1 ites 

At the beginning of 1986, the International 

‘klecommunications Satellite Organization 

(INTELSAT) global communications system 

consisted of 16 satellites in orbit; 1 INTELSAT IV, 4 INTELSAT IVA’s and 11 INTELSAT V’s. During 1986, the INTELSAT V 

(F-14) was lost due to the launch failure of 

the Ariane-2 launch vehicle. The INTELSAT 

IVA (F-1) was decommissioned and, in order 

to provide enhanced Ku-band coverage, decisions were made to modify two INTELSAT V 

and five INTELSAT VI satellites. At the end 

of 1986, INTELSAT maintained 15 satellites 

in orbit: 1 IV, 1 IVA and 6 V’s in the Atlantic 

Ocean Region; 3 V’s in the Indian Ocean Region; and 2 WNs and 2 v’s in the Pacific 

Ocean Region. Three of the IVA satellites 

have exceeded estimated maneuver life. 

In 1986, the Commission approved the construction and operation of 30 new Earth station facilities to access the INTELSAT system 

in the Atlantic and Pacific Ocean Regions for 

INTELSAT (digital) business, and television 

transmission and reception service. 

In 1985, the Commission released its policy 

statement in CC Docket No. 84-1299 establishing the regulatory policies that will be 

used to consider applications for satellite systems providing international communication 

services independent of INTELSAT. The 

Commission found that separate international systems proposed by the Administration will provide substantial benefits to international telecommunications users without 

causing significant economic harm to IN- 

“ELSAT. Finding that their application met its 

legal, technical, and initial financial qualifications and public interest considerations, the 

Commission granted conditional authority to 

establish separate satellite systems to Orion 

Satellite Corporation, International Satellite, 

Inc., RCA American Communications, Inc., 

Pan American Satellite Corporation, and Cygnus Satellite Corporation. In 1986, the Commission granted conditional authorization to 

two additional applicants, McCaw Space Bchnologies, Inc., and Columbia Communications 

Corporation, to establish separate international satellite systems. Of these applicants, 

only PanAmSat has reached agreement with a 

foreign correspondent and initiated the INTELSAT consultation process. Final action by 

INTELSAT on the F’anAmSat proposal is expected in April 1987. 

Domestic Commercial Communications 

Satellites 

In 1986, no new domestic commercial communications satellites were authorized for 

construction and launch. At the end of 1986, 

27 domestic satellites were located between 

69O and 143O west longitude on the orbital 

arc; 16 operate in the 6/4-GHz band, 8 operated in the 14/12-GHz band, and 3 operated 

in both bands. 

In 1985, the Commission authorized the 

construction and launch of 20 additional domestic fixed satellites to provide communication services through the end of the century. 

Some of these satellites were scheduled for 

launch in 1986. 

The Commission’s Advisory Committee on 2O 

Spacing was established in 1985 to elicit suggestions by industry representatives on the 

most efficient and economical methods to accommodate satellite operations under reduced 

spacing conditions. The Committee is divided 

into working groups to consider issues relating 

to Earth stations, space stations, and coordination. In June 1986, the Committee issued recommendations on these areas. With respect to 

101 
Earth stations, the Committee recommended 

mandatory manufacturer product qualification 

tests, and onsight verification tests by operators of all Earth station systems, including 

transportables. The Committee also recommended that the Commission revise Section 

25.209 of the Rules and Regulations on antenna performance standards so that they are 

more definitive with respect to side-lobe requirements. 

On the subject of space stations, the Committee recommended the adoption of certain 

technical parameters for C and Ku-band satellites, including opposite polarization for adjacent satellites and ground control of 

polarization switches. ‘Ib aid in the implementation of 2O spacing, it also proposed the 

creation of a satellite spacing coordination 

data book for use by the Commission, and 

satellite users and operators. The data book 

would contain data on interference, satellite 

characteristics, key transmission parameters, and satellite system operation and coordination procedures. 

In the area of coordination, the Committee 

recommended the use of standard video 

masks for computation of video interference 

between adjacent satellites; mandatory uplink identification signals for all video transmissions; and adoption of power flux density 

limits for C-band Earth stations and antennas less than 9 meters in diameter. 

The Committee concluded that it should 

not make a determination at this time on criteria for transponder fill, satellite replacement, and new entries. 

Maritime Satellite Service 

National and international efforts to establish a future global maritime distress and 

safety system are continuing. The International Maritime Organization (IMO) is developing the system that will use Standard A 

and Standard C ship Earth stations through 

INMARSAT as well as satellite emergency 

position-indicating radio beacons (EPIRB’s) 

to provide initial distress alerting idormation 

from ships to rescue coordination centers. 

While present plans include satellite EPIRB’s 

operating through COSPAS/SARSAT (polar orbit) satellites, the IMO Maritime Safety Committee is also considering use of L-band 

EPIRB’s through INMARSW. (geostationary 

orbit). In addition, trials of distress and safety 

services will be conducted on GOES satellites 

in 1987. The global maritime and safety systems are expected to be phased in between 

1991 and 1997. 

Currently, INMARSAT is leasing three operational and three in-orbit satellites to serve 

the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Ocean Regions. Second-generation satellites, the first 

of which is expected to become operational in 

1989, are being built under INMARSAT specifications, and will have a capacity about triple that of the current leased satellites. 

INMARSAT currently serves over 5,000 vessels through its 48-member country organization. Seventeen coast stations in 12 countries 

are in operation with five more expected in 

1987. 

In 1986, the Commission issued three decisions bearing on the INMARSAT’S secondgeneration satellites. First, the Commission 

authorized the Communications Satellite 

Corporation (COMSAT) to participate in INMARSAT’s program to procure three secondgeneration satellites to serve the Atlantic 

Ocean Region beginning in 1988. Second, 

COMSAT was authorized to participate in an 

INMARSAT contract with Arianespace for an 

additional launch of its second-generation 

maritime satellite communications system. 

COMSAT’s request for an additional launch 

was based on uncertainty as to whether the 

planned July 1988 Shuttle launch would occur. Third, to provide additional backup facilities and to provide currently authorized 

INMARSAT services via INMARSAT satellites, COMSAT was authorized to lease capacity on the MARISAT system. Due to the 

serious deficiency in performance of two of 

INMARSAT’S first-generation satellites, and 

because other satellites were experiencing 

service irregularities, this authority was 

deemed necessary. The prospect of a launch 

delay of second-generation satellites places a 

greater burden on first-generation spacecraft. 

Aeronautical Satellite Service 

In October 1985, the Assembly of Parties of 

the International Maritime Satellite Organization (INMARSAT) adopted amendments to 

the INMARSAT convention and operating 

agreement that will allow it to offer aeronautical services. The amendments will take effect 120 days after two-thirds of member 

countries, representing two-thirds of the total 

INMARSAT investment shares, have filed no102 
tices of acceptance. INMARSAT’S first three 

second-generation spacecraft are being constructed with three megahertz of bidirechonal bandwidth in the aeronautical mobile 

satellite (R) band. Through its subcommittee 

on Future Air Navigation Systems, the International Civil Aviation Organization has 

been considering the application of standards 

for aeronautical satellites in civil aviation. 

Through the Airlines Electronic Engineering 

Committee, the aviation community is actively developing an aeronautical satellite 

system that will provide voice and data services. Aeronautical Radio, Inc., plans to create 

an international system by interconnecting 

its terrestrial VHF network with satellite facilities for oceanic coverage. In addition, land 

mobile satellite applicants are proposing 

aeronautical services on their systems. 

Direct Broadcast Satellite Service (DBS) 

Of the eight “first-round” DBS companies 

previously granted permits to construct Direct Broadcast Satellites, three are actively 

progressing in the construction of their authorized satellites. These three permittees 

will use 200 to 230-watt traveling wave tube 

amplifiers (TWTA) in conjunction with various half-CONUS or full-CONUS beam config 

urations to provide service across the 

continental United States. Modifications 

granted in September 1985 will allow two of 

these companies to increase transponder capacity from six channels to eight channels 

per satellite. Projected completion of satellite 

construction varies for each company from 

mid-1987 through 1988. These permittees 

are required to have their satellite systems in 

operation by the last quarter of 1988. 

Additionally, of the six “second-round” ap 

plications granted conditional permits in late 

1984 and early 1985, one has demonstrated 

“due diligence” in construction of its satellite 

system and has been awarded channels, orbital position, and launch authorization. In 

contrast to the three “first-round” companies, this system will use two 16-channel satellites equipped with 100 watt TWTA’s to 

provide DBS service. Advances in antenna 

and receiver technology were cited in support 

of midpower transponder selection. Commencement of DBS operations for this company is scheduled for mid-1989. 

Of the conditional construction permits for 

new satellite systems granted in September 

1985, none was able to demonstrate “due diligence” in satellite construction within the 

time allowed. Accordingly, these permits 

were cancelled. 

In September 1986, three companies were 

awarded conditional construction permits for 

new satellite systems. Of these permittees, 

one has demonstrated “due diligence” and 

has requested channel and orbital position 

assignments. This system will use two 16- 

channel satellites equipped with 125-watt 

TW”s to provide DBS service. The system 

is expected to begin operation in 1991. Three 

DBS system applications were filed in December 1986 and are currently pending. 

On November 25,1986, the Commission issued a ruling which modified its earlier statements regarding the acceptable uses of the 

DBS allocation. Provided that certain restrictions are met, nonconforming uses of DBS 

transponders which do not detract from the 

goal of introducing DBS service, and which 

may help advance it, will be permitted. 

New Satellite Services 

New technology is developing to provide additional uses for satellite-delivered communications. Increased capacity in the 14/12-GHz 

band allows the development of services 

using much smaller antennas than feasible 

in the 6/4-GHz band. This has prompted several applications for large private networks 

of small Earth stations to provide communication services between various business locations. These applications request 

streamlined licensing procedures that will 

enable such networks to be constructed more 

expeditiously and economically. In April 

1986, the Commission issued a declaratory 

ruling that streamlined processing procedures for pending and future applications. 

In addition, on July 12,1984, in response to 

a petition from Geostar Corporation, the 

Commission issued a Notice of Proposed 

Rulemaking in General Docket No. 85-689, 

proposing to implement a radio determination satellite system domestically that would 

allow subscribers to determine latitude, longitude, and altitude, and to exchange brief 

coded messages using inexpensive hand-held 

transceivers. In July 1985, the Commission 

allocated frequencies in the 1610 to 1626.5- 

MHz, 2483.5 to 2500-MHz and 5117 to 5183- 

MHz bands for radio determination satellite 

103 
service. In August 1986, the Commission 

granted the application of Geostar Corporation to construct, launch, and operate three 

geostationary satellites, and one in-orbit 

spare, to provide radio determination satellite service and ancillary message services. 

On January 28, 1985, in response to a petition from NASA, the Commission issued a 

Notice of Proposed Rulemaking in General 

Docket No. 84-1234, that proposed to allocate 

spectrum for a mobile satellite service, to establish technical and regulatory guidelines 

for the service, and to authorize a licensee. 

The service envisioned by NASA would provide mobile telephone service in rural areas, 

long-range vehicle dispatch functions, data 

transmission and data collection, vehicle position determination, message distribution 

(paging), and emergency communications. 

The Commission received voluminous comments concerning the issues raised in the 

rulemaking. The Commission also received a 

dozen applications from entities proposing to 

establish mobile satellite systems. In July 

1986, the Commission allocated 27 MHz of 

spectrum for the provision of this service. In 

December 1986, the Commission issued a Report and Order that established general policies concerning the licensing of the entity 

charged with the initial implementation of 

mobile satellite service. The Commission 

concluded that joint ownership of a mobile 

satellite system would be the best way to provide a variety of mobile satellite services to 

the public. The Commission directed qualified applicants to negotiate a joint venture 

contract and propose a mobile satellite system to operate in the assigned frequencies. 

International Conference Activities 

During 1986, the Commission was involved 

in several activities in preparation for the 

second session of the Space World Administrative Radio Conference (Space WARC) 

scheduled for 1988. The objective of the Conference is to guarantee to all countries equitable access to the geostationary satellite 

orbit and to the frequency bands allocated to 

space services. The Commission’s Advisory 

Committee, representing industry, continued 

to make recommendations for the second session’s agenda that include allotment planning; a multilateral planning process; 

simplified procedures for access to the orbit; 

and issues involving broadcasting satellites. 

Also, in May 1986, the Commission’s staff attended an International Frequency Registration Board information meeting; and, in 

June, participated in the Interim Working 

Party 4/1 that examined technical aspects of 

conference preparation. In addition, the Commission’s staff worked with NASA and other 

Government agencies to define priorities and 

positions for the second session and, in particular, to develop appropriate computer capabilities to aid in the allotment planning 

effort. 

104 
Department of Transportation 

The Federal Aviation Administration 

(FAA), a component of the U.S. Department of 

Transportation, is responsible for regulating 

air safety, ensuring the safe and efficient utilization of the national airspace system, and 

fostering the development of civil aviation. lb 

support these responsibilities, the FAA engages in a wide range of research and development activities that enhance safety and 

increase the efficiency of air navigation and 

air traffic control. 

Aviation Safety 

During 1986, developing new standards for 

civil aircraft seats and restraint systems was 

one of the most important research projects of 

the FAA's crash dynamics engineering and 

development program. The goal of the program was to demonstrate the ability of new 

systems to minimize hazards to occupants 

during aircraft crashes. This research effort 

was the culmination of a long series of cooperative steps between the Federal Aviation 

Administration, the Department of Defense, 

the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and segments of the civil aviation 

community. 

In recent years, developments in both the 

private and public sectors demonstrated that 

passenger survivability in accidents could be 

improved when the forces of impact were 

within the limits of human tolerance, and 

that improvements could be adopted without 

imposing either a heavy engineering or economic burden on the aviation community. 

Hence, in the early 1980's, the FAA and 

NASA's Langley Research Center contracted 

with transport airplane manufacturers to review and evaluate accident data, and define 

areas where possible improvement in passenger safety could be achieved. In March 1983, 

the FAA's Civil Aeromedical Institute and 

the FAA's 'lkchnical Center published a joint 

study on passenger seat and restraint system 

performance in accidents. The study found a 

correlation between passenger injuries or fatalities and floor or cabin deformation that 

caused seat failure; and a correlation between passenger injuries and restraint system performance. Crash tests continued at 

FAA and NASA research facilities. 

Although the research and testing program 

was multifaceted, a key effort was the evaluation of a simple laboratory dynamic test procedure that simulated an aircraft's crash 

environment. Anthropomorphic dummies 

were used as surrogates for human occupants; the dummies, seats, and restraining 

systems were subjected to forces up to 16g; 

measurements made during the tests were 

used to evaluate the level of protection offered to the occupants. This technique is superior to the static test procedure used to 

evaluate aircraft seat performance currently 

required by the Federal Aviation Regulations, because the static procedure provides 

only an indication of the structural strength 

of the seat. 

Simulated crash tests were supplemented 

by a joint FANNASA Controlled Impact 

Demonstration using a full-scale remotely 

controlled and fully instrumented transport 

category airplane. In combination with prior 

work, these tests generated sufficient data to 

permit the FAA to define the level of occupant protection provided by contemporary 

transport airplanes. It was determined that 

incidents of undesirable seat performance 

were usually related to the displacement of 

the cabin floor and to excessive lateral inertial loads. By early 1986, the agency determined that seat deficiencies could be 

eliminated by establishing dynamic test 

standards that provided the same level of impact injury protection and structure performance as that provided by the airplane 

structure itself. Consequently, in July 1986, 

the FAA issued a notice of proposed rulemaking that modified standards for occupant seat 

protection in transport category aircraft by 

revising the test criteria for passenger restraints and impact injury. The proposed criteria abandoned static tests in favor of a 

combined vertical and longitudinal test that 

simulates an aircraft hitting the ground after 

a high-rate vertical descent; and a test that 

simulates a horizontal impact with a groundlevel obstruction. With the first test, manufacturers can evaluate the means provided to 

protect passengers from spinal injury; with 

105 
the second, they can assess the effectiveness 

of the restraining system and the structural 

performance of the seat. The proposed rule 

applies only to newly certificated air transport category aircraft. 

Concurrent with this effort, the FAA tested 

the performance of general aviation seats 

and restraint systems, activity that resulted 

from deliberations of the General Aviation 

Safety Panel which was established in 1982 

to recommend safety improvements in small 

airplanes. A special working group of the 

Panel made recommendations for improved 

seats and restraint systems for small airplanes that were based largely on experimental and test data generated by the Civil 

Aeromedical Institute. The Panel recommended that dynamic tests be conducted at 

up to 26g in order to demonstrate the performance of the seat and restraint system; 

that the testing program include techniques 

for demonstrating system performance, even 

in the case of seriously deformed airframes; 

and that criteria be incorporated to ensure 

that the occupants will be protected from irreversible injury in a crash that seriously deforms an airframe. Manufacturers had 

already developed systems that met the criteria established by the Panel’s recommendations and presented their systems to the 

Institute for evaluation. The Panel’s recommendations were presented at the Small Airplane Airworthiness Review Program and 

received the support of the General Aviation 

Manufacturers Association. At the end of 

1986, the FAA was considering a notice of 

proposed rulemaking to implement these recommendations. 

Aviation Weather 

Wind Shear Adverse weather has always 

been a challenge to aviation. One of aviation’s most serious weather concerns today is 

wind shear, a sudden change in wind speed 

and direction. A number of meteorological 

events can cause wind shear. Large thunderstorms produce strong outflows and downdrafts; gust fronts, found at the leading edges 

of outflows, can extend several miles away 

from the rain area and last for periods of an 

hour or more; and small storms or relatively 

innocuous looking clouds also are capable of 

producing intense downdrafts that can be 

just as hazardous to aircraft as their larger 

cousins. Wind shear, produced by a smaller 

storm known as a microburst, is a violent 

column of cold or dense air that descends rapidly to meet the ground and expands in all 

directions, much like water from a garden 

hose. A microburst is often no more than a 

mile or two in diameter and lasts for as little 

as 5 minutes. An airplane flying into this 

column of air during a takeoff or landing first 

encounters a head wind, which increases lift, 

and then a tail wind, which produces a sharp 

loss in lift. In extreme cases, the tail wind 

can be violent enough to cause the airplane 

to crash. Over the past 10 years, encounters 

with wind shear may have contributed to as 

many as 25 aircraft accidents worldwide resulting in over 506 fatalities. 

Because wind shear is not visible to the 

pilot’s eye, the main protection against this 

powerful phenomenon is timely warning and 

avoidance. To make this possible, the FAA 

and other Federal agencies are pursuing a 

variety of detection programs. During 1986, 

the FAA installed an experimental weather 

radar system at Huntsville, Alabama, to 

study microbursts and other hazardous weather conditions. The testing was conducted 

for the FAA by the Lincoln Laboratory of the 

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The 

testing system had previously been located 

near Memphis International Airport; Huntsville was selected as the new experimental 

site because its environment is typical of 

much of the Southeast, where storm-related 

wind shear and microbursts frequently occur. 

Lincoln Laboratory had at its disposal two 

Doppler weather radars, a system of 30 automatic weather stations, and an instrumented 

aircraft for airborne data collection. Doppler 

radar has the ability to “see” inside storms 

and measure both rainfall intensity and the 

speed of winds moving toward or away from 

the antenna site. By combining wind information from the two radars, technicians can 

obtain three-dimensional information on the 

wind field within a storm. Data collected 

from these tests will be used to refine computer software that will enable a Doppler radar system to detect wind shear conditions 

automatically and present this information 

to pilots and air traffic controllers in a readily usable form. The FAA plans to install 

Doppler weather radar at major airports beginning in 1989. 

In another development, the FAA and the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration entered into a Memorandum of Agreement to develop system requirements for 

106 
“forward looking” wind shear sensors for aircraft, such as Doppler radar and Doppler 

lidar. These airborne sensors will “look” 

ahead of the aircraft and sense hazardous 

wind shear before the aircraft enters the 

area. Manufacturers have performed relatively little work in the area of developing 

forward-looking airborne sensors; rather, 

they focused their attention on reactive wind 

shear sensors. Instead of looking ahead, 

these systems react when an aircraft enters a 

shear and compare the inertial data of aircraft with air mass data. When a shear is 

encountered, the airborne equipment sounds 

an alert and the flight crew is provided with 

information on how to exit the shear. The 

FAA and NASA are working closely with the 

manufacturers of these reactive devices to ensure that forward-looking sensors will function in harmony with the reactive devices. 

The FAA also continued to work on the 

ground-based wind shear detection system 

currently in operational use, the six-sensor 

Low Level Wind Shear Alert System 

(LLWAS). LLWAS employs computer processing algorithms that compare wind speed and 

direction from sensors on the airport periphery with centerfield wind data. The system 

alerts air traffic controllers to the presence of 

wind shear, and the controllers, in turn, issue 

wind shear advisories to departing and arriving aircraft. During 1986, the LLWSS’s at 

Denver’s Stapleton International and New 

Orlean’s Moisant International experienced 

a high level of false alarms. Since the problem was caused by the sensor’s location, the 

FAA formed a team to assess the siting of all 

LLWAS sensors at 110 airports in the United 

States. At the same time, wind experts from 

Colorado State University and the National 

Center for Atmospheric Research developed 

new and more comprehensive siting criteria. 

Information collected by the team was also 

used to identify nuisance alarms caused by 

short-lived, very localized, and meteorologically insignificant events. By the end of 1986, 

new algorithms were developed to reduce the 

effect of false alarms. The algorithms will be 

incorporated into the system as the LLWAS 

sensors are resited during 1987 and 1988. 

In 1986, new algorithms also were devised 

for the new eleven-sensors LLWAS. The algorithms give the new system an enhanced 

capability to detect hazardous microbursts, 

and allow results to be reported in terms of 

runway coordinates, a form more useful to 

the user. In 1987, the FAA plans to evaluate 

the new algorithms and a new tower cab display at an operational airport. 

In addition, a program that began in 1985 

to develop a standardized wind shear training program for pilots neared completion. It 

will provide airlines with tools to train pilots 

in wind-shear avoidance and techniques to 

escape from inadvertent wind-shear encounters. The Boeing Commercial Airplane Company, which is developing the program with 

Douglas, Lockheed, United Air Lines, and 

Aviation Weather Associates, is expected to 

deliver the finished product to the FAA in 

February 1987. 

Atmospheric Electrical Hazards. Lightning, static discharge, and other sources that 

produce electromagnetic transients can pose 

a serious threat to aircraft in flight. They 

couple to the aircraft’s internal wiring and 

adversely affect electronic flight controls and 

avionics. During 1986, the FAA continued its 

cooperative effects with the Department of 

Defense, NASA, and the aviation industry to 

characterize hazards and define their threat 

to modern technology aircraft. ‘Ib this end, 

the FAA produced both advisory circulars 

and user’s manuals to assist officials with 

problems of electrical hazards in aviation. 

Icing. It has long been recognized that 

flight through supercooled clouds will result 

in the formation of ice on an aircraft’s airframe and engines. The aerodynamic penalties of this ice formation include increased 

drag, loss of lift, and even loss of control. Ice 

shed can lead to structural and engine damage. Ice protection systems technology has 

advanced along with advances in aircraft and 

engine designs. Proper certification of aircraft for flight into known icing conditions 

using new or modified ice protection designs 

depends heavily on understanding equipment limitations under various operating 

conditions. During 1986, the FAA reported 

on areas of concern in the application of two 

concepts: the exuding of an antifreeze solution from porous surfaces on the leading 

edges of wings; and the de-icing of wing leading edges by electromagnetic impulse shock. 

Aircraft Cabin Flammability Standards 

On August 20, 1986, a new Federal Aviation Regulation went into effect prescribing 

tougher flammability standards for materials used in cabins of existing and future airliners with 20 seats or more. The new 

107 
standards require manufacturers to use more 

fire resistant and slower burning materials 

than those currently allowed for cabin sidewalls, ceilings, partitions, storage bins, galleys, and other interior structures. The use of 

materials that release lesser amounts of heat 

during a cabin fire will delay the onset of 

“flashover,” or rapid and uncontrolled cabin 

fire growth, thereby increasing the time for 

passenger evacuation. Manufacturers must 

subject specified cabin materials to a radiant 

heat test that measures the amount of heat 

produced by a material when it burns; materials that produce more heat or burn faster 

than the prescribed standards are banned. 

The rule goes into effect in two stages, 

stretching over a 4-year period. 

Earlier, on June 16,1986, the FAA adopted 

more stringent fire safety standards for air 

transport cargo and baggage compartments. 

The new standards apply only to airplanes 

certificated after the rule’s effective date and 

require manufacturers to use more fire resistant materials for ceiling and sidewall liners 

in Class C and Class D cargo compartments, 

which are located below the main cabin. The 

FAA’s fire tests of typical materials currently 

used in cargo holds demonstrated that only 

fiberglass meets the new criteria. Also, in order to limit the supply of oxygen available to 

feed a fire, the new rule restricts the size of 

the Class D cargo compartment to 1,000 cubic feet. 

In a related development, a new FAA rule 

requiring smoke detectors in the lavatories of 

all large airliners went into effect on October 

29, 1986. Because lavatories are closed from 

view most of the time, the smoke detectors 

will warn cockpit crews or flight attendants 

of a fire that might not otherwise be detected. 

Aviation SecuriQ 

During 1986, the FAA made progress on 

many fronts in the area of explosives detection. The agency approved several competitive designs for thermal neutron activation 

(TNA) systems, which will be used to screen 

checked baggaged and air cargo. At year’s 

end, the fabrication on TNA prototypes was 

well underway, and the initial airport test of 

a prototype was scheduled for May 1987. In 

addition, the FAA successfully demonstrated 

a breadboard chemiluminescent vapor detector. This project has now progressed to the 

phase of integrating the first vapor detector 

into a portal for screening passengers. The 

first airport test of a prototype chemiluminescent detection portal is scheduled for 

March 1988. Also, the agency initiated a feasibility study of a chemiluminescent system 

for screening carry-on baggage and began 

evaluating a mobile chemiluminescent system for use in aircraft cabins. 

Several studies involving detection technologies and concepts were initiated that had 

their genesis in an FAA request for proposals 

for new approaches to explosive detection. 

Out of the 22 responses to this request, 4 

were considered sufficiently promising to 

merit the award of contracts for feasibility 

studies. In addition, research continued on 

dual sensor and fast neutron scattering approaches that had been initiated earlier, and 

both proved feasible. The dual sensor approach, which combines X-rays and thermal 

neutron activation sensors, offers considerable promise of surpassing the performance of 

a simple thermal neutron activation system. 

In order to strengthen airport concourse secwity, the possibility of improving discrimination capabilities of current generation 

metal detectors was investigated. Also, studies were initiated on new infrared and acoustic techniques for detecting both metallic and 

nonmetallic weapons on passengers. The possibility of enhancing concourse X-ray systems 

for automated detection of explosives and 

weapons in carry-on and checked baggage 

also was explored. 

Human Perfirmance Research 

Aeronautical DeciswrtMaking. In 1986, six 

pilobjudgment training manuals, and corresponding audio-visual materials, were revised. 

The materials addressed the issue of aeronautical decision-making for private, commercial, 

and rotorcraft instrument-rated pilots, and instruhrs and multicrew operations. The type of 

training prescribed in the manuals augments 

but does not replace traditional pilot training, 

which stresses knowledge, skills, and experience. However, traditional training methods do 

not teach judgment; pilots acquire judgment 

through experience that is directly related to 

accumulated flight time; and it was surmised 

that pilots with good experience-based judgment shared airspace with pilots that po5 

sessed lesser decision-making skills. Used as 

part of a standard curriculum, the manuals are 

intended to teach aeronautical decision-mak106 
ing to each segment of civil aviation. 

Flight Crew Workbad Measurement In July 

1981, the President’s ’Ibk Force on Aircraft 

Crew Complement recommended that the generally accepted method of evaluating cockpit 

work load during aircraft type certificationtaskkime-line analysis-be augmented by improved subjective evaluation methods. A team 

of representatives from the FAA, the Air Force, 

NASA, and manufacturers of air transports 

was formed to carry out this recommendation. 

In 1986, two workshops were planned as forums to choose the most appropriate measurement techniques available. An initial part-task 

and a subsequent fdl-mission simulation experiment at NASA’s Ames Manned Vehicle 

Systems Research Facility will be used to validate these techniques. 

Airport Rwement Research 

Through an interagency agreement with the 

Army Corps of Engineers, the FAA completed 

the development of a Pavement Maintenance 

Management System. By using new software 

called mimPAVER, airport owners and operators will be able to allocate resources effectively and establish priorities to maintain and 

rehabilitate pavements based on conditions, 

funds available, and expected rates of deterioration. Through another interagency agreement, the Corps of Engineers developed 

criteria to prevent heaving of airport pavement 

in cold weather and weakening of subgrades 

during thaw. At the end of 1986, the criteria 

were being evaluated at representative airports located in the frost belt. 

The FAA also investigated ways to minimize 

runway and taxiway repair time and improve 

substitutes for currently used pavement materials, which are expensive to transport. During 

1986, contractors completed the development 

of standards for the effective use of geotextiles. 

Also, research was conducted on lime, cement, 

and fly ash combinations for bases, rubber, and 

polymer additives. 

In order to ensure that airport pavements are 

constructed, rehabilitated, and maintained to 

FAA standards, in 1986 the agency was in the 

process of developing acceptance criteria and 

quality control techniques for airport pavement construction and material. Once developed, the criteria will provide payment of 

adjustment factors that will be applied to contractors’ fees based on how well the pavement 

meets FAA standards. 

Other Sa& Developments 

General Aviation Propulsion &search The 

FAA accelerated its study of alternate fuels for 

use of piston-engine general aviation aircraft. 

In recent years, the availability of 80 octane 

aviation gasoline has diminished while the 

price differential between automobile gasoline 

(autogas) and other grades of aviation gasoline 

has grown. This resulted in pressure on the 

agency applied by the general aviation community to substitute autogas for aviation gasoline. 

In examining autogas for aviation use, it was 

determined that its use can produce fuel system vapor lock, severe detonation in high performance engines, and a signifcant loss of fuel 

due to evaporation and venting. The FAA plans 

to continue testing autogas and alternate general aviation fuels, including gasahols. 

Aircraft Turbine Engine Bird Hazard Research, The collision of birds with aircraft, including the ingestion of birds by engines, is 

both a serious safety hazard and a major cause 

of property damage. Actions taken to reduce 

the bird hazard include evaluating the adequacy of bird ingestion engine certification requirements against service experience, and 

increasing the emphasis on airport bird threat 

control. In order to determine the adequacy of 

current bird ingestion certification standards, 

the FAA gathered data and analyzed engine 

bird ingestion incidents and accidents. The 

agency completed a 26-month study and published a report on bird ingestion incidents and 

accidents involving aircraft powered by large 

inlet area, high bypass turbofan engines. Also, 

it initiatedra similar study of the Boeing 737, 

equipped with both JT8D and CFM56 engines, 

that will provide a comparison of new generation high bypass engines (CFM56’s) with older 

low bypass engines (JG8D’s) subjected to the 

same aircraft bird ingestion exposure. Additional studies are scheduled that will concentrate on business, executive, and commuter 

aircraft powered by small inlet turbofan and 

turboprop engines. 

Rotorrraft Turbine Engine Rotor Failure h 

tection. Since 1979, the fleet size, total 

operating hours, operating hours per craft, and 

total number of engine failures of civil turbinepowered rotocraft in the free world have increased significantly. In many cases, engine 

failure generates high-energy fragments that 

penetrate and escape the engine casing. This 

results in loss of engine power and can damage 

critical structures, systems, controls, and other 

109 
engines. Such damage has led to fires, loss of 

aircraft control, hull loss, and occupant injury 

and death. Consequently, the FAA issued wveral advisory directives to correct type design 

deficiencies that were identifed as the primary 

causes of failure on certain engine models. Because type design improvement is not feasible 

in all cases, an advisory directive was issued 

that required the use of an internal turbine 

case containment ring. With a turboshaft engine rotor failure history established during 

the early 1980’s and the feasibility of rotor 

fragment containment technology for this class 

of engines demonstrated, the FAA initiated a 

study to develop a new certification standard 

for commercial rotorcraft. The study will attempt to provide operational data on rotorcraft 

turbine failure and the technology for hazard 

protection. 

AntiMisting Fuel The FAA completed its 

test program on the effectiveness of an experimental anti-misting agent that was added to 

kerosene jet fuels to prevent or reduce the dangers of post-crash fires. The program demonstrated that jet fuel can be modified to provide 

a significant degree of protection against postcrash fires in impact-survivable accidents. At 

the end of 1986, the agency was formulating a 

new program to provide even better means of 

inhibiting postcrash fires. ‘Ib prevent combustibles spilled during a crash from igniting, the 

program will explore the possibility of combining fuel additives with aircrafk system modifcations. 

Airport Rescue and Firefighting. In an effort 

to minimize rescue and firefighting requirements of US. airports, without reducing fire 

protection for passengers and property, the effectiveness of current and advanced firefighting agents were evaluated. In a series of 

small-scale laboratory tests, a number of foams 

were studied and approximately 40 percent 

were found to conform to firefighting specifications. These promising foams will be evaluated 

further in a series of large-scale tests. 

Helicopter Wake Vortex Study In 1986, the 

FAA and the Transportation Systems Center of 

the Department of Transportation participated 

in a joint full-scale helicopter flight test program to investigate the wake vortex characteristics of S-76 and CH-53E helicopters. The 

flight tests measured the trailing vortex intensity, persistence, movement, and decay of the 

helicopter wake as a function of time. A Laser 

Doppler Velocimeter was used to acquire vortex intensity data, and an airplane probed the 

vortex to determine the potentialbzard to an 

aircraft encountering the wake. Since the trailing vortex of a helicopter is invisible, the helicopters used in the experiments were equipped 

with smoke generators for the wake flow visualization system. The data collected in this program will be used to explore the feasibility of 

establishing reduced air traffic control separation standards for mixed terminal area operations. 

Air Navfgatlon and 

Alr lkaff IC Control 

National Airspace Systems Plan 

Host Computer System. On January 28, 

1981, the FAA unveiled the National Airspace Systems (NASI Plan, a technological 

blueprint for modernizing and increasing 

the capacity of the Nation’s common civilmilitary system of air navigation and air 

traffic control. On November 22, 1986, the 

implementation of the NAS Plan reached a 

major milestone with the delivery of the first 

of a new generation of air traffic control computer systems to the air route traffic control 

center in Seattle, Washington. 

The new host system represents the latest 

off-the-shelf technology. The “host” designation reflects the fact that the new equipment 

will use the same basic instruction package 

as the IBM 9020 computers currently operating at the 20 air route traffic control centers 

in the contiguous 48 states. The key element 

is the IBM 3083-BX1 computer. Each installation has two computers, one serving as the 

primary unit, the other providing support 

and backup. The new mainframe is ten times 

faster and has four times the capacity of the 

older 9020 computer. Tests conducted by IBM 

demonstrated that the host can handle the 

air traffic workload projected for 1995 using 

only 33 percent of its capacity. During fiscal 

year 1985, the FAA’s air route traffic control 

centers handled 33 million aircraft operations under instrument flight rules; in fiscal 

1995, they are expected to handle almost 44 

million. This allows for unforeseen traffic 

growth and also permits the FAA to incorporate new automation functions and upgrade 

existing functions such as conflict alert and 

en route traffic metering. 

The Seattle host is expected to begin operating during the summer of 1987. Completion of deliveries of host computers to the 

110 
remaining 19 air route traffic control centers 

is expected by the end of 1987. The next 

phase of the NAS Plan scheduled for completion is the Advanced Automation System, 

which includes new controller sector suites, 

computer software, and processors. 

Automated Flight Service Stations. The 

Flight Service Station (FSS) modernization 

program will consolidate 300 manually operated FSS's into a network of 61 automated 

hub facilities. In March 1986, the FSS's commissioned the first three automated flight 

service stations, located at airports in Bridgeport, Connecticut, and Cleveland and Dayton, Ohio. An additional 21 stations were 

commissioned during the course of the year, 

and 13 more sites accepted delivery of the 

automated equipment. 

Flight service stations provide pilots with 

preflight and inflight briefings. They also accept and file flight plans, serve as a communications link for pilots with air traffic control 

facilities, collect and disseminate aeronautical and weather data, and provide emergency 

services to pilots in distress. The automated 

stations are linked by dedicated communications lines to a central Flight Service Data 

Processing System (FSDPS) located at an air 

route traffic control center. Weather data, 

flight plans, and other information are continually fed into the FSDPS. Using computer 

terminals at the automated facilities, flight 

service specialists receive quick access to this 

information, which can be called up on display screens and printed out for future reference. General aviation pilots are the primary 

users of these services since most airlines 

have their own flight dispatch facilities. 

Voice Switching and Control System. In October 1986, the FAA awarded contracts to 

ATbT Technologies and the Harris Corporation to develop competing prototypes of a 

computer-based switching system to control 

voice communication for en route air traffic 

control. The contracts represent the first 

phase of a two-step procurement that will culminate in the selection of a contractor to produce the Voice Switching and Controlling 

System, a critical element in the NAS Plan. 

The new electronic switching system will be 

hker, more flexible and reliable, and cheaper 

to maintain than the present electromechanical system, which is based on the technology of 

the 1950's. The new system will provide controllers at air route traffic control centers with 

computerantrolled voice switching for airground communications as well as intercom 

and interphone communications within and 

between FAA facilities. The contra& allow 35 

months for the development of prototypes; and 

the winner of the competition will produce and 

install 25 systems. 

Airport Visual Aids and Lights 

The FAA continued to investigate ways to 

standardize instrument flight rule approach 

lighting systems for heliports. The FAA Technical Center and NASA's Langley Research 

Center evaluated prototype lighting systems 

using actual weather and simulation flights. 

Testing will continue at the Technical Center, 

and a system is expected to be operational 

before the first commercial IFR heliport is 

established in the United States. 

Also, the agency continued to investigate 

taxiway visual guidance devices that reduce 

the frequency of inadvertent runway instruction. A joint FAA-industry working group 

was convened to address this problem. Remedies suggested by the working group were 

evaluated at the Technical Center. 

In a related effort, the FAA evaluated 

newly developed runway lighting systems, requiring no external power source, that use 

tritium-powered, self-contained radioluminescent lights. One of the systems 

evaluated consisted of runway edge lighting 

units, threshold lighting units, an airport 

identification beacon, and a lighted wind direction indicator. The system provided satisfactory visual cues only under the most 

favorable climatic conditions, and without 

background lighting. Therefore, its potential 

use is limited to remote areas not affected by 

city night lights. 

New York TRACON 

In March 1986, a contract was awarded to 

improve the automated air traffic control system at the New York Terminal Radar Approach (TRACON) facility. The New York 

TRACON provides radar service to aircraft 

approaching or departing three major airports and 40 satellite airports in the New 

York metropolitan area. It is the largest facility of its kind in the FAA air traffic control 

system, handling more than 1.5 million 

flights annually. Improvement of the system 

is necessary to allow the TRACON to keep 

abreast of increasing traffic growth. 

111 
Currently, the TRACON is equipped with a 

standard automated radar terminal system 

known as ARTS IIIA, a real-time computer 

system that processes data from remote radar 

sites and presents it, in alphanumeric form, 

directly to controllers’ radar displays. The 

displayed information included aircraft identification, altitude, and ground speed. The 

enhanced system, known as ARTS IIIE, and 

the only one of its kind, will perform the 

same functions but will have a greater capacity. When completed, it will be capable of 

tracking 2,800 aircraft at one time within a 

15,000 square mile area. 

Off ice of Commercial Space 

Tkansportation 

One of the major consequences of the Challenger tragedy was the President’s decision 

to take the Shuttle out of the business of 

launching routine foreign and commercial 

satellites. This decision, announced in August 1986, was later incorporated into the 

U.S. Space Launch Strategy, which called for 

a space transportation system composed of 

both ELV’s and the Space Shuttle. The factors contributing to a mixed fleet strategy included a significant backlog of payloads, a 

dramatically reduced flight rate, new operating rules imposed in response to the recommendations of the Presidential Commission 

on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident, 

and the added cost of orbiter design and replacement. The revised space launch strategy 

emphasized that the Shuttle fleet would be 

used for missions requiring its unique capabilities, and that the commercial expendable 

launch vehicle industry would be a critical 

element in meeting Government and industry needs. Indeed, the Air Force insisted that 

the winner of the Medium Launch Vehicle 

competition demonstrate commercial adaptability as part of its proposal. 

Complementing Government policy changes 

aimed at creating a positive environment for 

commercial ELV’s, the Wice of Commercial 

Space Transportation developed regulatory 

guidance and interagency relationships for this 

important initiative. Meetings were held with 

domestic launch fums, satellite manufacturers, and owners and operators to ascertain the 

potential effect of various public options on 

their business operations. 

The Department of Transportation (DOT) 

was an active participant in both the National Security Council’s Senior Interagency 

Group on Space and the Economic Policy 

Council’s (EPC) Commercial Space Working 

Group. These groups developed policy positions and draft language for the President’s 

August 15 decision regarding a replacement 

orbiter and Shuttle use for commercial and 

foreign payloads, and for DOD’s procurement 

of additional ELV’s. Also, the Department 

worked closely with other executive agencies 

to develop a transition plan for payloads that 

would no longer fly aboard the Shuttle. 

The Department also participated in 

Cabinet-level efforts to identify impediments 

to space commercialization by chairing an 

EPC Working Group subcommittee on insurance. In this capacity, it evaluated the availability of private sector launch insurance and 

third-party liability insurance as they affect 

space commercialization. During 1986, the 

Office’s Director delivered testimony on the 

insurance issue before two House and Senate 

subcommittees. 

The President’s National Commission on 

Space. The Office of Commercial Space 

Transportation participated as an ex-officio 

member of the National Commission on 

Space and contributed to its report, “Pioneering the Space Frontier.” The Department’s 

participation primarily involved issues related to the private sector’s role in nextgeneration space transportation systems. 

Also, it contributed to the transportation systems architecture study on future launch vehicles conducted by DOD and NASA. 

Use of Government Facilities and Services. 

The Ofice of Commercial Space Transportation assists commercial launch firms by helping them gain access to national launch 

facilities and services. In 1986, DOT worked 

closely with DOD and NASA to develop the 

policy guidance and establish the terms and 

conditions that will govern commercial 

launch operations on Government ranges. As 

a result of close cooperation among all three 

agencies, American Rocket Company was 

able to use the Air Force’s Rocket Propulsion 

Laboratory facilities at Edwards Air Force 

Base to conduct tests of its hybrid rocket engine. In August 1986, NASA signed an agreement with Space Services, Inc. authorizing 

that company’s use of the Wallops Island 

launch facility. 

Liaison with the Commercial Space Industry. Significant effort was devoted to main112 
taining productive working relationships 

with all segments of the commercial space 

industry. DOT representatives met with 

members of the financial community to clarify and reinforce the Government’s commitment to commercialization of space. In 

addition, working relationships were established with representatives of the communications industry to determine the factors 

shaping demand for communications satellites. Efforts were made to determine launch 

firms’ need for communications services to 

support tracking, telemetry, and control. 

Commercial Space Transportation Advisory 

Committee (COMSTAC). The Advisory Committee’s members are appointed by the Secretary of Transportation, and include 

representatives from the major aerospace 

manufacturers, satellite communications 

firms, the financial, investment and legal 

communities, and entrepreneurial launch 

companies. Two meetings of COMSTAC were 

held to ensure that the Department had a 

complete, accurate overview of the issues fating the space business community. 

This year, COMSTAC focused on launch 

and third-party liability insurance and its effect upon financing commercial space ventures, upon capital formation, and upon the 

development of DOT’S regulatory framework. 

Briefings were also presented on impediments to space commercialization, on commercial launch firms’ activities in response 

to increased demand after the Challenger accident, and on initiatives undertaken by aerospace firms in the Houston area. 

Regubr~ l’kchnicd and Sa& Activities. In 

1986, the Department directed much of its effort toward establishing an efficient procedural 

Mework for regulating commercial launch 

activities. While publishing regulations in the 

Federal Register and issuing licenses are highly 

visible actions that can be used to measure progress, these actions are actually the product of 

an intense, behind-the-scenes effort to implement legislation as important and sweeping as 

the Commercial Space Launch Act. Thus, re-- 

latory development and research in 1986 began with the previous year’s policy statement 

outlining general concepts for a launch licensing process. 

In order to manage an effective licensing 

program, the Department developed specific, 

step-by-step administrative procedures, licensing policies, mission and safety review 

procedures and criteria, and information requirements. This effort was conducted with 

14 agencies that included the Occupational 

Health and Safety Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, and the Nuclear 

Regulatory Commission, along with agencies 

directly involved in the space program such 

as NASA, DOD, and Commerce. Interim regulations were published in February 1986, 

with an invitation for public comment. The 

public comments they generated generally 

were favorable, and will result in the publication of final regulations in early 1987. These 

regulations will provide guidance to any commercial launch company, operator of a private launch site, or operator of an unlicensed 

payload applying for a Government review 

and safety determination. 

Administration policy requires that all regulations that affect the private sector be assessed to determine the impact they will have 

upon public safety, and upon the industry’s 

economic health and chance for survival. In 

some instances, DOT’S interim final launch 

licensing regulation will require that a firm 

provide substantial data demonstrating the 

safety of its activity. In compliance with Executive Order 12291 and internal Department policies, DOT prepared an impact 

assessment of the new regulation. It concluded that the benefits of these policies outweighed the potential cost to the industry 

and the Nation. Like the draft regulation, the 

impact assessment was available for public 

comment. 

The Commercial Space Launch Act charges 

the Department of Transportation with responsibility for establishing minimum requirements for third-party liability 

insurance, which commercial launch operators must carry. Third-party liability insurance protectk the Government from having to 

pay damages should a third party, such as 

persons or property not directly involved with 

the launch operation, be hurt or otherwise 

damaged as a result of the launch. In 1985, 

the Department issued an advance notice of 

proposed rulemaking (ANPRM) requesting 

public comment on a variety of mechanisms 

to implement the Department’s authority in 

this area. To answer the extensive probing 

and complex questions that resulted from the 

ANPRM, the Department researched issues 

germane to third-party liability insurance 

requirements. 

Environmental Assessment The National Environmental Fblicy Act requires that major 

Federal actions be assessed for their effects 

upon the environment. Clearly, issuing regula113 
tions that govern the activities of a new industry constitutes a major Federal action. Because 

commercial launches are expected to be routine events, their environmental effects had to 

be assessed prior to issuing regulations under 

which they would operate. The effects of commercial launches on air quality, water quality, 

noise levels, and land uses were evaluated by 

using information about unmanned space 

launches conducted over the last 20 years. In 

February 1986, this evaluation was published 

as a programmatic environmental assessment, 

and made available for public review and comment. 

“he environmental assessment represents a 

major milestone in commercial space transportation. The only response to the assessment 

that the Department received was a finding by 

the Environmental Protection Agency that 

there appeared to be no significant impacts, 

and, in September, the Department issued a 

“Finding of No Significant Impact.” Although 

no significant environmental impacts are expected from the development of the industry, or 

from the conduct of routine launch operations, 

there may be launch-peculiar as- that will 

have to be addressed during the licensing review process. 

Safety Research and Technical Program Deuelopment. One of the most challenging aspects of the Department’s charter is ensuring 

that no aspect of commercial launch activities poses unreasonable risks to public safety. 

In order to develop appropriate safety requirements, DOT conducts analyses and 

studies of the same scope and depth as those 

conducted in other modes of transportation. 

The Department has planned a research program that will examine methodically safety 

issues involved in commercial space launch 

activities. The research will not duplicate efforts of NASA or the Air Force, but will build 

upon the existing knowledge base, as DOT 

does now in the area of aviation. Commercial 

space launch research will concentrate in 

areas that include risk management, commercial payload effects on the space environment, commercial ground and flight safety, 

safety equipment requirements, and commercial safety operating procedures. 

Encouraging commercial investment in 

space transportation remains a U.S. Government priority. In 1983, when the President 

first requested the Government and the private sector to make the development of a robust commercial launch industry a national 

goal, significant barriers were encountered. 

An efficient launch approval process had to 

be devised, and disincentives to investment, 

such as U.S. Government competition in the 

commercial launch market, removed. ‘Ibday, 

those barriers have largely been removed. 

The Department of Transportation has made 

substantial progress in encouraging and facilitating the development of this new industry, and has established the foundation for 

commercial success in the space frontier. 

114 
Environmental Protection 

The Environmental Protection Agency 

(EPA) cooperated with NASA in developing 

and applying a number of aerospace technologies that include a geographic information 

system for monitoring the environment and 

factors that Sect it; laser technology for the 

remote measurement of airborne pollutants 

and water quality; mathematical models for 

acid deposition studies; the use of highaltitude photography in support of provisions 

of the Resource Conservation and Recovery 

Act (RCRA) relating to waste-site location, 

permit writing, site analysis, enforcement activities, and the underground storage tank 

program. Aerial photography is also used to 

support waste-site investigations conducted 

under the Comprehensive Environmental 

Response, Compensation and Liability Act 

(CERCLA), also knowa as Superfund. 

Monitoring and Assessing 

the Environment 

Geographic Infirmation Systems 

Geographic Information Systems (GIs) provide a means for computerized manipulation of 

multiple data sets from or related to Landsat 

satellites, photography, topography, land use, 

vegetation, soils, weather, population distribution, geology, and sampling locations for monibring and assessing the environment. The 

locations of spatially variable inf'ormation am 

organized and referenced using Cartesian (x,y) 

coordinates and grid cells. The information is 

then retrieved by subject (such as land we, soil 

type, and water well location) and manipulated, combined, and displayed as complex geographic data bases. Processing and 

manipulating the GIs data base through various computer operations result in a series of 

thematic overlays describing many environmental variables that relate to a particular site 

or region. Applications for the overlays include 

hazardous waste permit analysis, local and regional environmental impact assessment, 

monitoring systems design, and compliance 

monitoring. 

Agency 

Acid Deposition Studies 

NASA and EPA are developing methods to 

model acid deposition from the Philadelphia 

metropolitan area. This area can be visualized as an 80- to 100-kilometer square containing a large number of individual sources 

of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, and the oxides of nitrogen. The purpose 

of the modeling study is to characterize how 

the pollutants dect the chemical composition of rainfall reaching the ground in the 

first few hundred kilometers downwind of the 

sources. It will compare results of calculations using mathematical models of meteorological and chemical processes with the 

results of field observations. 

"he mathematical models are of two types. 

First is a meteorological model called the Mesoscale Atmospheric Simulator Model (MASS) 

developed for Langley Research Center. This 

model was tested by the Goddard Space Flight 

Center and provided an excellent simulation of 

the weather. "he second model, the Sulfur 

Transport Eulerian Model (STEM), was developed jointly by the Universities of Iowa and 

Kentucky with financial support from NASA 

and EPA. Both models run on Langley's computers and represent the state of the art in 

their respective disciplines. 

Since the study's inception in March 1985, 

meteorological conditions for three experimental periods were simulated successfully. 

The simulations are necessary because the 

atmosphere at levels above the surface is observed only at 12-hour intervals, and at stations approximately 400 kilometers apart. 

Calculations of meteorological conditions 

with the models yield resolutions that are 

more detailed than those obtained from observations alone. 

Once the meteorological fields have been 

calculated, STEM performs the functions of 

modeling the chemical transformations occurring in the atmosphere, the transporting 

of the various chemical species, and the removal of the species by rain. Both STEM and 

MASS are designed to simulate field experiments and to analyze major processes contributing to acid deposition on a mesoscale 

basis. The field results from the EPA experi115 
ments indicate that nitrate deposition resulting from urban-industrial sources can be very 

significant. The models are designed to determine the origin of nitrates from several 

sources, such as automotive emissions and 

petrochemical processing emissions, and 

then comparing calculated results. In this 

way, the models and field efforts are mutually supportive. 

High-Altitude Photography 

The Resource Conservation and Recovery 

Act requires states to inventory open dumps 

and landfills associated with municipal and 

industrial activities. Similar inventories of 

surface impoundments are required under 

the Clean Water Act. These inventories help 

states determine and control the effects of 

seepage, drainage, and plumes from surface 

impoundments, landfills, and open dumps. 

To support state efforts, scientists from 

EPA acquire and analyze aerial photographs, 

obtained by NASA U-2 flights, to help locate 

and inventory hazardous waste sites. Aerial 

photography provides an accurate and costeffective way to supplement other sources of 

information, such as industrial directories, 

government records, thematic and topographic maps, and letter surveys that may 

provide only partial information, or may be 

out of date. The aerial photographic inventories serve as a basic guide to sites and provide 

general identification and descriptions. 

In one application, specialists were able to 

acquire high-altitude aerial photographs covering the State of Pennsylvania, about 48,000 

square miles, in 8 hours of flight time. The 

photographs located approximately 3,500 

landfills and dumps and several times as 

many impoundments in the state. Similarly, 

Gulf Coast areas of Mississippi, Alabama, 

and Florida, about 21,000 square miles, were 

photographed from high altitude with a conventional mapping camera in less than 9 

hours of flight time. These photographs allowed identification of over 600 waste sites. 

Sites are classified according to the kind of 

facility associated with them, such as industrial, municipal, agricultural, mining, oil or 

gas, sewage treatment, and land disposal. 

Aerial Photographic Septic Tank Assessments 

The Clean Water Act authorizes the funding of sewage collection and treatment facilities. During the implementation of this legislation in areas serviced by septic systems, 

EPA recognized the need to document the 

condition of these systems. Unfortunately, 

available field survey methods have technical 

limitations, and public records are usually 

incomplete. Therefore, researchers at EPA 

have developed aerial photographic techniques to help identify failures in septic systems. 

An area under study is photographed using 

both color infrared and standard color photography at a scale of 1:8,000. This scale provides the necessary resolution while allowing 

enough area coverage to make the method 

cost-effective. The color infrared imagery is 

the primary source for interpretation because of its ability to detect subtle changes in 

vegetative growth patterns. The standard 

color photography is used primarily for comparative purposes. 

The analyst uses high-powered optics and 

stereoscope to examine each lot in the study 

area for signs of unusual vegetative growth, 

plant foliage stress, and excessive soil moist ure levels. Growth-s tress-dep t h vegetative 

patterns associated with upward or lateral 

movements of septic system effluent appear 

different from the surrounding vegetation on 

both standard color and color infrared photography. 

Analysts also can identify secondary indications of septic system failures. Indicators of 

such failures may be small ditches or 

trenches constructed by home owners to remove the effluent from failing systems, small 

hoses or pipes to reroute wash water from an 

overloaded system, and coverings o€ an impervious material such as clay. 

Aerial Photography fir RCRAKERCLA 

Remote sensing projects support the process of issuing permits for facilities, site analysis, and enforcement activities under 

provisions of the Resource Conservation and 

Recovery Act (RCRA); and site operations 

monitoring, topographic and flood mapping, 

demographic change analysis, and the Underground Storage %nk program. Aerial 

photography is also the most commonly used 

remote sensing technique for supporting 

waste-site investigations conducted under 

the Comprehensive Environmental Response, compensation and Liability Act 

(CERCLA), often called Superfund. The prin116 
cipal aerial photographic system used is the 

9” x 9” mapping camera. Color and color 

infrared files are most frequently used because these media provide enhanced differentiation of subtle spectral characteristics 

associated with such features as surface leachate, surface water turbidity, soil moisture, 

and vegetation stress. Various types of aircraft are used at different flight altitudes. Archival aerial photography provides a 

valuable source of information for the historical analysis of hazardous waste sites and is 

routinely used. Moreover, image analysts 

who interpret aerial imagery are fully qualified to provide expert witness testimony on 

the analysis findings. 

EPA conducts four basic types of remote 

sensing under RCRA or CERCLA. First, priority is given to emergency response projects 

under hazardous material release situations 

requiring rapid assessment of conditions at a 

site. When current information on a site is 

required, the practice is usually to acquire 

new photography. Data analysis may be conducted on this new imagery or on historical 

imagery taken during a particularly significant period in the history of the site. Second, 

intensive site-analysis projects are performed 

on selected sites to document changing conditions over a period of time. Third, waste-site 

inventories are conducted over large areas to 

establish a baseline reference of sites. In addition, a number of special purpose products 

are produced using more advanced technologies to process photographic data. Fourth, 

photogrammetry is employed to produce detailed topographic maps of waste sites. As an 

expansion of the applications of photogrammetry, flood-plain maps defining the 1 in 25, 

1 in 50, and 1 in 100-year flood plain are developed for hazardous waste sites. This effort 

involves combining topographic data derived 

from photogrammetry with hydraulic or 

stream-flow data sets. 

117 
National Science Foundation 

The National Science Foundation (NSF) 

supports research in both the astronomical 

and atmospheric sciences. In 1986, NSF supported ground-based and theoretical astronomy that included five grant programs 

benefiting more than 140 universities and 

three National Astronomy Centers. 

In the atmospheric sciences, NSF provides 

the primary support for research by universities, and both nonprofit and profit-making 

groups in the United States. It also supports 

the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) and the Upper Atmospheric 

Facilities (UAF) program. In collaboration 

with the atmospheric sciences community, 

NCAR conducts large scientific research programs, and offers use of major facilities that 

would be beyond the scope of those available 

at a single university. The UAF supports four 

incoherent-scatter radar facilities that 

stretch in a longitudinal chain from Greenland to Peru. 

Astronomical Sciences 

In 1986, the fastest known spinning binary 

pulsar was discovered. The pulses are so regular that the possibility exists for using this 

object as a very precise clock whose accuracy 

exceeds that of the best terrestrial standards. 

In the process of star formation, astronomers observed the stage where the collapsing 

object is closer to attaining stellar dimensions than anything previously observed. Observations made at radio wavelengths show 

evidence of a star that has only one-quarter of 

the mass of the Sun. It is surrounded by a 

cloud of falling material whose mass continues to increase, indicating that the star 

might become as massive as the Sun. 

In a related area, astronomers have obtained optical evidence of companion white 

dwarf stars in binary pulsar systems. The 

highest magnetic field known was measured 

on the surface of a white dwarf star. The 

strength of this magnetic field is 700 million 

times greater than the Earth’s magnetic 

field. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

In 1986, NSF supported basic atmospheric 

research on a wide range of subjects, and remains the largest federal supporter of academic research in the atmospheric sciences. 

Significant achievements in the atmospheric sciences included modeling of the ice 

age climate. Reconstructions of climate of the 

past 20,000 years from paleoecological land 

records correlated remarkably well with 

results from the NCAR Community Climate 

Model. 

Basic research on the physics of cirrus 

clouds will allow a better understanding of 

the absorption, reflection and transmission of 

solar and terrestrial radiation by these 

clouds in global climate models. This is due 

to the observations of liquid water in cirrus 

clouds, previously thought to consist entirely 

of ice crystals. 

Researchers have established that the solar 

flux increased from the solar cycle maximum 

in 1968 through 1969 to the solar cycle maximum from 1978 through 1979, and, subsequently, decreased to the present time. The 

solar diameter showed the same pattern. 

This connection is important for understanding climate variations, and for studying the 

physics of solar activity and variability. 

In August, the National Ozone Expedition 

(NOZE), was dispatched to study the depletion of stratospheric ozone over the Antarctic 

continent. In addition to NSF, support was 

provided by NASA, NOAA, and the Chemical 

Manufacturers Association. Research results 

should provide a better understanding of 

ozone depletion over Antarctica. 

119 
! 

Smithsonian Institution 

The Smithsonian Institution contributes to 

the Nation’s space goals through basic research programs at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) in Cambridge, 

Massachusetts, and through public exhibits, 

lectures, and educational programs at the 

National Air and Space Museum (NASM) in 

Washington, D.C. NASM’s Center for Earth 

and Planetary Studies (CEPS) also conducts 

basic research in planetary geology and terrestrial remote sensing. 

Space Sciences 

High-E nergy Astrophysics 

Using a combination of satellite and 

ground-based observations, SA0 scientists 

discovered a possible third black hole in the 

Milky Way. The technique used-observing 

its visible light counterpart-can be applied 

to the search for additional objects of this 

type. 

The continued reduction and analysis of 

data from the HEAO-1 and HEAO-2 @instein) satellites led to the discovery of a cool, 

high-density, x-ray-emitting gas in the central regions of some galaxies. As this gas continues to cool, it condenses to form new stars; 

thus, these “old” galaxies still show activity 

characteristic of younger galaxies. 

Quasars, extremely luminous objects located at the core of some galaxies, emit x-rays 

with a universal signature which allows an 

efficient way to locate them. This is important for understanding the development of 

certain properties of the universe over the 

past 15 billion years. 

Infrared Astronomy 

Maps of the infrared sky were produced 

from data obtained by a helium-cooled infrared telescope 0 carried on the flight of 

Spacelab 2 in July 1985. Although hampered 

by significant background contamination associated with the Shuttle environment, the 

IRT successfully traced diffuse infrared radiation from the plane of the Milky Way in 

wavebands previously unrecorded. Properties 

of large volumes of superfluid helium in 

space also were measured. 

Atmospheric Sciences 

The chemistry of Earth‘s stratosphere was 

studied by means of far-infrared spectra obtained from a balloon-borne telescope. The 

most significant result of this research was 

the first detection of stratospheric hydrogen 

peroxide. 

Space Technology 

After more than a decade of work, SA0 and 

Harvard University scientists succeeded in 

operating an atomic maser clock to within 

one-half degree of absolute zero. At that temperature, it is anticipated that the “cold 

clock” will be one thousand times more accurate than any other time standard yet developed. The new clock could be used in a 

variety of experiments in space. 

Planetary Sciences 

SA0 scientists were among many involved 

in Halley’s Comet research, including international efforts to achieve a close fly-by of the 

Comet, and to measure the physical characteristics of its nucleus. The measurements 

confirmed the “dirty snowball” model of a 

comet’s nucleus that was developed by an 

SA0 scientist. 

Voyager spacecraft data show Saturn’s outermost ring to be curiously uneven in brightness, with two bright regions 180 degrees 

apart separated by two darker regions. Research indicates that this irregularity is 

caused by a tendency of particles to cluster 

gravitationally in aligned arrays that reflect 

light better in one direction than in the direction perpendicular to it. 

121 
SA0 continued its study of lunar samples. 

In particular, collaborative research was undertaken with other institutions on rocks 

taken from the Apollo 16 site. Located in the 

Moon’s central highlands. this site contains 

complex layers of debris, splashed there by 

giant impacts that created large lunar basins 

approximately 3.9 billion years ago. SA0 

studies suggest the impact that formed the 

Imbrium basin occurred 50 million years earlier than previously thought, providing a 

more accurate chronology of the Moon’s early 

history. 

Using Viking Orbiter images taken in different color filters, CEPS researchers isolated discrete areas of the Martian terrain 

that indicate much of the northern smooth 

plains of the planet formerly were underlain 

by ancient crust, which is now only visible in 

the southern hemisphere. Currently, image 

processing techniques are being used to reconstruct evolution of the northern smooth 

plains from an early period of intense meteoritic bombardment to the most recent deposition of fluvial sediments. 

In 1986, a comparative study of the basalt 

plains on Mars and Earth began. The Thematic Mapper Camera aboard Landsat provided images of structural features in the 

Columbia Plateau. This information was 

compared to images of similar features on 

Mars taken by the Viking Orbiter. This research is particularly valuable because field 

work on the Columbian ridges could result in 

validation of theories on their origin. 

Changes in Earth’s desert regions, caused 

by sand transport and different uses of arable 

soil, are being monitored through a study of 

orbital images. The research is concentrated 

on southern Egypt, where dune migration 

has overtaken the landscape, and Mali, 

where visible land-use patterns indicate areas prone to active erosion. The long-term 

goal is to determine what can and cannot be 

learned from medium- and high-resolution 

spectral imaging of Earth’s arid regions. 

122 
Department of State 

The role of the Department of State in the 

U.S. civil space program is to evaluate space 

programs, policies, and agreements in the 

context of advancing U.S. foreign policy interests. It advises the President on international space matters, is the principal 

negotiator of government-to-government 

agreements, and represents the United 

States in international organizations involved in space. 

In 1986, the United States continued to negotiate with international partners on the 

permanently manned Space Station. In close 

cooperation with NASA and other interested 

agencies, Department officials met with European, Japanese, and Canadian representatives to negotiate government-to-government 

agreements on the detailed design, development, operation, and utilization of the Space 

Station. This activity builds upon Memoranda of Understanding signed in 1985, and 

signifies progress in making the largest international space project in history a reality. 

The Department of State strongly supports 

the Space Station as a concrete demonstration of U.S. leadership in space, as a stimulus 

for exploring new areas of science and technology, and as a positive model for international cooperation and mutual benefit. 

In 1986, the Department played a major role 

in interagency discussions on a number of 

space policy issues. The Challenger tragedy resulted in a reevaluation of the entire U.S. civil 

space program, changed U.S. commercial space 

policy, and radically altered plans for world sa& 

ellite launches. Each of these areas affected international space policies, and national 

policies of countries that have cooperative 

space projects with the United States or depend 

on it for launch serihces. As the agency responsible for representing U.S. foreign policy interests in the international arena, the 

Department of State actively participated in 

discussions of these issues, conveying and evaluating foreign country viewpoints and explaining U.S. decisions. 

The Department of State continued to represent the United States in international 

bodies involved in space issues. One of the 

principal forums is the United Nation 

(UN) and its Committee on the Peaceful Uses 

of Outer Space (COPUOS). 

Actlvltles Wlthln the Unlted Nations 

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer 

Space 

The 53 member COPUOS was established 

in 1958 by the UN General Assembly to promote international cooperation in the exploration and peaceful uses of outer space. For 

20 yeas it served as a productive vehicle for 

the exchange of scientific information. It was 

also responsible for negotiating four widely 

accepted UN conventions that form the basis 

of international space law. 

In recent years, however, the scientific and 

legal work of the Committee have seriously 

deteriorated. Debates were influenced by extraneous political factors, and there was an 

increasing tendency to involve the Committee in disarmament and political issues outside its mandate. As the 39th session of the 

UN General Assembly, the United States and 

other Western nations attempted to arrest 

the decline by making a number of changes 

in the agenda of COPUOS and its Subcommittees. During 1985 and 1986, Western 

states continued their efforts to restore scientific and technical utility to the work of 

COPUOS and to make it function in accordance with its original mandate. 

In Febquary 1986, the Scientific and Bchnical Subcommittee adopted a U.S./Western 

proposal to add planetary exploration and astronomy to its agenda. This was one of many 

proposals that Western nations made in an 

effort to arrest serious deterioration in the 

Subcommittee’s scientific work. The Subcommittee rejected an Eastern bloc proposal to 

add new items to the agenda that focused 

largely on the disarmament position of the 

Soviet Union. 

In March 1986, the Legal Subcommittee 

endorsed the Austrian draft text “Principles 

Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth 

from Outer Space.” Modeled on policies and 

practices instituted years ago by the United 

States, the principles encourage the public, 

123 
non-discriminatory availability of data, and 

promote opportunities for international participation in national remote sensing programs. COPUOS endorsed the draft text; 

subsequently, it was presented to the 41st 

Session of the UN General Assembly. 

During its 29th plenary session in June 

1986, COPUOS agreed to include life science 

research, astronomy, and planetary science 

in the 1987 agenda of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee. COPUOS also accepted 

a Latin American proposal to establish a 

Working Group of the Whole for the 1987 

meeting of the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee that will evaluate the implementation of the Unispace ’82 recommendations. 

That proposal was similar to one recommended by the West in 1985. The U.S. and 

Western delegations continued to press for 

measures to review the organization and 

working methods of COPUOS and its Subcommittees, without much success, to date. 

UN General Assembly (UNGA) 

On the recommendation of the Special Political Committee, the 41st session of the UN 

General Assembly adopted the omnibus resolution “International Cooperation in the 

Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.” The resolution sets the agendas of COPUOS and its 

Subcommittees for 1987, and reflects several 

proposals the U.S. and other Western states 

had offered in 1986 to re-establish the scientific and technical content of the Committee’s 

work. The UNGA also adopted the draft text 

“Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of 

the Earth from Outer Space” that was forwarded by COPUOS. Pursuant to Article X of 

the Convention on the Registration of Objects 

Launched into Outer Space, the UNGA also 

conducted a review of that instrument to determine whether it required revision. The 

UNGA determined that the Convention 

works satisfactorily, and urged non-signatory 

states to consider becoming parties to it. 

In the 41st session of the UNGA, the U.S. 

reiterated its concerns over the unwillingness by many member states to consider the 

need to make COPUOS and its Subcommittees more efficient and effective, and expressed its disappointment that COPUOS 

had not yet acted on other proposals that 

Western states had presented in an effort to 

revitalize it. 

Communlcatlon Satellites 

International Telecommunication Union 

(ITV 

The United States prepared for the ITU’s 

World Administrative Radio Conference for 

Mobile Services (Mobile WARC) that will be 

held in Geneva, Switzerland in September and 

October 1987. The conference will review and 

revise regulations for mobile services from terrestrial and satellite communications, radio 

determination and radio navigation satellite 

systems. In July, at a special meeting held in 

Geneva, a draft of the U.S. technical proposals 

was presented to 41 countries. 

In September, the ITU’s International Frequency Registration Board unanimously 

adopted a report that identified and documented 37 frequencies of the Voice of America, Radio Liberty, and Radio Free Europe 

that were jammed by the Soviet Union, 

Czechoslovakia, and Poland. This is the fmt 

official technical body within the UN system 

to recognize this violation of obligations under.the ITU’s Radio Regulations and the Helsinki accords. 

In May, the ITU’s International Radio Consultative Committee submitted to the Plenary Assembly a U.S. recommendation for 

worldwide High Definition Television 

(HDTV) standards for the studio and for international program exchange. This position 

was developed by the Advanced Television 

Systems Committee, a voluntary organization of U.S. industry, established in 1983. 

However, a coalition of EEC members, primarily concerned with protecting the interests of the European electronics industry, was 

instrumental in effecting a two-year postponment of any decision to adopt worldwide 

HDTV standards. 

International Communications Satellite 

Organization (INTELSAT) 

In December 1986, the INTELSAT Board of 

Governors approved a US. proposal to establish the first international satellite communications system separate from INTELSAT. 

Also, in 1986, following its 1985 decision to 

provide domestic services, INTELSAT concluded several sales and lease agreements. In 

addition to international communications, it 

now offers domestic services, particularly to 

developing countries. 
International Maritime Satellite 

Organization (INMARSAT) 

Member states began ratifying the 1985 

amendments to the INMARW convention 

that will allow aeronautical communication 

services. While several countries have ratified the amendments, the U.S. has taken 

them under advisement. In the meantime, 

work continues on defining technical requirements and tars structures for the services. 

128 
Arms Control and 

Disarmament Agency 

The United States Arms Control and Disarmament Agency (ACDA), established in 

1961 to advise the President of the United 

States on arms control policy, plays a key role 

in the development and support of that policy. 

Historically, ACDA has paid considerable attention to arms control in outer space. With 

increased emphasis placed upon the potential 

use of space, the role of ACDA has grown in 

importance. 

and its First Committee, and the Conference 

on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva, Switzerland. In March 1985, the CD established an 

ad hoc committee to examine issues relevant 

to the prevention of an arms race in outer 

space. The United States and its allies support the work of this specialized committee, 

which has a non-negotiating mandate to address space arms control issues, to review the 

current legal regime of space, and to discuss 

existing and future proposals. 

U.S. Space Arms Control Actlvltles 

Space Policy 

President RRagan outlined the National 

Space Policy July 4, 1982. In his remarks, he 

said: 

The United States will continue to study 

space arms control options. The United 

States will consider verifiable and equitable arms control measures that would ban 

or otherwise limit testing and deployment 

of specific weapons systems, should those 

measures be compatible with United States 

national security. 

The President reaffirmed that policy on 

March 31,1984 in a report to the Congress on 

anti-satellite (ASAT) arms control. 

During the past two years, ACDA has been 

deeply involved in the Nuclear and Space 

'Iglks, a bilateral U.S.-Soviet arms control 

negotiation that began in March 1985. In 

January 1985, at a meeting between Secretary of State Shultz and then Soviet Foreign 

Minister Gromyko, it was agreed that these 

talks would be composed of three separate 

groups, one of which addresses defense and 

space issues. In this forum, called the Defense and Space Negotiating Group, ACDA 

has continued to analyze and articulate the 

U.S. position on space arms control. 

Multllateral Dlscusslons on Space 

Arms Control 

ACDA is involved extensively in the formulation of U.S. space policy. For example, the 

agency cochairs the Interagency Group on Defense and Space, which addresses space arms 

control issues. Also, it is a member of the interagency group that defines U.S. policy on the 

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). In addition, 

ACDA provides administrative support, senior 

representatives, advisors, and legal experts to 

U.S. arms control negotiations. 

The agency participates in the Senior Interagency Group on Space that addresses a 

range of issues involving space, such as development of the manned U.S. Space Station. 

There are a number of other interagency 

groups in which ACDA participates that review topics relative to space, such as bilateral 

governmental space activities and cooperation, and the sale of space-related items. Also, 

ACDA contributes to U.S. consideration of 

technical collection assets for verifying compliance with arms control agreements; these 

include space-based assets that are part of 

the national technical means of verification. 

ACDA continues to pursue US. space policy 

objectives in two multilateral forums each 

year: the United Nations General Assembly 

127 
United States Information Agency 

As part of its continuing coverage of American achievements in science and technology, 

the United States Information Agency 

(USIA) devotes considerable attention to the 

US. space program. ‘Ib tell its story to the 

world, USIA uses such communication techniques as radio programs, newspaper stories, 

direct satellite TV broadcasts, exhibits, and 

overseas visits by scientists and astronauts. 

Voice of America 

In 1986, a major subject of news programs 

of the Voice of America (VOA) was the accident of the Space Shuttle Challenger. VOA’s 

English and foreign language broadcasts provided full and objective coverage of the disaster, and attempted to place it in its proper 

context within the U.S. space program. 

Among other topics meriting in-depth news 

coverage were: Voyager 2’s encounter with 

Uranus, the appearance of Halley’s Comet, 

the future Space Station, remote sensing satellites, and the Report of the National Commission on Space. Most of VOA’s 41 foreign 

language services covered stories in these areas. The fact that VOA continually receives 

inquiries on these topics by overseas audiences is an indication of the high interest in 

the U.S. space program. 

Television Service 

Worldnet, USIA’s popular satellite telecast 

service, generated a steady stream of news 

and features on the U.S. space program. 

Worldnet’s news magazine, America Zbduy, 

focused on events such as the Voyager 2 mission, the Challenger accident, the Young Astronauts Program, and the future Space 

Station. Worldnet also carried live interviews, via satellite, between NASA officials, 

U.S. space experts, and foreign journalists 

and scientists. For example, NASA’s Administrator, Dr. James Fletcher, discussed the 

space program with newsmen in Bern, Brussels, Paris, and Rome. 

In other activities, the Satellite File, a 

weekly series of TV clips, distributed many 

items about NASA to 120 countries; the TV 

acquisition program sent a large number of 

video tapes on space topics to USIS posts 

abroad, including a 17-part series entitled 

“NASA at Work.” Many of the video tapes 

were broadcast by overseas TV stations, 

while others were shown to large audiences 

at various locations. 

Other USIA Activities 

USIA’s Press and Publications Service provided USIS posts abroad with a variety of information for placement in the local media, 

post publications, and for background use. 

“he Wireless File, which serves 213 posts in 

128 locations, provided full and accurate coverage of the Challenger accident, along with 

statements by the President, and others, emphasizing America’s determination to continue its pursuit of a vigorous space program. 

Articles on space exploration highlighted the 

many benefits to be derived through international cooperation. 

America Illustrated, USIA’s monthly Russian-language magazine which is distributed 

in the Soviet Union, published an illustrated 

feature on Voyager 2’s encounter with 

Uranus. USIA’s Foreign Press Centers in 

Washington and Los Angeles offered briefings on the space program, and assisted resident and visiting correspondents from 

overseas news organizations. 

USIA worked closely with NASA in the development and operation of the American Pavilion at yncouver’s Expo ’86. The Pavilion 

focused on space exploration and transportation, and, in particular, on the manned Space 

Station proposed for the 1990’s and beyond. A 

number of American and Canadian astronauts visited the Pavilion, which was one of 

the most popular at the fair. 

In 1986, the American Participant Program sponsored trips abroad for two astronauts; both received extensive and favorable 

news coverage. Jon McBride visited Indonesia, and participated in the opening of a major international air show. Dr. Franklin 

Chang-Diaz traveled on two separate programs. His first trip was to Argentina, Uruguay, Chile and ‘Venezuela; his second 

journey was to Malaysia, where he participated in the ASEAN Science Symposium. 
Appendixes 

APPENDIX A-l 

U.S. Spacecraft Record 

(Includes spacerraft from moperating countries launched by US . launch vehicles.) 

Calendar Earth Orbit" Earth Escape' Calendar Earth Orbit " Earth Escape ' 

Success Failure Success Failure Year Success Failure Succesa Failure Year 

......................... ........................... 1957 0 1 0 0 1972 33 2 8 0 

8 0 4 1973 ........................... 23 2 3 0 

2 1974 ........................... 27 2 1 0 

2 1975 ........................... 30 4 4 0 

12 0 2 1976 33 0 1 0 

12 4 1 1977 ........................... 27 2 2 0 

11 0 0 1978 34 2 7 0 

8 4 0 1979 ........................... 18 0 0 0 

4 1 1980 16 4 0 0 

12 7 lb 1981 ........................... 20 1 0 0 

1867 4 10 0 1982 21 0 0 0 

1968 61 15 3 0 1983 ........................... 31 0 0 0 

1 8 1 1984 35 3 0 0 

1 3 0 1985 37 1 0 0 

8 1 1986 ........................... 11 4 0 0 

Total ................ 1. 112 142 79 15 

1958 ......................... 5 

1959 9 9 1 

1960 16 12 1 

1961 35 

1962 55 

1963 62 

1964 69 

1965 93 

1966 94 

78 

1969 58 

1970 36 

1971 45 2 

The cri?rion of success or failure used is attainment of Earth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgment of mission success . "Esca flights include all that were intended to go to at least an altitude equal to lunar distance from the Earth . %is rarth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and therefore is included in the Earth-orbit success totals . 

......................... 

......................... 

......................... ........................... ......................... 

......................... ........................... ......................... c ......................... ........................... ......................... 

......................... . ........................... ......................... 

......................... ........................... ......................... ........................... ......................... 

APPENDIX A-2 

World Word of Space Launches Successful in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond 

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.) 

People's United 

calendar U.S.S.R. France Italy Japan Republic Australia Kingdom A Space India 

of China genv 

Bar States 

1957 ................ 2 .................................................................................... 1958 ............... 5 1 ..................................................................................... 1959 .............. 10 3 .................................................................................... 1960 .............. 16 3 .................................................................................... 1961 .............. 29 6 .................................................................................... 1962 .............. 52 20 .................................................................................... 1963 .............. 38 17 .................................................................................... 1964 .............. 57 30 .................................................................................... 1965 .............. 63 48 ....... 1 

1966 .............. 73 44 ....... 1 ........................................................................... 1967 .............. 57 66 ....... 2 ........ 1 ............................ 1 .................................. 1968 .............. 45 74 .................................................................................... 1969 .............. 40 70 .................................................................................... 1970 .............. 28 81 ....... 2 ....... .l '. ....... 1 ........ 1 ............................................ 197 1 .............. 30 83 ....... 1 ....... .2 " ........ 2 ........ 1 .................. 1 ........................ 1972 .............. 30 74 1 1 

1973 .............. 23 86 .................................................................................... 1974 .............. 22 81 ................ .2 ". ....... 1 ...................................................... 1975 .............. 27 89 ....... 3 ........ 1 ........ 2 ........ 3 ............................................ 1976 .............. 26 99 ........................... 1 2 

1977 .............. 24 98 ........................... 2 ...................................................... 1978 .............. 32 88 ........................... 3 ........ 1 ............................................ 1979 .............. 16 87 ........................... 2 ...................................... 1 .............. 1980 .............. 13 89 ........................... 2 ................................................ 1 .... 1981 .............. 18 98 ........................... 3 ........ 1 ............................ 2 ........ 1 .... 1082 .............. 18 101 ........................... 1 ........ 1 ............................................ 1983 .............. 22 98 ........................... 3 ........ 1 ............................ 2 ........ 1 .... 1984 .............. 22 97 ........................... 3 ........ 3 ............................ 4 .............. 1985 .............. 17 98 ........................... 2 ........ 1 ............................ 3 .............. 1986 ............... 6 91 ........................... 2 ........ 2 ............................. 2 .............. 

"Includes foreign launchee of U.S. spacecraft . 

........................................................................... 

................. ........ ...................................................... 

........ ............................................ 

%tal ........... 859 1, 922 10 8 31 17 "; 1 1 14 3 

131 
APPENDIX A-3 

Successful US. bunches-1988 

-~ 

Apogee and 

Fbrigee (km), Period (min), 

Inclination to 

Launch VeE? Equator (“1 

Launch Date (GMT), 

CO~~PAR Desi Spacecraft Data 

S aceeraRName, Mission Objectives, 

Jan. 12 Ob’ective: lb launch RCA Satcom K-1, and con- 350 

S ce Shuttle duct ex riments. 327 

~SrSalC) 

3A 

olumbia Spacecrg Shuttle orbiter carrying satellite as 91.3 

well as experiments. Materials Science 28.5 

Laboratory-2 (MLS-2), Hitchhiker Gl, Particle Analysis Cameras for the Shuttle (F’ACS), 

Capillary Pump Loop (CPL), Shuttle Environment Effeds on Coated Mirrors (SEECM), 12 

experiments flown on Get Away Special Bridge 

Assembly, 1 additional GAS experiment, Infrared Ima ’ng Experiment (ZR-IE). Middeck pay- loads: Ynitial Blood Storage Experiment 

(IBSE), and Comet Halley Active Monitoring 

Program (CHAMP). Additional1 3 Shuttle 

ments. Weight 12,708 lbs. 

c” 

Student Involvement Program ( is IP) experiJan. 12 Objective: lb successfully launch communica- 35,794 

RCA Satcom K-1 tions satellite. 35,781 

3B Spacecrak Box-shaped, 67 by 84 by 60 inch main 

uare R. solar panels de loyed after launch. 

1436.2 

structure, three-axis stabilized, twin 280 0.0 

yeight at launch: 15,929 ks. 

Feb. 9 

Defense 

14A 

Atlas H 

Feb. 9 

Defense 

14E 

Feb. 9 

Defense 

14F 

Feb. 9 

Defense 

14H 

se5 

Lfem 

69A 

Delta 180 

se5 

betense 

69B 

Se 17 

73A 

Atlaa E 

EOAA 10 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available 

Spacecrafk Not announced. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available. 

Spacecrafk Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

Objective: Development of spacecraft techniques Not available. 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 

and technology. 

and technology. 

and technology. 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 719 

and technology. 212 Spacecrafk Not announced. 93.9 

39.1 

Objective: Development of spaceflight techniques 61 1 

and technology. 223 

Spacecraft: Not announced. 92.9 

22.8 

Objective: lb launch spacecraft into 823 

sunsynchronous orbit of sufficient accuracy to 804 

enable satellite to accomplish its operational 101.2 

mission requirements. 98.7 

Spacecrak Launch configuration: 491 cm high, 

188 cm diameter, weight: 1,712 kg. 

Remarks 

Twenty-fourth flight of Space Transrtation System. Piloted by Ro- E* L . “Hoot” Gibson and 

Charles F. Bolden. Mission specialists Franklin R. Chang-Dim, 

Steven A. Hawley, and George D. 

“Pinky” Nelson. Payload s 

ists Robert J. Ceder mcE%$ 

Congressman C. William “Bill” 

Nelson. Columbia launched KSC 

655 a.m., EST. Satellite deployed 

and experiments conducted. Shuttle landed at Edwards AFB, CA, 

858 a.m., EST, Jan. 18. Mission 

duration 6 days, 2 hrs, 4 min. 

Successfully deployed from Columbia, second in series satellite for 

RCA American Communications, 

Inc. In orbit. 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

In orbit. 

Successful launch by NASA for 

DoD, Strategic Defense Initiative 

(SDD. Space intercept and collision test. Destroyed. 

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDn 

space intercept, and collision test. 

Destroyed. 

Third of the advanced Tiros-N series. Funded by NOAA and successfully launched by NASA. Also 

onboard Search and Rescue instruments. Spacecraft returning 

data. Still in orbit. 
Awmmx A-3-Continued 

Successful U.S. Launches-1 980 

Mission Objectives, 

sP-----cr n-A- 

&gee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Apogee and 

Perigee (km), 

Period (min), Remarks 

Inclination to 

Equator ("1 

Launch Date (GMT), 

SJ;~? Name, Mission Objectives, 

Launch Vehicle 

esignation, Spacecraft Data 

Nov. 14 Objective: To launch Air Force P87-1 satellite 1015 Successfully launched by NASA for 

Polar Bear the U.S. Air Force. Reconditioned 

88A achievement of mission objectives. 104.9 satellite which hung for several 

scout SDacecraft: Not announced. 89.6 vears in the National Air and 

into an orbit which will enable the successful 960 

'Weight: 270 lbs. Space Museum. Experiments to 

study radio interference caused 

by Aurora Borealis, or Northern 

Lights. Operating and returning 

data. 

Dec. 5 Objective: To launch satellite into planned 36,024 Launched by NASA for Navy, to 

Fltsatcom 7 geostationary position. 35,551 serve DoD. Still in orbit. 

96A Spacecraft Hexagonal, composed of payload and 1436.2 

Atlas-Centaur spacecraft module; 22.7 R. high. Provides 1 5.2 

EHF and 23 UHF communications channels. 

Weight at liftoff: 5,073 lbs. Weight on orbit: 

2,488 lbs. 
APPENDIX B-1 

U.S.-Lwmchod AppHcations Satellites 1980-1 986 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

COMMUNICATIONS 

Jan. 18,1980 

Oct. 31,1980 

Nov. 15,1980 

Dec. 6,1980 

Feb. 21,1981 

May 23,1981 

Aug. 6,1981 

Sept. 24, 1981 

Nov. 20,1981 

Dec. 15,1981 

Jan. 16,1982 

Feb. 26,1982 

Mar. 5,1982 

Apr. 10, 1982 

June 9,1982 

Aug. 26,1982 

Sept. 28,1982 

Oct. 27, 1982 

Oct. 30, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Nov. 12, 1982 

Apr. 4, 1983 

Apr. 11, 1983 

May 19, 1983 

June 18,1983 

June 19,1983 

June 28,1983 

July 28, 1983 

Aug. 31,1983 

Sept. 8, 1983 

Sep. 22,1983 

Feb. 3,1984 

Feb. 6,1984 

Mar. 1,1984 

June 9,1984 

Aug. 31,1984 

Aug. 31,1984 

Sept. 1, 1984 

F1tsat.com 3 

Fltsatcom 4 

SBS 1 

Intelsat V F-2 

Comstar D-4 

Intelsat V F-1 

Fltsatcom 5 

SBS 2 

RCA-Satcom 3-R 

Intelsat V F-3 

RCA-Satcom 4 

Westar 4 

Intelsat V F-4 

Insat 1A 

Westar 5 

Anik D-1 

Intelsat V F-5 

RCA-Satcom 5 

DSCS 11, 

DSCS III 

SBS 3 

Anik C-3 

TDRS 1 

RCA-Satcom 6 

Intelsat V F-6 

Anik C-2 

Palapa B-1 

Galaxy 1 

Telstar 3A 

Insat 1-B 

RCA-Satcom 7 

Galaxy 2 

Westar-6 

Palapa-B2 

Uosat-2 

Intelsat V F-9 

SBS4 

Syncom IV-2 

Telstar-3C 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta C"l 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta 0 

Thor-Delta C"l 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Atlas-Centaur 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Titan III(34) 

Space Shuttle, 

D/IUS 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

IUS 

Delta 3924 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

PAMTD 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 

PAM-D 

3920PAM-D 

Delta 

3920PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

Delta 3924 

PAM-D 

Delta 

3920PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Delta 3920 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Soace Shuttle 

Sbace Shuttle, 

PAM-D 

Third of DoD series. 

Fourth of DoD series. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems as part of its domestic 

First of new series, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fourth in series. for Comsat General Corp. 

Second in series for INTELUT, positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in DoD series. 

Second in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Fourth in series for RCA, replacement for RCA-Satcom 3. 

Third in series. Ib be positioned over Atlantic. 

Fifth in series for RCA. 

First in a series of second-generation for Western Union Co. 

Fourth in series;.positioned over Pacific. 

First in series for India Department of Space. 

Second in series of second-generation for Western Union Co.; 

Launched for Telesat Canada as replacement for in-orbit satelFifth in series; positioned over Indian Ocean. 

Joined 4 operational satellites launched for RCA. 

Defense communications (dual launch), including first in series 

Third in series for Satellite Business Systems. 

Second in new series for Telesat Canada. 

First in series. System to rovide continuous satellite communication. Leased by NA& from Space Communications Co. 

(Spacecorn). 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 1, launched for RCA. 

Sixth in series; positioned over Atlantic Ocean. 

Launched for Telesat Canada. 

Indonesian domestic communications. 

communications links. 

replaces. Westar 2. 

lites. 

of uprated satellites. 

Launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

Indian domestic communications. 

Replacement for RCA-Satcom 2, launched for RCA. 

Second in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Western Union, PAM-D failed to fire properly, 

satellite retrieved by Shuttle, and returned to earth for refurbishment. 

Launched for Indonesia, booster motor failed, satellite retrieved 

and returned to earth by Shuttle. 

Secondary payload with Landsatd; for amateur radio communications. 

Seventh in series, launch vehicle failure, satellite reentered Oct. 

24. 

Launched for Satellite Business Systems, Inc. 

Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. 

Launched for American Telephone and Telegraph Co. 

134 
APPENDIX B-l-Continued 

US.-Launched Applications Satellltes 1980- 1986 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Sept. 21, 1984 

Nov. 9,1984 

Nov. 10, 1984 

Nov. 14,1984 

Mar. 22,1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 13,1985 

June 17,1985 

June 18,1985 

June 19,1985 

June 30,1985 

Aug. 27,1985 

Aug. 27,1985 

Aug. 29,1985 

Sep. 29,1985 

Nov. 27,1985 

Nov, 27,1985 

Nov. 28,1985 

Jan. 12,1986 

Dec. 5,1986 

May 29,1980 

May 22,1981 

June 23,1981 

Dec. 21,1982 

Mar. 28,1983 

Apr. 28,1983 

Nov. 18,1983 

Dec. 12,1984 

Sep. 17,1986 

July 16, 1982 

Mar. 1,1984 

Sept. 9, 1980 

Mar. 13,1985 

Feb. 9,1980 

Apr. 26, 1980 

May 15,1981 

July 14, 1983 

Feb. 5, 1984 

June 13,1984 

Sept. 8, 1984 

Oct. 12,1984 

Aug. 3,1985 

Aug. 3,1985 

Oct. 9.1985 

Galaxy-3 

Anik-D2 

Syncom IV-1 

NATO IIID 

Intelsat VA F-10 

Telesat-I 

Syncom IV-3 

MORELOS-A 

Arabsat-1B 

Telstar-3D 

Intelsat VA F-11 

AUSSAT-1 

ASC-1 

Syncom IV-4 

Intelsat VA F-12 

MORELOS-B 

RCA Satcom K-2 

RCA Satcom K-1 

Fltsatcom 7 

AUSSAT-2 

NOAA-B 

GOES 4 

GOES 5 

NOAA 7 

NOAA 8 

GOES 6 

DMSP F-6 

DMSP F-7 

NOAA-9 

NOAA 10 

Landsat 4 

Landsat-5 

GEOSAT 

Navstar 5 

Navstar 6 

Nova 1 

Navstar 8 

JRT 

Navstar-9 

Navstar-10 

Nova-3 

Oscar 24 

Oscar 30 

Navstar-11 

Delta 

Space Shuttle, 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3914 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

3920PAM-D 

PAM-D 

Third in series, launched for Hughes Communications, Inc. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

Launched for Hughes Communication Service, Inc. 

NATO defense-related communications satellite. 

First in series of six improved satellites. 

Launched for Telsat Canada. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Launched for Arab Satellite Communication Organization - (ASCO). 

(AT&Tl 

Launched for the American Telephone and Telegraph Company .. , 

Second in series of improved satellites launched for INTELSAT. 

Launched for Australia’s National Satellite Company. 

Launched for American Satellite Company. 

Launched for US Navy. 

Launched for INTELMT. 

Launched for Mexico. 

Second satellite launched for Australia’s National Satellite ComPaW 

Space Shuttle Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas-Centaur Launched for DoD. 

Atlas F 

Thor-Delta (TA’l’) 

Thor-Delta CHFl 

Atlas F Replacement for NOAA-B. 

Atlas E DoD meterological satellite. 

Atlas E 

Delta 3914 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

Atlas E Launched for NOAA. 

EARTH OBSERVATION 

Thor-Delta (TAT) 

Delta 3920 

Launched for RCA American Communications, Inc. 

WEATHER OBSERVATION * 

Failed to achieve useful orbit. 

Fourth of this series for NOAA. 

Fifth of polar-orbiting series for NOAA. 

Joined NOAA 7 as part of %satellite operational system; 

Launched for NOAA, operational as GOES-West. 

Second in block 5D-2 series, DoD meteorological satellite. 

Launched for NOAA, to replace NOAA-7. 

launched for NOAA. 

Fourth experimental earth resources satellite. First use of theFiRh experimental earth resources satellite, to replace ailing 

matic mapper CTM). 

Landsat-4. 

GEODESY 

NAVIGATION 

Atlas E 

Atlas F 

Atlas F 

scout 

Atlas E 

Space Shuttle 

Atlas E 

Atlas E 

scout 

scout 

scout 

Atlas E 

Measure ocean surface height. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global hitioning System satellite. 

First of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Balloon to test Shuttle rendezvous radar. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Global Positioning System satellite. 

Second of improved Transit system satellites, for DoD. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Part of Navy Transit System. 

Global Pbsitionine Svstem satellite. 

‘Does not include Department of Defense weather satellites that are not individually identified by launch. 

135 
APPENDIX B-2 

US.-Launched Sclentfflc Satellites 1980-1 986 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Feb. 14,1980 

Aug. 3,1981 

Oct. 6, 1981 

Oct. 6,1981 

Jan. 26,1983 

May 26,1983 

June 22,1983 

June 27,1983 

Apr. 6,1984 

Aug. 16,1984 

Aug. 16,1984 

Aug. 16,1984 

Oct. 5,1984 

Apr. 29, 1985 

June 20,1985 

July 29, 1985 

Oct. 30,1985 

Nov. 14,1986 

SMM 

Dynamics 

Explorers 1, 2 

SME 

uow (Oscar 9) 

IRAS 

EXOW 

SPAS 01 

HEAT (P83-1) 

Long Duration 

Exposure Facility (LDEF-1) 

Charge Composition Explorer 

(CCE) 

Ion Release Module o 

United Kingdom 

Satellite (UKS) 

Earth Radiation 

Budget 

Satellite (ERBS) 

NUW-1 

Spartan-1 

Plasma Diagnostic Package 

(PDF’) 

GLOMR 

Polar Bear 

mor-Delta 0 

Thor-Delta 0 

mor-Delta 0 

mor-Delta 0 

Delta 3910 

Delta 3914 

Space Shuttle 

Scout 

Space Shuttle 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Delta 3924 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

Space Shuttle 

scout 

Solar Maximum Mission. 

DE 1 and 2 to measure magnetospheric-ionospheric energy couSolar Mesosphere Explorer to measure changes in mesospheric 

Secondary payload with SME, for amateur radio and science 

Infrared sky survey. 

European Space Agency study of x-ray sources. 

Reusable free-flying platform deployed and retrieved during STS 7; 6 scientific experiments from West Germany, 2 from 

ESA. NASA experiments tested spacecraft technology. 

Propagation effects of disturbed plasma on radar and communication systems, for DoD. 

Scientific experiments designed for retrieval from space by 

Shuttle. 

Measurement of earth‘s magnetosphere, one of three satellites 

composing Active Magnetosphere Particle Tracer Explorers 

Mission WPTE). 

Second of three satellites of AMPTE Mission, launched by same 

vehicle. 

Third of three satellites of AMF”lX Mission, launched by same 

vehicle. 

First of three satellites in Earth Radiation Budget Experiment Research Program. NOAA-9 and NOAA-G carrying other 

instruments in Program. 

Northern Utah Satellite (air traffic control radar system calibrator). 

Reusable free-flying platform. 

Reusable experimental platform. 

pling, electric currents and fields, plasmas. 

ozone. 

experiments. 

Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite. 

Exueriments to studv radio interference caused bv Aurora Bokalis, for DoD. - 

136 
APPENDIX B-3 

U.S.-Launched Space Probes 19’15-1986 

Date Name Launch Vehicle Remarks 

Aug. 20,1975 

Sept. 9, 1975 

Jan. 15,1976 

Aug. 20,1977 

Sep 5,1977 

May 20,1978 

Aug. 8,1978 

None in 1984 

None in 1985 

Viking 1 

Viking 2 

Helios 2 

Voyager 2 

Voyager 1 

Pioneer Venus 1 

Pioneer Venus 2 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Titan IIIECentaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Atlas-Centaur 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Chryse, Sept. 6, 1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it 

and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed ita surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements of atmosphere. 

Lander descended, landed safely on Mars on Plains of Utopia, 

July 20, 1976, while orbiter circled planet photographing it 

and relaying all data to Earth. Lander photographed its surroundings, tested soil samples for signs of life, and took measurements of the atmosphere. 

Flew in highly elliptical orbit to within 41 million km of Sun, 

measuring solar wind, corona, electrons, and cosmic rays. 

Payload had same West German and U.S. experiments as Helios 1 plus cosmic-ray burst detector. 

Ju iter and Saturn flyby mission. Swung around Jupiter in 

July 1979, arrived Saturn in 1981, going on to Uranus by 

1986, Neptune by 1989. 

Jupiter and Saturn flyby mission. Passing Voyager 2 on the 

way, swung around Jupiter in Mar. 1979, arrived at Saturn in 

Nov. 1980, headed for outer solar system. 

Venus orbiter; achieved Venus orbit Dec. 4, returning imagery and data. 

Carried 1 large, 3 small probes plus spacecraft bus; all 

descended through Venus atmosphere Dec. 9, returned data. 

None in 1986 

137 
U.S. and Sovlet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1986 

Highlights Flight Time 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew (davs:hrs:min) 

Kstok 1 

MercuryRedstone 3 

MercuryRedstone 4 

Vostok 2 

Mercury-Atlas 6 

Mercury-Atlas 7 

Vostok 3 

Vostok 4 

Mercury-Atlas 8 

Mercury-Atlas 9 

Vostok 5 

Vostok 6 

voskhod 1 

voskhod 2 

Gemini 3 

Gemini 4 

Gemini 5 

Gemini 7 

Gemini 6-A 

Gemini 8 

Gemini 9-A 

Gemini 10 

Gemini 11 

Gemini 12 

SOYU 1 

Apollo 7 

soyuz3 

Apollo 8 

soyuz4 

soyuz5 

Apollo 9 

Apollo 10 

Apr. 12,1961 

May 5,1961 

July 21, 1961 

Aug. 6,1961 

Feb. 20,1962 

May 24,1962 

Aug. 11,1962 

Aug. 12,1962 

Oct. 3, 1962 

May 15,1963 

June 14,1963 

June 16,1963 

Oct. 12, 1964 

Mar. 18,1965 

Mar. 23,1965 

June 3,1965 

Aug. 21,1965 

Dec. 4,1965 

Dec. 15,1965 

Mar. 16,1966 

June 3,1966 

July 18, 1966 

Sept. 12, 1966 

Nov. 11, 1966 

Apr. 23, 1967 

Oct. 11,1968 

Oct. 26,1968 

Dec. 21, 1968 

Jan. 14,1969 

Jan. 15,1969 

Mar. 3,1969 

May 18,1969 

Yuriy A. Gagarin 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Virgil I. Grissom 

German S. Titov 

John H. Glenn, Jr. 

M. Scott Carpenter 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 

Pavel R. hpovich 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 

Valentina V. Tereshkova 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Konstantin F? Feoktistov 

Boris G. Yegorov 

Pavel I. Belyayev 

Aleksey A. Leonov 

Virgil I. Grissom 

John W. Young 

James A. McDivitt 

Edward H. White II 

L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Thomas I? Stafford 

Neil A. Armstrong 

David R. Scott 

Thomas I? Stafford 

Eugene A. Cernan 

John W. Young 

Michael Collins 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Vladimir M. Komarov 

Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 

Donn F. Eisele 

R. Walter Cunningham 

Georgiy T. Beregovoy 

Frank Borman 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

William A. Anders 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Boris V. Volynov 

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev Yevgeniy V. Khrunov 

James A. McDivitt 

David R. Scott 

Russell L. Schweickart 

Thomas €? Stafford 

John W. Young 

Eugene A. Cernan 

0: 1:48 

0: 0:15 

0: 0:16 

1: 1:18 

0: 4:55 

0: 4:56 

3 : 22 : 25 

2 : 22 : 59 

0: 9:13 

1 : 10 : 20 

4:23: 6 

2 : 22 : 50 

1: 0:17 

1: 2: 2 

0: 4:53 

4: 1:56 

7 : 22 : 55 

13 : 18 : 35 

1: 1:51 

0 : 10 : 41 

3: 0:21 

2 : 22 : 47 

2 : 23 : 17 

3 : 22 : 35 

1: 2:37 

10:20: 9 

3 : 22 : 51 

6: 3: 1 

2 : 23 : 23 

3: 0:56 

10: 1: 1 

8: 0: 3 

First manned flight. 

First US. flight; suborbital. 

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing; 

First flight exceeding 24 h. 

First American to orbit. 

Landed 400 km beyond target. 

First dual mission (with Vostok 4). 

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3. 

Landed 8 km from target. 

First US. flight exceeding 24 h. 

Second dual mission (with Vostok 6). 

First woman in space; within 5 km of Voetok 

First 3-man crew. 

astronaut safe. 

5. 

First extravehicular activity (Leonov, 10 

First U.S. 2-man flight; first manual maneu21-min extravehicular activity (White). 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Longest-duration manned flight to date. 

Rendezvous within 30 cm of Gemini 7. 

min). 

vers in orbit. 

First docking of 2 orbiting s acecraft 

Extravehicular activity; rendemus. 

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with 

Agena 10, then Agena 8). 

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered 

flight; highest Earth-orbit altitude (1,372 

km). 

Longest extravehicular activity to date (Aldrin, 5 hrs 37 min). 

Copmonaut killed in reentry accident. 

First US. 3-man mission. 

(Gemini 8 with Agena target roc K et). 

Maneuvered near unmanned Sop 2. 

First manned orbitis) of moon; first manned 

departure from Earth’s sphere of influence; highest speed attained in manned 

flight to date. 

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred 2 

cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4. 

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit o ration of lunar module to landing and t&ff 

from lunar surface and rejoining with command module. 

Successfully demonstrated complete system 

including lunai: module descent to 14,300 

m from the lunar surface. 

138 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1 986 

Highlights Flight Time 

(davs:hrs:min) Spacecraft Launch Date Crew 

Apollo 11 

Soyuz 6 

soyuz 7 

soyuz8 

Apollo 12 

Apollo 13 

soyuz 9 

Apollo 14 

soyuz 10 

soyuz 11 

Apollo 15 

Apollo 16 

Apollo 17 

Skylab 2 

Skylab 3 

soyuz 12 

Skylab 4 

Soyuz 13 

Soyuz 14 

Soyuz 15 

Soyuz 16 

July 16,1969 

Oct. 11, 1969 

Oct. 12, 1969 

Oct. 13, 1969 

Nov. 14, 1969 

Apr. 11, 1970 

June 1,1970 

Jan. 31,1971 

Apr. 22, 1971 

June 6,1971 

July 26, 1971 

Apr. 16,1972 

Dec. 7, 1972 

May 25,1973 

July 28, 1973 

Sept. 27, 1973 

Nov. 16, 1973 

Dec. 18, 1973 

July 3,1974 

Aug. 26,1974 

Dec. 2, 1974 

Neil A. Armstrong Michael Collins 

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. 

Georgiy Shonin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko Viktor N. Gorbatko 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Richard F. Gordon, Jr. 

Alan L. Bean 

James A. Lovell, Jr. 

Fred W. Haise, Jr. 

John L. Swigert, Jr. 

Andriyan G. Nikolayev Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 

Stuart A. Roosa 

Edgar D. Mitchell 

Vladimir A. Shatalov 

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

Georgiy T. Dobrovolskiy 

Vladislav N. Volkov 

Viktor I. Patsayev 

David R. Scott 

Alfred M. Worden 

James B. Irwin 

John W. Young 

Charles M. Duke, Jr. 

Thomas K. Mattingly I1 

Eugene A. Cernan 

Harrison H. Schmitt 

Ronald E. Evans 

Charles Conrad, Jr. 

Joseph I?. Kerwin 

Paul J. Weitz 

Alan L. Bean 

Jack R. Lousma 

Owen K. Garriott 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Gerald P. Carr 

Edward G. Gibson 

William R. Pogue 

Petr I. Klimuk 

Valentin V. Lebedev 

Pave1 R. Pbpovich 

Yuriy €! Artyukhin 

Gennadiy V. Sarafanov 

Lev. S. Demin 

Anatoliy V. Filipchenko 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 

8: 3: 9 

4 : 22 : 42 

4 : 22 : 41 

4 : 22 : 50 

10: 4:36 

5 : 22 : 55 

17 : 16 : 59 

9: 0: 2 

1 : 23 : 46 

23 : 18 : 22 

12: 7: 12 

11: 1:51 

12 : 13 : 52 

28: 0:50 

59:ll: 9 

1 : 23 : 16 

84: 1: 16 

7 : 20 : 55 

15 : 17 : 30 

2: 0:12 

5 : 22 : 24 

First manned landing on lunar surface and 

safe return to Earth. First return of rock 

and soil samples to Earth, and manned 

deployment of experiments on lunar surface. 

Soyuz 6,7, and 8 operated as a group flight 

without actually docking. Each conducted 

certain experiments, including welding 

and Earth and celestial observation. 

Second manned lunar landing. Explored surface of moon and retrieved parts of Surveyor 3 spacecraft, which landed in Ocean 

of Storms on Apr. 19, 1967. 

Mission aborted; explosion in service module. Ship circled moon, with crew using 

LM as “lifeboat” until just before reentry. 

Longest manned spaceflight to date. 

Third manned lunar landing. Mission demonstrated pinpoint landing capability and 

continued manned exploration. 

Docked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board 

space station launched 19 Apr. Crew recovered Apr. 24, 1971. 

Docked with Salyut 1 and Soyuz 11 crew 

occupied space station for 22 da 

perished during final phase of E;?.. capsule recovery on June 30,1971. 

Fourth manned lunar landing and first 

Apollo “J” series mission, which carried 

Lunar Roving Vehicle. Worden’s intlight EVA of 38 min 12 sec was performed during return trip. 

Fifth manned lunar landing, with Lunar 

Roving Vehicle. 

Sixth and final Apollo manned lunar landing, again with roving vehicle. 

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched unmanned 

May 14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged 

station. 

Docked with Skylab 1 for more than 59 days. 

Checkout of improved Scyuz. 

Docked with Skylab 1 in longduration mission; last of Skylab program. 

Astrophysical, biological, and earth resources experiments. 

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew 

occupied space station. 

Rendemwed but did not dock with Salyut 

3. 

“est of ASIT configuration. 

139 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1986 

Highlights Flight Time 

(davs:hrs:min) Spacecraft. Launch Date CreW 

&yuz 17 

Anomaly 

soyuz 18 

Soyuz 19 

Apollo (ASTP) 

soyuz 21 

soyuz 22 

Soyuz 23 

soyuz 24 

Soyuz 25 

soyuz 26 

soyuz 27 

soyuz 28 

sayuz 29 

Soyuz 30 

soyuz 31 

soyuz 32 

soyuz 33 

Soyuz 34 

Sop 35 

Soyuz 36 

Soyuz T-2 

soyuz 37 

Soyuz 38 

Soyuz T-3 

Jan. 10,1975 

Apr. 5,1975 

May 24,1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 15, 1975 

July 6, 1976 

Sept. 15, 1976 

Oct. 14,1976 

Feb. 7,1977 

Oct. 9, 1977 

Dec. 10,1977 

Jan. 10,1978 

Mar. 2,1978 

June 15,1978 

June 27,1978 

Aug. 26,1978 

Feb. 25,1979 

Apr. 10, 1979 

June 6,1979 

Apr. 9, 1980 

May 26,1980 

June 5,1980 

July 23, 1980 

Sept. 18, 1980 

Nov. 27, 1980 

Aleksay A. Gubarev 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 0: 0:20 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Petr I. Klimuk 62 : 23 : 20 

Vitaliy I. Sevastyanov 

Aleksey A. Leonov 5 : 22 : 31 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 

Thomas F? Staf€ord 9: 1:28 

Donald K. Slayton 

Vance D. Brand 

Boris V. Vol nov 48: 1 :32 

Vitaliy M. iholobov 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 7:21:54 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Vyacheslav D. Zudov 2: 0: 6 

Valeriy I. Rozhdestvenskiy 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 17 : 17 : 23 

Yuriy N. Glazkov 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 2 : 0 : 46 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 37: 10: 6 

Georgiy M. Grechko 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 64 : 22 : 53 

Oleg G. Makarov 

Alekwy A. Gubarev 

Vladimir Remek 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Alelusandr S. Ivanchenkov 

Petr I. Klimuk 7:22: 4 

Miroslaw Hermaszewski 

Valeriy F. Bykovskiy 67 : 20 : 14 

Sigmund Jaehn 

29 : 13 : 20 

7 : 22 : 17 

79 : 15 : 23 

Vladimir A. Lyakhov 108: 4 : 24 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov 1 : 23 : 1 

Georgi I. Ivanov 

(unmanned at launch) 73 : 18 : 17 

Leonid I. Popov 55: 1:29 

Valeriy V. Ryumin 

Valeriy N. Kubasov 65 : 20 : 54 

Bertalan Farkas 

Yuriy V. Malyshev 3 : 22 : '21 

Vladimir V. Aksenov 

Viktor V. Gorbatko 79 : 15 : 17 

Pham Tuan 

Yuriy V. Romanenko 7 : 20 : 43 

Arnaldo kayo Mendez 

Leonid D. Kizim 12:19: 8 

Oleg G. Mahv 

Gennadiy M. Strekalov 

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovDocked with Salyut 4 and occupied station. 

%get for Apollo in docking and joint experDocked with Soyuz 19 in joint experiments of 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Earth resources study with multispectral 

Failed to dock with Salyut 5. 

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station. 

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6 

station. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

SoyUz 27; crew duration 96 days 10 hrs. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days 22 hrs 59 

min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 31; crew duration 139 days 14 hrs 48 

min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was 

first Polish cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 29; crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 49 

min. Jaehn was first German Democratic 

Republic cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 34; crew duration 175 days 36 min. 

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 6 

station. Ivanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry for Soyuz 32 crew while Soyuz 32 returned 

unmanned. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 37. Crew duration, 184 days 20 hrs 

12 min. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 35. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 46 

min. Farkas was first Hungarian to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First manned flight of 

new-generation ferry. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in 

Soyuz 36. Crew duration 7 days 20 hrs 42 

min. Pham was first Vietnamese to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. 'hmayo was fvst 

Cuban to orbit. 

Docked with Salyut 6. First 3-man flight in 

Soviet program since 1971. 

ered after abort. 

iments of ASTP mission. 

ASTP mission. 

camera system. 

140 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

US. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1986 

Spacecraft Launch Date crew 

soyuz T-4 

soyuz 39 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 1) 

soyuz 40 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 2) 

Swce Shuttle 

Columbia 

(srs 3) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 4) 

Soyuz T-7 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia (srs 5) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 6) 

Soyu~ T-8 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(STS 7) 

Sayu~ T-9 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

6"s 8) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS 9) 

Mar. 12,1981 

Mar. 22,1981 

Apr. 12,1981 

May 14,1981 

Nov. 12, 1981 

Mar. 22,1982 

May 13,1982 

June 24,1982 

June 27,1982 

Aug. 19, 1982 

Nov. 11, 1982 

Apr. 4,1983 

Apr. 20,1983 

June 18,1983 

June 28,1983 

Aug. 30,1983 

Nov. 28, 1983 

Vladimir V. Kovalenok 

Viktor I? Savinykh 

Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 

Jugderdemidi yn 

Gurragcha 

John W. Young 

Robert L. Crippen 

Leonid I. Popov Dumitru Prunariu 

Joe H. Engle 

Richard H. Truly 

Jack R. Lousma 

C. Gordon Fullerton 

Anatoliy Beremvoy Valentin Lebedev 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Aleksandr Ivanchenkov 

Jean-Loup Chretien 

Thomas K. Mattingly II 

Henry W. Hartafield, Jr. 

Leonid Popov 

Aleksandr Serebrov 

Svetlana Savitskaya 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert F. Overmyer Joseph I? Allen 

William B. Lenoir 

Wul J. Weitz 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald H. Peterson 

Story Musgrave 

Vladimir Titov 

Gennady Strekalov 

Aleksander Serebrov 

Robert L. Cri 

Frederick H. Ktck 

John M. Fabian 

Sally K. Ride 

Norman T. Thagard 

Vladimir Lyakhov 

Aleksandr Aleksandrov 

Richard H. Trul 

Daniel C. Brandrenstein 

Dale A. Gardner 

Guion S. Bluford, Jr. 

William E. Thornton 

John W. Youn 

Brewster W. daw 

Owen K. Garriott 

Robert A. R. Parker 

Byron K. Lichtenberg 

Ulf Merbold 

Highlights Flight Time 

(days:hra:min) 

74 : 18 : 38 Docked with Salyut 6. 

7:20:43 Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first 

Mongolian cosmonaut to orbit. 

2 : 6 : 21 First flight of Space Shuttle, tested space- craft in orbit. First landing of airplanelike 

craft from orbit for reuse. 

Docked with Salyut 6. Prunariu first Romanian cosmonaut to orbit. 

Second flight of Space Shuttle, fmt scientific 

ayload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipu- fator arm. Returned for reuse. 

Third flight of Space Shuttle, second scientific payload (OSS 1). Second test of remote 

manipulator arm. Flight extended 1 day because of flooding at primary landin 

for reuse. 

211: 9 : 5 Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 

days. Crew returned in Sop T-7. 

7 : 21 : 51 Docked with Salyut 7. Chretien first French 

cosmonaut to orbit. 

7: 1: 9 Fourth flight of Space Shuttle, first DoD 

payload, additional scientific payloads. Returned July 4. Completed orbital flight 

testing program. Returned for reuse. 

7 : 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second 

Soviet woman to orbit. Crew returned in 

5 : 2 : 14 Fifth flight of Space Shuttle, first opera- tional fli ht; launched 2 commercial satellites (SB% 3 and Anik C-3); first fli ht 

when macesuits malfunctioned. 

7 : 20 : 41 

2 : 6 : 13 

8 : 4 : 49 

site; alternate landing site used. Return e! 

Soyu~ T-5. 

with 4 crew-members. EVA test cance 7 ed 

5: 0:24 Sixth fliiht of Space Shuttle, launched 

TDRS 1. 

2 : 0 : 18 Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 

6 : 2 : 24 Seventh flight of Space Shuttle, launched 2 

commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and Pala a B-l), also launched and retrieved 

SfAS 01; first flight with 5 crewmembera, 

including first woman U.S. astronaut. 

station. 

149: 9 : 46 Docked with Salyut 7 station. 

6 : 1 : 9 Eighth Flight of Space Shuttle, launched one 

commercial satellite ansat 1-B), first 

flight of U.S. black astronaut. 

10 : 7 : 47 Ninth flight of Space Shuttle, first flight of 

Spacelab 1, first fli ht of 6 crewmembers, 

US. astronaut to fly in U.S. space 

program. 

one of whom was # est German, first non141 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961-1 986 

Spacecraft Launch Date 

Space Shuttle 

?E% 

Soyuz T-10 

 say^ T-11 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

C3Ts-41C) 

Soyu~ T-12 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS41D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

@“S-41G) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STSSlA) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(mS-51C) 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(SlS51D) 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(mS-51B) 

 soy^ T-13 

Feb. 3,1984 

Feb. 8,1984 

Apr. 3, 1984 

Apr. 6,1984 

July 17, 1984 

Aug. 30,1984 

Sept. 5,1984 

Nov. 8, 1984 

Jan. 24,1985 

Apr. 12, 1985 

Apr. 29,1985 

June 5,1985 

Crew 

Vance D. Brand 

Robert L. Gibson 

Bruce McCandless 

Ronald E. McNair 

Robert L. Stewart 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovev 

Oleg Atkov 

Yuriy Malyshev 

Gennadi Strekalov 

Rakesh 8arma 

Robert L. Crip en 

Frances R. SoLe 

Terry J. Hart 

George D. Nelson 

James D. Van Hoften 

Vladmir Dzhanibekov 

Svetlana Savistskaya 

Igor Volk 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Michael L. Coats 

Richard M. Mullane 

Steven A. Hawley Judith A. Resnick 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Crippen 

Jon A. McBride 

Kathryn D. Sullivan 

Sally K. Ride 

David Leestma 

Paul D. Scully-Power 

Marc Garneau 

F’rederick H. Hauck 

David M. Walker 

Joseph I? Allen 

Anna L. Fisher 

Dale A. Gardner 

Thomas K. Mattingly 

Loren J. Shriver 

Ellison S. Onizuka 

James F. Buchli 

Gary E. Payton 

Karol J. Bobko 

Donald E. Williams 

M. Rhea Seddon 

S. David Grig s 

Jeffrey A. Hoffman 

Charles D. Walker 

E.J. “Jake” Garn 

Robert F. Overmyer Frederick D. Gregory 

Don L. Lind 

Norman E. Thagard 

William E. Thornton 

Lodewijk Vandenberg lslylor Wang 

Vladimir Dzhanibekov 

Viktor Savinykh 

Highlights Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) 

7 : 23 : 16 Tenth flight of Space Shuttle, two communication satellites failed to achieve orbit. 

First use of Manned Maneuvering Unit 

(MMU) in space. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space 

duration record of 237 days. Crew returned 

in Soyuz T-11. 

181: 21 : 48 Docked with Salyut 7 station. Sharma first 

Indian in space. Crew returned in Soyuz 

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle, deployment 

of LDEF-1, for later retrieval, Solar Maximum Satellite retrieved, repaired, and 

redeployed. 

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First woman 

extravehicular activity. 

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight of 

US. non-astronaut. 

62 : 22 : 43 

T-10. 

6 : 23 : 41 

11 : 19 : 14 

6 : : 56 

8: 5:24 Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle, fmt 

flight of 7 crewmembers, including first 

flight of two US. women and one Canadian. 

7 : 23 : 45 Fourteenth flight of S ace Shuttle, first retrieval and return oftwo disabled communications satellites (Westar 6, Wlapa B2) 

to Earth. 

3 : 1 : 33 Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

6 : 23 : 55 Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications 

satellites. First US. Senator in space. 

7 : : 9 Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo bay of shuttle. 

112: 3 : 12 Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to 

earth with Grechko on Soyuz T-13 space- craft, Sept. 26, 1985. 

142 
APPENDIX C-Continued 

U.S. and Soviet Manned Spaceflights 1961 -1 986 

~ 

Highlights Flight Time 

(days:hrs:min) Spaced Launch Date crew 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(srS.51G) 

Space Shuttle 

a&n#y 

Space Shuttle 

Discovery 

(STS51D 

 soy^ T-14 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

~SIS-514 

Space Shuttle 

Challenger 

(SIS-61A) 

Space Shuttle 

Atlantis 

(STS-61B) 

Space Shuttle 

Columbia 

(STS-GlC) 

 soy^ T-15 

June 17,1985 

July 29, 1985 

Aug. 27,1985 

Sep 17,1985 

Oct. 3,1985 

Oct. 30, 1985 

Nov. 27, 1985 

Jan. 12,1986 

Mar. 13,1986 

Daniel C. Brandenstein 

John 0. Crei hton 

Shannon W. Lucid 

John M. Fabian 

Steven R. Nagel 

Sultan bin Bau7? Sa man bin 

Abdul-Aziz Al-Saud 

Charles G. Fullerton 

Roy D. Bridges 

Karl C. Henize 

Anthony W. England F. Story Musgrave 

Loren W. Acton 

John-David F. Bartoe 

Joe H. Engle Richard 0. Covey 

James D. van HoRen 

William F. Fisher 

John M. Lounge 

Vladimir Vasyutin 

Georgiy Grechko 

Aleksandr Volkov 

Karol J. Bobko 

Ronald J. Grabe 

Robert A. Stewart 

David C. Hilmers 

William A. Fkiles 

Henry W. Hartsfield 

Steven R. Nagel 

Bonnie J. Dunbar 

James F. Buchli 

Guion S. Bluford 

Ernst Messerschmid 

Reinhard Furrer 

Wubbo J. Ockels 

Brewster H. Shaw 

Bryan D. O'Connor 

Mary L. Cleve 

Sherwood C. Spring 

Jerry L. Ross 

Rudolf0 Neri Vela 

Charles D. Walker 

Robert L. Gibson 

Charles F. Bolden, Jr. 

Franklin Chang-Diaz 

Steven A. Hawley 

George D. Nelson 

Roger Cenker 

Cong. Bill Nelson 

Leonid Kizim 

Vladimir Solovyov 

7: 1: 39 Eighteenth STS flight. Three communications satellites. One reusable 

ayload-Spartan-1. First US. flight with 

kench and Saudi Arabian crewmen. 

7 : 22 : 45 Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo 

bay. 

7 : 2 : 18 Twentieth STS flight. Launched three communications satellites. Repaired Syncom Iv-3. 

64: 21 : 52 Docked with Salyut-7 station. Viktor Savinykh, Aleksandr Volkov and Vladimir 

Vasyutin returned to Earth Nov. 21, 1985 

when Vasyutin became ill. 

Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission. 

4 : 1 : 45 

7: :45 Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated German Spacelab D-1 in shuttle cargo bay. 

6:22:54 Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three 

communications satellites. First flight of 

Mexican astronaut. 

6: 2: 4 Twentyfourth STS fli ht. Launched one 

communications satel&e. First member of 

US. House of Representatives in space. 

125: 1 : 1 Docked with MIR space station on May 516 

transferred to Salyut 7 complex. On June 

25/26 transferred from Salyut 7 back to 

MIR. 

143 
APPENDIX D 

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles 

Max. Payload (kgIb 

Thrust Max. Dia. Circular First 

Sun- Launch IWwtons) (m) Orbit Synch. 

Orbit 

Vehicle Stages Propellant a (kilo- X Height 185-Km GeosYnch.- 

scout 1. Algol IIIA........... Solid ........................ 431.1 1.14 x 22.9 255 - 155' 197360) 

2. Castor IIA .......... Solid ........................ 285.2 205' 

3. Antares IIIA ...... Solid ........................ 83.1 

4. Altair IIIA .......... Solid ........................ 25.6 

2. Delta ................... N,O,/Aerozine-BO .. 

Delta 2900 Series 1. Thor plus ............ LOXIRP-1 .............. 912.0 2.44 x 35.4 2,000 705 1,250d 1973(60) 

mor-Delta) 9 TX 354-5 ........ Solid ........................ 147 each 1,410' 

44.2 

3. TE 364-4 ............ Solid ........................ 65.8 

Delta 3900 Series 1. Thor plus ............ LOXIRP-1 .............. 912.0 2.44 x35.4 3,045 1,275 2,13Sd 1982(60) 

Atlas E 1. Atlas booster 3.05 x 28.1 2,O9Odf - 1,500d 1972(67) 

mor-Delta)" 9 TX 526-2 ........ Solid ........................ 375 each 2,180d 

2. Delta ................... N,O,/AerozinedO .. 44.2 

& sustainer ........ LOXIRP-1 .............. 1,722.0 

& sustainer ........ LOXIRP-1 .............. 1,913.0 

146.0 

Atlas-Centaur 1. Atlas booster 3.05 x 45.0 6,100 2,360 - 1984(62) 

2. Centaur .............. LOXLH, ................ 

Direct Sun185-Km Geo- Synch. 

Orbit Orbit 

Orbit synch. Transfer 

Titan mB-Agena 1. LR-87 ................. N,O,IAerozine ....... 2,341.0 3.05 x48.4 3,600' - 3,060d 1966 

Titan III(34)D/ 1. Two 5%-segment, 

2. LR-91 ................. N,O,/Aerozine ....... 455.1 

3. Agena ................. IRFNMDMH ....... 71.2 

2. LR-87 ................. N,O,/Aerozine ....... 2,366.3 

3. LR-91 ................. N,O,/Aerozine ....... 449.3 

4. IUS 1st stage ..... Solid ........................ 275.8 

5. IUS 2nd stage .... Solid ........................ 115.7 

Tramtage 4. Transtage ........... N,O,/Aerozine ....... 69.8 

IUS 3.05 m dia .......... Solid ........................ 11,564.8 3.05 x48.0 14,920 1,850' - 1982 

Titan III(34)D/ Same as Titan III(34)D plus: 3.05 x 46.9 14,920 1,855' - 19fMh 

280- to 420-Km Orbit 

Space Shuttle 1. Orbiter; 3 main 29,500 1981 

(reusable) engines (SSMEs) in full 

fire in parallel performance 

with SRBs .......... LOWLH, ................ 

rocket boosters span 

(SRBs) fire in 

y~&l with 

PBAN ............... 11,790 each 3.71 x 45.45 

Mounted on external tank (ET) ........................................................... 8.40 x 46.88 

1,670 each 23.79 x 37.24 

2. Two-solid-fueled wing long 

configuration 

................ AL/NH,CLO,/ 

a Propellant abbreviations used are as follows: liquid oxygen The date of first launch a plies to this latest modification 

and a modified kerosene = LOX/RP,RJ; solid propellant combining in a single mixture both fuel and oxidizer = Solid; Polar launch. 

inhibited red-fuming nitric acid and unsymmetrical dimethyl- e Maximum performance based on 3920,3920PAM config h drazine = IRFNALJDMH; nitrogen tetroxide and urations. PAM = payload assist module (a private venture). 

dDMW H = N O,/aerozine; liquid oxygen and liquid hydro- With dual TE 364-4. = LOhk * aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, and poly- With 96O flight azimuth. 

Eadiene acroTonitrile terpolymer = AL/NH,CLO,/PBAN. Initial operational capability in December 1982; launch 

Due east launch except as indicated. to be scheduled as needed. 

Nom Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the director of Space Transportation 

with a date in parentheses P or the initial version. 

System Support Programs. 

1 44 
APPENDIX E-1 

Space Activities of the U.S. Government 

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY-BUDGET AUTHORITY 

(in millions of dollars) 

Fiscal Year %tal 

Space Defense Energy merce Interior Ael- NSF NASA 

Total SDace" 

1959 .................... 1960 .................... 1961 .................... 1962 .................... 1963 .................... 1964 .................... 1965 .................... 1966 .................... 1967 .................... 1968 .................... 1969 .................... 1970 .................... 1971 .................... 1972 .................... 1973 .................... 1974 .................... 1975 .................... 1976 .................... Transitional Quarter .... 1977 .................... 1978 .................... 1979 .................... 1980 .................... 1981 .................... 1982 .................... 1983 .................... 1984 .................... 1985 .................... 1986 .................... 

- 

1987 lest.1 ............... 

330.9 

523.6 

964.0 

1,824.9 

3,673.0 

5,099.7 

5,249.7 

5,174.9 

4,965.6 

4,587.3 

3,990.9 

3,745.8 

3,311.2 

3,306.6 

3,406.2 

3,036.9 

3,229.1 

3,550.3 

931.8 

3,817.8 

4,060.1 

4,595.5 

5,240.2 

5,518.4 

6,043.gb 

6,875.3' 

7,248.0 

7,572.6 

7.766.0 

10:507.0 

260.9 

461.5 

926.0 

1,796.8 

3,626.0 

5,016.3 

5,137.6 

5,064.5 

4,830.2 

4,430.0 

3,822.0 

3,547.0 

3,101.3 

3,071.0 

3,093.2 

2,758.5 

2,915.3 

3,225.4 

849.2 

3,440.2 

3,622.9 

4,030.4 

4,680.4 

4,992.4 

5,527.6 

6,327.9 

6,648.3 

6,924.9 

7.165.0 

489.5 

560.9 

813.9 

1,298.2 

1,549.9 

1,599.3 

1,573.9 

1,688.8 

1,663.6 

1,921.8 

2,013.0 

1,678.4 

1,512.3 

1. 407 . 0 

1,623.0 

1,766.0 

1,892.4 

1,983.3 

460.4 

2,411.9 

2,738.3 

3,035.6 

3,848.4 

4,827.7 

6,678.7 

9,018.9 

10,194.9 

12,767.9 

14.126.0 

34.3 

43.3 

67.7 

147.8 

213.9 

210.0 

228.6 

186.8 

183.6 

145.1 

118.0 

102.8 

94.8 

55.2 

54.2 

41.7 

29.6 

23.3 

4.6 

21.7 

34.4 

58.6 

39.6 

40.5 

60.6 

38.9 

34.1 

34.0 

34.6 

47.0 

90.3 

... 

... 

... 

50.7 

43.2 

2.8 

12.2 

26.5 

29.3 

28.1 

20.0 

8.0 

27.4 

31.3 

39.7 

60.2 

64.4 

71.5 

22.2 

90.8 

102.8 

98.4 

92.6 

87.0 

144.5 

177.8 

236.0 

422.9 

308.9 

277.4 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.2 

. 2 

1.1 

1.9 

5.8 

10.3 

9.0 

8.3 

10.4 

2.6 

9.5 

9.7 

9.9 

11.7 

12.3 

12.1 

4.6 

3.0 

2.0 

2.0 

2.0 

2.0 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

... 

0.5 

. 7 

. 8 

. 8 

1.6 

1.9 

3.1 

2.3 

3.6 

. 9 

6.3 

7.7 

8.2 

13.7 

15.5 

15.2 

20.4 

19.4 

14.8 

22.9 

24.0 

24.8 

... 

0.1 

. 6 

1.3 

1.5 

3.0 

3.2 

3.2 

2.8 

3.2 

1.9 

2.4 

2.4 

2.8 

2.6 

1.8 

2.0 

2.4 

. 6 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.4 

2.0 

o.od 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

784.7 

1,065.8 

1,808.2 

3,294.8 

5,434.5 

6,831.4 

6,955.5 

6,969.8 

6,709.5 

6,528.9 

5,975.8 

5,340.5 

4,740.9 

4,574.7 

4,824.9 

4,640.3 

4,914.3 

5,319.9 

1,340.5 

5,982.8 

6,518.2 

7,243.5 

8,688.8 

9,977.8 

12,440.7 

15,588.5 

17,135.7 

20,166.5 

21.659.4 .. 9;SOS.O 15i717.0 25i876.4 

SOURCE Ofice of Management and Budget . 1988 [est.]. .............. 9I481.0 8,756.0 17,196.0 340.1 ~ ~ 0.0 26,409.2 

"Excludes amounts for air transportation (subfunction 402) . bIncludes $33.5 million unobligated funds that lapsed . "Includes $37.6 million for reappropriation of rior year funds . dNSF funding of balloon research transferregto NASA . 

145 
U.S. Space Budget-Budget Authority FY 1971-1986 

MILLIONS OF 

DOLURS 

26.0 

26.0 

24.0 

23.0 

22.0 

21.0 

20.0 

19.0 

18.0 

17.0 

16.0 

15.0 

14.0 

13.0 

12.0 

11.0 

10.0 

9.0 

8.0 

7.0 

6.0 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.0 

26.0 

25.0 

24.0 

23.0 

22.0 

21.0 

20.0 

1B.O 

16.0 

17.0 

16.0 

15.0 

14.0 

13.0 

12.0 

11.0 

10.0 

9.0 

1.0 

7.0 

6.0 

5.0 

4.0 

3.0 

2.0 

1.0 

0 

SOURCE: OFFICE OF MANAGEMENT AND BUDGET 

146 
APPENDIX E-2 

Space Actlvltles Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Federal Space Programs 1986 1987 1988 1986 1987 1988 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

NASA" ..................................... 7,165.0 9,809.0 8,756.0 6,756.0 7,254.0 8,861.0 

Defense .................................... 14,126.0 15,717.0 17,196.0 11,448.5 14,262.2 15,395.8 

Energy. .................................... 34.6 47 .O 90.3 34.7 47.3 90.3 

Commerce. ................................. 308.9 277.4 340.1 316.9 299.2 316.1 

Interior .................................... 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 

NSFb ...................................... 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 

Agriculture ................................ 22.9 24.0 24.8 22.9 24.0 24.8 

Total. .................................... 21,659.4 25,876.4 26,409.2 18,581.0 21,878.7 24,600.0 

SOURCE office of Management and Budget. 

Federal agencies: 

"Excludes amounts for air transportation. Includes $37.6 

million for reappropriation of prior year funds. 

bNSF funding for balloon research transferred to NASA. 

APPENDIX E-3 

Aeronautlcs Budget 

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year) 

Budget Authority Budget Outlays 

Actual Estimate Estimate Actual Estimate Estimate 

Federal Aeronautics F'rograms 1986 1987 1988 1986 1987 1988 

NASA" ...................................... 601.0 698.0 725.0 648.0 622.0 683.0 

Department of Defenseb.. ..................... 4,927.0 5,173.0 7,009.0 4,372.6 4,866.9 5,923.0 

Total ..................................... 6.660.1 6.817.3 9.234.0 6.070.9 6.526.1 7.706.6 

Department of Transportation' ................ 1,132.1 946.3 1,500.0 1,050.3 1,037.2 1,100.6 

"Research and Development, Construction of Facilities, 

Research and Program Management. bResearch, Development, Testing, and Evaluation of aircraR 

and related equipment. 

'Federal Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and Development; Facilities, Engineering, and Development. 

SOURCE Oftice of Management and Budget. 

Information: To obtain neral information about the contents 

of this re rt, contact EE. Kale, Code XH, NAGA Headquarters, Wasrngton, D.C. 20546, (202) 453-8300. 

1 47 
APPENDIX F-1 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Office of the Press Secretary 

For Immediate Release February 3, 1986 

EXECUTIVE ORDER 

PRESIDENTIAL COMMISSION ON THE 

SPACE SHUTTLE CHALLENGER ACCIDENT 

By the authority vested in me as President by the Constitution and statutes of the United States of America, 

including the Federal Advisory Committee Act, as amended (5 U.S.C. App. I), and in order to establish a 

commission of distinguished Americans to investigate the accident to the Space Shuttle Challenger, it is hereby 

ordered as follows: 

Section 1. Establishment. (a) There is established the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle 

Challenger Accident. The Commission shall be composed of not more than 20 members appointed or designated 

by the President. The members shall be drawn from among distinguished leaders of the government, and the 

scientific, technical, and management communities. 

(b) The President shall designate a Chairman and a Vice Chairman from among the members of the 

Commission. 

Sec 2. Functions. (a) The Commission shall investigate the accident to the Space Shuttle Challenger, which 

occurred on January 28, 1986. 

(b) The Cornmission shall: 

(1) Review the circumstances surrounding the accident to establish the probable cause or causes of the 

accident; and 

(2) Develop recommendations for corrective or other action based upon the Commission’s findings and 

determinations. 

(c) The Commission shall submit its final report to the President and the Administrator of the National 

Aeronautics and Space Administration within one hundred and twenty days of the date of this order. 

Sec 3. Administration. (a) The heads of Executive departments and agencies shall, to the extent permitted 

by law, provide the Commission with such information as it may require for purposes of carrying out its functions. 

(b) Members of the Commission shall serve without compensation for their work on the Commission. 

However, members appointed from among private citizens of the United States may be allowed travel expenses, 

including per diem in lieu of subsistence, to the extent permitted by law for persons serving intermittently in the 

government service (5 U.S.C. 5701-5707). 

(c) To the extent permitted by law, and subject to the availability of appropriations, the Administrator of the 

National Aeronautics and Space Administration shall provide the Commission with such administrative services, 

funds, facilities, staff, and other support services as may be necessary for the performance of its functions. 

Sec. 4. General Provisions. (a) Notwithstanding the provisions of any other Executive Order, the functions of 

the President under the Federal Advisory Committee Act which are applicable to the Commission, except that of 

reporting annually to the Congress, shall be performed by the Administrator of the National Aeronautics and 

Space Administration, in accordance with guidelines and procedures established by the Administrator of General 

Services. 

(b) The Commission shall terminate 60 days after submitting its final report. 

RONALDREAGAN 

THE WHITE HOUSE, 

February 3, 1986. 

148 
APPENDIX F-2 

THE WHITE HOUSE 

Of'fice of the Press Secretary 

For Immediate Release August 15, 1986 

STATEMENT BY THE PRESIDENT 

I am announcing today two steps that will ensure America's leadership in space exploration and utilization. First, 

the United Statee will, in FY 1987, start building a fourth Space shuttle to take the place of Challenger which was 

destroyed on January 28th. This decision will bring our shuttle fleet up to strength and enable the United States 

to safely and energetically project a manned presence in space. 

Without the fourth orbiter, NASA's capabilities would be severely limited and long-term projects for the 

development of space would have to be either postponed, or even canceled. A fourth orbiter will enable our shuttles 

to accomplish the mission for which they were originally intended and permit the United States to move forward 

with new exciting endeavors like the building of a permanently manned space station. 

My second announcement concerns the fundamental direction of the space program. NASA and our shuttles will 

continue to lead the way, breaking new ground, pioneering new technology, and pushing back the frontiers. It has 

been determined, however, that NASA will no longer be in the business of launching private satellites. 

The private sector, with its ingenuity and cost effectiveness, will be playing an increasingly important role in the 

American space effort. F'ree enterprise corporations will become a highly competitive method of launching 

commercial satellites and doing those things which do not require a manned presence in space. These private 

firms are essential in clearing away the backlog that has built up during this time when our shuttles are being 

modified. 

We must always set our sights on tomorrow. NASA and our shuttles can't be committing their scarce resources to 

things which can be done better and cheaper by the private sector. Instead, NASA and the four shuttles should be 

dedicated to payloads important to national security and foreign policy, and, even more, on exploration, 

pioneering, and developing new technologies and uses of space. NASA will keep America on the leading edge of 

change; the private sector will take over from there. Together, they will ensure that our country has a robust, 

balanced, and safe space program. 

It has been over 6 months since the tragic loss of the Challenger and her gallant crew. We have done everything 

humanly possible to discover the organizational and technical causes of the disaster and to correct the situation. 

The greatest tribute we can pay to those brave pathfinders who gave their lives on the Challenger is to move 

forward and rededicate ourselves to America's leadership in space. 

149