ii:_ !:;'.":-

"" _i'C3 .Z

--Report ofthe 90-Day ,Study

: oniHuman EXploratlonof

<;the Moon Mars 3

,. . ---_" -)

-_ _ _ OK " Z " ",,b- -_. . . ,

' = L: .... D L,.,._ 1"":C'J: 4 __ "L ; " "._G', ( " - -_H.-_,; -4, )-, _' ; '-" " - " - _ _-- ¢_

"-, : - " "" - '- ''_ ._, "_ -" _ "_,,e" _-_. _r - . .... . .->; . . - - - ., . ,¢.;. _ -

_-- _ , :-'_ .-_ ,.'\ _..,-_, '- ' , , .- -..c _ - ._ .... ..-;_ -. -.' .... -- _ '.,..;: . " _ .- - _

;." " - ..... _ ..... - '. ._. n>- . . _ _ _ -i . , " ---_ - :.;..---,'. - --

- . " "," : _-.;"<(. "_ " .::_,'._.._..; '- _'_ - ..,.,.'::-_. ,', :_.-_-: .-G.,_:..".... .; " _ -

',, _ 7_- - - t- -. _ " ' .' <_. I- .... _ ",:', .... _- • "-,--_P_:'• L. ',_ "- _ . . " _'> : " " -

/L- _ "_'_ < >.. f".: -k_,.,'_-:.?;;_, '.;:L,;_.<> ,,, _._-_=.',_'. .: ..]-_ >.; . .-. _. ,, _ _ -; -

--:_..-• "_-'.°i:.'_._-'_-._¢.'.',C:" _._ : q',,-'qT...C-x:4:_ _,0'; "_=-. "" "_", , " - -.:' _ '. / - "_ " ,.....

"- - ' " ::i '?-L" ;-."Y -_L::.L , '%_., ?-* .\_._> ._---,_--.._..- ...-'-;_.;t..: .r , ..... - . "

- " . " .... _'_.,V_. _ ._ _ -_ '": _ ', _-- . _i - :_ . .- _" " _ ..... " - "- . .

.... •.--_', _.. - d _ _- .: "<" ;' - , ', . -'_" " _ "_- _ " _ "' , . ' - , - -: " -

. . .. .. • . '._;.._.._-_,._ .. Z-._ -....

._"_' . ._ _. \_ ;3 :._"

:November,1989 .

. -< , " . • _

-.;,-=./ j..: z .. -

..,:_- _-. _r-_ :> , -'_ _ . " .. -- -=-

::- :. -- - ._ "- ,. , "" - . "_ _ ';- . - , -.. > " - " b _. . " : _ _:- ..

"-.(" --" :._.--._ _- '>..... " - - , :' -- 7 _ . - ....._"

- _ " "-_ r"""_' ] ', ."" " \ - - _'" ' -: "

,,_ASA-TM-IOZ_,_9!#} _::P'_,T r]i;_-_ _:.,,_'_-_-_AY STUDY v_Z->{70 _:_'-_

_. z .

G 4_19]. 0!;)_ 4-t 5 ._

_--/ _., --- -._ - .... <. .......... ..._- ,:-- - , . _ 1,; .. .. , . - .....

- ,, . '" -

._ ;< . -.- ' .-_/....... "..-_-. '-- _-, : .. 0> -_- . ,_. .] ->..'. _ -- -,._ . -_._--_.. - .:..-

/_, .7:, :. ... : r-.--. " " " 6-- " "
Y

NOU 28 '89 18:53 NASA HQ WASH.D.C.

N/ SA

Nanonal Aeronautics ar_:l

Space Administral_on

WmNngton, D.C. 20546

AC 202453-84Q0

I III __

PAGE . 0?-

NASALIBR ,R '

.. r_.ll ll_.

b_i l_U.-

FmRMemm:

November 20, 1989

l¢8,SANoon/Itars Database Report

This is an internal NASA report prepared for NASA

Administrator Truly by a team led by Johnson Space Center

Director Aaron Cohen. It was commissioned by Admiral Truly after

the President's July 20 speech, and its purpose is to provide a

database for the Space Council to refer tO as it considers

strategic plannin 9 issues.

The report will be used as an input and one data source for

Council consideration of approaches to program, schedule and

technology, international cooperation and management.

The Space Council will examine the reference.cases described

in the report and also intends to examine a range Of robust

technical alternatives and approaches to mission planning°

The report does not contain any specific recommendations.

The report does not contain any estimates of total mission

cost.

The report provides information regarding the potential

benefits of the human exploration initiative, intlrnational ..

participation considerations, and potential management system

enhancements.

###
Preface

'n his speech on July 20, 1989, President Bush asked Vice President Quayle to

. lead the National Space Council in determining what is needed to chart a

new and continuing course to the Moon and Mars and beyond: the necessary

money, manpower, and materials, the feasibility of international cooperation,

and realistic timetables with milestones along the way.

To support this endeavor, NASA Administrator Richard H. Truly created a task

force to conduct a 90-day study of the main elements of a Human Exploration

Initiative. The Initiative described in this report encompasses robotic as well as

human missions. It is, nonetheless, a distinctly human adventure in the broadest sense, involving not only human space travelers, but also extending into the

solar system the skills, imagination, and support of many thousands of people

who will never leave Earth.

This report describes study progress and serves as a reference point to assist the

Council in its deliberations. Five reference approaches are modeled building on

past programs and recent studies to reflect wide-ranging strategies that incorporate varied program objectives, schedules, technologies, and resource availabilities.

7

)

The five reference approaches presented reflect the President's strategy: First,

Space Station Freedom, and next back to the Moon, and then a journey to Mars.

The destination is, therefore, determined, and with that determination the

general mission objectives and key program and supporting elements are defined. As a result, regardless of the implementation approach selected, heavylii_ launch vehicles, space-based transportation systems, surface vehicles, habitats, and support systems for living and working in an extraterrestrial environment are required.

As deliberations proceed, the task force is prepared to support the analysis of

implementation options and option variations identified by the Administrator,

the Vice President, and the members of the National Space Council.
Contents

Preface ...................................................................................................... i

1. Executive Summary ............................................................................ 1-1

2. Introduction ......................................................................................... 2-1

3. The Human Exploration Initiative .................................................. 3-1

Robotic Missions .......................................................................................... 3-6

Lunar Outpost ........................................................................................... 3-12

Mars Outpost. ............................................................................................ 3-22

Planetary Surface Systems ................................................................. 3-30

4. Reference Approaches ....................................................................... 4-1

Reference Approach A .......................................................................... 4-1

Reference Approach B .......................................................................... 4-5

Reference Approach C ................................................................................. 4-6

Reference Approach II ................................................................................ 4-7

Reference Approach E ................................................................................. 4-7

5. Infrastructure ...................................................................................... 5-1

Earth-to-Orbit Transportation ................................................................... 5-1

Space Station Freedom ............................................................................... 5-9

Telecommunications, Navigation, and Information Management. ........ 5-18

6. Meeting Human Needs In Space ...................................................... 6-1

7. Science Opportunities And Strategies ........................................... 7-1

8. Technology Assessment ..................................................................... 8-1

9. National And Institutional Impact ...................................................... 9-1

Resource Assessment .................................................................................. 9-1

Enhancing Management Systems .............................................................. 9-2

International Participatioa ........................................................................ 9-6

Conclusion ................................................................................................. 9-10

Report Transmittal Letter from the Study Director

to the NASA Administrator

o°.

111

....... rat

pRE'CEDI]'_G PAGE Bt.ANK NOT F|LMED
Figures

(continued)

Number

5-1

5-2

5-3

5-4

5-5

5-6

8-1

Page

Expendable Launch Vehicles ..................................................................... 5-4

Shuttle-Derived Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicles .......................................... 5-5

Advanced Launch System-Derlved Heavy-Lift Launch Vehicles ............ 5-7

Space Station Freedom Assembly Complete Configuration .................. 5-10

Transportation Node Configurations for

Space Station Freedom Evolution ............................................ 5-14, 5-15

Telecommunications Architecture for the

Human Exploration Initiative ........................................................... 5-22

Exploration Technology Development Strategy ....................................... 8-2

j v
ORIGINAL P_GE

BLACK AND WHITE PHOIOGRAPH

......... :.:: :: ::% .... :::::::

And then a journey into

tomorrow, a journey to

another planet,

a manned mission to Mars.

And next, for the next century,

back to the Moon,

back to the future,

and this time, back to stay.

First, for the coming decade,

for the 1990s,

Space Station Freedom,

our critical next step in

all our space endeavors.

ORIGINAL PAGE IS

OF POOR (_ALITY
ExecutiveSummary

r

J
SECTION 1

Executive Summary

n July 20, 1989, President Bush charted a new course for the human explo- ration of space:

"... a long-range continuing commitment. First, for the coming decade,

for the 1990s, Space Station Freedom, our critical next step in all our

space endeavors. And next, for the next century, back to the Moon,

back to the future, and this time, back to stay. And then a journey into

tomorrow, a journey to another planet, a manned mission to Mars.

Each mission should and will lay the groundwork for the next. _

With these words, the President provided specificity to the goal contained in the

1988 Presidential Directive on National Space Policy: to expand human presence and activity beyond Earth orbit into the solar system. President Bush has

answered the question "Where are we going? _ We are going back to the Moon,

and then we are going to Mars. The shape of human exploration of space is

clear.

Space Station Freedom, to be followed by a return to the Moon to stay, and a

subsequent journey to Mars, will be rational extensions of the United States

civil space program. From its very beginning, that program has expanded

human activities in space. From Mercury and on through Gemini, Apollo,

Skylab, the Space Shuttle, and now, Space Station Freedom, the United States

has moved steadily into larger and more ambitious programs of ever-increasing

complexity. Each has been a logical extension of what came before. Each built

on past experience.

The rationale for exploring and settling space mirrors the spirit that has compelled explorers through the ages: the human urge to expand the frontiers of

knowledge and understanding and the frontiers where humans live and work.

That is the basic reason people explore on land, sea, and in space, and has been

since humans first walked on Earth.

The imperative to explore is embedded in our history, our traditions, and our

national character. Throughout the drama of American history, our forefathers,

with resourcefulness, audacity, and ingenuity, explored a seemingly limitless

continent, using the wealth of natural resources to sustain them along the way.

Today, men and women have explored nearly every comer of the planet, even to

the bleak center of remote Antarctica. Now, in the late 20th Century and the

early 21st, men and women are setting their sights on the Moon and Mars, as

the exploration imperative propels us toward new discoveries.

1-1
The Human Exploration Initiative

To enrich the human spirit, to contribute to national pride and international

prestige, to inspire America's youth, to unlock the secrets of the universe, and to

strengthen our Nation's technological foundation: human exploration of the

Moon and Mars will fulfill all these aspirations and more. This document provides a framework within which various approaches to meeting these national

goals may be analyzed. The basic mission sequence is clear: begin with Space

Station Freedom in the 1990s, return to the Moon to stay early in the next

century, and then journey on to Mars. An end-to-end strategy for implementing

the mission begins with robotic exploration to determine and characterize the

lunar and martian environments in which spacecraft and crew must function.

The next step is to build a permanent outpost on the Moon to support human

presence for science and exploration. In addition to the benefits to be gained

from lunar exploration for its own sake, the lunar outpost serves a vital parallel

purpose. Just a 3-day journey from Earth, the Moon provides the ideal location

to develop the systems and experience to prepare for the next step of the Initiative: an outpost on Mars.

The mission objectives dictate a common profile for both outposts, beginning

with the launch of crew and cargo from Earth, with the crew on the Space

Shuttle and most of the cargo on new heavy lift launch vehicles. The destination

is Space Station Freedom, where vehicles are assembled, fueled, and serviced for

the next stage of the journey. Concepts have been developed for transfer vehicles that carry the crew and cargo from Freedom and to and from lunar and

Mars orbit and for excursion vehicles that meet the crew and cargo in orbit and

bring them to the surfaces of the Moon and Mars.

Specialized concepts have also been developed for the systems that support

human explorers as they live and work on the Moon and Mars. A combined

habitation and laboratory module provides a comfortable environment for living,

recreation, and scientific research. Power system concepts ranging from photovoltaic to nuclear were developed to support increasing levels of activity and

scientific research. For travel across planetary surfaces, various rovers will be

used, some that crew members drive, and others that operate robotically. In

situ resource utilization, which would increase outpost independence from

planet Earth, may also be supported at the outposts. And finally, launch and

landing sites have been designed for the vehicles that bring crew members to

planetary surfaces and take them on the first leg of their journey home.

1-2
Reference Approaches

The Human Exploration Initiative provides a framework within which various

elements of and approaches to human exploration of the Moon and Mars can be

examined. In order to provide the data necessary to make these types of assessments, several reference approaches have been selected to determine which

parameters drive such things as cost, schedule, complexity, and program risk.

Five reference approaches were analyzed, each of which is characterized by a

particular emphasis: (1) balance and speed; (2) the earliest possible landing on

Mars; (3) reduced logistics from Earth; (4) schedule adapted to Space Station

Freedom; and (5) reduced scale. The information generated through this process

can be used as a data base for determining the appropriate scope, schedule, and

ultimate approach to be used in implementing the program. The data generated

by this process are intended to capture the range of possibilities based on our

technical understanding today, and, consequently, can be used to develop implementation approaches for any number of options.

Infrastructure

The existingNASA infrastructureof Earth-to-orbittransportation systems,

Space Station Freedom, and telecommunications, navigation, and information

management systems willbe an integralelement ofany human exploration

program. In parallelwith the development of the Initiative,current and projected capabilitiesin these areas were assessed to determine where augmentation might be necessary.

In the area of Earth-to-orbit transportation, the Nation's current mixed fleet of

Space Shuttles and expendable launch vehicles clearly requires enhancement.

The Space Shuttle will be used to carry the crew to Space Station Freedom, but

the massive cargo flights necessary to support extraterrestrial human exploration mandate launch vehicles with much greater lift capacity: approximately

60 metric tons for the lunar outpost, and about 140 metric tons for the Mars

outpost. (The current Shuttle has a capability of 17.3 metric tons.) Various

concepts for vehicles to accommodate these requirements range from Shuttlederived vehicles to versions of the planned Advanced Launch System. New

ground facilities will also be required to support the new vehicles.

Space Station Freedom will serve a vital role in human exploration: it will

provide the essential scientific and technological foundation for later human

missions to the planets, and it will serve as a transportation node for the missions of the Initiative. Space Station Freedom will serve as an on-orbit laboratory for conducting research and developing technology that is required by the

1-3
Initiative. Freedom is the ideal location for such studies and demonstrations

because no terrestrial laboratory can adequately simulate the characteristics of

the space environment. Research will determine acceptable long-term microgravity countermeasures and obtain data for the design of self-sufficient life

support systems. Freedom can advance technology by serving as a test-bed for

new lunar and Mars system developments. Further, the hardware, software,

and other technologies used to assemble and operate Freedom can be applied to

exploration vehicles and systems.

A significant feature of Space Station Freedom's design is its capability to add

pressurized laboratory and habitation modules, power generation equipment,

truss extensions, and specialized facilities. This capacity allows Freedom to

evolve gracefully as its requirements as a research facility and transportation

node increase over the lifetime of the Initiative. Freedom will evolve sequentially through four configurations to support four Human Exploration Initiative

milestones: the verification flight of the lunar transfer vehicle, expendable

lunar transfer vehicle operations, reusable lunar transfer vehicle operations,

and orbital operations in support of Mars missions.

The Human Exploration Initiative is also expected to stimulate new developments in telecommunications, navigation, and information management. These

enabling support functions monitor and control mission elements, acquire telemetered data from engineering and science measurements, provide radiometric

data for navigation and video data for operations and science activities, and

provide a capacity to communicate, receive, distribute, and process information.

These functions must be provided eft_ciently, with human-related reliability.

Several challenges must be met: incorporating highly unattended operations for

many of the local Mars telecommunications and navigation functions, achieving

a high Mars-Earth data rate, providing robust system connectivity for manned

links, and providing an information management discipline, including standards, for use in transferring data between system nodes.

Meeting Human Needs in Space

Exploring the frontierhas always been risky to the livesofthe men and women

at itsedges. Now, astronauts are preparing to venture forlong periods oftime

into environments more harsh, albeitmore challenging and fascinating,than

any encountered on Earth. Fundamental differencesbetween space and

Earth-the lack ofgravity,inadequate atmospheres, deep cold,and radiation

hazards-challenge our abilityto protect,nurture, and sustain the individuals

who willbe the pioneers of the solar system.

1-4
Life scientists have major responsibilitiesunder the Human Exploration Initiative: to the crew, to assure their health,productivity,and safety throughout the

mission and the postflightrehabilitationperiod;to the mission, to provide a

productive working environment; and to the scientificcommunity, to advance

knowledge and understanding of human adaptation to the space environment.

Criticalareas essentialto support of human exploration include protectionfrom

the radiation hazards of the space environment, ofthe utmost importance both

forjourneying to and livingon other planetary bodies. Limits must be determined, and protectivemeasures, including shielding,storm shelters,and warning systems, must be developed.

Other important health-relatedareas include reduced gravitycountermeasures,

medical care,and lifesupport systems. The finalarea that must be investigated

isone about which we have very littledata: behavior, performance, and human

factorsin an extraterrestrialenvironment.

Science Opportunities and Strategies

A long-standing policy goal of the U.S. civil space program is "to expand knowledge of the Earth, its environment, the solar system, and the universe." The

Human Exploration Initiative will significantly advance scientific knowledge as

we explore the Moon and Mars and learn to use their surfaces for observatories

and laboratories. The act of exploration will provide new insights into the

natural history of the bodies visited and may lead to their use for practical

purposes. Many diverse scientific disciplines -- geology and geophysics, astronomy and astrophysics, human and plant physiology, and evolutionary biology

will be greatly enhanced. Exploring the Moon and Mars will help us in many

ways to understand the past and to look into the future of our own planet, the

solar system, and the universe.

Our first stop as we move outward from Space Station Freedom into the solar

system is the Moon, where we can fred clues about the early days of Earth.

Current scientific theory holds that the Moon formed when a Mars-sized body

collided with Earth. By exploring lunar origins, we may understand not only

the formation of Earth, but also other mysteries of our solar system, such as the

tilt of Uranus and the rotational spin of Venus. The lunar surface also contains

records of cratering processes, obliterated on Earth by erosion, which may

contain clues about the extinction on Earth of entire species. Such breakthroughs may lead to profound discoveries about how life, including human life,

evolves. Studies of the Moon will also yieldimportant information about its

natural resources, which isa vitalfirststep in becoming a multi-planet species.

1-5
In addition to studying the Moon itself, from the lunar surface we will look

outward. The Moon is a valuable platform for studying distant stars and galaxies, the rest of the solar system, and Earth itself; its quiet, stable environment

provides an excellent base for astronomy. From the Moon, we can make great

strides in understanding the universe, strides that are currently impossible on

Earth or using orbiting telescopes. And when men and women live there, scientists will learn about the long-term effects on humans of a low-gravity environment; this is an essential step for longer-duration stays on Mars.

We will not stop at the Moon, because the imperative to explore will lead men

and women to Mars. The planet most like Earth, Mars offers many unique

scientific opportunities, but perhaps the most intriguing question is whether life

exists or has ever existed on Mars. Ancient river beds and channels indicate

that water once flowed on Mars and that life could have formed there. Life may

exist on Mars today in underground habitats where volcanic heating melts

ground ice, producing a warm, wet environment protected from harsh surface

conditions. Only scientists working on Mars can discover the answer to this ageold question.

Studying Mars will also help us better understand changes on Earth, both

natural changes and those that are caused by the presence of our species. By

understanding the fascinating geological diversity on Mars, caused by drastic

global climate change, we can understand more about our own changing planet.

And exploration will not stop at the Moon and Mars. As with all pioneering

ventures, the Human Exploration Initiative will open new vistas of discovery

tomorrow that can only be imagined today.

Technology

Space is an infinite source of challenges. To send humans to explore it and use

its resources, development must begin today of new technologies in many areas,

including regenerative life support systems, aerobraking, advanced cryogenic

hydrogen-oxygen engines, surface nuclear power systems, in situ resource utilization, radiation protection, and nuclear propulsion. Advancements in automation and robotics, as incorporated into these and many other technologies, will

significantly increase the effectiveness of operational systems. Perhaps the most

tangible benefits of the Human Exploration Initiative, these developments will

inevitably have spinoff applications that may profoundly affect our everyday

lives and will certainly improve our position in the increasingly technological

world economy.

During the decade of exploration from the late 1960s to the late 1970s, the

astronauts of Apollo and the machines of Viking began to explore the surfaces of

1-6
the Moon and Mars, achievements that were made possible by revolutionary

advances in technologies and aerospace engineering capabilities. Innovative

technological solutions to challenging engineering problems will also be one of

the hallmarks of the coming era of exploration. Each step of the march to Mars

-- sending robotic missions to the Moon and Mars, establishing a lunar outpost,

staging initial expeditions of humans to Mars, and ultimately emplacing an

outpost on Mars -- will drive technological and engineering expertise to greater

heights and new standards of excellence.

The Human Exploration Initiative will involve dozens of major systems and will

span decades. Technology development will be a multifaceted process that tests

the best scientists and engineers in the Nation, builds on the considerable base

that NASA has accumulated over the years, and evolves as the Initiative progresses. As mission objectives are crystallized, system concepts developed, and

applicable technologies selected for pursuit, nearer-term advanced development

programs will focus on creating individual operational systems. These advanced

development programs will in turn feed into the design, development, test, and

evaluation programs that will produce the flight hardware and software for

specific Human Exploration Initiative systems. Throughout all programmatic

phases in the life of the program, engineering ingenuity and technological innovation will characterize the Initiative.

Significant technology development needs to begin as soon as possible. A balanced, focused investment in technology will make possible the levels of performance and the scope of operations envisioned. Technology development will

precede and foretell the major accomplishments of exploration, leading by several years the actual missions to the Moon and Mars.

National and Institutional Impact

The Human Exploration Initiativepresents our Nation with exhilaratingchallenges,significantopportunities,and enormous benefitsinto the firstpart ofthe

next century and beyond.

The Human Exploration Initiativewilldraw heavily on NASA's personnel,

facilities,and equipment. This resource base, the NASA institutionalcore

capability,isbuilton 75 years ofresearch, development, and operational experience and hundreds of unique national facilities.From the National Advisory

Committee on Aeronautics to the creationof NASA in 1958 to the present, the

Agency has developed an unparalleled capabilityin civilspace research and

development and aeronautics.

NASA will request a significantaugmentation ofcivilservicepositionsto support the Human Exploration Initiative.These positionswill provide the

1-7
necessary technical expertise, program management, and administrative support to meet the objectives of the Initiative. The augmentation will also enhance

the in-house work force, providing a solid balance between in-house and contracted efforts.

The Human Exploration Initiative will challenge current management systems.

It presents a unique opportunity to explore and test streamlined administrative

and management processes for directing long-term, complex, highly visible U.S.

programs having significant international implications. The lessons learned

may yield invaluable guidance transferable to other important U.S. programs.

Three areas will offer the greatest opportunity to realize significant efficiencies

and enhanced effectiveness: the acquisition system, the budget process, and

human resource management systems. NASA has already begun to address

these areas internally, but some elements are outside NASA's control and will

require active support from other Government quarters.

Potential international participation in the Human Exploration Initiative is the

subject of a separate policy analysis being conducted under the direction of the

National Space Council. That analysis will assess international capabilities,

opportunities, issues, and options related specifically to the Human Exploration

Initiative. This document complements that activity by pulling together information based on NASA's extensive experience in conducting space missions with

foreign partners.

With the growing capabilities and increasing number of other spacefaring nations, the environment for international participation is considerably different

than it has been in the past. The Human Exploration Initiative offers the potential for a variety of cooperative approaches with a number of potential partners.

Different models may be appropriate for cooperation with different nations or for

different phases of the Initiative. The National Space Council will consider

these and other factors in assessing the feasibility of further international

participation.

International cooperation and the use of the Initiative to serve important foreign

policy goals are only two of its many benefits. The Initiative will also stimulate

interest in science and engineering education, strengthen our national technological capabilities, offer a wealth of new scientific knowledge, and serve as a

source of national pride.

NASA contributes to the Nation's base of technology through the transfer of

research knowledge into the public and private sectors. The application and

reapplication of this knowledge has a multiplicative effect, in which the general

increase of efficiency and wealth from the advanced knowledge spreads throughout society. The Human Exploration Initiative will expand this contribution as

1-8
advancedtechnologiesare developed.

Another increasingly important benefit is the stimulus that the Human Exploration Initiative can provide to education. To help ensure that the Nation has an

adequate, continuing supply of scientists, engineers, and other technical personnel to successfully implement the President's Human Exploration Initiative, an

aggressive and targeted educational action plan is needed. To contribute to

solving the predicted shortage of scientists and engineers, NASA will redirect

and enhance its existing aerospace education program into a new, comprehensive, educational initiative entitled "Space Literacy for the 21st CenturyP

The educational frontiers opened by space exploration will captivate new generations of students, the scientific and technical work force of the future. This

phenomenon, combined with the other scientific and political benefits of the

Initiative, will open new horizons of achievement and will serve as a source of

national pride. Taken together, the benefits of the Initiative m scientific understanding, technological advancement, motivation of our Nation's youth, and

more -- will significantly strengthen our position in the global community.

Some day it may be said that the residents of Earth had to leave their planet in

order to fred it. Indeed, from space, humans first got to see their own planet,

floating in blackness above the barren moonscape like a blue and white marble.

Perhaps more than anything else, this view of Earth dramatized our planet's

uniqueness, and its fragility.

The last half of the 20th Century and the first half of the 21st Century will

almost certainly be remembered as the era when men and women broke the

bends that bound them to Earth and set forth on a journey into space.

That journey will, in time, extend human presence throughout the solar system.

Historians will note that the Moon became a familiar place to Earthlings very

early in that period. They returned there to follow in the bootprints of Armstrong, Aldrin, and their Apollo colleagues, to establish an outpost for further

exploration and expansion of human activities, to Mars and beyond.

Historians will further note that the journey to expand human presence into the

solar system began in earnest on July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the

Apollo 11 lunar landing when President George Bush announced his proposal

for a long-range continuing commitment to a bold program of human exploration

of the solar system.

1-9

SECTION 2

Introduction

uman exploration of the Moon and Mars has been a sustaining vision of the U.S. civilspace program almost since itsinception. With the Apollo

Program, we took our firstsmall steps on the surface ofanother world; never

again would our visionbe restrictedto the narrow confines ofEarth's boundaries. Throughout the 20 years that have passed since the Apollo 11 astronauts

firstlanded on the Moon, the aspirationto further explore has remained a

beacon to the future.

In fact,during the Apollo era, Wernher yon Braun led a task forceto develop

long-range goals for the space program afterApollo:more lunar missions, a

space transportation system, a space station,and human journeys to Mars. The

Space Shuttle became the space transportationsystem, Skylab was the firstand

Freedom willbe the second space station,and several studies throughout the

years have examined concepts and identifiedsupporting requirements forhuman missions to the Moon and Mars.

Events over the past several years have increased awareness of the significant

opportunities for human exploration and have provided a wealth of technical

data to support a response to the President'sbold new initiative.In 1986, the

National Commission on Space published itsreport,_Pioneering the Space

Frontier." The Commission was appointed by then-President Ronald Reagan

and mandated by Congress to formulate a visionary agenda to lead America's

civilianspace enterprise into the 21st century. The Commission recommended

to the Nation a bold plan for the next half century in space: "ro lead the exploration and development of the space frontier,advancing science,technology, and

enterprise,and building institutionsand systems that make accessiblevast new

resources and support human settlements beyond Earth orbit,from the highlands of the Moon to the plains of Mars."

Later that year, then-NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher asked scientist

astronaut Sally Ride to lead a NASA-wide task forceto define and evaluate

potentiallong-range goals forthe U.S. civilianspace program, building on

earliertechnical studies conducted throughout NASA and outside NASA in

directresponse to the Commission. The task forcereport,_Leadership and

America's Future in Space," was released in August 1987. The report identified

and analyzed four potentialinitiativesthat could ensure continued civilian

space program leadership: Mission to Planet Earth, Robotic Exploration of the

Solar System, Outpost on the Moon, and Humans toMars.

2-1
NASA's Office of Exploration was established in June 1987 in response to the

task force's recommendation that NASA establish a focal point to fund, lead, and

coordinate studies examining potential approaches to human exploration of the

solar system, based on the Outpost on the Moon and Humans to Mars Initiatives. For the past 2 years, NASA has examined in detail a number of potential

strategies: Apollo-type expeditions to Mars and its moons, evolutionary plans

for permanent human presence on the Moon and Mars, and scientific observatories on the Moon. The goal of this effo_ has been to develop a substantial base

of knowledge on technical and programmatic requirements in order to enable

the President to define a pathway for the human exploration of the Moon and

Mars.

With the President's historic announcement, that pathway has been defined.

We are going to build Space Station Freedom, and then we are going back to the

Moon and on to Mars, to continue the remarkable journey of exploration that

began more than 25 years ago when human beings first rocketed into space.

Exploration is a human imperative, one deeply rooted in American history and

its destiny. Our flag still flies on the Moon, and exploration is an endeavor in

which our Nation excels. Returning to the Moon and journeying to Mars are

goals worthy of our heritage, signalling an America with the vision, courage, and

skills essential for leadership among spacefaring nations in the 21st Century.

Now that the President has defined where we are going, the next step is to

decide how and when. To support the Vice President and the National Space

Council in this task, NASA initiated a study to develop the reference base from

which strategic options could be derived. The pages that follow describe the

results of a 90-day internal study for which NASA assembled a team of representatives from the NASA program offices and field centers. The purpose of the

study was to examine the elements of a human exploration program, assess

current capabilities, determine ways in which the capabilities might need to be

augmented, identify areas in which new developments would be required, and

provide this information in a cohesive package to support the decision-making

process.

The process by which this information was derived began with the examination

of the basic objectives of the Human Exploration Initiative: to return to the

Moon to stay, and then to journey on to Mars, conducting significant scientific

research every step of the way. An end-to-end strategy was then developed, beginning with robotic missions to characterize the environment in which humans

and machines must function. The next steps are launching personnel and equipment from Earth, exploiting the unique capabilities of human presence in low

Earth orbit aboard Space Station Freedom, transporting crew and cargo from

2-2
Earth orbit to lunar and Mars orbits and surfaces, and developing the planetary

surface systems that support human life, extraterrestrial work, and science, and

allow a significant degree of self-sufficiency. In parallel, NASA's existing and

planned infrastructure of Earth-to-orbit transportation, Space Station Freedom,

and telecommunications, navigation, and information management was assessed to determine its ability to accommodate the increased demands of the

Initiative. The synergistic areas of human needs, science, and technology were

also intensively assessed for the opportunities they bring to and derive from this

program. Finally, programmatic matters, such as resources, management

systems, international participation, and national benefits were examined to

develop a perspective embracing the broader implications of the Initiative.

Key Technical Variables Studied

• Launch vehicle size

• Space Station Freedom, new spaceport i or:_t assembly:ii_::_!:i!:

• :Chemical, electric, nuclear, or unconve_tional::propulsi0n

• Aerobraking or

:i i:::: •

• Expendable or reusable spacecraft: :i

• Propellant or tank transfer

• In situ or Earth-supplied resources .... :. :i ":. :_:_ " :i

In developing a preliminary program plan for human exploration of the Moon

and Mars, results of past studies examining a wide variety of fundamental

approaches formed the basis for the selection of certain key technical parameters. For the most part, these assumptions were derived from the past 2 years

of intensive trade analyses conducted as part of the human exploration case

studies. However, the case studies themselves built upon a rich heritage of

earlier studies that established a foundation of technical information from which

to draw. Combined with the strategy established by President Bush, this foundation provided a starting point for the development of the Human Exploration

Initiative.

2-3
Certain technological approaches, described in detailin Section 8 of this document, have been proven to be the most feasibleways of building capabilityin the

development of an outpost either on the Moon or Mars. Itisknown, for example, that some degree ofin-space assembly and maintenance isnecessary for

the vehicles that transport cargo and crew to theirultimate planetary destinations. Trade studies of the location and function of the transportation node at

which these functions are performed have determined that Space Station Freedom isboth a necessary and feasibleapproach to meeting this requirement.

Power foroutpost operations, for another example, isprovided in initialstages

by photovoltaicsystems with regenerative fuel cells,a known and well-developed technology that isentirelyadequate forearly power requirements. As the

outpost develops, the next levelofpower generation is provided by space-based

nuclear systems. For lifesupport, regenerative systems provide the most costeffectiveapproach.

A significanttrade study conducted over the past 2 years addressed the consideration ofbalancing the need tooccasionallydeliverrelativelylarge masses,

such as livingquarters and utilities,to planet surfaces with the need to more

regularly deliverthe smaller masses associated with logisticsresupply and crew

transfer. This balance affectsthe sizingof launch and space transportation

vehicles,the need for vehiclereusability,and the buildup sequence ofthe outpost. The balance must be arrived at considering reasonable flightrates,onorbitassembly capabilities,and operations scenarios.

For missions to the Moon, this balance has been found to be best achieved by

launch vehicles in the 50 to 80 metric ton payload class,which carry payloads to

Space Station Freedom forfinalassembly and checkout before departure for the

Moon. Although designed forno human intervention,lunar vehiclesand payloads will,realistically,require some hands-on activityin Earth orbit. Separate

Earth-orbit-to-lunar-orbitand lunar ascent/descent vehicles are required to

satisfyoperational and abort considerations. The vehicles need to be reusable

and capable of deliveringin the range of 15 to 40 metric tons to the lunar surface. For Mars missions, launch vehicleshaving a payload capabilitywell in

excess of 120 metric tons are required to achieve a balance between larger,

fewer launches and less assembly at Freedom and smaller, more numerous

flightsthat greatly complicate the assembly tasks.

An area in which a very wide range of system technology options were examined

ispropulsion systems for space transfer vehicles. Approaches ranged from

conventional all-chemicalpropulsion to a variety of nuclear systems to solar

sailsand mass drivers. What emerged from these analyses was a succinct

definitionof the relativeadvantages and disadvantages of each approach.

2-4
Whereas several techniques, such as nuclear and solar electric propulsion and

solar sails offered efficient transportation of large payload masses, this advantage is somewhat negated by slow travel time or significant operational complexity. Further study determined that the use of an aerobrake in conjunction with

chemical propulsion could reduce required initial mass in the low Earth orbit by

more than 50 percent, in addition to reducing operations costs.

Therefore, all-chemical propulsion with aerobraking was selected as the baseline

for space transfer vehicle propulsion, and this assumption was used in developing mission profiles for the Initiative. However, for transportation from Earth

orbit to Mars, nuclear propulsion shows a great deal of promise as an option for

significantly enhancing mission performance.

Solid-core nuclear thermal rockets, a mature technology that was designed,

built, and tested from 1955 to 1973, offers a savings in mass in low Earth orbit

of approximately 40 percent over chemical propulsion without aerobraking.

Chemical propulsion with aerobraking and solid-core nuclear thermal rockets

are, therefore, essentially equivalent in their advantage over chemical propulsion without aerobraking. However, gas-core nuclear rockets, for which concepts

were also formulated during the same time, offer the significant advantage of

reducing round-trip travel time to Mars to less than I year.

As the development of the Human Exploration Initiative unfolds, these and

other issues will continue to be examined to identify the most efficient approaches to the various elements of the program.

2-5

SECTION3

The Human Exploration

Initiative

he overarching goal of the Human Exploration Initiative is to expand human

presence in the solar system, developing nearly self-sufficient communities

on new worlds and promoting significant advances in science and technology.

The Initiative will follow an evolutionary pathway over a 30-year horizon beginning with Space Station Freedom in the 1990s, followed by a permanent outpost

on the Moon at the beginning of the next century, and culminating with Mars

expeditions that lead to a permanent martian outpost. Figure 3-1 illustrates

the relative timing of the full array of scientific and technical systems that will

enable and support this goal. These systems are discussed in detail in this and

subsequent sections.

Space Station Freedom, the first step on the pathway, will provide the essential

scientific and technological foundation for later human missions to the planets.

For example, a particularly critical factor in planning human exploration is the

determination of the physiological and psychological effects of low gravity and

long-term habitation of the space environment, which will be studied on Freedora. Initially, crew members will remain on Space Station Freedom for

3 months; research will focus on understanding the various mechanisms responsible for adaptation to weightlessness and the physiological problems encountered upon return to Earth. Later, an extended-duration crew certification

program will prolong visits to 180 days or more and will include enhanced

physiological countermeasures for low gravity and radiation effects.

Systems developed for use on Space Station Freedom will enhance and

strengthen the technological base for human planetary exploration. Freedom

will serve as a controlled test-bed for developing and validating systems and

elements, such as habitation and laboratory modules and life support systems,

to be used later on the Moon and Mars. In addition, Freedom will support technology experiments and advanced development in mission-critical areas, such as

spacecraft assembly, servicing, and system development. When the exploration

missions begin, Freedom will become a transportation node where both lunar

and Mars vehicles will be assembled, tested, launched, and refurbished to fly

again. (Freedom's role as a transportation node is discussed in more detail in

Section 5.)

The next step in this evolutionary process will be to build a permanent outpost

on the Moon to establish human presence for science and exploration.

3-1
Roversand crewwill explorethe geologyand geophysicsof the Moon itself, and

rock and soilsamples willbe analyzed in a lunar laboratory. The unique characteristicsofthe lunar environment make itan excellentplatform from which to

conduct astronomy, physics,and lifesciencesresearch. The Moon also provides

an ideal location,just a 3-day tripfrom Earth, at which human beings can learn

to liveand work productively in an extraterrestrialenvironment with increasing

self-sufficiency,using locallunar resources to support the outpost. In this way,

the lunar outpost will both advance science and serve as a test-bedfor validating

criticalmission systems, hardware, technologies,human capabilityand selfsumciency, and operational techniques that can be applied to further exploration.

Once the lunar outpost has verifiedthe techniques and demonstrated the systems, the next evolutionary step willbe to launch the firsthuman expedition to

Mars. Initialmissions to Mars will prove the systems and techniques required

forcontinuing human missions and will conduct further reconnaissance of

selectedlanding sites. Later missions willestablish a Mars outpost with the

objectiveof conducting science and exploration on the solarsystem's most Earthlike planet,expanding mankind's sphere ofinfluence in the solar system, and

livingand working in an extraterrestrialenvironment with a high degree of

self-sufficiency.Valuable scientificknowledge will be gained through the search

for evidence of past and present life,exploration ofthe geology and geophysics of

Mars and itsmoons, utilizationof martian resources,and studies of biological

responses in humans, plants,and animals.

To examine potential approaches tobuilding permanent lunar and Mars outposts, an end-to-end strategy was developed that provides a logicalmechanism

for stepping through the various elements and milestones of the Initiative.The

strategy begins with the preparatory phase ofroboticexploration to obtain early

scientificand technical data priorto the human exploration missions. Once the

roboticmissions have satisfiedthis requirement, the development of permanent,

largelyself-sufficientoutposts on the Moon and Mars proceeds through three

progressive phases: emplacement, consolidation,and operation.

The emplacement phase emphasizes accommodating basic habitation needs,

establishingsurface equipment and scienceinstruments, and laying the foundation forfuture,more complex instrument networks and surface operations by

testingprototypes of latersystems. In the process,human explorers begin to

learn to liveand work on another planetary body, conducting localgeologic

investigations,performing experiments in mining the lunar soilto demonstrate

the feasibilityofoxygen production on the Moon, and examining the possibility

ofoxygen and water extractionon Mars. By the end ofthe emplacement phase,

the support facilitiesinclude landing vehicle servicingequipment to prepare for

3-2
Mission

Robotics

Space

Transportation

Surface

Systems

Earth-to-Orbit

Transportation

SpaceStation

Freedom

Telecommunications,

Navigation, and

Information

Management

Hulnan

Needs

Science

Technology

Space Station

Freedom Lunar Outpost

Mars Outpost

Mars Lunar

Observer Observer

Mars Global Mars Sample Reconnaissance Raver Raver Rover

Network Return Orbiter

Lunar Transfer

Vehicle

unar Excursion

Vehicle Mars Transfer Vehicle Mars Excursion Vehicle

Photovoltaic/Regenerative Photovolt _ aiclRegenerative

Surface

P?erS_rn_ p .... __ Power System

Initial _ Constructible_ Resource Initial _ Constructible Resource

Habitat _ Habitat Production Habitat _ Habitat Production

Atlas II I Delta II

I

Titan IV Shuttle i

System Launch Vehicle Heavy-LiR Launch Vehicle

Shuttle-C Option Option Option

Lunar Transfer Expendable Lunar Reusable Lunar

Assembly Complete Vehicle Verification Transfer Vehicle Operations Transfer Vehicle Operations

6 IBI' 1 6 O rations

Subnetwork Subnetwork

Mars _ Lunar _ Mars _ Mars_

Communications Communications Support Communications

Orbiter Satellite Subnetwork Satellite

Zero Gravity

Countermeasures

Long Duration Zero Gravity 600-Day Mars Surface

Mars Mission Simulation Mission Simulation

Astronomical Pressurized Long Range Human Lunar Parside

Facility Laboratories Surface Exploration Facility PressurizedLaboratories

Long Range Human

Surface Exploration

Critical

Near-Term

Technologies

Regenerative Life Support

Aerobraking

Cryogenic Engines

Surface Nuclear Power

i

In Situ Resource Utilization

Radiation Protection

Nuclear Propulsion

In-Space Operations Humans in Space Other

Earth-te-Orbit Transportat'_on Lunar and Mars Science Technology

Space Transportation Information Systems and

Surface Systems Automation Needs

Figure 3-1 Human Exploration Initiative
longer visits. During this phase, human operations take place within tens of

kilometers of the outpost, and nnms_nned rovers are used to explore more distant areas.

The consolidation phase further extends human presence, both in complexity of

operations and in distances traveled from the outpost, and continues to develop

experience in living and working in a planetary environment. During this

3-5

PRE'CEDir_G PAGE BLANK NOT FILMED
phase, outpost capabilities, scientific facilities, and instruments are improved,

and power and pressurized volume are increase& A constructible habitat is

erected at the outpost to provide the increased volume required for beth extended crew residence and laboratory sciences research. Human operations

expand to a range of hundreds of kilometers from the outpost.

Learning to become more independent of Earth now takes on paramount importance. This involves developing confidence in operational strategies as well as

developing improved outpost element subsystems. More efficient systems for

life support are emplaced, prototypes of lunar resource processing plants are

tested, and day-to-day activities are conducted without continual supervision

and guidance from Earth.

The objectives of the operation phase are to make routine use of in situ resources, and to continue to live and work at the outpost with minimal dependence on Earth. The area of exploration opportunities is expanded to include

routine human access to more distant points on the planet.

The result envisioned by the year 2025 is two permanent operating outposts -

one on the Moon, one on Mars - with the knowledge base and experience to

begin to seriously set our sights for further exploration.

The pages that follow describe in detail the robotic missions, lunar outpost, and

Mars outpost implementation concepts for the Human Exploration Initiative.

Robotic Missions

The robotic exploration missions will obtain data to assist in the design and

development of subsequent human exploration missions and systems, demonstrate technology and long communications time operations concepts, and dramatically advance scientific knowledge of the Moon and Mars. The mission set

selected reflects an orderly strategy for compiling extensive data bases about the

surface and subsurface of the Moon and the atmosphere, surface, and subsurface

of Mars; validating remotely sensed data by in situ measurements at selected

sites; selecting appropriate candidate landing locations; and characterizing

potential outpost sites.

In formulating the robetic exploration mission set, the prime issues were properly sequencing the acquisition of global lunar and Mars data and systematically

reducing the number of candidate sites, ranking those that remain in order of

desirability. Other factors address scientific priorities, the need to provide

design data for the human mission elements, and the development of the basis

of the science investigations to be accomplished when humans inhabit the selected site.

3-6
Ranger,Surveyor,Lunar Orbiter, andApollo have amasseda generalknowledge

basefor the Moon,but thesedata are limited to a band about the equator,or in

the caseof subsurfacedata, to specific Surveyor and Apollo landing sites. Because the optimal site may be outside the well-known area, additional mapping

of the Moon is required before the first human landing.

Lunar Observer will significantly enhance the global lunar data base to verify

the requirements for surface equipment and excursion vehicles, select the outpost site, and plan lunar surface operations. These data will also help to resolve

important issues related to long-duration human presence on the Moon, including the selection of sites of high scientific potential for human exploration,

minimization of risks for human landing and habitation, and assessment of

resource availability.

Two identical flight systems will be launched on the 3- to 5-day flight to the

Moon. The spacecraft will be propulsively captured into an elliptical orbit in

which a subsatellite will be released to conduct preliminary gravitational mapping. About a month later, the spacecraft orbit will be circularized into a

100-kilometer polar mapping orbit, and mapping will continue for about I year.

The primary objectives of robotic missions to Mars are to advance our understanding of the planet and its origin, history, and current conditions; to provide

science and engineering data to support selection and certification of the expeditionary and permanent outpost sites; to return a sample of Mars to Earth for

scientific analysis and determination of the potential of back-contamination; to

conduct studies that diminish risks to human explorers; to provide data to assist

in designing piloted vehicles and surface systems; to search for martian resources; and to generally demonstrate readiness to proceed with a human Mars

mission.

The 1992 Mars Observer, enhanced to allow additional high resolution mosaics,

higher data rates, and an extended operations period, will establish global

martian data bases. In addition, the mission will begin global monitoring of

climate and characterization of the atmosphere. If the 1992 mission fails to

meet its objectives, a modified 1996 mission will back it up.

The Mars Global Network Mission will provide essential data to address scientific issues and develop specific engineering requirements for subsequent robotic

and human presence on Mars. Two identical flight systems carrying an orbiter

and multiple landers will be launched within a 20-day period using two expendable launch vehicles. The landers will provide high-resolution surface data at

multiple locations and will obtain extended-duration seismic and meteorological

measurements. These landers will most likely emplant scientific instruments

beneath the surface and leave instruments on the surface.

3-7
Stowed Coru_iguration

(One Aeroshell Removed for Clarity)

Orbit-Deployed

Lander. (4)

4.35

meters

(6 square meters)

Bi-Propellant

Tanks (2)

Approach-Deployed

Lander. (2)

Linear 400 Newton Engine (1)

Separation

Band, Upper Stage Adapter

Figure 3-2 Mars Global Network Mission Vehicle Concept

Using Landers

One possible implementation of this concept (see Figure 3-2) involves a spacecraft that carries six surface instrument packages mounted in aeroshells for

entry into the martian atmosphere. Two aeroshens are deployed during Mars

approach and targeted to land in regions above 65 degrees latitude. The remaining four aeroshells and their carrier bus are propulsively captured into elliptical

orbit. As the orbit precesses and rotates due to perturbations, different regions

of the planet will be targeted for deployment of the remaining aeroshells. After

deployment, the orbiters will receive telemetry data from the landers and relay

the information back to Earth.

The landers' descent imaging will aid in refiningthe geologicmodeling ofMars

surface processes at multiple spatialscales and contrasting locations.Approach

imaging isalso essential forselectingthe landing sitefor the sample return

mission. Long-lasting scientificpackages willproduce a meteorological data

3_8
base for both atmospheric investigations and studies of the complex interactions

between the surface and atmosphere. Seismic monitoring will further the

understanding of the crustal structure of Mars and regional differences related

to geophysical evolution. Biological and subsurface chemistry experiments will

contribute directly to the scientific objectives of the Human Exploration Initiative by validating and calibrating remotely sensed data to assess the resource

potential, trafficabflity, risks, and habitability issues associated with human

and robotic exploration of the surface of Mars.

A Mars Sample Return with Local Rover mission (Figure 3-3) is the centerpiece

of the robotic Mars missions. In addition to important scientific advancement,

this mission will demonstrate technologies that will be used in the piloted missions, and it will serve as a flight test of technologies that include aerocapture

and aeromaneuvering, hazard avoidance for landing, automatic rendezvous and

docking, and long communication delay time technologies used for operations at

Mars.

Figure 3-3 Sample Return Vehicle with Local Rover

3_9
Five kilograms of martian rocks, soil, and atmospherewill bereturned to Earth

prior to the development of the human mission vehicles and surface systems.

Scientific analysis of martian samples should resolve a great deal of speculation

about the nature and composition of martian surface rocks and soils and enable

a detailed assessment of the surface environment for incorporation into design of

the human exploration elements. The mission will also provide an Earth-MarsEarth engineering test and a first test of surface mobility. Samples will be

contained to preclude release on Earth until adequate testing of potential biological acti_4ty can be completed.

Two identical flight systems will be launched within a 20-day period using two

expendable launch vehicles. The flight systems will be aerocaptured into a

circular orbit around Mars at an altitude of 400 to 500 kilometers. After aerocapture, the sample return orbiter is separated from the landing segment of the

flight system. A deorbit burn is executed by the landing segment, and aeromaneuvering techniques are used to land the Mars ascent vehicle with its local

rover near one of the global network lander sites while the sample return orbiter

remains in orbit. After landing, the local rover, capable of traverses to about

100 meters from the lander, will be deployed to collect samples outside the area

contaminated by the lander's propulsion system.

Mars ascent is planned about a year later with autonomous rendezvous and

docking of the upper stage of the Mars ascent vehicle and the sample return

orbiter. Once docking is completed, the sample canister assembly will be transferred to the sample return capsule of the Earth return vehicle portion of the

sample return orbiter. The rendezvous/docking module will then be separated

from the Earth return vehicle. Departure from the vicinity of Mars is planned

approximately I month after ascent.

The Mars Site Reconnaissance Orbiter mission consists of two orbiters (see

Figure 3-4) and two communications satellites. It will provide detailed imaging

to characterize landing sites, assess landing site hazards, and provide a data

base for subsequent rover traverses and piloted surface operations. The orbiters

will be targeted to a sun-synchronous, near polar, 1-day repeat orbit at an

altitude of 299 kilometers to provide moderate resolution visual maps of 30 to

50 percent of Mars. For selected regions of the planet, high-resolution imaging

will be obtained at a low Sun angle and transmitted to Earth using a high

signal-to-noise ratio data link. The data will be transmitted via the two communications satellites, which also will support subsequent surface elements, significantly increasing their data return capabilities. In particular, the data relay

capability will provide more efficient path planning, which significantly increases the area that the rover can cover.

3-10
Wide

Angle

Electromagnetic

r Antenna Very Large

Figure 3-4 Mars Site Reconnaissance Orbiter Concept

Each orbiter/satellitecombination willbe launched on an expendable vehicle,

and the two launches willoccur within a 20-day period. Immediately after

trans-Mars injection,orbiterand satellitewillbe separated and propulsively

captured at Mars. The satellitewill be maneuvered into a Mars-synchronous

orbit.

Up to five Mars Rover missions will certify three sites selected using the data

gathered by the Mars Observer, Mars Global Network, and Mars Site Reconnaissance missions to determine the sites with the greatest potential for piloted

vehicle landing and outpost establishment. The rovers (Figure 3-5) will characterize available resources at these sites, provide data for determining the suitability of the sites for a human outpost, and collect diverse geological samples for

return to Earth by later sample return missions or by piloted flights. The rovers

will also emplace infrastructure elements, such as navigation aids and meteorological stations, to support piloted missions.

Each rover will survey a different 10 by 10 kilometer area for surface trafficability, subsurface structure, and mineral composition. Within this area, the rover

3-11
Ka-Band

125-Watt

Radioisotope

Thermoelectric

Scanning Calorimeter

Evolved Gas Analyzer

Device Cameras (3 pairs)

Electromagnetic

Sounder

Antennas

Degrees_f-Freedom

Tools

,Rover

Passive

Suspension

Figure 3-5

Penetrator

6 Degrees_f-Freedom Arm

Long-Range Mars Rover

will survey nine 100-meter sitesfor selectionoflocationsfor a power plant, a

habitat, and a landing siteforhuman missions. Regional exploration is possible

during the mission. The rovers are assumed to be similar to the rovers used on

the Moon in a roboticmode, and allow fora 25-percent technology or capability

upgrade between flights.Manned exl_editionarymissions could also carry into

orbita rover and itslander packaged in a biconicaeroshell.

On Mars, a rover with localaccess to the vicinityofitslanding sitewill perform

a preliminary characterizationof the martian surface material composition,

mineralogy, and petrology. This characterizationwill calibrateand validate the

regional and localgeologicaldata from priororbitalmissions. The rover will

examine, in situ,a variety of biochemical and environmental indicatorsof ancient life-forms.The rover willalso play a vitalrole in directresource assessment of the sitefor subsequent manned landings.

Lunar Outpost

The next step in the strategy is the development of a permanent lunar outpost,

which begins with two to three launches of the lunar payload, crew, transportation vehicles,and propellants from Earth to Space Station Freedom. At Freedom, the crew, payloads, and propellants are loaded onto the lunar transfer

3-12
vehicle that will take them to low lunar orbit. The lunar transfer vehicle meets

in lunar orbit with an excursion vehicle, which will either be parked in lunar

orbit or will ascend from the lunar surface, and payload, crew, and propellants

are transferred. After the excursion vehicle descends to the lunar surface, the

transfer vehicle will return to Freedom. The transfer vehicles will be serviced

and maintained at Freedom, and the excursion vehicles will be serviced and

maintained at the outpost. Facilities will be provided at the outpost site to

maintain the excursion vehicle during the crew's stay on the surface, which can

be as long as I year.

Missions to the Moon fall into two categories: piloted and cargo. Figure 3-6

illustrates the typical mission profile for delivering crew and cargo to the lunar

surface. A piloted mission delivers a crew of four and some cargo to the lunar

surface and returns a crew of four and limited cargo to Freedom; a cargo mission

delivers only cargo, and the vehicle is either expended or returned empty. The

missions use common transfer and excursion vehicles: the piloted missions add

Lunar e_umi_

_u_d by

.Q_ ..,-\\ -..... _....._ ..._,,,._-............

.-"-"" "..._ ............ .::":2" ""

...." / _ '.... ................ /.'- o_

/®

'._. ., ............ ,..-,,.,_.o_;.; ./ ......... .....

................................. ............

vO "_',,............... _...._.:::':': ...... Tau_ Expended

_) Payloml&liv_d to _ _tlcm Fr_l_

_ vebicb mst_ withp_oed

(_ __/olu_r Phmm with lunm" tram_

(_ Imnm" trmmfbr vehicle rmsdNvous with lurer

e_.ur_,_ veh_e frum Moon

_ xw_n t__

Figure 3-6 Lunar Mission Profile

3-13
a crewcabfor personneltransfer, and cargomissions use only a cargo pallet.

The vehicle for cargo missions can be expended, which increases the payload

delivery capability to the lunar surface. For piloted flights, the transfer vehicle

employs an Earth-to-Moon trajectory that allows the crew to return safely to

Space Station Freedom if necessary.

Emplacement of the lunar outpost begins with an _lnmAnned cargo mission that

delivers the first elements to the selected outpost site and is also an extensive

flight test of the lunar transportation system, including vehicle assembly, fueling, and integration at Freedom. It is flown as a partially loaded mission, delivering an unpressurized manned/robetic rover and the equipment necessary to

prepare the outpost site and off-load payloads from the excursion vehicles. The

rover, which will initially be operated telerobotically, will enable the study of

subsurface characteristics and aid in determining where the outpost will be

located. The second flight to the Moon is also a cargo mission, which will deliver

the initial permanent habitation facilities: a habitation module, airlock, power

system, and associated support equipment. The module will be teleroboticaUy

emplaced on the surface at the prepared location and covered with lunar soil to

provide radiation shielding.

The first two cargo missions will be followed by a piloted mission with a crew of

four, who stay on the lunar surface for up to 30 days. This crew will check out

the habitation module and associated support systems and use the rover to

conduct geologic traverses and to emplace scientific instruments, including the

first few elements of astronomical telescope arrays. Longer visits will begin

after cargo missions deliver additional habitation and laboratory space and

facilities to service and maintain excursion vehicles. At this point, the outpost

can be operated in a human-tended mode, or permanent occupation of the outpest can begin. The crew will perform experiments to demonstrate in situ

resource utilization and will conduct a variety of scientific experiments. When

the pressurized laboratory module is emplaced, geochemistry, life sciences, and

biomedical research will begin.

The initial lunar outpost will consist of self-contained systems that allow for

relatively simple emplacement operations. Later, to expand the capabilities at

the outpost, a constructible habitat will be erected to provide additional habitable volume for a larger crew to stay longer and to provide additional space for

increased biomedical and life sciences research. The design of the facilities is

driven by the desire to simulate the eventual 600-day surface stays anticipated

for the Mars outpost, and the constructible lunar module will serve as the prototype for the Mars module. In later years, the outpost can support scientific

exploration activities distant from the outpost using a manned pressurized rover

for regional access or using the excursion vehicle for expeditions to the farside of

the Moon.

3-14
_ _ " Astronomy Array _ Geophysical Station

Power

Production

Crew Area -_ In Situ Resource

Habitation _'_ Utilization Area --_

Area ._, ._. '

Figure 3-7 Lunar Outpost Architecture

Power capacity at the lunar outpost willbe expanded to support increased

demands. The increased power capacity at the outpost willbe used tobegin

operational processing ofthe Moon's resources and to help reduce the outpost's

dependence on Earth. For example, oxygen extracted from the lunar soilcan

help make up losses from the outpost'slifesupport system and could be used as

propellants for the excursion vehicles. Nitrogen, hydrogen, and helium could

also be extracted from the lunar soiland used at the outpost. Processing resources on the Moon will also develop an experience base for operational techniques foruse in Mars resource utilization.In addition,dependency on Earth

willbe reduced by relying on systems with higher levelsof recovery oflifesupport consumables. Figure 3-7 depictsa typicallunar outpost in the operation

phase of development.

The sizeof the lunar vehicles and payload and the amount of material delivered

to Space Station Freedom require a heavy-liftlaunch vehiclewith capabilities

beyond those of the current fleetof Shuttles and expendable launch vehicles.

The launch vehicles must be sized to provide a balance between the degree of assembly and integration required at Freedom and the sizeof the vehicles. Figure 3-8 depicts two lunar heavy-liftlaunch vehicleoptions,one derived from the

Shuttle and the other a version of the Advanced Launch System. Both will have

3-15
Shuttle-Derived

Figure 3-8 Lunar Heavy.Lift

Launch Vehicle Options

a payload shroud large enough to allow

lunar transfer and excursion vehicles

to be launched virtually intact from

Earth, but a single launch approach

would require an extremely large

launch vehicle. Instead, the transfer

and excursion vehicles will be

launched with the cargo in one flight,

and the required propellant will be

delivered to Freedom in two additional

flights.

The various components are assembled

and checked out at Space Station Freedom, which will serve as a transportation node for exploration missions.

The planned baseline configuration of

Freedom is capable of accepting the

evolutionary modifications to support

the processing and storage facilities for

the lunar vehicles. An additional

habitat module will supply the volume

to house the vehicle assembly and

maintenance crews and the transient

lunar mission crews. Additional crew and vehicle processing activities will

require additional power and thermal control capability.

The lunar transfer vehicle transports crew and cargo between Space Station

Freedom and lunar orbit; the lunar excursion vehicle provides transportation

between lunar orbit and the surface of the Moon. The vehicles shown in Figure 3-9 allow mission flexibility by employing a common design for delivery of

beth cargo and crew. Key mission design criteria are: (1) timing of the launch

and return opportunities from Freedom, (2) payload mass delivered to the lunar

surface and mass required in low Earth orbit, (3) mission abort/safe-return

options, and (4) Earth-to-orbit launch vehicle/payload manifesting. To maximize

cargo delivery to the lunar surface, initial flights will expend the lunar transportation vehicles. On subsequent flights, the lunar transportation system will be

reused up to five times to reduce vehicle and operational costs.

The lunar transfer vehicle concept is a 1-1/2 stage design consisting of a reusable core and expendable propellant tanks. Using expendable drop-tanks reduces the vehicle's propellant load by approximately 10 percent compared to a

single-stage reusable lunar transfer vehicle. The lunar transfer vehicle

3-16
Lunar

Excursion

Vehicle

8.5 meters

i Lunar Excursion Vehicle

[

Mass"

5.8 metric tons

Cargo ̧

22.4 metric tens

Crew Module*:

4.4 Metric tons

Lunar

Transfer

Vehicle

14.4 meters

Lunar Transfer Vehicle

Propulsion/Avionics

Module Core

Inert Mass:

8.1 metric tens

Propellant Load:

7.0 metric tons

Crew Module*:

8.4 metric tons

Drop Tanks

Inert Mass Total:

5.8 metric tons

PropeLlant Load Total:

, 129.8 metric tons

*Includes Crew

Figure 3-9 Lunar Transportation System

elements include a core propulsion/avionicsmodule, main expendable propellant

tanks, aerobrake, crew module, and other vehiclesubsystems.

On initialcrew delivery flights,the vehicleswill be packaged and launched to

Freedom on a single heavy-liftlaunch vehicle. Packaging includes the fully

fueled core propulsion/avionicsmodule, the aerobrake central core and peripheral segments, transfervehicle crew module, excursion vehiclecrew cab, and

partiallyfueled excursion vehicle. At Freedom, the eight peripheral segments

of the aerobrake will be attached to the aerobrake central core,and the

3-17
combinationwill becheckedout for structural integrity. Two additional heavylii_ vehicleswill launch four fully loadedexpendablemain propellant tanks to

Freedom for mating to the transfer vehicle. The Space Shuttle will deliver cargo

modules and crew to Freedom, where the cargo modules will be added to complete the integrated lunar transportation vehicle. Two propellant tanks will be

dropped just after trans-lunar injection, and two will be dropped in low lunar

orbit. The transfer vehicle will become a staging base in low lunar orbit for the

excursion vehicle and the cargo, and it will also transfer cryogenic propellants

and consumables to the excursion vehicle when it is reused.

Lunar transfer vehicle engines were selected on the basis of vehicle thrust-toweight, number of engines, throttle range, and man-rating. The need for manrating with multiple engines for engine-out capability, the desire for a common

engine, and the excursion vehicle touchdown "_' limit with a throttling requirement of less than 20:1 resulted in the selection of four engines at 89 kilonewtons

of thrust each (Figure 3-10).

Compared to all-propulsive Earth return, aerobraking significantly reduces the

initial mass required in low Earth orbit. The aerobrake is a rigid structure

made of composite materials with advanced thermal protection materials used

to protect the aerobrake in the maximum heating region. Aerobrake reuse for

five missions is assumed. After each mission, the aerobrake will be refurbished

and verified at Space Station Freedom.

The lunar transfer vehicle uses an integral cryogenic reaction control system for

attitude control and stabilization. Electrical power is provided by solar arrays

and batteries or fuel cells. Advanced, man-rated, redundant avionics and communications use hardware and software elements that are common with the

excursion vehicle. Multiple communications capabilities between the lunar

excursion vehicle, lunar transfer vehicle, Earth, Space Station Freedom, the

lunar surface, and communications satellites are provided. An automated

rendezvous and docking system is provided for the lunar transfer vehicle.

The lunar transfer crew module illustrated in Figure 3-11 attaches to the transfer vehicle and provides habitable support to the crew for 4 days on the translunar segment and up to 7 days for return to Space Station Freedom. With the

crew module attached to the transfer vehicle, the crew can override the automated rendezvous and docking system.

The design concept is based on structures and subsystems from Freedom and

previous spacecrai_. The environmental control and life support system is a

Freedom-derived two gas, open loop system. Power comes from the transfer

vehicle, and the module has a galley, a zero-gravity toilet, and personnel hygiene

provisions. Shuttle-type medical supplies are provided, and two ingress/egress

3-18
Transfer

Vehicle

Excursion

Vehicle

Thrust, kilonewtons

Vacuum Isp,seconds

Vacuum Chamber Pressure,Psia

Mixture Ratio

89

481

1,500

6

89

465

1,500

6

ThrottlingRange Tank Head Idle

Pumped Idle

Full

Tank Head Idle

<20:1

Figure 3.10 Lunar Transfer and Excursion Vehicle

Reference Engines

3-19
Mass - 8.4 metric tons

Pressurized volume

37 cubic meters

|

4.60 meters •

4.45

meters

Figure 3-11 Lunar Transfer Crew Module Reference Concept

routes are provided through Shuttle-sizehatches. Transfer into the module and

between modules isby intravehicular activity.Contingency extravehicular

activitiesare achieved by depressurizing the module rather than by using an

airlock. Repressurization gas issupplied fortwo contingency extravehicular

activities. Water-filled solar flare radiation shielding is provided. The water is

vented overboard before Earth atmosphere reentry to reduce the aerobrake

design loads.

The lunar excursion vehicle shown in Figure 3-12 can be based on the lunar

surface, covered by a thermal tent and ready for launch and rendezvous with the

lunar transfer vehicle, or it can be stored in low lunar orbit awaiting the return

of the lunar transfer vehicle. The lunar excursion vehicle is sized to deliver

approximately 33 metric tons to the lunar surface in an expendable cargo-only

mode or approximately 13 to 15 metric tons of cargo plus a crew module in a

piloted mode. The lunar excursion vehicle elements include a propulsion system, landing legs, crew cab, and other subsystems.

The lunar excursion vehicle and the lunar transfer vehicle share common system designs for some elements, including the main engines, cryogenic reaction

control system thrusters, avionics and selected software, and communications.

Four advanced fuel cells are provided for electrical power. For low lunar orbit

3-2O
Cargo (2 Places)

(Only 1 Shown

for

Lunar Excursion

Vehicle Crew

Module

Figure 3-12 Lunar Excursion Vehicle

storage ofthe lunar excursion vehicle,solararrays are also required. Lunar

excursion vehicle legs and landing pads are provided with height controlfor

landing on unimproved areas.

Automated rendezvous and docking in low lunar orbit are provided forreusable

cargo missions, whereas pilotedmissions provide crew monitoring and control

for rendezvous and docking operations. The propellant system is designed for

30 days on the lunar surface,and itwill require surface support for longer

stays. The capabilityto utilizelunar-generated oxygen isprovided. Hydrogen

would stillbe provided by fluidtransfer from the lunar transfer vehicleto the

lunar excursion vehiclein low lunar orbit.

3-21
The lunar excursioncrew module, which sharesa commonsystem designwith

the transfer crew module, has no radiation shielding and accommodates both

lunar-gravity and zero-gravity operations. It transports four crew members

between the crew transfer module in lunar orbit and the lunar outpost. During

landing operations, the lunar excursion crew module provides two crew members with console positions and windows from which to visually monitor all

critical landing activities, including forward landing pad touchdown. Systems

are quiescent with the exception of 4 days during descent/ascent missions:

2 days during crew descent and initial surface operations and 2 days for preparation and return to low lunar orbit. During quiescent periods on the Moon,

power, thermal control, and propellant conditioning are provided by surface

support systems.

Transfer between modules and surface systems is initially by extravehicular

activity, and later by pressurized transfer using surface-based systems. The

lunar excursion crew module has no airlock; therefore, extravehicular activity is

supported by depressurizing the module. Repressurization gas is provided for

two contingency extravehicular activities. A docking adapter is provided for low

lunar orbit docking and crew transfer for incoming and outgoing crews.

Mars Outpost

The next step in the strategy is the development of a permanent Mars outpost,

which begins with the launch of the crew, surface payload, transportation vehicles, and propellant from Earth to Space Station Freedom. The transfer and

excursion vehicles are assembled, checked out, and fueled at or in the vicinity of

Freedom.

Upon approach to Mars, the transfer and excursion vehicles separate and perform aerobraking maneuvers to enter the martian atmosphere separately. The

vehicles rendezvous in Mars orbit, and the crew of four transfers to the excursion vehicle, which descends to the surface using the same aerobrake. When

their tour of duty is complete, the crew leaves the surface in the ascent module

of the Mars excursion vehicle to rendezvous with the transfer vehicle in Mars

orbit. The transfer vehicle leaves Mars orbit and returns the crew to Space

Station Freedom.

For cargo flights,an integrated configuration oftwo excursion vehiclesis

launched. Upon approach to Mars, the two vehiclesseparate and enter Mars

orbitusing aerobrakes. The firstcargo flightin the Mars outpost mission sequence deliversthe habitat facilityto the outpost site,and both excursion vehiclesare lefton the martian surface.

3-22
A typical mission profile is shownin Figure 3-13for flights to Mars. Piloted

flights to Mars employ two different trajectory classes, distinguished by roundtrip mission time: 500-day round-trip missions with short stays (up to

100 days) on the surface; and 1000-day round-trip missions with much longer

surface stays of approximately 600 days. The 500-day missions will be used for

the first flights to Mars, whereas the 1000-day missions will be used later in the

sequence for outpost buildup when longer stays are necessary. All trsjectories

for the Mars outpost have an option available to allow the crew to bypass Mars if

necessary. For the piloted flights, a zero-gravity Mars transfer vehicle will serve

as the crew's living quarters during interplanetary transit. The feasibility of

using zero gravity for such long trip times, and the required countermeasures,

will have been previously determined on Freedom and the Moon. If long-term

zero gravity is not feasible, an artificial gravity vehicle will be developed instead.

.......o:)__:::.:..:.::.:3: ............. ....._........... ®..............................

.,,/ ,

• •..................................... .::j' .............. _....-:._._.: .......... -oo,,<,.

....... ...................... "::":"" _"_ .... :...... s:-............. _ "-_,':.:!_'_,_:= _ transfer vehicle

Q Payload delivered to Space Station Freedom Q Excursion vehicle to/from Mars surface

Q Mars transfer vehicle mated with payload at Freedom @ Trans-Earth phase with transfer vehicle

Trans-Mars phase with Mars transfer vehicle Q Transfer vehicle aerobrake maneuver and return

Q Mars transfer vehicle remains in Mare orbit;

Mars excursion vehicle descends to surface

Figure 3.13 Mars Mission Profile

3-23
All scenariosunder considerationbeginwith an initial four-crew expedition.

The surfacestay-time for this first flight is limited to approximately 30 days,

and the total mission duration is approximately 500 days. During theseshort

stays on the surface, the crew will live in a fully integrated habitation module,

similar to that used on the Moon. However, in order to accommodate crew stay

times up to 600 days, a constructible habitat facility is erected after delivery on

a one-way cargo mission. The crew's early activities include local geologic exploration and characterization of the Mars outpost area and the search for resources, water environments, and past and present life. One concept of the

Mars outpost in the consolidation phase is shown in Figure 3-14.

Emplacement of the Mars outpost begins with an initial flight by an expeditionary crew to reconnoiter the selected outpost site. In addition to conducting a

final site assessment, the crew conducts local science and exploration investigations, resource evaluations, and resource extraction demonstrations. The crew

is provided an unpressurized rover for their local science and exploration trav-

........ = "_- i Photovoltaic

/ Power System

"_ophysic"-_al/

-_ Meteorological--

Station

Excursion deployed solar Vehicle panelswith

Habitat Facility

Launch/L_ding Facility

Figure 3-14 Mars Outpost Architecture

824
erses. During their 30-day surface stay, the crew resides in a separate habitat

module delivered as part of the surface payload. The second flight, an unmanned cargo flight, delivers the permanent habitation facility, which includes

a habitation module, airlock, power system and associated support equipment.

The module is telerobotically deployed at the site prepared by the previous

expeditionary crew. These first two missions are followed by a piloted flight that

performs the first long-duration stay on the martian surface. This crew checks

out the habitation module and associated support systems and uses rovers to

conduct geologic traverses and to emplace scientific instruments.

The initial Mars outpost consists of self-contained systems that allow for relatively simple emplacement operations. Later, to expand the capabilities at the

outpost, a constructible habitat is erected to provide additional habitable volume

for a larger crew to stay longer, and it provides additional space for increased

biomedical and life sciences research. In later years, the outpost can support

scientific exploration activities distant from the outpost using a manned pressurized rover for regional access.

The large masses required to undertake Mars missions necessitate the development of a larger class of heavy lift launch vehicle, with a capability approxiAdvanced Launch

System Option

Shuttle-Derived

Option

Figure 3-15 Mars Heavy.Lift

Launch Vehicle Options

mately double that required for lunar

missions. The Mars heavy liftvehicle

will also require larger payload compartments to accommodate the volume

ofthe Mars exploration systems.

Conceptual designs of potential Mars

heavy-liR vehicles are shown in Figure 3-15.

Further modifications and enhancements to the lunar node configuration

ofFreedom willbe required to perform

Mars vehicle operations in addition to

the continued processing of the lunar

transfervehicle. With the lunar

configurationas a baseline,additional

structure is added to accommodate the

processing facilitiesforthe Mars

mission vehicles. The vehicle assembly and maintenance crews and transientmission crews willbe housed

within the second habitation module

added to Freedom in the lunar opera3-25
tions phase. Increased vehicle processing activities will require additional

power; however, this increase is within the power generation capability of the

Space Station Freedom lunar node configuration.

The Mars transportation system consists of the Mars transfer vehicle and Mars

excursion vehicle shown in Figure 3-16. The Mars transportation system must

Trans-Mars

Injection Stage

Thrust Arms

\

d

Mars Excursion Vehicle

Mars Transfer Vehicle

58 meters

/

P

Figure 3-16 Mars Transportation System

3-26
support a piloted missionmodeto deliver a crew of four and 25 metric tons of

payload to the surface of Mars and return the crew and I metric ton to Earth,

and it must support a cargo mode that delivers 100 metric tons of cargo to Mars

using two Mars excursion vehicles. Other key mission design requirements

include the zero-gravity Mars transfer vehicle, direct entry capability for Earth

return, extravehicular activity capability, accommodation of in-transit science

activities, and expendable excursion vehicles.

Major mission maneuvers include trans-Mars injection, Mars capture, Mars

descent and landing, ascent and rendezvous, trans-Earth injection, and Earth

capture. Mars and Earth capture are accomplished by aerobraking, with the

nominal entry velocity constrained to 8.5 kilometers per second at Mars and

12.5 kilometers per second at Earth, although this may be exceeded at Earth

during abort trajectories. Aeromaneuvering of the lander provides cross-range

landing capability to reach an out-of-plane landing site.

The Mars transfer vehicle consists of a core vehicle and an expendable transMars injection stage. The vehicle is placed on a Mars transfer trajectory by the

injection stage, which consists of a core propulsion module with five engines and

up to three additional strap-on tanks. The strap-on tanks are the same configuration as the core module tanks. When the injection stage has completed its job,

it is jettisoned.

The Mars transfer vehicle carries a crew and the excursion vehicle to Mars and

returns a crew to Earth. The transfer vehicle provides long-duration crew

accommodations for the transfers from Earth to Mars and back, and it also

includes an Earth crew capture vehicle, an Apollo-like capsule designed to

return the crew directly to Earth's surface after the early expeditionary Mars

missions.

The Mars transfer vehicle has a large aerobrake, which is used for aerocapture

at both Earth and Mars during the later flights. The aerobrake provides lift for

trajectory control as well as drag to slow the vehicle for capture into orbit.

When the aerobrake is also used for Earth return, its heat shield uses an advanced, lightweight material capable of surviving the high-velocity entry into

Earth's atmosphere. For trans-Earth injection from Mars orbit, the vehicle

includes a propulsion system that uses four engines previously developed for

the lunar transfer vehicle. The cryogenic propellant system is designed to

minimize boiloff before the trans-Earth injection.

The crew module (Figure 3-17) is a single, pressurized structure 7.6 meters in

diameter and 9 meters in length with an internal bulkhead to provide redundant pressure volumes, and a life support system that recycles water and oxygen. The crew is provided private quarters, exercise equipment, and space suits

that are appropriate for the long (up to 3 years) mission duration.

3-27
Exercise Equipment Storage -_ t

_A_ "_ _ _ /--Storage

Hygiene_ /{" _J" _" _

FoodG_l_:_j - __-== Wardroom Table

Element Control Station/

r Data Management

Shuttle Airlock

Tension Tie

Floor _._

Storage and

Environmental

Control and Life

Support Systems

=__ Storm Shelter

!.I I Middeck Control and Life

Support Systems

i w

Figure 3-17 Mars Transfer Vehicle Crew Module

3-28
The Mars excursion vehicle shown in Figure 3-18 is designed to transport

25 metric tons of payload and the ascent stage from the transfer vehicle to the

surface of Mars. For manned missions, the crew pilots the Mars excursion

vehicle.

The Mars excursion vehicle crew module, which has a design based on the lunar

excursion vehicle crew module, supports the crew during descent and ascent and

allows the crew to control Mars excursion vehicle maneuvers. It provides spartan crew accommodations for up to 30 days to cover contingencies in activating a

surface habitat. The Mars excursion vehicle design presumes that the crew

members, once on the surface, live in and operate out of a surface habitat (delivered as cargo). Consumables provided in the crew module are only sufficient for

landing, 2 days on the surface, and ascent. Use of the crew module as a contingency surface habitat presumes that power and consumables can be obtained

from the surface payload.

The Mars excursion vehicle aerobrake, which is identical in shape and size to

the Mars transfer vehicle aerobrake, provides enough lift to maneuver from

Mars parking orbit to a preselected landing site. The heat shield for Mars

capture and landing is an advanced thermal protection material. Landing legs

are deployed after the aerobrake is dropped. The five Mars excursion vehicle

descent engines, like the lunar excursion vehicle engines, provide single engineout capability and can be throttled to 15 percent of rated thrust to enable a soft

Deployable

Stairs to

Descent

Descent Lie

Ascent Liq Tunnel

Flight Deck

Crew Module

]

14.3

meters

Liquid Hydrogen

Rovers

(5)' Descent Engines (3) Ascent

I. Mars Surface 22.5 metersEngines

Payload

Life

Figure 3-18 Mars Excursion Vehicle

3-29
landing of the excursionvehicle. The Mars excursionvehicle ascentstageuses

three of the sameenginesto providesingle engine-outcapability and has vacuum-jacketedpropellant tanks to minimize boiloff losses while the ascent stage

is on the Mars surface.

Planetary Surface Systems

Concepts have been identified and defined for lunar and Mars surface habitats,

power systems, vehicles, and in situ resource utilization systems that will satisfy

the requirements of a focused set of mission objectives. First and foremost,

these systems fulfill the overall objective of expanding human presence in the

solar system while providing for crew health and safety throughout each mission. The systems that support crew operations on the surfaces of the Moon and

Mars include modular and constructible habitats, extravehicular mobility units,

airlocks, shirt-sleeve laboratories, rovers, construction equipment, and logistics

modules.

The habitat, extravehicular mobility units, and airlock are designed to use the

lunar missions as a proving ground for subsystem technologies, system lifetime

and reliability, and increasingly autonomous outpost operations. The human

systems elements to be used on the Moon and Mars are expected to be essentially the same.

The initial habitat module for both outposts is a horizontal Space Station Freedom-derived cylinder 4.45 meters in diameter and 8.2 meters long. Freedom

technology is used for the outer structure of the pressurized modules, and the

interior structure uses a modular rack system.

A laboratory module is subsequently attached to the habitat to provide expanded habitable volume. This module is identical to the habitat in size, structure, life support system, and thermal control system. Figure 3-19 shows the

connected "I-Iab/Lab _ configuration with partially deployed regolith containers.

When filled with lunar soft, the containers will protect the habitat from the

lunar radiation environment.

The Freedom-derived initial habitat and laboratory modules use a regenerative

life support system that recovers more than 90 percent of the oxygen from

carbon dioxide and reclaims potable water from hygiene and waste water. In

addition to oxygen and water recovery, this system provides temperature and

humidity control, atmosphere and pressure control, stowage for refrigerated and

frozen food, trash compaction, and shower, dishwashing, and laundry facilities.

The laboratory uses the same life support systems as the habitat.

3-30
To accommodate larger crews and longer stays,and to provide larger pressurized volume for outpost and science operations,an expanded habitat isrequired.

This habitat, shown in Figure 3-20, isa constructible1-meter diameter inflatable structure partiallyburied in a crater or a prepared hole. This structure is

an order of magnitude lighterthan multi-module configurations of equivalent

volume. Itsinternal structure includes self-deployingcolumns that telescope

upward and lock into place when the structure isinflated. When fullyassembled and outfitted,the constructiblehabitat provides three levels,and has

the volume required for expansion ofhabitat and science facilities.

Major subsystems ofthe constructiblehabitat include the lifesupport and

thermal control systems, pressure vesselsand internal structure,communications and information management systems, and interioroutfitting.Equipment

foroutfittingthe habitat willbe delivered in logisticsmodules, pressurized

containers capable ofdocking to a cargo port on the habitat. The constructible

habitat has egress hatch ports for connection to the Hab/Lab, the airlock,and

the logisticmodules.

\

Radiators

Regolith

Bags

Figure 3-19 Initial Habitat and Laboratory Modules Conceptual Design

3-31
v-d

ill crewsu, Mission Operations

r- Line of Radiation Shielding

.. .... l r" Inflatable Fabric

_'_ " InternalStructure

Airlock .

Environmental Control and

Life Support System

[. 8"38meters I

(27'- 6")

3 meters 0 2' 6'

meters

Figure 3-20 Constructible Habitat Concept Design

A thermal coating covers the habitats to reduce thermal loads before the facilities are covered with lunar soil for radiation shielding. An active thermal control system, consisting of a heat pump with lightweight deployable radiators,

will remove metabolic, latent, and equipment waste heat.

Extravehicular mobility units for lunar and Mars exploration will be designed

for long-term use and maintainability. Units consist of a suit and its portable

life support system. The suit is a hybrid structure ofboth hard and fabric components, designed for mobility on uneven, rugged, partial gravity terrain, and it

ismodular to facilitateresizing and maintenance ofindividual parts,and a

back-entry design willexpedite donning and doffingin a partialgravity environment. To minimize mobility unit mass and size,the portable lifesupport system

willuse a 4-hour regenerable system that can be quickly recharged or replaced

to accommodate work periods longer than 4 hours.

A reliable,long lifepower system isrequired to support virtuallyallsurface

system activities.The system employs a modular design to meet power demands that evolve from tens ofkilowatts in early emplacement phases to hundreds ofkilowatts in lateroperation phases. For initialoutpost emplacement,

the system consistsof three photovoltaic array/regenerative fuel cellassemblies,

each ofwhich provides 25 kilowatts during the day and 12.5 kilowatts at night

(see Figure 3-21). The power system isdesigned for teleroboticdeployment and

islocated near the habitat.

3-32
Figure 3-21 Photovoltaic Array /Regenerative Fuel Cell

(Stationary) Power System

As outpost development proceeds, power demands rapidly increase. In addition,

the 354-hour lunar night makes reliance on photovoltaic systems, which convert

light to electricity, impractical for long-term lunar operations because of fuel cell

limitations. Nuclear power systems will both meet these increasing demands

and allow progress toward increasing operational capability. The SP-100 reactor with dynamic or thermoelectric conversion systems will supply 100 kilowatts

of electrical power (see Figure 3-22). As outpost power demands grow still

higher, a reactor coupled to a larger dynamic conversion system is emplaced to

supply 550 kilowatts for the lunar outpost. This power plant is more extensive

than the 100-kilowatt power module, and it will require more assembly and

construction. For both systems, the reactors are buried in order to use soil as

shielding material.

Expeditions to Mars require 25 kilowatts during both day and night. Photovoltaic array/regenerative fuel cell systems are baselined to supply power to

the Hab/Lab modules. The permanent Mars outpost requires 75 kilowatts,

which is supplied by three units. The 12-hour martian night does not impact the

mass of the regenerative fuel cells as much as the 354-hour lunar night. Therefore, the need for nuclear power on Mars is not as great until large power increases are required.

3-33

ORiGiNaL PAGE IS

OF POOR OU/_LITY
_d

Reactor _ - -- Thermal

• .,- " "\. ". _.

_e_._:. . ___>

"_" Control Unit " '

Figure 3-22 Nuclear Dynamic Power System (100 kilowatts)

Oflloading cargo, surveying, and setting up the lunar outpost heavily utilize

surface rovers remotely controlled from Earth. These rovers require nominal

power levels up to 5 kilowatts. Rovers with onboard continuous power systems,

such as radioisotope thermoelectric generators or dynamic isotope power

systems, could be fully utilized, since they will not need any recharge. Local

transport and construction and mining vehicles would use rechargeable energy

storage because of their lower energy needs and limited range. Batteries and regenerative fuel cells are options for this application.

The requirement for lunar and martian surface transportation of crew and

payloads for outpost operations and for exploration and science missions will be

satisfied by an unpressurized rover similar to the Apollo lunar rover, but enhanced in range and payload capability and able to be operated telerobotically.

An unpressurized manned/robotic rover (Figure 3-23) is used to transport both

crew and cargo about the outpost, and to perform human exploration and science missions up to 50 kilometers from the outpost. This rover also transports

crew members on inspection and maintenance excursions around the habitation

and launch and landing areas, the in situ resource utilization production facility,

3-34
.y Power Sup_

and Thermal

Radiator

f

Figure 3-23 Unpressurized MannedRobotic Rover Design Concept

and the power production facility.The rover willcarry either a crew of two and

up to 300 kilograms of payload or a crew offour (ifrescue from a stranded rover

isrequired). The rover has an onboard extended lifesupport capabilityfor up to

18 hours for each of the two crew members.

For exploration to distances greater than 50 kilometers, the rover will be reconfigured either to be controlledby a telerobotthat autonomously navigates the

rover and performs science missions, or to be teleoperator-controlledfrom the

outpost. The reconfigured rover willbe able to travel to distances of up to

1,000 kilometers from the outpost for 1-to 2-year missions. The emphasis in the

design ofthis rover isto produce a multi-purpose vehiclethat can be used both

forcrew travel around the outpost and forroboticexploration and sciencefar

from the outpost.

Cargo willbe unloaded from the lunar excursion vehiclesby a moveable gantry

crane called a payload unloader (illustrated in Figure 3-24). The payload unloader has three telescoping legs to vary overall height or to level the overhead

load platform. Each leg is equipped with large diameter powered wheels. Six

degrees of freedom of the overhead platform enable alignment of one component,

such as an airlock, with a stationary one such as a habitat module. A set of

3-35
Unloader

Figure 3-24 Transportation Vehicle Payload Unloader Design Concept

(Shown Unloading Elements from a Lunar Excursion Vehicle)

interchangeable "implements _ enables the payload unloader to perform construction tasks such as excavating, relocating and smoothing regolith, and

grasping and lifting objects such as boulders or structural components. The

implement set also includes mining and hauling equipment for lunar soil. The

payload unloader is principally teleoperated,with on-site supervision by robots

or a crew member.

Surface vehicles utilizeas many common technologies as possible. For example,

wheels are sized appropriately forloads and tractionbut are based on the same

materials and fabricationtechnologies. Teleoperating systems will be variations

of the same basic technology, adapted only for specificoperations that are

unique to a function. Power generation and storage systems will generally use

common technology, also scaled to provide the required power leveland duty

cycle. Thermal controltechniques willbe common among allthe mobile surface

elements. Daytime operation ofthese elements islikelyto require the use of a

heat pump for efficientheat rejection.

3-36
Using resources that exist on the Moon and Mars is highly desirable if permanent human presence is to be achieved and maintained. By minimizing the

propellant resupply needs for lunar operations, the amount of mass to low-Earth

orbit, as well as the operations cost of the outpost, can be reduced dramatically.

Liquid oxygen production will allow lunar excursion vehicles to be refueled on

the Moon for return to lunar orbit. By eliminating the need to transport liquid

oxygen from Earth to fuel the excursion vehicles, more intrinsically valuable

cargo can be taken to the lunar surface. Figure 3-25 displays a concept for a

lunar liquid oxygen production plant. As the lunar outpost evolves, even greater

self-sufficiency can be developed by using the co-products of oxygen production

to provide metals, structural ceramics, and even some volatile compounds.

Early demonstration of oxygen production and extraction of gases will be performed on the Moon.

The Mars outpost will also provide opportunities for resource utilization. The

martian atmosphere, consisting largely of carbon dioxide, can be used to provide

oxygen for life support and propellant. Water on Mars may be available from

the permafrost, hydrated minerals, or moisture in the atmosphere. Small dem-

!

,. Lunar

Figure 3.25 Lunar Liquid Oxygen Production Plant Design

3_7
onstrations of both water and oxygenextraction technologiesare to becompleted

by the end of the Mars emplacementphase.

Launch and landing support required on the lunar and martian surfacesprimarily involves preparation and maintenance of launch and landing sites and servicing and communication facilities to accommodate vehicles during landing, postlanding, quiescent, and pre-launch periods.

Site preparation and maintenance include selecting and leveling a 100-meter

diameter launch and landing area and providing for blast protection of any

equipment or element already emplaced on the surface. Tracking, navigation,

and communications systems are also emplaced near the site.

After landing, the vehicles require servicing to supply power, provide thermal

control and protection, actively limit cryogenic fuel boil-off, and monitor subsystems. To accommodate these requirements, a lunar excursion vehicle servicer

(as shown in Figure 3-261 located next to each reusable excursion vehicle provides power, thermal corn col and heat rejection, and fuel reliquefaction capabilities. A thermal tent composed of a deployable support frame and an insulation

blanket is used to cover the lander and provide passive thermal shielding.

Thermal

Radiator--*

Figure 3-26

Lunar Excursion

Vehicle/Mars Excursion Deployable

Excursion Vehicle Vehicle

Servicer Thermal

Tent

Lunar Excursion Vehicle/Mars Excursion Vehicle Servicer

and Thermal Tent

3_8
_7 j "+

.-. --

. - . ,.. ....

"!

: ,j.-

&_ _
SECTION 4

Reference Approaches

he mission described in the previous section was developed to provide a

framework within which various approaches to and elements of the Human

Exploration Initiative could be examined. Once the mission itself had been

defined, the next step in the study process was to examine a number of reference

models to determine which parameters most significantly affect feasibility and

cost. For instance, the program could be driven by schedule, as Apollo was, or

phased so that a major technology and system development program precedes

the actual development of the mission elements. Various elements could be

more heavily emphasized; for example, the lunar outpost could focus more on

achieving self-sufficiency than on serving as a proving ground for human exploration of Mars. The program could be budget-constrained, or the decision on

final dates and associated funding could be varied to meet other policy objectives.

In order to provide the data necessary to make these types of assessments,

several reference approaches were selected to determine which parameters drive

such things as cost, schedule, complexity, and program risk. In all, five reference approaches were analyzed; these approaches can be used by the Agency

and the National Space Council in determining the appropriate scope, scale,

schedule, and strategy to be used in implementing the President's program.

This information serves as a data base that can be used for the next phase of

analysis.

Table 4-1 summarizes the key characteristics and milestones of these five

reference approaches. The data provided in this report are intended to capture a

broad range of possibilities based on our technical understanding today. Consequently, the reference approaches can be used to develop a variety of implementation approaches by changing key milestones or mission objectives.

Reference Approach A

The strategy around which this approach isformulated isto establish human

presence on the Moon in 2001, using the lunar outpost as a learning center to

develop the capabilitiesto move on to Mars. Robust science programs are conducted at both outposts. Key features include an aggressive schedule leading to

permanent human occupancy of the Moon in 2002, with lunar development

levelingoffin 2012 to provide the funding flexibilityto begin Mars exploration.

An initialexpedition to Mars allows a 30-day stay on the surface,with the first

600-day visitbeginning in 2018.

4-1
Table 4-1 Key Characteristicsof Referenee Approaches

Lunar Emplacement

Lunar Consolidation

Lunar Operation

Humans on the Moon

Permanent Habitation

Constructible Habitat

Eight Crew

Lunar Oxygen Use

Lunar Farside Sortie

Lunar Steady State Mode

Mars Emplacement

Mars Consolidation

Mars Operation

Humans on Mars

Extended Mars Stay

Reference

Apprm_h

A

1999-2004

2004-2OO9

2010-.

2001

2002

2OO5

2OO6

2010

2012

2012

2015.2019

2020-2022

2022-*

2016

2018

Reference

Approach

B

1999-2004

2004-2007

2005-*

2001

2OO2

20O6

2OO7

20O5

2OO8

2OO8

2010-2015

2015-2018

2018-*

2011

2014

Dates

Referenoe

Approach

C

1999-2004

2004-2008

2005-*

2001

2OO2

20O7

2OO7

2OO5

2OO8

2012

2015-2019

2020-2022

2022-*

2016

2018

Reference

Approach

D

2002-2007

2007-2012

20134

2004

2005

20O8

2009

2013

2018

2015

2017-2022

2022-*

2018

2023

Reference

Approach

E

2002-2007

2008-2018

2014-*

2O04

2011

2022

2024-*

2016

2027

An unmanned test flight of the lunar transfer and excursion vehicles in 1999 is

the first lunar activity supported by Space Station Freedom. This partially

loaded flight delivers an unpressurized manned/robotic rover, which performs

final lunar outpost site inspection; the flight also delivers equipment for initial

telerobotic site preparation. The lunar transfer vehicle returns to Freedom for

engineering evaluation, and is then left in Earth orbit. The first unmanned

cargo flight in 2000 emplaces the initial habitation module, airlock, and power

system for four crew members who arrive in 2001 for a 30-day mission.

Two more flights emplace additional surface habitation, science equipment,

laboratory, and power facilities. A lunar excursion vehicle servicer is provided

to maintain a reusable vehicle on the lunar surface. (All flights to this point

have operated the transfer and excursion vehicles in the expendable mode.) In

early 2002, the second crew begins permanent occupancy of the lunar outpost

with a 6-month stay. Beginning in mid-2002, when the third crew arrives,

reusable lunar excursion vehicle operations are initiated, and the excursion

vehicle is maintained at the outpost. Twelve-month crew tours of duty begin at

this time. The initial nuclear power unit and the lunar oxygen production

demonstration hardware are added in 2003.

Operations and science exploration are limited to a range of up to tens of kilometers from the outpost. Human exploration focuses on local geologic and geophysical exploration, with regional exploration accomplished telerobotically.

The first elements of astronomy telescope arrays are deployed, and a network of

4.2
geophysicaland particle physicsstations is started. Lunar laboratory activities

include human biomedicalresearchand geochemical sample analysis. Later,

the science program is expanded, as telescopes are added to astronomy arrays,

stations are added to the physics networks, and life sciences experiments expand into the larger laboratory facilities. Human and robotic geologic exploration continues.

Outpost capabilities increase as the constructible habitation module is erected,

outfitted, and occupied in 2005. Two lunar excursion vehicles, one cargo and one

piloted, are simultaneously maintained on the lunar surface.

In 2006, the number of crew members expands to eight, consisting of two groups

of four who serve rotating 12-month tours of duty. At this point, the outpost is

capable of conducting a long-duration partial-gravity test in support of Mars

mission planning. In 2008, the surface nuclear power capability is augmented

substantially to 550 kilowatts. Operations expand to a range of hundreds of

kilometers from the outpost. Life sciences research is undertaken to determine

the gravity level and rotation rate for Mars transfer vehicles if other than zero

gravity is needed. A complete 1,000-day Mars mission is simulated using the

outpost and Freedom to develop countermeasures.

In 2010, the lunar oxygen plant is emplaced and operated to produce 60 metric

tons of oxygen per year, which saves transporting this oxygen from Earth. The

lunar outpost continues to operate with a crew of eight until 2012, when the

outpost enters a sustained steady-state period with one lunar flight per year and

four crew members serving 12-month tours. Nearside astronomy arrays and

geophysical and physics networks are completed. Teleoperated and human local

and regional exploration continues on the nearside, and sites of scientific interest are revisited. A two-man sortie is made from low lunar orbit to the lunar

farside to conduct geologic exploration and emplace a human-tended radio

astronomy and geophysical network. At this point, the focus shifts to Mars.

The human exploration of Mars begins with an initial expeditionary piloted

flight, a dedicated cargo flight, and a second piloted flight to begin extendedduration operations. The Mars transfer and excursion vehicles are assembled at

Freedom. Full propellant tanks are launched separately and assembled to the

vehicles at Freedom. The first piloted Mars expedition departs Space Station

Freedom in 2015. Four crew members arrive at Mars in 2016, aerobrake into

Mars orbit, and descend to the surface for a 30-day stay. Part of the payload

delivered to the surface is a habitat module with an airlock and utility systems

to support the crew during their stay. The crew members conduct local science

and exploration within a 10-kilometer range of the outpost using unpressurized

rovers. Teleoperated rovers explore and sample to distances of 50 kilometers,

and provide regional geologic information and resource locations. Exploration

focuses on studying past and present geologic and climatic environments,

4-3
including the search forpast and present lifeand water environments. The

human explorers are studied to understand the effectsof livingand working on

Mars. The Mars transfer vehicleisexpendable for the firstmission, and the

transfervehicle aerobrake isjettisonedin Mars orbit. The excursion vehicleis

leftat Mars. The crew returns to the vicinityof Earth in the transfervehicle

(without aerobrake) transferringto a separately carried Earth crew capture

vehiclejust prior to arrivalat Earth orbitin 2016. The Earth crew capture

vehiclemakes a directentry to Earth's surface.

The permanent habitation facilityand itsassociated airlockand utilitysubsystems and the necessary emplacement and construction equipment to deploy it

are delivered to Mars on the second flight,a cargo flightthat departs Earth in

2017 and arrives at Mars in 2018. Other payload delivered includes an additionalrover and a vehiclelaunch and landing facilitycapable ofsupporting the

excursion vehiclefor up to 600 days.

The second pilotedflightleaves Earth and arrives at Mars in 2018. The four

crew members livein the initialhabitat module while they construct and activate the permanent habitation facilitydelivered on the previous cargo flight.

When the permanent habitat has been activated and occupied, the crew can

remain on the surface for 600 days. An early task isthe demonstration ofa

Mars water extraction process.

The crew members develop and demonstrate the capabilityforextended Mars

stays,operate the surface resource water extraction demonstration unit,and

perform regional science and exploration activitieswithin tens of kilometers of

the outpost. Observational networks expand to monitor geophysical properties,

climatic and atmospheric variations,and dust storms. Laboratory sciences

activitiesinclude plant and animal research, and geochemistry and human

biomedical and performance studiesare enhanced. The crew from the second

manned flightleaves Mars and arrivesat Earth in 2020. The next manned

flightdeparts Earth and arrives at Mars in 2020. During their600-day stay,the

four crew members continue the water extraction demonstration, the oxygen

production experiments and more detailed geologicand geophysical exploration

and evaluation of resources.

In 2022, a one-way cargo flightdeparts Earth, arriving at Mars in 2023. This

flighttransports additional consumables, spares, and science equipment to

support the next pilotedflight,which departs Earth in 2024 and arrivesat Mars

in 2025. Steady-state operations then commence.

To support this schedule, the Space Station Freedom "assembly complete" date

must be accelerated to 1997, which will require a heavy-liftlaunch vehicle.

Shuttle-C is the only concept being considered in this time frame. By 1999,

Freedom's capabilitywill have been augmented to support the firsttestflightof

the lunar vehicles,which willinvolve space transportation vehicleassembly,

4-4
integration, checkout, launch, post-flight recovery, and inspection. Freedom

must support two expendable lunar missions per year through 2002, at which

time it must be capable of supporting reusable vehicle operations at the same

rate. Beginning in 2004, Freedom must support up to three lunar missions per

year.

To support Space Station Freedom augmentation and initial growth and the

launch of the lunar transportation vehicles, propellant, and cargo, a heavy-lii_

launch vehicle with two different size payload shrouds will be used. Employing

the smaller shroud, the vehicle can deliver approximately 70 metric tons of

payload to low Earth orbit. With the larger shroud, the vehicle can deliver

approximately 60 metric tens to low Earth orbit. The smaller shroud configuration will be required in 1996, and between 1997 and 1999 it will be used to

launch Freedom augmentation hardware to support readiness for the lunar

transfer and excursion vehicle test flight in 1999. The larger shroud vehicle

must be ready in 1999 to launch the lunar vehicles for the initial test flight, and

for subsequent flights. The smaller vehicle will be used to transport to Space

Station Freedom the filled cryogenic propellant tanks for the transfer vehicle for

all lunar flights.

Beginning in 2011, the smaller heavy-lift vehicle configuration will be used to

augment the Space Station Freedom lunar mission configuration to support a

test flight of the Mars aerobrake in 2013, and again to support the initiation of

human Mars missions in 2015. Freedom support for the Mars flights includes

significant vehicle assembly, integration, checkout, launch, and recovery upon

Earth return. The Mars transportation vehicle elements will be launched to

Freedom beginning in 2014 for the Mars vehicle piloted flight in 2015, using a

larger heavy-lift launch vehicle with a 12.5 meter diameter by 30 meter long

payload shroud, which is capable of lifting 140 metric tons to Freedom. This

vehicle will launch all subsequent Mars transportation vehicles.

The telecommunications network must support lunar data return in 2001 and

the Mars data link to Earth. The telecommunications satellite in lunar halo

orbit will be deployed in 2009 to support farside lunar communications. In

addition, two Mars telecommunications satellites will be established in Mars

orbit in 2014 to provide a high-percentage-time communications access between

Earth and the Mars outpost.

Reference Approach B

This approach is a variation of reference approach A, which advances the date of

the first human Mars landing to 2011. In order to preserve funding flexibility to

initiate activities at Mars, it is also necessary to accelerate development of the

capability for lunar oxygen production, leading to the need for very early

4-5
emplacement of a nuclear power system on the Moon. This approach limitsthe

degree to which lunar outpost operational experience can influence the design of

the Mars transportation and surface systems. As a result,the development of

lunar and Mars outpost hardware becomes a more parallelthan sequential set

of activities.Accelerating these key events also imposes early technology requirements.

The need to conduct the Mars outpost development activitiesin parallelwith

heavy lunar activityalso resultsin a higher resource requirement in the first

decade of the next century. In order to support the parallelset of lunar and

Mars activitieswith minimum resources,other lunar infrastructure,such as the

constructiblehabitat,is somewhat delayed, and lunar operations leveloffmuch

earlierto a steady-statemode involving four crew members and one lunar flight

per year. This also resultsin delayed lunar scienceactivity,although Mars

science activitiescommence 5 years earlier.

Reference Approach C

This approach isalso a variation of reference approach A. The key emphasis is

that this approach advances to 2005 the date by which lunar oxygen production

isavailable to reduce lunar outpost logisticsrequirements, creating an earlier

opportunity forMars outpost development. As with reference approach B, early

lunar oxygen production requires very early emplacement on the Moon of surface nuclear dynamic power system capability.Although this approach accelerates lunar activity,the milestones for Mars outpost development do not change.

Therefore, this approach focuses on early in situ resource development on the

Moon.

The early emplacement ofthe lunar oxygen plant delays the emplacement of

other infrastructure,such as the constructiblehabitat,and also postpones the

date for the transitionto a crew ofeight. The transitionof the lunar outpost to a

steady-statemode offour crew members and one lunar flightper year can be

slightlyaccelerated,but a significantperiod ispreserved in which the eight crew

members are available forperforming lunar science activities.

The relationshipbetween lunar and Mars outpost hardware development remains a serialone, in which designs of Mars outpost transportation vehicles and

surface elements are significantlyinfluenced by lunar outpost operational experience.

The accelerated schedule for nuclear power and lunar oxygen production on the

Moon also requires early technology development in these areas and may exclude the incorporation ofbeneficialtechnologies that would be available under

less aggressive program schedules. The increased early costs imposed by this

accelerated schedule are offsetin lateryears by earlierreduction in lunar out4-6
post operating costs and by the earlierlevelingof lunar outpost activitiesto a

steady-state mode.

Reference Approach D

The scaleand content of this approach are identicalto those ofreference approach A. The sequencing and phasing relationshipsbetween key program

milestones remain approximately the same, but the milestones are alldelayed

by 2 to 3 years, with a return to the Moon in 2004. This approach does not

acceleratethe "assembly complete" date ofSpace Station Freedom, and generally allows more time to complete and incorporate beneficialtechnology developments.

Reference Approach E

This approach reduces the scale oflunar outpost activityby using only a humantended mode ofoperation and limitingthe flightrate to the Moon to one mission

per year. Italso increases the number of expeditionary flightsto Mars prior to

establishinga permanent outpost there. Initiallunar operations are consistent

with the currently planned Space Station Freedom "assembly complete r date of

1999. In 2004, the firsthumans return to the Moon. Occupation ofthe lunar

outpost facilitiesison a continuing man-tended operations basis involving one

lunar flightper year, with crew tours of duty ranging from 30 days to 6 months,

and with the outpost unmanned forperiods up to 12 months. (One exception

would be one or more 600-day stays to simulate stays on Mars.) In 2011, lunar

oxygen production isaccomplished, but only in small demonstration quantities.

The firsthumans land on Mars in 2016. Three Mars expeditionary missions of

increasing surface stay time up to 90 days precede the establishment in 2027 of

a permanent Mars outpost with 600-day occupancy.

An unpiloted testflightof the lunar transfer and excursion vehicles in 2002 is

the firstlunar activitysupported by Space Station Freedom. This mission

includes the landing of an unpressurized manned/robotic rover to perform final

outpost siteinspection and the delivery ofequipment forinitialteleroboticsite

preparation. The lunar transfer and excursion vehicles are returned to Freedom

forengineering evaluation,and are then expended. The firstcargo flightin

2003 emplaces the initialhabitation module, airlock,and supporting utility

systems, including either a 100-kilowatt nuclear power system or four 25-kilowatt photovoltaicarray/regenerative fuel cellsystems. These facilitiesare

activated and occupied in 2004 when the firstcrew offour arrivesfora 30-day

mission.

The transportation vehicles are expended in the cargo mode to maximize payload to the lunar surface,but they are reused in the pilotedmode. The lunar

4-7
outpost has significant automation and telerobotic capability to conduct activities during unoccupied periods. Much science activity relies on robotic capabilities during both occupied and unoccupied periods. When the lunar outpost is

not occupied, the lunar transfer vehicle is maintained at Freedom, and the

excursion vehicle is maintained in a quiescent mode in low lunar orbit. Both

vehicles carry photovoltaic power arrays to support extended time in lunar orbit.

The second piloted flight arrives at the lunar outpost in 2005, also for a 30-day

stay. A cargo flight in 2006 provides a laboratory module and an additional

airlock. A third piloted flight in 2007 includes occupancy of the outpost for

90 days and delivery of a lunar excursion vehicle servicer to the outpost. The

servicer is necessary to maintain the excursion vehicle on the lunar surface for

periods exceeding 30 days. At this time, operations using the unpressurized

manned/robotic rovers take place within a range of tens of kilometers.

Science activities focus on teleoperated geologic and geophysical exploration

with limited local traverses by the crew. The first elements of astronomy telescope arrays are emplaced, and a network of geophysical and particle physics

stations is started. Lunar laboratory activities include limited human biomedical research and basic geochemical sample analysis. The lunar science program

later expands, as telescopes are added to the astronomy arrays, and stations are

added to the geophysics and particle physics networks. Laboratory sciences

activities expand to include the study of human performance and the analysis of

lunar rocks and soft.

Piloted 90-day missions in 2008 and 2009 continue to develop operational experience and conduct lunar science activities. An extended range (500 kilometers)

manned pressurized rover for regional geologic and geophysical exploration is

delivered on the 2009 mission.

Outpost capabilities are significantly expanded by the delivery on a cargo flight

in 2010 of a constructible habitat and its associated utility systems and outfitting provisions. A piloted flight arriving in 2011 for a 180-day stay constructs,

outfits, and occupies this larger habitat. The 2011 mission also delivers initial

experimental equipment for demonstrating the laboratory-scale production of

oxygen from lunar soil. This completes the buildup of the lunar outpost infrastructure.

The crew arriving in 2012 occupies the outpost for 6 months. In 2013, a piloted

flight arrives for a 600-day stay to simulate the upcoming extended occupancy of

Mars. This crew of four is resupplied by an unpiloted lunar excursion vehicle in

2014. Surface operations take place within hundreds of kilometers of the outpost.

4-8
To expandlunar scienceactivities, a piloted flight in 2022visits a farside site to

conductgeologicexploration and emplacea radio astronomy and geophysical

observatory. This mission does not visit the outpost.

Human exploration of Mars begins in 2015 when the first piloted mission departs Space Station Freedom. The crew of four arrives in 2016, aerobrakes into

Mars orbit, and descends to the surface for a nominal 30-day stay. A separate

telerobotic rover package descends from the Mars transfer vehicle to the next

planned expeditionary site. Part of the payload delivered to the surface is a

separate habitat module including airlock and utility systems to support the

crew during their stay. The crew will conduct local science and exploration

investigations within a 10 kilometer range using a manned unpressurized rover.

The Mars transfer vehicle aerobrake will be jettisoned in Mars orbit. The Mars

excursion vehicle will be expended at Mars. The crew will return to the vicinity

of Earth in the transfer vehicle (without aerobrake) entering a separately carded Earth crew capture vehicle just prior to arrival at Earth in 2016. The Earth

crew capture vehicle will make a direct entry to Earth's surface.

The second Mars expeditionary flight departs Earth in 2017, arriving at Mars in

2018 for a 60-day stay. The third expeditionary flight departs Earth in 2021,

arriving at Mars in 2022 for a 90-day stay and returning to Earth in 2023.

Each expeditionary flight visits a different site and conducts detailed site assessment, resource evaluation, resource extraction demonstration (water and oxygen), and science activities. The data obtained provide the basis for selecting

the permanent Mars outpost site. Science activities are similar for each site and

include studies of the geology, climate, and resources and a search for past and

present water environments and life. Human performance and biomedicine are

also examined.

A one-way cargo flight departs Earth in 2024, arriving at Mars in 2025 with the

permanent constructible habitat, its associated airlock and utility subsystems,

and the necessary emplacement and construction equipment to deploy it. This

habitat is capable of supporting a crew of four for 600 days. Other payload

delivered includes an additional rover and a vehiclelaunch and landing facility

capable of supporting the Mars excursion vehicle forup to 600 days.

A pilotedflightdeparts Earth in 2026 and arrivesat Mars in 2027, where the

crew constructs,activates,and occupies the permanent habitat. The crew

remains at Mars for600 days. The emplacement phase continues beyond 2027

as additional flightsare made to the outpost. Although this study extends only

to 2025, itisassumed that consolidation and operation ofthe Mars outpost will

follow.

In order to support the buildup of Space Station Freedom and the launch ofthe

lunar transportation vehicles,propellant,and cargo, a heavy-liftlaunch vehicle

4-9
with two different size payload shrouds will be used. Between 2000 and 2002,

the vehicle with the smaller shroud will be used to launch augmentation hardware to Space Station Freedom to provide readiness for the test flight of the

lunar transfer and excursion vehicles in 2002. The vehicle with the larger

shroud must be ready to launch the lunar transfer and excursion vehicles on

that initial test flight in 2002, and for subsequent flights. The smaller shroud

vehicle will be used to launch to Space Station Freedom the filled cryogenic

propellant tanks for the transfer vehicle for all lunar flights. Capability to

process reusable transportation vehicles begins with the first piloted lunar flight

in 2004.

Freedom support for the Mars flights includes significant vehicle assembly,

integration, checkout, launch, and recovery upon Earth return of the Earth crew

capture vehicle. Beginning in 2011, the Space Station Freedom lunar mission

configuration will be augmented using the smaller shroud of a heavy-lift launch

vehicle beginning in 2011 to support a test flight of the Mars aerobrake in 2013,

and subsequently to support the initiation of Mars missions in 2015. Beginning

in 2014, the Mars transportation vehicle elements for the Mars aerobrake test

flight will be launched to Freedom, using a larger heavy-lift vehicle and the

capability of lifting 140 metric tons to Freedom. This vehicle will launch all

subsequent Mars transportation vehicles.

The telecommunications network must support lunar data return beginning in

2002 and must include a Mars data link to Earth. In addition, two Mars telecommunications satellites will be established in Mars orbit in 2014 to provide

communications access between Earth and the Mars outpost.

4-10

SECTION 5

Infrastructure

hree major infrastructure elements willenable and sustain the Human Exploration Initiative,providing vitalsupport to lunar and Mars outposts

throughout their emplacement, consolidation,and operation phases. The first

element of this infrastructure isa fleetofvehicles that willlaunch exploration

mission vehicles,cargo, and crews to the second element, Space Station Freedom, which will serve as an assembly, staging, and training base. The third

infrastructure element will provide the telecommunications, navigation, and

information management servicesbasic to allspace ventures.

Earth-to-Orbit Transportation

The Directive on National Space Policy signed by President Reagan on

January 5, 1988, and the National Space Launch Program Report to Congress

signed by President Bush on April 10, 1989, established the basis forassessing

the Nation's launch vehicle infrastructure. In response to the policiesand timephased strategiesdefined in these documents, reliableaccess to space willbe

provided through a mixed fleetof launch vehiclesthat includes the Space

Shuttle, existing expendable launch vehicles,and planned heavy-liftlaunch

vehicles. This fleetwill enable the Nation to meet existing and projected program needs and to accommodate the expanded requirements of human exploration ofthe Moon and Mars.

Many types of launch act,vitiesare included in currently planned missions:

assembly, logistics,and crew rotationfor Space Station Freedom and space

platforms; servicing of satellitesand Spacelab; and delivery of communications,

science,planetary, and observatory satellites.The current Space Shuttle and a

family of expendable launch vehicles,some ofwhich already exist,and others of

which will be operational soon, can support these activities.This infrastructure

can also provide the capabilityto perform roboticlunar and Mars exploration

missions and to assemble Space Station Freedom and establishitas a transportation node for the Human Exploration Initiative.Augmentation with heavy-lift

launch systems will provide the Earth-to-orbitlaunch capabilitynecessary to

support human missions to the Moon and Mars.

5-1
Launch Requirements for the Human Exploration Initiative

The full set of robotic missions that will precede piloted flights to the Moon and

Mars can be supported by expendable launch vehicles. When the lunar and

Mars outpost missions begin, all vehicles, propellant, cargo, and crew must be

launched from Earth to Space Station Freedom. The mass delivery requirements forthe lunar missions will more than double current launch require

ments. When Mars missions begin, the mass delivery requirements will more

than double again. Launch to orbit of individual payload elements heavier than

30 metric tons, required for lunar and Mars missions, is beyond the capability of

existing launch vehicles. The current fleet must be augmented by a heavy-lift

launch vehicle for lunar missions and a larger heavy-liR launch vehicle for Mars

missions.

Lunar mission elements, packaged to enhance launch efficiency and to minimize

assembly operations at Freedom, will require an Earth-to-orbit lift capability of

approximately 60 metric tons, including adequate payload margin. Delivery to

Freedom of the aerobrake center assembly and the lunar excursion vehicle

necessitates a launch vehicle payload shroud to accommodate a payload envelope 7.6 meters in diameter and 27.4 meters long. The lunar transfer vehicle

main propellant tanks can be launched with a payload envelope 4.6 meters in

diameter and 25 meters long.

................. :::::::.: ::::i:_:_i: ::::::? _:_i:_i!:i:!_:::i:_i_:_.i:i_ii:iiiiiii:iii!i:i.ii!i!_i:!i:_iiiii:ii_ii_:ii_:::i::i i::.i:i:ii:i!i!iii::!i:i_iiSi_ii-i;: :!i.iiiiiiiiiii!i_ii_iiiiiiii_ii_i_i_iiiiii_!_i_!_iii_iiiiiiiiiiiii:ii!!iiiiiiiii_iii_iii!ii!!iii

i/ii :ill/!?ii i!iii'i'iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii: iiiiiiiiiil iilliii

:._i::i:::. :._i:::robotic missions; Spacel ShuRlei_Ibe us_fo_ ic_i__ _iSp_iii_i!ii

• being considered before 1999 isthe Shuttle_Ci _ri_i_e_!i_e!i_fi_iiiiiii

iil i new Advanced Launch Sys_ml _Vehiclesis _SS_I_i !!i iii iii!iiill !i! iiiiiii !i!i iiii!ii!ii !!iiiiii iiiiii!i!iiiiiiiii!iil iiiiiiiii

:: ::iapproximately: 140 metric: :tons..isi::ir__;_:_:!::A:il_er:: ___: _i__!_ _:_

. ::_::::.:::::: ::::.;consi_red :!'or

.:ii: ::: ::iFor either:::Shutt]_; ?_riWd :o_:_dvan;ed: _;i:S_;_:i:_e_i_[ i_iiii_ii_iiiiiiiiiii!ii;iii;i!iiiiil;iiiiiii_iiii

ii iil!!iVe_eles, some degree ofi,_ment _f_e[ 1_ i_?e i iilill

iii_:_ili:: :::iIi:_:: i_i: :.:::i::•i facilities :_.will:i:_: ne_S_.::_.ii_i !:::i::! :_::: :_:_:_i_ _:: i_i:i::!_:_: _!!::::_::ii!:_iil::: i_ii!i_!ii_i !_i_: ::::: iiii_:_ii!iii_:ii!i_iiiiii_:i _i!!iiiiiii!ii!iiii iiii: _ii __:i _i !ii:i_ii il!iiii!ii!iiiiii!iii_i!_il iilii_!i!iiiii!i!iiiii!!iiiii!iiiiiiiiii!ili i!_iii iiii!iiiiiiii!iiil!iiiiiiiii!!iiiiiii!_

5-2
The payload mass to be launched to Freedom in support of the lunar outpost can

range from 110 to 200 metric tons, depending on such mission variables as

lunar transfer vehicle expendability or reusability and whether the mission is

cargo or piloted. Mass for piloted flights includes cargo in addition to the crew.

Approximately 75 percent of the mass delivered to low Earth orbit is lunar

transfer vehicle propellant.

A launch vehicle capability of 140 metric tons is needed to ferry Mars mission

vehicles, cargo, crew, and propeUants to Freedom. Multiple flights of a large

heavy-lift launch vehicle will be required to deliver Mars transfer vehicle elements and propellants weighing 550 to 850 metric tons, depending on the mission type and year. Propellant for trans-Mars injection and subsequent transEarth injection constitutes the greater part of the total mass. Each fully loaded

trans-Mars injection stage propellant tank has a mass of 135 metric tons. Vehicle elements such as the aerobrake and the trans-Mars injection stage core

(engines, thrust structure, and center tank), to be delivered separately and assembled at Freedom, require a shroud to accommodate a payload envelope

12.5 meters in diameter and 30 meters long.

Existing System Capabilities and Potential

The current fleet of expendable launch vehicles and Space Shuttle can support

initial efforts in the journey to the Moon and Mars. With enhancement, they

can continue to be used in some subsequent operations.

The Space Shuttle is a multipurpose system capable of delivering both crew and

cargo to low Earth orbit, retrieving payloads and returning them to Earth,

providing on-orbit servicing, and supporting laboratories in space. The Space

Shuttle is currently the Nation's sole means of providing human access to space,

with the ability to transport five crew members to orbit. The Space Shuttle can

accommodate the current manned mission requirements with a planned flight

rate of 14 per year.

For lunar and Mars outpost missions, the Space Shuttle will transport crews

and limited cargo to low Earth orbit. It will also support related on-orbit servicing missions in conjunction with Freedom and a space-based orbital maneuvering vehicle.

Advances in technology will allow opportunities to improve cost-effective operations, reliability, and safety; provide additional margins; and counter obsolescence. Many of these improvements can be incorporated at the subsystem level,

whereas others will be incorporated during production of new orbiters and

modification of existing orbiters. The first major program element upgrade is

underway with the development of the advanced solid rocket motor. This up5-3
Launch Vehicle Titan IV Atlas II

Payload to Low Earth

Orbit (in metric tons) 17.7-22.3 6.7-8.8

Availability Date: Jan 89 1991

Delta II

3.9-5.0

Jan 89

Figure 5-I Expendable Launch Vehicles

grade will increase the current Space

Shuttle 17.3-metric-ton lift capability

by about 20 percent and will improve

reliability and safety as well. To reduce cost and increase reliability, the

Space Shuttle main engine could be

upgraded using the technology being

demonstrated in the Advanced Launch

System propulsion development effort.

Three families of expendable launch

vehicles, illustrated in Figure 5-1, are

available to augment the Space

Shuttle. The capabilities of these

vehicle families have been upgraded

over the last few years to meet increasing national needs. The Delta II,

Atlas II, and Titan IV families, using

existing upper stages or those in development, can accomplish all currently

planned robotic missions. The most

capable upper stage currently available is the Centaur, a cryogenic stage that

can be launched on either an Atlas or a Titan expendable launch vehicle. The

largest version of Centaur in development can deliver 4.8 metric tons of payload

to geosynchronous Earth orbit using a Titan IV booster. With structural enhancements to the Centaur to accommodate larger payloads, the Titan IV with

the Centaur upper stage can support all the robotic lunar and Mars missions

that are required before the human missions begin. However, some of these

missions would be enhanced by a capability for launching larger payloads, which

could be provided by a heavy-lift launch vehicle.

New Launch Vehicle Development

By the middle to late 1990s, a heavy-liftEarth-to-orbitlaunch capabilitywill be

required to support the Human Exploration Initiative.The only heavy-lift

concept being considered foruse before 1999 isShuttle-C, an unmanned Shuttlederived cargo vehicle in which the Shuttle orbiterisreplaced by a cargo carrier.

Such a vehicle could support assembly of Freedom and itsgrowth to a lunar

transportation node until 1999, when the new Advanced Launch System currently being defined in a jointeffortby NASA and the Department ofDefense

may be available. From that point on, Shuttle-C, the Advanced Launch System,

or a mixed fleetofboth can support Freedom growth and lunar mission require5-4
ments. New, larger heavy-lift vehicles will be needed to launch the payloads,

space vehicles, and propellants for the Mars missions, because the mass to be

put into Earth orbit is much greater than that of any previous mission. This

capability can be provided by a large Shuttle-derived launch vehicle or a future

version of the Advanced Launch System vehicle. The heavy-lift vehicle will be

required to deliver cargo to the vicinity of Space Station Freedom, where an

orbitalmaneuvering vehicle based at Freedom will be used to transfer cargo to

Freedom's vehicle servicing facility.

The Shuttle-C, designed to reliablydeliverheavy payloads to orbit,isnot a new

design, but one that expands upon the current Space Shuttle program infrastructure. Ituses existingand modified Shuttle-qualifiedsystems, including

main engines, solidrocket boosters,and a slightlymodified external tank with

enhanced structuralinterfaces. To minimize the number of Shuttle-C launches

forlunar missions, the 4.6- and 7.6-meter-diameter payload envelope shrouds

willbe used with an otherwise common Shuttle-C configuration (Figure 5-2).

Lunar missions can be supported by three Shuttle-C launches for the early

Mars

Lunar

m

I

Payload Envelope

4.6 meters diameter

J 25 meters length

and

Payload Envelope

7.6 meters diameter

27.4 meters length

F

L •

H

H .

m

Net Payload 71 metric tons Ne Payload 61 metric tons

Boosters 2 Advlance_ solid rocket boosters

Core Stage Standard external tank

Core Propulsion 3 Space _mttle main engines

Net Payload 140 metric tons

Boosters 4 Advanced solid rocket bocmtere

Core Stage New 10 meters diameter

Core Propulsion Recoverable propulsion/avionics

w/5 Space Shuttle main engines

Payload Envelope 12.5 meters diameter

30 meters leusth

Figure$-2 Shuttle-Derived Heavy-LbqLaunch Vehicles

5-5
missions and two launches for later missions with lower cargo requirements.

Using the smaller shroud, Shuttle-C has a lift capability of 71 metric tons,

which maximizes delivery of propellant and high-density payloads; with the

larger configuration, it has a lift capability of 61 metric tons. This configuration

is required to launch the large-diameter lunar excursion vehicle and aerobrake

elements.

Transportation of Mars mission components from Earth to orbit calls for a

launch vehicle with a greater payload volume and lift capability than that

required for the lunar missions. A larger Shuttle-derived heavy-lift launch

vehicle (Figure 5-2) can deliver 140 metric tons to Freedom with a payload

envelope 12.5 meters in diameter and 30 meters in length. Four solid rockets

are used as first stage boosters. Five Space Shuttle main engines in a recoverable propulsion/avionics module are used on a 10-meter-diameter core stage.

After main engine cutoff, the core stage separates from the payload, and a small

kick-stage transfers and circularizes the payload at the required orbit. The

propulsion/avionics module separates from the core vehicle and returns to Earth

for reuse. Each Mars mission requires from five to seven of the new Shuttlederived heavy-lift launch vehicles, depending on mission type and year.

The Advanced Launch System family of unmanned launch vehicles is being

designed to deliver to orbit a broad range of cargo size and mass. Primary

design objectives are low cost per flight, high reliability, and high operability.

The most significant requirements that human lunar and Mars missions will

add to the Advanced Launch System reference program are elements to provide

circularization and stabilization and the early introduction of a two-booster

vehicle.

The two-booster vehicle (Figure 5-3), which can launch 98.2 metric tons, is

required to efficiently package the lunar mission elements to minimize heavy-lift

launches to the Moon. Elements for each lunar mission can be delivered by two

Advanced Launch System flights. In addition to the Advanced Launch System

vehicle, a transfer stage is required to circularize the payloads into Freedom's

orbit.

Mars missions are supported by adding a three-booster vehicle (Figure 5-3) to

the configuration used for lunar missions. The 12.5-meter-diameter payload

envelope of this vehicle will accommodate the large mission elements required.

As in the Shuttle-derived heavy-lift launch vehicle case, five to seven Advanced

Launch System heavy-lift launch vehicle flights are required for Mars missions.

NASA is planning an assured crew return vehicle to support Space Station

Freedom. Vehicle definition studies are scheduled for 1990 and 1991 to support

initiation of design and development in fiscal year 1992. Assessments are being

5-6
Reference Program Lunar

Ma_8

i:i:i:

ii!ii!

..............

!:i:!:!:iii:i:i:i:i:i:

iiiiiii! iTi:i i iiiiii

:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:,

=====================

ii!iiiiiiiiiiiii2iiiiii

i:::ji::i_ ::i::iii!ii*'" " meters 74.2

•..... • .... :i:i:i:i:: :i i:!:i:::i

iii_.:iii!iii_: i.i_iiii

;.:.:.;.....;.;.:.

!i!i!i_:_: iii,i_........................

_iiii21.1:ii2_ iii.:i

Net Payload 52.3 metric tons

Boosters 1 LOX/LH2

w/6 STME's

Core Stage LOX/LH2

Core Propulsion 3 STME's

Payload Envelope 7.6-m diameter

SO-mlength

m = meters

LOX ffiLiquid Oxygen

gw_a

::.:..::.-':.:.:

!!!i_!i_!!/i!ii!

..........

..............

!_!i!iii!iiii?i!i_!_!

................

iiiiiiiiiii_iiiiiii_

_ iiiiii_i!i!iii!i!iiii

''" .:.:..::.:.-:-:

...... ..... ...

ii!_iii!i!i!!i !:i:i::i:.:i:!:i:......

......

:.:.:.:.:.:... .:.....,..

•............ .:.:.::.:.:.;.:.:

.............. . ........

:::::::.::::;::; .:.:.:. :.::.:.:

.........

i!iii_i_i:/_i!ii .:.:.:.:.:.:..:iiiiiii!iiii!ili iii!i!iiii!iiiii!iiii

:: : ..

..... _:_:_:_:i:i:_:_:_:_:

iiii!:i:i!!ii_i

: : .:..

;:::::::::;:::_

........,

Net Payload 98.2 metric tons

Boosters 2 LOX/LH2

w_6 STME's ea.

Core Stage LOX/LH_

Core Propulsion 3 STME's

Payload Envelope lO-m diameter

30-m length

LH2 = Liquid Hydrogen

96

" meters

il.iil

Net Payload 140 metric tens

Bomters 3 LOXtLH_

w/6 STME's e_

Core Stage LOX/LH_

Core Prepule_m _ STME's

Paylosd Envelope 12.5-m diameter

80-m length

8TMEs = Space Tnmsportati_ main

Figure 5-3 Admnced Launch System-DerlvedHeavy-LO_tLaunch Vehicles

made of the most cost-effective approach to combine assured crew return vehicle

concepts with existing expendable launch vehicles or new Advanced Launch

System boosters. Other options being considered are an Advanced Manned

Launch System and the National AeroSpace Plane.

Ground Launch Support

Current facilities at the John F. Kennedy Space Center can support up to 14

Shuttle launches a year, which is adequate for existing program requirements.

Facilities at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station can support launches often

Delta, eight Atlas, and eight Titan vehicles each year. However, Centaur

5-7
ground processing facilities limit Titan W/Centaur launches to three per year.

These support capabilities are sufficient for existing programs; however, total

national launch requirements must be assessed to determine facility modifications needed to support Titan IV/Centaur launches of the robotic missions that

precede human exploration. A possible solution would be to use the lunar

heavy-lift launch vehicle in lieu of two Titan IV vehicles for the more demanding robotic missions for which dual payloads are launched in some years.

Facility and processing requirements for Shuttle-derived vehicles will be determined by flight rates and the selected vehicle configurations. Several modified

and new facilities are required for vehicles that will deliver lunar mission elements to low Earth orbit. Shuttle-C launches require a cargo element transporter, a cargo element processing facility, modifications to the high-level access

platforms in the vehicle assembly building, enhancements to the launch processing system, and new cryogenic handling and storage capabilities at the launch

pads for the tanker missions. The 7.6-meter-diameter Shuttle-C shroud is incompatible with the lower level access platforms in the currently active vehicle

assembly building high bays and with the rotating service structure at the pad.

A new advanced rocket booster stacking facility and improved solid rocket

booster processing capabilities will be needed to support approximately

17 flights a year. With the addition of a fourth mobile launch platform, the

combined annual launch rate could reach 21, a limit set by the capabilities of the

two existing launch pads. A new launch pad will be required either for total

flight rates above 21, or later, when the new Mars heavy-lift vehicle is introduced. The larger heavy-lift launch vehicle for Mars missions will also require

other substantial launch site enhancements, including a new launch pad, a

further increase in solid rocket booster pre- and pest-flight operational capabilities, reactivation of vehicle assembly building high bay 4, relocation of external

tank processing into a new horizontal processing facility, a core-stage processing

facility, a Mars payload processing and integration facility, two new-design

mobile launch platforms, and a new crawler-transporter to deliver the vehicle to

the pad.

A totally new ground launch infrastructure that consolidates operations is

planned for the Advanced Launch System. Manufacturing and final assembly

facilities will be located near the launch site to meet rapid turnaround requirements. Dual pads and streamlined vehicle and payload processing operations

will permit approximately 20 flights a year. Because design of these facilities is

still in a preliminary phase, the requi_ments to support lunar missions can be

included in final designs and initial construction.

Investment in additional ground infrastructure such as additional payload

encapsulation, vehicle integration cells, and mobile launch platforms would be

5-8
neededfor the larger AdvancedLaunch Systemrequired for the Mars missions.

Combined with existing Advanced Launch System commitments, the Mars

missions will bring launch rates to a level approaching 30 a year.

Higher launch rates and the attrition of flight hardware for Space Shuttle and

Shuttle-derived vehicles will require enhancements to existing production and

refurbishment capabilities for main engines, advanced solid rocket motors, and

the Shuttle-C cargo element. External tank production facilities are capable of

handling higher launch rates for the exploration missions.

The ability of expendable launch vehicle production facilities to support these

missions must be evaluated within the context of total national needs. Titan IV

and Centaur production facilities potentially require the most modifications.

The Advanced Launch System production facility requirements to support the

Human Exploration Initiative can be assessed as part of ongoing planning for

these facilities.

Space Station Freedom

In its initial configuration, termed Assembly Complete, Space Station Freedom

will be a versatile, multifunctional science and technology facility that will

provide accommodations for continuous human presence in low Earth orbit. It

will support research in a wide variety of disciplines, including microgravity,

materials processing, medicine, Earth observation, life sciences, astronomy, and

space physics. Freedom will also be used to develop and advance a broad range

of space technologies such as automation and robotics, advanced structures and

materials, power generation, space electronics, and communications. Major

elements of the initial configuration are illustrated and summarized in Figure 5-4.

A significant feature of Space Station Freedom's design is its capability to add

pressurized laboratory and habitation modules, power generation equipment,

truss extensions, and specialized facilities. This capacity to evolve, essential to

Freedom's role as an exploration support base, allows enhancement of the

baseline research facility and provides the means to add new functions such as

assembly, servicing, and repair of spacecraft and satellites.

Space Station Freedom performs two critical functions in the Human Exploration Initiative. First, it will serve as a transportation node for assembling,

testing, processing, servicing, launching, and recovering lunar and Mars vehicles. It will also supply crew support, data management and communications

systems, and logistics services to accomplish these activities.

5-9
/

Photovoltaic Power Arrays

Alpha Joints

Thermal Radiators

_Pressurized

Modules

Element Description

Modules

Truss Structure

Power & Thermal

Crew

Attached Payload

Accommodations

Remote Manipulator

(Canadian),

Mobile Transporter

3 laboratory (1 U.S., 1 European, 1 Japanese),

1 habitation

• Transverse boom 145 meters in length

• 75 kilowatt power generation and heat

rejection capability

• 8 permanent

• Accommodations for 2 attached payloads

on transverse boom including power and

high data rate service

• 1 providing access to all faces of the

transverse boom

Figure 5-4 Space Station Freedom Assembly Complete Configuration

5-10
5-11
Second, Freedom will serve as an on-orbit laboratory for conducting research

and developing technology required to implement the Initiative. Freedom is the

ideal location for such demonstrations because no terrestrial laboratory can

adequately simulate the characteristics of the space environment. Research will

determine acceptable long-term microgravity countermeasures and obtain data

for the design of self-sufficient life support systems. Freedom can advance

technology by serving as a test-bed for new lunar and Mars system developments. The hardware, software, and other technologies used to assemble and

operate Freedom can be applied to exploration vehicles and systems.

Assumptions basic to Freedom's accommodation of the Human Exploration

Initiative requirements are that it will be fully augmented to support the required transportation node functions; that the resource allocation for this support (including power, crew, and laboratory workspace) will be provided from

United States resource allocations; and that Freedom will continue to accommodate concurrent multidisciplinary research. The international partners will

receive their fixed allocation of Freedom resources as agreed upon in the Memoranda of Understanding.

Four major Human Exploration Initiative milestones are significant to Space

Station Freedom's role as a transportation node and a research and technology

test-bed. The first is the verification flight of the lunar transfer vehicle. The

second major milestone is expendable lunar transfer vehicle operations; the

third is the beginning of reusable lunar transfer vehicle operations in support of

the lunar outpost; and the fourth is the onset of orbital operations in support of

Mars missions.

Space Station Freedom must evolve through four configurations (Figure 5-5) to

support these four milestones. The major characteristics of Freedom as it progresses through these four configurations are summarized in Table 5-1.

The best way to achieve this progression is to incorporate capabilities for future

system changes into the initial design. One design item critical to support the

Initiative is the provision for additional power generation equipment on the

alpha joints, which are rotating mounts on both ends of the main truss that

allow the outboard solar collectors to track the Sun. Another critical item is the

design of power distribution and control systems to permit future use of a hybrid

system.

Freedom must also support _non-exploration n users, including NASA experimenters, commercial users, university investigators, and the international

partners. Accommodating these users while simultaneously supporting the

Human Exploration Initiative is an important national priority. In developing

the evolutionary growth configurations for Freedom, these activities were evalu5-12
Table5-1

SpaceStationFreedom Growth ElementsforHuman Exploration

Space 8tat/on Lunar Transfer

Freedom Vehicle Verification

mement Flight

Expendable Reusable Lunar Lunm. & ]t_uns

Lunm. Transfer Transfer Vehiele Operatieas

Vehicle Operations OpenttleetJ

Modules 3 Laboratory

(1 U.S., 1 European,

1 Japanese)

1 Habitation

Truss Structure Transverse Boom,

Lower K_els

& Lower Boom

Power & Therms] 125 kilowatts

Crew I0 Permanent

Vehicle Service Track

Processing Assembly for

Lunar Vehicle

Remote Manipulator I Remote

(Canadian), Manipulator,

Mobile Trsnsporter I Mobile

Transporter

3 Laboratory Same Same

(1 U.S., 1 European,

1 Japanese)

9, Habitation

Same Same Transverse Boom,

Lower and Upper

Keels and Booms,

Mars Vehicle Support

Struc_re

195 kilowatts 175 kilowatt8 175 kilowatts

10 Permanent, 12 Permememt, 12 Permanent,

4 TransiA,,t LLmar 4 Transient _ 4 Transient Lunar

or Idars

Enclosed Lunar Same Encloeed

_nmsfer Vehicle Lunar Transfer

Hangar Vehtde Hansar,

Mars Vehicle

.tJsembly Fxeility

Same 2 Remote 2 Remote

Manipulators, Manipulators,

1 Mobile 2 Mobile

Transporter Transporters

ated and incorporated into the design to ensure that the multidisciplinary

research characteristics of Space Station Freedom would be maintained to the

greatest extent possible.

The first milestone for Freedom in its transportation node function is a configuration that can support the lunar transfer vehicle verification flight, an end-toend verification test of the vehicle, which will deliver a limited payload to the

lunar surface. To support this test, Freedom must accommodate lunar transfer

vehicle hardware elements and the lunar excursion vehicle, beth of which will be

delivered by heavy-lift launches. Freedom must also accommodate a spacebased orbital maneuvering vehicle, which will be used to transfer flight hardware payload elements from the heavy-lift launch vehicle to the Space Station

Freedom lunar transfer vehicle servicing facility. Other large equipment will be

needed to support propulsion tank mating, aerobrake assembly, vehicle processing, and prelaunch checkout of the integrated vehicle. Freedoms capabilities

must be augmented by truss structure extensions, additional power and crew,

and other unique facilities.

One of these facilities is a service track assembly that will provide a fixture for

5-13
50 kW Additional

Solar Dynam/© Power

Freedom-Based

Orbital Maneuvering Vehicle

and Accommodations

Additional

Radiators

Lo_

and Boom

Lunar Transfer Vehicle

Servicing Track and Vehicle

a) Lunar Transfer Vehicle Verification Flight Configuration

Lunar Transfer Vehicle

Servicing Enclosure

b) Expendable Lunar Transfer Vehicle Operations Configuration

Figure 5-5 Transportation Node Configurations for Space Station Freedom Evolution

5-14
L_gHyH_gen/Liquid

pulsion

Additional

Radiators

50 kW Additional

Solar Dynamic Power

c) Reusable Lunar Transfer Vehicle Operations Configuration

Upper Keels and Boom

Mars Vehicle

8eczmd Mobile Transporter

d) Lunar and Mars Operations Configuration

Figure 5-5 Concluded

5-15
mounting and manipulating the vehicle and its components, a storage area for

vehicle processing equipment, and a track to guide remote manipulators to all

portions of the vehicle. The initial configuration of Freedom does not include

adequate space for mounting the service track assembly and processing the

vehicle. To provide this location as well as areas for experiments and technology

development, the truss structure will be augmented to include lower keels (two

12-truss segment extensions projecting down from the original structure) and a

lower boom (a seven-truss segment connecting the keels at their base).

Crew-time requirements for processing the first lunar transfer vehicle, in addition to supporting maintenance, life sciences, technology development, concurrent science, and international projects, call for two additional crew members.

They may be housed in the existing habitation module or in one of the resource

nodes (connecting points that provide passage between modules) eliminating the

need for a second habitation module.

By the time of the lunar transfer vehicle verification flight, power requirements

on Freedom will have risen to approximately 100 kilowatts to support the lunar

transfer vehicle assembly and checkout and the increased level of life sciences

research. To provide this power, the main transverse boom will be extended on

either side by six truss segments to allow mounting of solar dynamic power

units that will increase power generation capability to an average of 125 kilowatts.

Other augmentations required to support the lunar transfer vehicle verification

flight include a data management system to provide high data rate communication for vehicle processing; a thermal control system for cooling the lunar transfer vehicle processing area; unpressurized payload support equipment for lunar

transfer vehicle assembly tasks, technology development, and concurrent science; a communications and tracking system, which will provide cameras for

monitoring vehicle processing areas; and a guidance, navigation, and control

system to support traffic management of the Space Shuttle, the lunar transfer

vehicle, and other spacecraft in the proximity of Space Station Freedom.

Following the verification flight, Space Station Freedom will support the second

milestone, processing of expendable lunar transfer vehicles. The processing

time for lunar transfer vehicles is less than 6 months. Two flights per year can,

therefore, be supported at Freedom with a single vehicle processing area. This

configuration will also support an increase in life sciences research in preparation for the Mars missions, as well as on-orbit servicing operations technology

development to prepare for the reusable vehicle operations.

Additions to Freedom for this configuration include a debris protection enclosure

for the lunar transfer vehicle service track assembly. The enclosure is required

5-16
because of the higher probability of orbital debris damage during longer stay

times at Freedom for preflight and postflight operations. An additional habitation module will be required before the first piloted mission to accommodate the

transient mission crew of four. Two members of the vehicle processing crew

added during the previous phase will move to the second habitation module.

The additional elements and activities during this phase will increase Freedom's

power requirements; however, the power demand remains within the power

generation capability of 125 kilowatts.

Reusable lunar transfer vehicle operations will follow the expendable flights,

leading to increased processing demands on Freedom. The configuration must

be enhanced to meet these requirements (Figure 5-5). Additional crew members

will be needed to support increased life sciences research, lunar transfer vehicle

servicing operations, and maintenance of Freedom. These crew members, along

with the four transient mission crew members, will be housed in the second

habitation module. The resultant increase in power requirements beyond 125

kilowatts will necessitate additional solar dynamic power units, bringing the

total power generation capability to 175 kilowatts.

As exploration moves into the Mars emplacement phase, the components of the

Mars mission vehicle, with the exception of the large propulsive stages, will be

assembled and checked out at Freedom. These activities will be concurrent with

ongoing lunar outpost support. Upon assembly of the high-energy aerobrake,

Mars aerobrake, Mars transfer vehicle, and Mars excursion vehicle, a fully

integrated checkout will be performed, followed by deployment from Freedom for

staging with the propulsive elements. Since much of the Mars transfer vehicle's

stay in low Earth orbit is spent away from Freedom, debris protection must be

provided on the vehicle itself.

To process the Mars transfer vehicle, Freedom will require the addition of upper

keels, an upper boom, and a support structure for on-orbit assembly and checkout of the vehicle elements. Lunar and Mars mission scheduling calls for sequential lunar transfer vehicle and Mars transfer vehicle processing operations;

simultaneous vehicle processing is not required. Therefore, no additional Space

Station Freedom crew support is needed. Temporary accommodations will be

provided for four transient Mars crew members within the second habitation

module.

In addition to its role as a transportation node, Freedom will also serve as a

research and technology development test-bed. The initial phase of research

and development support, which focuses on in-space operations and life sciences

research, begins during Space Station Freedom assembly and continues until

the lunar transfer vehicle verification flight.

5-17
In-space assembly techniques will be tested in preparation for the verification

flight milestone. Assembly involves mating major spacecraft components delivered on multiple Earth-to-orbit launches, and deploying or assembling large

vehicle elements, such as aerobrakes, that cannot be launched preassembled.

Also preliminary to this milestone, life sciences research will concentrate on

procedures to guarantee safe and productive crew operations during extended

orbital habitation. This program of biomedical monitoring and countermeasures

will lead to Freedom crew stay times of 180 days.

Between the lunar transfer vehicle verification flight and the reusable lunar

transfer vehicle operations phase, in-space operations research and development

will focus on verifying methods for processing space transfer vehicles for flight,

refurbishment, and reuse. This on-orbit processing includes integrating payloads with the transfer vehicle, fueling, inspection, testing, and flight readiness

verification. Life sciences research and development in this period will concentrate on effective countermeasures to microgravity exposure for the extended

durations associated with human trips to Mars.

Before the Mars mission orbital operations milestone, life sciences research on

Freedom will be emphasized to confirm the effectiveness of microgravity

countermeasures in order to design a zero-gravity Mars transfer vehicle. Inspace operations research in this phase will focus on high-energy aerobrake

testing and simulation of human Mars missions. Experience gained in processing lunar transfer vehicles will serve as a basis for Mars transfer vehicle operations.

Telecommunications, Navigation, and

Information Management

The enabling support functions of telecommunications, navigation, and information management provide the capacity to monitor and control mission elements,

acquire telemetered data from engineering and science measurements, provide

radiometric data for navigation and video data for operations and science activities, and provide a capacity to communicate, receive, distribute, and process

information. These functions must be provided efficiently, with human-related

reliability, for both the lunar and Mars missions of the Human Exploration

Initiative without detriment to other user support.

NASA currently provides operational support for data acquisition, data processing, communications, and control to approximately 20 unmanned missions in

Earth orbit and deep space. This support is provided by ground networks, a

space network, communications facilities and services, and data-handling facilities.

5-18
The ground networks include the Deep Space Network of three multi-antenna

complexes positioned around Earth at intervals of approximately 120 degrees

longitude. The Space Network is a constellation of three orbiting Tracking and

Data Relay Satellites and a ground terminal. The communications facilities and

services and data handling facilities consist of operational and administrative

networks, a variety of project operations control centers, and many data processing centers.

The proposed telecommunications, navigation, and information management

architectures for the Human Exploration Initiative include the Earth-based

acquisition and control network, lunar and Mars telecommunications relay

networks, navigation support, the data acquisition and control network for

robotic missions, and human mission operations support.

The system will provide the means to monitor and control distributed mission

elements and to acquire system data from remote locations at high data rates at

a high level of reliability. Since support must be provided for all vehicles and

planetary surface system elements, the design must address end-to-end requirements.

Several challenges will critically affect the system's architecture: incorporating

highly unattended operations for many of the local Mars telecommunlcatious

and navigation functions,achieving a high Mars-to-Earth data rate,providing

robust system connectivityfor manned links,and providing an information

management discipline,including standards, foruse in transferringdata between system nodes.

5-19
Current human mission operationsfunctions are highly operator-intensive, but

the expectedcomplexity of planned Mars local mission operations could make

attended monitor and control techniques unaffordable. Because of the long

round-trip transmission time (40 minutes) to Earth control centers, many realtime operational decisions must be made at Mars. Such local decision-making

must be assisted by expert systems, and the links to distribute information

rapidly to local terminals must operate largely unattended. The necessary

elements of this design will require several years to develop, evolve, and validate, and they will be tested at the initial lunar outpost.

Methods of achieving high data rates focus on higher frequencies (Ka-band at 32

GHz) and effective data compression algorithms. Ka-band, which improves

current X-band capability by at least a factor of five, is planned for the lunar

outpost, Mars outpost, and the robotic Mars missions.

The requirement for more than 90 percent link connectivity from Earth to

manned terminals on Mars and between terminals on Mars dictates the use of

telecommunications relay satellites, which also permit the use of lower power

and much smaller antennas at surface terminals and in transportation vehicles.

Developing an end-to-end approach for data transfer between distributed nodes

on Earth, at Mars, at the Moon, and on vehicles in transit will have high priority. Standards (such as those for communications formats, data structures, data

types, coding, access keys, and priority designations) for data transmission and

storage will be used by all mission and support elements.

Telecommunications and Navigation Support

The Human Exploration Initiative requires evolutionary development of support

capabilities, beginning with support of robotic missions, then addressing the

lunar outpost missions, and concluding with full capability for the human Mars

missions. The system will be designed to respond to mission events through a

variety of data types and links that can be rescheduled in real time. On-line,

unattended fault detection and service restoration are required. Link access

between local manned terminals and to Earth must be available at least 90

percent of the time. During scheduled coverage, the link must be available at

least 98 percent of the time.

Data required for the lunar missions include high- and low-rate video, voice,

science and engineering telemetry, and commands for transmission on the link

between the Moon and Earth. The user-derived preliminary data rate of

10 megabits per second for Moon-Earth links is needed primarily to handle

compressed, high-rate video transmissions. If an increase in the Moon-to-Earth

data rate is not foreseen, X-band can be used for lunar down]inks, but higher

rates will require Ka-band.

5-20
The lunar mission navigation systemwill receivedata from Earth-basedradiometrics and local ranging fixes from lunar telecommum'cations relay satellites.

The relay satellites require navigation accuracies sufficient for orbit determination, station keeping, and signal acquisition predictions.

The Mars missions also require high- and low-rate video data, voice data, science and engineering telemetry, and commands for transmission to and from

Earth. These types of data, plus telerobotics data, are also required for transmission between terminals at Mars. In addition, telemetered radiometric data

from in situ vehicles will be required for various navigation tasks. The userderived preliminary data rates are 10 megabits per second for the Mars-Earth

downlink and uplink for each relay satellite and the Mars transportation vehicle, again primarily to handle compressed, high-rate video transmissions.

Unattended acquisition and operation of links between orbiters and surface

terminals, which use high-gain narrow-beamwidth antennas, will be necessary,

and providing such a system will be challenging.

Earth support of Mars tracking and data acquisition differs from that for the

Moon in three significant ways. First, the two-way transmission time between

Earth and Mars is up to 40 minutes. Second, since Mars rotates with a 24.6

hour period, surface facilities cannot "view _ Earth for 12 to 14 hours of each

day. Third, because of the long communications distance, the link performance

is constrained by the signal-to-noise ratio, which means that trade-offs between

operating frequency, antenna size, spacecraft transmitter power, ground antenna size, and system temperature require careful engineering consideration.

The key navigation need for Mars missions is radiometric support to provide the

piloted vehicle with the trajectory accuracy needed for critical aerocapture

maneuvers. Guidance provided by current Earth-based navigation systems,

combined with local Mars-centered data, achieves the necessary accuracy and

represents a reasonable balance between onbeard and Earth-based navigation

system capabilities.

System Architecture and Configuration

Figure 5-6 illustrates the key elements of the baseline lunar and Mars telecommunications systems. Low Earth orbit service will be provided by the spacebased Advanced Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, which will also

support Earth launches and landings and navigation to and from Space Station

Freedom. Beyond low Earth orbit, service will be provided by an expanded

Earth-based Deep Space Network. Mission interfaces for lunar and Mars exploration will exist at four different locations: in transportation vehicles, on Space

Station Freedom, at lunar and Mars surface terminals, and on Earth.

5-21
In situ

Rover/Science

Mars-synchronons

Telecommunications

Relay Satellite

Spacecrai_

in Transit

Farside Telecommunications

Satellite

Rovers/Science

Advanced

Tracking and Data

Relay Satellite

White Sands

Ground

Terminal

Figure 5-6

Network Mission

* = Deep Space Network

Dedicated Lunar and Mars Subnetwork

Using Single or Arrayed Antennas

Telecommunications Architecture for the Human Explora_on Initiative

Space

Station

Freedom

The entire system will be required to function as one distributed end-to-end

entity. Maximum use of data system standards will be necessary. Unattended

expert systems will manage and move data and messages, using automatic path

selection, message switching, and data buffering.

The robotic missions of the Initiative will require enhancement of the current

Deep Space Network to provide nearly continuous support starting in 1995 at

the Moon and in 1998 at Mars, continuing until the piloted missions begin. For

planning purposes, present development plans to replace the oldest 34-meter

antennas and prepare for installation of Ka-band capabilities are assumed to be

completed on schedule.

Commitments of the Deep Space Network to science and applications flights will

be honored, and support for the robotic missions will be provided incrementally

5-22
asthe mission sequenceproceeds. Existing capabilities will support the Lunar

Observer, but requirements will increase substantially as Mars missions begin.

The Mars Global Network mission will deploy multiple landers over large areas

of Mars; their primary path for communication to Earth will be the spacecraft

bus that carries them to Mars. Before their arrival at Mars, a third 34-meter

subnetwork will be added to the Deep Space Network to provide continuous

support. The equipment and facilities of the Deep Space Network's signal

processing and network operations control center will also require upgrading to

support this subnetwork and the associated multi-downlink operation. Overall

support requirements at Mars will further increase during the next century as

additional missions are initiated and completed.

Two telecommunications relays for Mars robotic missions will be launched with

the Mars Site Reconnaissance Orbiter to support that orbiter and subsequent

rovers.

The Human Exploration Initiative will be supported by a dedicated Earth

subnetwork with ground stations at existing Deep Space Network complexes.

For Mars support, multiple antenna arrays will supply the required downlink

performance and provide for multiple simultaneous uplinks. Each Deep Space

Network ground station will support the Mars missions with arrays of up to four

34-meter Ka-band antennas. The subnetwork will be designed for human-rated

reliability and for lunar-Mars cress-support.

At the lunar outpost, users will communicate with Earth through two paths: to

the outpost terminal by a hardwire or a line-of-sight ultrahigh-frequency link,

and then to Earth, or through a direct link to Earth. Lunar transit vehicles will

also be able to communicate directly to Earth. These Moon-to-Earth links will

be supported by up to two 34-meter antennas installed at each complex of the

Deep Space Network. Up to four data channels per antenna can be supported.

On the lunar farside, dispersed elements will be linked to the surface system

terminal by hard-wired interfaces, and then via the relay satellite to Earth.

Farside elements beyond the line of sight of the surface system terminal will use

radio links through the relay satellite to Earth. The Mars surface systems will

be supported in a similar manner, but will depend more on telecommunications

relays to link with Earth.

A centralized, dedicated support facility will control and monitor the Earthbased tracking and data acquisition network and assess the quality of the science, engineering, monitor and control, and radiometric data handled. The

capability will exist to simultaneously support seven separate processing data

strings with redundancy for beth lunar and Mars elements. Unattended operations techniques will be developed using export systems. As these techniques

5-23
mature, they will be implemented to upgrade the lunar operations system and

will eventually be incorporated into the Mars operations system. Expert systems may reduce the number of operators required for operations and data

quality assessment, permit rapid detection of data path failures, and provide

automatic rerouting to available channels.

An additional monitor and control center for telecommunications relay satellite

operations will use telemetry to monitor spacecraft subsystem condition and

consumables and will generate commands to change modes and position and

maintain performance. Initially, this center will support robotic Mars mission

telecommunications relay operations beginning in 2003; in that phase, it will

also serve as a test-bed for later operations support of lunar and Mars telecommunications relay satellites.

To enable unattended telecommunications at Mars, a system will be designed for

all elements at Mars for signal acquisition, data transfer, and remote mission

operations support. The system will be initiated on the Moon using an operatorattended capability. Advanced systems will be developed during the early

phases of the lunar outpost, beginning with an Earth-based operator-attended

capability. Unattended systems will be developed during the early lunar exploration program. Operators can monitor the systems in parallel with automated

operations and intervene whenever necessary. Lunar signal acquisition and

data transfer operations would eventually evolve to an unattended mode design

for Mars operational use.

A lunar telecommunications relay satellite may be positioned in a halo orbit

60,000 kilometers behind the lunar farside to provide coverage for orbiting

vehicles, farside surface terminals, and possibly the critical orbit insertion of

piloted vehicles.

Telecommunications relay satellites at Mars are necessary not only to maintain

communications with Earth, but also to communicate from the surface to vehicles in orbit and between those vehicles. Two such satellites will be placed in

stationary orbit about Mars a year before the first piloted mission arrives. A

relay satellite network significantly improves the connectivity and the performance of both Mars-to-Earth and local Mars links. The relay network will provide

redundant and backup communications links, as well as emergency links to

Earth. Another function of Mars relay satellites will be to support a ranging

link to provide important Mars-centered navigation range data to an approaching spacecraft a few days before the critical aerocapture maneuver.

The Earth-based support system for the Human Exploration Initiative provides

navigation and acquisitio_ pointing and frequency-prediction parameters for the

5-24
lunar and Mars telecommunications relay satellites, acquisition predictions for

Earth stations, and backup navigation support for the mission elements.

The existing Earth-based navigation system will be upgraded for planetary

exploration applications. Required accuracies can be achieved by ranging and

Doppler techniques supplemented by very long baseline interferometry tracking

techniques.

The mission navigation center on Earth will process radiometric data from

Earth tracking stations, spacecraft-acquired optical data, and relative range or

Doppler data from spacecraft to spacecraR or other elements in the system.

Planetary surface beacon locations will be precision-calibrated using very long

baseline interferometry.

Circuit-connect terminals would be included at the Deep Space Network complexes and NASA communications network nodes to enable use of network

circuits as needed. Communications between the Deep Space Network complexes and mission control centers must accommodate lunar, Mars, and space

transfer vehicles, and other scientific programs.

Compatibility test areas will be provided to test and validate the interface

between mission and telecommunications elements. Mobile stations and permanent test areas, including five vans, one integration compatibility test area,

and one launch compatibility test area, are required. The test systems will

emulate telecommunications relay satellites, ground stations, data processing

elements, and network monitor and control functions and interfaces during

mission development, integration, and launch preflight operations.

5-25

SECTION6

Meeting Human Needs in Space

he human element is a critical aspect of the Human Exploration Initiative,

and protecting and sustaining the lives of space explorers is of the utmost

importance. The success of this bold and exciting enterprise means accommodating human needs in environments that are hostile and exceptionally different

from Earth, at distances never encountered in human history, for durations

never achieved by any space program. Fundamental differences between space

and Earth - the lack of gravity, inadequate atmospheres, deep cold, and radiation hazards - challenge technological ability to protect, nurture, and sustain

the crew members who will be the pioneers of the solar system.

The health and safety of crew members while they travel to and from the Moon

and Mars and inhabit planetary surfaces are key near-term concerns. The

explorers must be protected from the space radiation environment and from the

physiological effects of reduced gravity. To maintain the fitness and productivity of the crew, medical care must be provided during long stays in very isolated

and distant places.

Solutions to these concerns are at the heart of the very feasibility of traveling to

Mars and living for extended periods on the Moon and Mars. A ground-based

and flight research program must provide an understanding of the physiological

basis for human responses, develop appropriate treatments and countermeasures, and decide how best to support crew members.

Simulating the environment that will be inhabited by crews on the Moon and

Mars is an important facet of the research program. Much of the work can be

done on the ground, but many studies will require access to space facilities. For

short-duration simulations and tests, the Space Shuttle and Spacelab will be

used. Space Station Freedom will be a test facility for research that demands

long exposures to the reduced gravity loading conditions in spacecraft and on

planetary surfaces. In preparation for Mars missions, research on the Moon will

be vital.

In many cases, alternative solutions exist to problems faced by humans. For

example, countermeasures can be developed for physiological degradation due to

reduced gravity loading on long-duration missions, advanced propulsion systems

can be developed to shorten travel time, or vehicles providing an artificial gravity environment can be developed. As the challenges of sustaining humans in

space are resolved, advances in fundamental science, medicine, and technology

will follow.

6-1
Radiation Protection

Earth's magnetic field protects our planet from radiation emitted by solar flares

and shields it from a large fraction of galactic cosmic rays. When space missions

travel beyond that magnetic shield, the radiation received is different in type

and intensity from that received on Earth and in low Earth orbit, and the effects

of the radiation on living cells are different. The radiation dose beyond Earth

orbit could exceed projected exposure limits for astronauts, and without adequate protection, crew exposure to high radiation dosages in solar flare events

could cause devastating effects, including radiation sickness and even death.

The long-term chronic effects of exposure to galactic cosmic rays could include

genetic damage, cataract formation, and cancer.

Radiation protection goals for the Human Exploration Initiative fall into three

categories: determination of career dose limits and development of countermeasures that can reduce the adverse effects of radiation exposure, provision of

sufficient radiation shielding in planetary habitats and in the Mars transfer

vehicle to protect both crews and sensitive equipment from the normal galactic

cosmic-radiation background, thereby extending the length of time that crews

can safely remain in these environments, and provision of warning systems and

"storm shelters" to protect crews against the transitory but extreme levels of

radiation encountered during solar flares.

As in the past, NASA will rely on The National Council on Radiation Protection

and Measurements guidelines, which recommend short-term and career radiation-exposure limits for astronauts. However, these limits are based on the

characteristics of radiation present in low Earth orbit, where Earth's magnetic

field and atmosphere provide protection from solar flares and galactic cosmic

radiation. A Mars mission would exceed the current annual dose limit guideline. Revised radiation exposure standards for human exploration missions

outside Earth's protective magnetic field will have to be developed. The standards must take into account, in the context of the inherent risk of exploration

missions, the risks associated with the specifictypes of space radiation,such as

solar particleevents and galacticcosmic radiation,and theirbiologicaleffects

outside low Earth orbit. Even afterexploration guidelines are established,

NASA will provide a system ofradiation protectionthat adheres to the ALARA

principle(As Low as Reasonably Achievable),which recognizes that, although

an acceptable upper limitof exposure isset,the residual risks should be minimized even further where itisreasonable to do so.

Determination of allowable doses willrequire better information on the effectsof

high-energy galacticcosmic rays on livingmatter. Space radiation experiments

willbe conducted during the 1990s using a reusable, polar-orbitingbiosateUite

(currentlyin the definitionphase) with livingbiologicalspecimens, including

6-2
plants, rodents, cell and tissue cultures, and other small organisms. These

experiments will provide information on the biological effects in zero gravity of

the unique spectrum of the space radiation environment. These effects can also

be studied, in part, using artificial radiation sources at the Brookhaven National

Laboratory, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, and other radiation research centers. The ground-based research program will generate new information on the

biological effects of high-energy heavy ions and secondary particles, and will

develop and test dosimetry technology.

Solar flare particles require different shielding strategies than galactic cosmic

radiation. Because of the high energy of galactic cosmic radiation, extremely

thick shields would be required, so it is generally not feasible to use shielding.

Protection afforded by propellant and water tanks may prove useful. For modest

shielding thicknesses, the secondary radiation spectrum produced by the interaction of the galactic cosmic radiation with the shielding material may be more

harmful to living tissues than the primary dose. On planetary surfaces, the

planet shields against half the cosmic radiation received in space. The martian

atmosphere, particularly at lower elevations, provides substantial additional

radiation protection. In addition, habitats can be covered thickly enough with

local materials to shield against cosmic rays and the secondary radiation they

produce. Nevertheless, individual radiation doses will need to be monitored, and

the galactic cosmic radiation dose will probably be the ultimate limiting factor

for human exploration. At the lunar outpost, current plans envision occasional

prolonged periods outside the habitat for construction and scientific activities.

Any crew member's activity outside the habitat may be limited by exposure to

background radiation levels for long periods of time in relatively unshielded

suits.

The most acute source of space ionizing radiation for Moon and Mars explorers

is a solar particle event, which accompanies some solar flares. The amount of

radiation can be so large that the dose the explorers would receive significantly

exceeds all limits, and can result in rapid death. However, to protect the explorers for limited periods, %torm shelters _ can be constructed in the most heavily

shielded areas of the spacecraft and habitats, and can be provisioned with sufficient consumables to maintain humans for the maximum estimated duration of

a solar particle event (from a few hours to several days). The storm shelter and

more protected areas of the Mars spacecraft could be occupied by the crew on a

rotational basis during transit to provide added protection from galactic cosmic

radiation.

To develop the best radiation shielding strategies for the lunar and Mars habitats and the transportation vehicles, robotic missions will help to determine the

nominal background radiation encountered during transits to and from the

6-3
Moon and Mars, aswell ason the planetary surfaces,and will measure radiation doses received during solar particle events. These radiation environments

will then be modeled and simulated using ground-based radiation research

facilities to determine the effectiveness of various shielding materials in protecting living tissues. The results of these studies will influence habitat and vehicle

designs.

A system for alerting the crew is essential to planning extravehicular activity

traverses, which would not be scheduled for periods in which a flare was expected. Warning must be received in sufficient time to allow the crew to return

to the habitat or storm shelter before the buildup of radiation from an unanticipated flare puts the crew at risk. Solar flares are currently unpredictable to the

extent that warning times at a spacecraft may be as short as 30 minutes. Improved predictions will require long-term observations of the magnetic field of

the Sun and its relationship to solar flares, and specific warning systems will

need to be developed.

A plan for providing solar alert/prediction services is based on three evolutionary space mission elements: an orbiting solar laboratory, a solar monitor, and a

global set of solar monitors. The orbiting solar laboratory will carry a 1-meterclass solar telescope with several diagnostic instruments to monitor the onset of

flares in the next cycle of solar activity. On the basis of experience with the

orbiting solar laboratory, a solar monitor will be developed and placed at the

Earth-Sun libration point. This monitor would be able to continuously see the

Sun and would provide solar flare warnings to the lunar outpost.

When human missions to Mars are under way, a set of four identical orbiting

solar monitoring stations around the Sun will be necessary, because flares that

can threaten the crew on Mars may not emerge from parts of the Sun seen by a

single spacecraft. However, crews on Mars missions should also have at their

disposal a simple solar X-ray imaging telescope to provide flare prediction/alert

capability.

Reduced Gravity Countermeasures

Microgravity exposure reduces the forces normally imposed on the body on

Earth by a factor of 1 million. Previous spaceflight experience has shown that

significant physiological changes occur during exposure to such reduced gravity

loading; most notably, bone mineral loss, muscle atrophy, and cardiac deconditioning, all of which become more severe as stay-time in space increases. Although it is generally believed that these effects can be minimized if crews take

certain preventive measures while in space, the problem of developing effective

countermeasures to reduced gravity loading is significant.

6-4
So far,both the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. have reliedheavily on exercise regimes,

usually vigorous and protracted,to provide the desired countermeasures. At the

present time, itisnot known whether exercise willbe capable of maintaining

crew health for very long missions. Additionally,astronauts will have difficulty

maintaining the required exercise program (2 to 4 hours a day) forthe protracted periods envisioned for most exploration missions. Ifan astronaut were

to suffer an accident or a seriousillnessand be unable to exercise,more severe

deconditioning would result.

The major concern relatestothe long transittimes to Mars and to the demands

placed on the crews immediately upon arrivalat the martian surface. The

baseline transittime to Mars is300 days in zero gravity,followed by an estimated aerobraking environment of severaltimes Earth gravity. In the case of a

flyby abort,the astronauts would remain in reduced gravity for 3 years,which

far exceeds either U.S. or U.S.S.R. experience. Exercise,nutrition,and pharmaceuticalcountermeasures show promise in controllingthe adverse physiological

effectsof long-duration exposure to reduced gravity loading. Also, three alternative Mars transitoptions exist: shorten the outbound and return transittimes

by using advanced propulsion systems, employ artificialgravity countermeasures within the spacecraft either by providing an on-board centrifugeor by

spinning the spacecraftitself,or accept the higher risk involved and proceed

with the mission using the best availablecountermeasures. A zero-gravity

transithas the advantage ofmore habitable volume (i.e.,ceilingsand floors)

available foruse by the crew, whereas artificialgravity has the advantage of

providing Earth-like conditions.

A zero-gravitycountermeasures program willtest and evaluate a seriesof

strategieson the Space Shuttle and Extended Duration Orbiter during the early

1990s; subsequently, primary testswillbe conducted on Space Station Freedom.

Within 5 years of initiatingthe countermeasures program on Space Station

Freedom, crew stay-time in orbitwillincrease from 90 days to 120 days, then to

180 days, and finallyto more than 300 days to simulate the Mars transit. If

significantphysiologicaldeconditioning occurs,crew members willbe returned

to Earth early,and a modified countermeasures protocolwill be followed with

the next crew members. During the countermeasures program, crew members

serving as test subjects will perform normal operations in support of Space

Station Freedom. Countermeasures developed to mitigate the most severe

deconditioning effects of microgravity will be used at the lunar outpost and on

Mars to maintain crew health and performance in these reduced gravityenvironments.

Zero-gravity countermeasures may not be sufficientto maintain crew health and

performance for a Mars mission. Adverse physiologicalChanges due to reduced

gravity loading may be prevented by exposure to some levelof artificialgravity,

6-5
but the specific level of gravity and the duration of the exposure that is necessary to prevent deconditioning are not yet known. Some level of artificial gravity should amplify the effectiveness of exercise countermeasures. Although

artificial gravity should reduce or eliminate the worst deconditioning effects of

living in zero gravity, rotating environments frequently cause undesirable side

effects, including disorientation, nausea, fatigue, and disturbances in mood and

sleep patterns. Significant research must be done to determine appropriate

rotation rates and durations for any artificial gravity countermeasures.

The decision on whether artificial gravity must be employed to adequately

support crews on their transits to and from Mars, as well as the decision on the

necessary gravity level and rotation rate, has significant implications for vehicle

design and operations. Life sciences requirements for artificial gravity must be

developed using an integrated approach combining physiological studies and

engineering feasibility. Preliminary physiological requirements can be developed using ground facilities to simulate weightlessness, fractional gravity, and

rotational effects. For example, slowly rotating rooms can be used to examine

the chronic physiological effects of continuous rotation.

The results of these studies will determine which strategies are necessary to

maintain crew health during long-duration exposure to different gravity environments. Research conducted on the lunar surface will provide important

information about the effects of the Moon's one-sixth gravity on humans. This

will be an early data point in determining whether fractional gravity levels can

6-6
assist in maintaining human health and performance. A decision will be made

early in the next century on whether the Mars transfer vehicle can be designed

for zero gravity, or whether it must be an artificial-gravity design.

Medical Care

Specific capabilities are critical for monitoring and maintaining crew health and

for sustaining a high level of performance and productivity both in transit and

on the surface of a planet. Health systems will be required to provide appropriate medical care, environmental monitoring and regulation, and optimization of

human performance. The approach to health and performance systems is to

evolve toward increasingly higher levels of self-sufficiency during the consecutive phases of emplacement, consolidation, and operation of the lunar and Mars

outposts.

The crews members on exploration missions will be few in number, situated in

remote locations, and unable to return immediately to Earth in the event of a

medical emergency. Therefore, on-site medical care will be needed to accommodate major and minor illnesses and injuries and to provide critical surgical

capability. The design of space medical care systems will adhere to acceptable

U.S. standards.

Providing medical care in remote locations is a challenge that has traditionally

been met with immediate services for stabilizing illness or injury and the ability

to transport a patient to a medical facility that provides an optimum level of

care. Experience in remote Earth and spaceflight settings has shown that

medical care is essential in returning crew members to normal activities, averting serious illness, and preventing unnecessary medical transport operations.

The Shuttle Orbiter Medical System provides the capability for inflight treatment of minor illness and injury. For lunar transfer vehicles, lunar excursion

vehicles, and pressurized lunar surface rovers, which are away from a central

facility for periods of only a few days, an expansion and modification of this

system will be utilized.

Space Station Freedom will have a compact medical care unit, the Health Maintenance Facility, which will support diagnosis, monitoring, transmission of

patient status to the ground, and treatment of medical, minor surgical, and

dental conditions. Medical care systems for lunar and Mars outposts and for the

Mars transfer vehicle will build on and expand the capabilities of the Health

Maintenance Facility to include inpatient, outpatient, and dental care as well as

medical care during the return of critically ill or injured crew members to a

facility that would provide more intensive support. They will also provide

enhanced Earth-based support systems, in-space support, medical computeraided artificial intelligence systems, and Earth-to-remote locations telemedicine

6-7
capabilities using state-of-the-art telecommunication systems for consultation in

diagnosis and treatment. As time spent on planetary surfaces increases, medical care capability will also expand to provide diagnosis, laboratory analytical

capabilities, anesthesia, surgery, and pharmaceutical support. Hyperbaric

facilities to treat occurrences of"the bends" will be needed for all spacecraR and

habitats from which extravehicular activity is conducted.

One unique issue related to medical support on Mars is that the martian surface

material itself may present a health hazard to the crew. Analysis for toxic and

irritating substances and for any potential biological hazard must be done prior

to human exploration; the Mars sample return mission is planned to directly

address this issue.

Research and advanced development to extend the shelf-life of certain pharmaceuticals and blood products are required, as are the development and test of

operational procedures in reduced-gravity and zero-gravity environments. The

capabilities will be demonstrated using Moon and Mars advanced development

health maintenance facility test-beds.

Supporting Human Life

Maintaining a safe environment for human habitation goes beyond the minimum required to sustain lifethrough the provision of adequate air,food,water,

and waste handling systems. The habitable environment must provide appropriate medical monitoring and care,be monitored forradiation exposure, and

provide shielding appropriate to mission operations. The environment must be

continuously monitored and controlledforthe presence of toxoids,either microbial or physico-chemical, and itmust maintain appropriate temperature, humidity,and atmospheric composition. The buildup ofminor toxicsubstances in a

tightlyclosed environment (the "tightbuilding" syndrome) is a major design

concern, and controlmechanisms must incorporate provisions for effective

removal and simple routine maintenance. Analytical methods need to be developed to predict or simulate the toxicbuildup rates and projected levelsand

sources for extended lunar and Mars missions.

Itis a major challenge to provide a reliable,cost-efficientlife-sustainingenvironment in locations that are naturally devoid offood,air,water, and nutrients.

Without these commodities, there can be no exploration,no reaching out, no

discovery. Life support systems for exploration willprovide these commodities

in allphases of the exploration missions: traveling in space transfer vehicles,

livingin surface habitats, and working on planetary surfaces. These systems

must have capabilitiesforair revitalization,water purification,food supply,

waste processing, environmental monitoring and contamination control,thermal

and humidity control,and firesuppression.

6-8
Perhaps the biggest challenge will be the development of regenerative life support systems, which could eventually provide food as well as recycle wastes, with

a subsequent reduction in the quantity of supplies that must be transported

from Earth. However, little is known about the operational characteristics and

risks associated with long-term operation of regenerative life support systems,

which have not been tested on humans in situations closely simulating the space

environment. System performance must meet a variety of standards ranging

from nutritional requirements to environmental quality.

Current intravehicular life support systems provide a habitable environment in

space, but they are costly. Food is stored, air is recycled, and most water must

be resupplied from Earth. By mass, water is the most important commodity.

Humans require a minimum of about 6 kilograms of water, air, and food each

day. In addition, if the crew is to bathe, wash dishes, flush toilets, and wash

clothes, the need increases to about 20 kilograms per day. The Space Station

Freedom program is developing systems that will use recycling technology to

supply a portion of the potable water and part of the hygiene and wash water for

the crew. Later, regenerative oxygen revitalization and more complete drinking

water recycling will be added. For the Mars transfer vehicle, development of a

more highly regenerative system, a natural evolution from the Space Station

Freedom systems, is possible. For planetary surface facilities, most of the development work can be ground-based; however, testing and verification of performance in the surface facilities will be critical and may pace the rate of expansion

of lunar and Mars outposts.

Guidelines for the design of life support systems for Human Exploration Initiative activities are: use closed-loop systems wherever practicable to reduce

logistics requirements; use open-loop systems wherever power, mass, volume,

and operational requirements dictate, or where development timelines preclude

the use of a closed-loop system; and, for habitats and long-duration transfer

vehicles, provide for life support system growth and evolution as technology

progresses.

If the success of the exploration missions depends on the ability of humans to

work on and explore planetary surfaces, then this success will depend on productive extravehicular activity conducted at great distances from Earth's support

systems. During these missions, astronauts will be exposed to a range of gravity

conditions and a diversity of environments. With the normally intense activity

expected on the exploration missions, issues of productivity, usability, durability, and maintainability of extravehicular activity systems become acute. Operational and medical considerations will include prebreathing procedures, life

sustaining system capability, environmental health, radiation protection, and

emergency-mode operations. Allowing humans to make the transition simply

and effectively between activities inside and outside vehicles will both enhance

6-9
productivity and increase overall mission safety. Extravehicular activity systems must be provided for the Moon, Mars, and space operations in orbit and in

transit.

Repeated, productive surface activity for 4 or more hours each day for up to 6

days a week is a requirement. Planetary surface systems, including suits, will

have to be maintained by the crew, and must be resistant to contamination by

surface materials such as dust. Extravehicular activity systems must provide a

safe, non-toxic environment, with food and water supplies that are nutritious,

esthetically pleasing, and free of contamination. In addition, several operational

considerations are important to the effective use of suits or other individual

mobility devices. The first consideration is to minimize the time needed to go

from inside the spacecraft out to the planetary environment; of particular importance is the difference between habitat pressure and the pressure of the extravehicular activity system. The greater the difference, the more time must be spent

adjusting to the generally lower outside pressure, in order to avoid the bends.

The second consideration is to maximize time available for productive activity

outside the spacecraft; suit mass and the ability to supply food and remove

waste are particularly important. It is important to minimize restrictions on

human capability by providing adequate thermal control, greater suit mobility -

in particular in the gloves, torso, and boots - and enhanced communications

capability for explorers and home base interactions. A third overall requirement

is the maintainability of the system, allowing reuse without extensive overhaul.

Current capabilities in planetary surface extravehicular activity systems are

derived from Apollo systems, which provide an excellent starting point for

future missions. For long stays on planetary surfaces, however, these systems

do not meet the stated mission requirements in most areas. Apollo technology

equipment is not maintainable, and it is too massive to use on Mars, where the

gravitational level is 0.38 that of Earth's. The Space Shuttle and Space Station

Freedom systems are even more massive and were designed for only limited use

in microgravity environments. New systems will be required and will evolve

from enhanced space suits similar to those now in use; in addition, development

of teleoperated tools that will allow an astronaut within a closed mobile chamber

to manipulate devices outside the chamber may be incorporated and could blur

the line between suits and habitats.

In the area of microgravity extravehicular activity, there have been significant

advancements, though maintenance and refurbishment requirements are still

too high for the Space Shuttle suit. Space Station Freedom suit development

will greatly improve glove technology beyond that of Apollo, but higher suit

pressures continue to be a major challenge. Existing portable life support systems are large and require extensive logistical support. However, the in-space

6-10
needsof the exploration missionsmay besatisfied by the advanced system being

developed for Space Station Freedom.

Suit development is an area that will require focused research and technology

efforts emphasizing lightweight and durable materials, glove design, dust contamination protective measures and techniques, lower torso mobility systems for

walking, ancillary mobility systems for surface transportation, long-term reusability and lightweight, compact, portable life support system technologies.

Behavior, Performance, and Human Factors

Space environments, like other isolated and confined environments, induce

stress; additionally, there are physiologically induced stresses. If not appropriately managed, combined environmental and physiological stress is likely to

result in behavior and performance deterioration during long-duration space

missions. Humans have never embarked upon spaceflight missions approaching

the scale of exploration now envisioned; the best analogs so far may be Antarctic

expeditions and undersea experiences. Although no Earth-based analogs are

perfect, such analogs provide insight into some of the unique attributes present

in space exploration-alteration of day-night cycles, telecommunications to

outpost operations, absence of other living creatures, self-sufficiency, and profound isolation-that affect crew dynamics and performance on space exploration

missions. Using the analog environments and specialized ground simulation

facilities as test-beds, and building on data obtained from Space Station Freedom and the lunar outpost, strategies will be developed to support the increasingly complex and demanding Mars missions.

The exploration missions must be carefully examined from a space human

factors perspective. The key issue is the effect that prolonged exposure to the

spaceflight environment has on individual psychological and behavioral functioning and on crew effectiveness and performance. Psychological, social, perceptual, and behavioral conditions affect crew performance, productivity, and

safety. Spacecraft architecture and outfitting are particularly relevant because

they can either enhance or reduce effective performance. Decisions made in all

these areas drive habitat design, and it is clear that for long-term, extended

missions, crew accommodation volumes will need to be larger than those on

Space Station Freedom.

Crew composition will be based on personal and interpersonal characteristics

that promote smooth-functioning and productive groups, as well as on the skill

mix needed to sustain complex operations. Studies addressing these areas and

the influence of task and authority structures and introduction of new members

and unfamiliar crews, need to be conducted to determine effects on crew performance and productivity. Positive interactions and communications between

6-11
the ground and the crew during all segments of the exploration missions are

essential. In addition, task assignments for lengthy missions must be perceived

by the crew members as productive and significant. Performance time-lines

must be developed that are realistic in utilization of crew time and skills. Based

on the studies, crew training, task assignments, and support strategies will be

developed, implemented, and monitored.

Crew composition, training, and skill retention will be studied in ground-based

laboratories, simulations, and analog test-beds. A ground-based lunar simulator

will be developed to evaluate concepts, procedures, and equipment to gain an

understanding of human factors and psychosocial issues related to crew performance and lunar habitat design and operation. A Mars transfer vehicle

simulator will also be developed and will incorporate data obtained at Space

Station Freedom and from lunar outpost operations. One of the major issues for

long-duration missions is cross-training, which is necessary because of the

limited or non-existent capability for return to Earth in the event that a crew

member becomes incapacitated. The small number of crew members compared

to the large range of tasks to be performed requires a high degree of proficiency

in multiple specialty areas and the retention of that skill when opportunities to

practice it are limited. In addition, since crew members may dedicate entire

careers to one mission, career development and training take on greater importance.

The studies discussed above will result in the definition of effective design and

functional standards, environmental and operational requirements, individual

and group stability parameters, and authority and command structures. The

results will ensure that the crew members are physically and mentally able to

perform the required tasks and that the systems, equipment, spacecraft, habitat, rovers, vehicles, tools, and operations are designed to promote safe and

effective performance.

6-12
ScienCe-Oppo-rtunities

and Strategy _._ ,.

2 " "
SECTION 7

Science Opportunities

and Strategies

he Human Exploration Initiative will significantly advance science as robots

and astronauts explore the Moon and Mars and use their surfaces for observatories and laboratories. The act of exploration will provide new insights into

the natural history of the bodies visited and prepare our explorers to use them

for practical purposes. But one of the major contributions of the Initiative will

be learning truths that can be extended beyond the Moon and Mars themselves

to help us to understand the past and look into the future. Studies of the early

history of Mars, its subsequent evolution, and its possibility of indigenous life,

and of the Moon and its relationship to Earth, will help us to understand the

past. With this broad understanding of the past, we will be in a better position

to look into the future of our own planet, the solar system, and the universe.

Described below are some fundamental scientific themes that can be uniquely

addressed by the Human Exploration Initiative, and around which a science

strategy can be built.

Five Fundamental Themes

How were Earth and the Moon born, and what was their shared early history?

Earth's internal differentiation into a core, mantle, and crust and its subsequent

history of volcanism and plate tectonics were controlled by its initial composition

and thermal state. The initial composition is related to Earth's position relative

to the Sun. The initial thermal state depended on dynamic factors: the inner

solar system may have been a relatively violent place toward the end of its

formation, with a large number of Moon-sized or larger bodies that commonly

collided; or it may have been a quieter place with a few large bodies and few

Moon-sized bodies. What were the early processes that led to its differentiation

and, especially, to the formation of Earth's core with its magnetic field? What,

also, is the relationship of the formation of Earth to that of the Moon? Most of

the evidence for this period has been lost on Earth, which has undergone 4.5

billion years of mountain building, erosion, metamorphism, and recycling of

surface materials. Only by studying other solar system bodies, particularly the

Moon and Mars, can we shed light on this question.

Whether they formed in a quiet or violent early solar system, the Moon and

Earth are inextricably linked, and comparing Earth, the Moon, and Mars from a

global perspective will be important to our understanding of them and the early

7-1
solar system. Studying the Moon providesa unique baselineby which wecan

understand the developmentof crusts on the other terrestrial planets, including

Mars. In addition, meteoroid impacts in the first halfbiUion years of solar

system history have modified the surfaces of the Moon, Mars, and Earth. On

Earth, most of the direct evidence has been lost, but the Moon preserves the

record of later bombardment by comets and asteroids, and these kinds of events

may have changed the course of life's evolution on Earth.

Resolving these questions requires human presence to do in situ field geology

and subsurface geophysics, using tools traditional to the field geologist: observation, sampling, analysis, and integration, using instruments to probe the interior and thoroughly explore the surface. Special emphasis must be placed on

exploring areas that preserve evidence of interior composition and on searching

for volcanic rocks that have carried fragments from the deep interior to the

surface. Global mapping is required to extend surface details to a planet-wide

context.

Did life ever start on Mars?

Mars today is inhospitable to life as we know it because its atmosphere is thin,

and water is not stable in its liquid form (it does exist, but as vapor in the atmosphere and ice on the surface and in the subsurface). The thin martian

atmosphere also permits harmful radiation to reach the surface of Mars with

essentially unabated intensity. Abundant evidence exists that water once

coursed through channels and came to rest in ponds and lakes, which are now

all dry.

Life existed on Earth 3.5 billion years ago, and it must have started earlier.

Conditions on Earth were similar to those on Mars at that time m warm and

wet, with a carbon dioxide and nitrogen atmosphere, high rates of volcanism,

and impact by meteoroids.

By systematically exploring the surface of Mars, seeking geological evidence on

the extent and duration of the wet period on Mars, and exRminlng rocks and

sediment for evidence of organic compounds or fossils, we can assess the possibility that life developed there, and we can answer many other questions about

the planet's evolution and history. The capability to explore, probe, sample, and

analyze the variety of rocks and soils on the planet will allow us to understand

its interior structure, composition, age, and surface processes for comparison to

the other planets of the solar system as we develop an understanding of the life

cycle of planets.

What is the relationship between the Sun, planetary atmospheres, and climate?

Earth's climate is the result of a complex interplay between energy from the Sun

and the characteristics of the magnetosphere, atmosphere, oceans, permanent

7-2
ice fields, and land surfaces. Humanity has roached the stage at which its

actions can also influence Earth's habitability. In the next century, Earth faces

the prospect of planet-wide environmental change, including climate warming,

sea level change, deforestation, desertification, ozone depletion, acid deposition,

and reduction in biodiversity. To prepare to meet this challenge, an understanding must be developed of how Earth works as a system, and the ability to prodict

and manage change must also be developed. Observations of Earth from the

global perspective of space will be essential for comprehensive, long-term, continuous monitoring of the entire planet, for diagnosing Earth's state, and for

providing an early warning system for change.

The study of other planets is also important, because they hold information on

the longer-term variations of the Sun and on the processes that control or moderate global changes. The Moon serves as a unique site for synoptic viewing of

Earth's magnetosphere, which can provide long-term information about the

distribution of solar energy and the consequent warming and cooling of Earth's

upper atmosphere.

Evidence for liquid (i.e., water) on Mars indicates that its climate was warmer

and wetter in its early stages. Since the early Sun is thought to have been less

luminous, it is widely believed that this warmer, wetter climate may have

resulted from an atmospheric greenhouse effect that overcompensated for the

weaker Sun. Study of the nature and effect of greenhouse phenomena has

obvious significance for Earth, which now may be experiencing global warming

due to a greenhouse effect.

The current martian atmosphere has a low atmospheric pressure, and surface

temperatures range from well above the freezing point of water near the equator

to low enough to condense carbon dioxide at its winter pole. How long have

these conditions prevailed, and can the climatic conditions be extrapolated into

the past? What is the relation of the upper atmosphere to conditions at the

surface? Dust storms commonly arise locally and may grow to global scale

within a few days, dramatically changing the circulation and temperature of the

atmosphere. What are the physical processes that control the initiation of these

storms and their evolution to the global scale? There is evidence that Mars

currently is losing atmospheric constituents. What are the mechanisms that

contribute to this loss?

These questions can be uniquely addressed by the detailed exploration of the

Moon and Mars, and by conducting long-term observations of the Sun, Earth,

and martian atmosphere.

Are there worlds around other stars?

The least-explorod astrophysical domain is the solar system-sized regions

around other stars. This is the realm of planets-but are there any? This is the

7-3
unique zonefor other life in the universe-but is it empty? Only a large, powerful observatory, such as we would be able to build on the Moon, can study this

frontier in great detail.

Scientists believe that a chain of common astrophysical events produced our

solar system: gravitational collapse of interstellar clouds, nucleation of a protostar, flattening of a disk of gas and dust, and accumulation of planets that

differentiate and may yield life, as Earth did. We have never found other planets, because no current telescopes are capable of that challenge. A large telescope on the Moon could search for and, more important, characterize planets

around hundreds of nearby stars to address the habitability of extrasolar planets and possibly detect, indirectly, the presence of life.

What is the fate of the universe?

A major, long-standing quest of the human intellect has been to understand the

origin and fate of the universe. We know now that the present intricate and

beautiful structure of the universe on the large scale, as well as the fundamental

laws of physics on the smallest scale of elementary particles, was established in

the early universe. However, if the universe originated in a "big bang _ event

and is now closed or nearly so, we can account for only about 90 percent of its

mass in what we have already observed. Detailed observations of galaxies,

galactic halos, cold matter, and other properties of galactic structures formed

over the history of the universe are needed to better understand this missing

mass. A complete understanding of the mass of the universe will allow a determination of whether the universe will forever expand, or whether it will ultimately contract to a central nucleus. The space-based Great Observatories, the

foundation of the Nation's space astronomy program in the coming decade, will

permit astronomers to study in unprecedented detail the character of the very

early universe by looking at events that occurred when the universe was only 10

to 20 percent of its current size. Looking back further in time, by looking at

more distant sources, will be made possible by the following generation of lunar

observatories.

The behavior of the Sun will be an important scientific field in the Human

Exploration Initiative, for its own sake and also because solar flares and their

emissions of energetic charged particles are significant hazards to humans in

space. However, the Sun's astronomical significance lies in calibrating and

understanding the nature of stars, which the next generation of observational

instruments will be able to study in detail. As instruments approach the resolution necessary to detect extrasolar planets, stars can be studied in more detail.

7-4
:.:.:.:.:.:.:_:_:_:::i:i:i:i:i:_:_:_:::_:_:i.i:i._._:::i.i.!.i._._._.:.i.i._.i_.i.i.::_:_:

_!iiii!iii:!:::i:iiiiiiii:iii::iii:::_!iii :_:::::_i:::i:_::i_i_i_i:i::::i!_:!ii:i::i_i:__I:I:I:I:I:!_I_: _i_i:iiii_:i _ii:::i!i!::i!!ii!!!

::::::::::::::::::::::: _,_]_ :.:::_ve ::_:_::': iii_:!::_:i:: ::ii ::.::_::,:::,_ ::ii::i:_::_:::i::ii_:ii::i::ii:::::i_:: ::,:,::::_:

_:iii:: iii iiiii::::iii:::_:_:_:::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: i:i ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::iiii:i:ii ii: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i::::: i:i:.: _:::i:_i

A Scientific Strategy for the

Moon and Mars

The themes and questions identified above can be addressed by the Human

Exploration Initiative through the study of the Moon and Mars, and through the

establishment of laboratories and observatories on the Moon. The advancement

of exploration and science skills of human explorers and the machines that

assist them will require learning and experience in the new environments.

Outstanding opportunities and strategies for conducting the scientific program

are addressed below, and establishing priorities among detailed scientific objectives will be an important facet of planning for the Human Exploration Initiative.

7-5
Exploration of and from the Moon

Lunar studies made possible by the long-term presence of humans will allow us

to probe many questions that are crucial to the theme: How were Earth and the

Moon born, and what was their shared early history? Studies of lunar surface

materials can also contribute to resolving issues in the theme, What is the

relationship between the Sun, planetary atmospheres, and climate?

The U. S. Apollo and U. S. S. R. Luna missions in 1969 through 1976 conducted

the first detailed surface investigations of the Moon. Because of that set of

investigations, the Moon has become a cornerstone in planetary science, used as

a basis for comparison when new information is obtained on the origin and

evolution of the planets.

To both understand the Moon and prepare for human exploration, the next stage

in lunar exploration is the Lunar Observer, a polar orbiting spacecraft capable of

obtaining global information about the Moon's surface chemistry, mineral

composition, magnetic properties, gravity field, topography, and the possible

presence of frozen volatiles at the lunar poles. It will also provide improved

global imagery as well as high-resolution imagery of selected sites. Aimed at

improving global models of the Moon's origin and history, this mission also is

essential for locating optimum sites for future scientific studies and for globally

characterizing the material resources of the Moon.

Among the first objectives of human explorers at a permanent lunar outpost will

be the scientific investigation and characterization of the outpost's physical

environment. One of the exciting opportunities for the geosciences is that the

presence of humans, able to select new samples and respond to observations

with new experiments, will bring lunar science to a traditional scientific mode of

activity so successful for geoscience on Earth. Like terrestrial geologists,

scientists on the Moon will rely on remotely sensed data to characterize the

places that they should visit in the field, then interpolate and extrapolate their

field observations to form models consistent with other data. Samples collected

either robotically or by the explorers will be examined at the outpost, and

preliminary assessments will be made of their character and importance. Based

on the preliminary analysis, additional samples may be returned to Earth for

detailed studies.

Accessing important geological features is essential to the continued advance of

scientific understanding, and a site should be selected to optimize its science

return over a period of tens of years of operation. Geoscientists on the Moon will

initially have the capability of exploring the local vicinity of the outpost site in

detail, and as the outpost capability matures, scientists will have a global range

of operation.

7-6
Throughout the Human Exploration Initiative,automated rovers,teleoperated

from Earth or from the Moon, willbe essential to the science strategy. These

rovers willbe capable of observing (by television),analyzing (through a range of

detectors),and collectingsamples to return to the outpost. In addition,they will

be capable of emplacing remote instrument packages. They could range hundreds ofkilometers from the early outpost, but they should have global capabilityin laterphases. At firstthey would be teleoperated,but as experience and

technology advance, telepresence (givingthe remote operator the feelingof being

on the vehicle)can be developed. The evolution of the roboticcapabilitywill also

be important forMars exploration.

The emplacement of a global geophysical network by robots and astronauts has

high priorityfor lunar missions. The network would contain seismometers to

probe the Moon's localand deep internal structure to attempt to determine

whether the Moon has a core. Additional heat flow measurements are necessary

to determine the thermal characteristicsofthe Moon. The network can also

conduct lunar electrodynamic studies,sensing the lunar atmosphere and lunar

dust movement. Plasma, magnetic field,electricfield,and energetic particle

sensors can fullycharacterize the various radiation and electricalresponses of

the Moon to the natural inputs from the Sun, the interplanetary medium, and

Earth's magnetosphere.

Investigations carriedout from the Moon are at the heart of the strategy for the

themes "Are there worlds around other stars?_ and "q_hat isthe fate ofthe

universe?_ and will contribute to the study ofthe Sun needed to address the

theme "What isthe relationshipbetween the Sun, planetary atmospheres, and

climate?_

The Moon is a massive natural space station,well-suitedas a sitefor a 21st

Century observatory. The Moon isairless,so the entire electromagnetic spectrum can be studied;itssurface isvirtuallyfree ofvibration from internal seismic energy, allowing instruments to be preciselypositioned and aimed; and on

itsfarside,the body of the Moon shieldsobservatories from natural and anthropogenic emissions from Earth. Because ofitslow gravity and the absence of

winds, large instruments can be constructed,allowing improvements in radiation-gathering power. Because the Moon rotates slowly,continuous observationscould be made over periods of days of dynamic phenomena that occur on

other planets, the Sun, and the stars. The Moon is at an appropriate distance

from Earth to allow synoptic viewing ofEarth's magnetosphere, and itsmonthly

transitofEarth's magnetotail makes itpossibleto study the boundary regions of

the magnetotail in detail.Human intervention isimportant, because some of

the facilitieswillbe complicated to construct and install,and instruments can be

changed as detector technology or scientificobjectiveschange.

7-7
Astronomical observatories on the Moon would take advantage of the unique

lunar environmental conditions to extend capabilities beyond those achieved by

the Hubble Space Telescope and other Great Observatories planned for the

1990s. The earlier emphasis on the outpost will be on two types of instruments:

powerful optical (ultraviolet, visible, infrared) telescopes, and arrays of smaller

telescopes, interferometrically linked to synthesize a single large phantom

aperture. Each type can be approached in an evolutionary way, beginning with

small instruments or modules that can grow as the capability for emplacing and

operating them grows.

The Moon offers its greatest astronomical advantage for a class of instruments

called optical interferometers, which are arrays of telescopes and a beam-combining station all joined by a precision laser position-measuring system. The

purpose of the measuring system is to ensure that light from a star field travels

identical distances through each of the telescopes to the beam combiner. The

paths must be kept equal to within fractions of a micron over distances of hundreds of meters. If this criterion is met, the pattern received by the beam combining station can be converted by a computer into an image of the star field.

The resolution of detail in the resulting image would be as fine as would be

expected from a single telescope with an aperture as big as the separation of the

individual telescopes of the array.

The airless, stable lunar surface with its low seismic activity makes the Moon an

ideal base for interferometers. These modular instruments can be transported

to the Moon in pieces, and their scientific value increases as more modules

become operational. They are, therefore, ideal for an evolutionary lunar outpost

program. A lunar optical array at ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths

will study fundamental astrophysical phenomena, from the central engines of

quasars and active galaxies, which generate huge amounts of energy by processes not understood, to the terminal explosions of massive stars. By making

the telescope an element of the interferometer array, the sensitivity of the entire

array could be increased dramatically.

Just as the ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared interferometric array will

provide a window on hot astrophysical sources, an associated submfllimeter

wavelength array will open a window on the cooler material of the universe

generally associated with the formation of stars and planetary systems. With

the submillimeter array, we will synthesize high resolution images of stellar

systems at birth and learn how the disks and jets believed to be connected with

star formation are tied to the processes by which planetary systems appear.

The Moon would allow the study of the universe in a region of the electromagnetic spectrum not accessible from Earth or Earth orbit. Low frequency radio

waves from astronomical sources are blocked from ground-based telescopes by

7-8
Earth's ionosphere, and too much terrestrialinterference,both natural and

artificial,may existto observe these waves using artificialsatellites.An array

of detectors on the farside ofthe Moon would provide both high resolutionand

shielding from Earth's noise. Since this isan unexplored wavelength region,it

isnot possible to accurately forecastitsscientificimportance; however, new

information on quasars and interstellarplasmas would be expected. The basic

elements of the array could be tested early in a lunar outpost program using a

small array at a nearside locationon the Moon.

The Moon can also be an excellentplace from which to conduct planetary observations. In addition to the large telescopesand interferometers described above,

the establishment of a 2- to 3-meter ultraviolet,visible,and infrared telescope

can substantially contribute to studies of the terrestrialplanets and the atmospheres and surfaces of the outer planets and their satellites.The capabilityto

make hours-long observations would make possiblethe study ofthe progress of

dust storms on Mars and volcanic emissions on the Jovian moon Io. The capabilityof using the Moon's limb to mask the Sun would open Mercury, Venus, and

comets near the Sun to extended study.

Imaging Earth's magnetosphere from a lunar outpost can address a high prioritynew science effortin magnetospheric physics. Resonantly scattered sunlight

and spectroscopic signatures of fast neutral atoms can render the plasmas that

envelop Earth visible.Instrument sensitivitiesand designs are available that

will allow the acquisitionof these images of Earth's ring current, plasmasphere,

and elements of the magnetotail every 5 minutes. This will allow the distribution ofenergy from the solar wind to Earth's upper atmosphere to be studied

synopticallyfor the firsttime. The lunar outpost will provide an excellent

platform for acquiring these observations because of the Moon's optimal distance

from Earth and itscapabilityofcontinuous observation.

In addition, two areas of high-prioritycosmic ray physics research can be

uniquely carried out on the Moon. The firstis an experiment to determine the

composition ofcosmic rays with energies above 1016 electron volts. The experiment would consistof a sandwich ofthin,plastic,activeparticledetectors

brought from Earth interleaved between passive sectionsconsistingof trays

approximately 30 centimeters deep, filledwith lunar soil,forming a cubical

structure about 4 meters on a side. The passive sectionscause cosmic ray interactions that are sensed by active detectors. The Moon is a unique siteforsuch

an experiment, as the lunar regolithcan be used as the bulk ofthe passive (160

ton) detector. This large detector mass makes an Earth-orbiting satelliteversion of this experiment impractical.

The study of the physical processes responsible for forming chemical elements

relieson detailed measurements ofthe relativeabundances of allthe elements

.,\ _.

7-9
and their isotopes in a variety of samples of matter. Galactic cosmic radiation,

consisting of atomic nuclei that have been accelerated to relativistic speeds, is of

unique importance because it carries to Earth fresh matter from supernovae and

other galactic sites that could not otherwise be studied. The techniques rely on

measuring nuclei having energies too low for entry into Earth's magnetic field,

except over a small range of latitudes near the poles. Thus, the Space Shuttle

and Space Station Freedom are not suitable platforms for these studies, and

even a polar orbiting platform can provide only low efficiency for collecting the

particles of interest. The Moon, lying outside Earth's magnetic field and having

no appreciable atmosphere to stop these particles, provides an ideal site for

large experiments to measure cosmic ray composition. Likewise, the Moon will

be an excellent platform for measuring the composition of the solar wind, as a

probe of the composition of our own Sun.

The lunar surface also offers opportunities for exobiology, which seeks to understand the origin, evolution, and distribution of life on Earth and throughout the

universe. The Moon was shown by study of Apollo samples to be devoid of

organic matter and any evidence of life, consistent with its history as a dry,

atmosphereless body. However, for just that reason, the Moon is an excellent

place to sample and analyze materials for traces of organic matter that may

have been carried to the Moon by meteorites or comets, which can be used as

tracers forthe flux of these materials to the Moon and Earth over time. As our

lunar exploration capabilitiesexpand, analyses will be performed on samples

from the polar regions and the deep subsurface forpossible prebioticmolecules

delivered by cometary impact.

The search for planetary systems around other starsis of high importance to the

lifesciences. Ifplanets can be found, theircharacterization as possibleabodes

for lifeand evidence forthe possible existence oflifewillbe a foremost enterprise. In addition,NASA currently isundertaking a radio telescope search for

signals emanating from advanced civilizations.In the period of the Human

Exploration Initiative,this search may have to be continued from the Moon

because Earth's radio environment isbecoming increasingly noisy and will likely

restrictthe opportunities to conduct such investigationsfrom Earth.

Gravity has shaped lifeon Earth through 2.5 billionevolutionary years. Internal and external biologicalorganization responds to gravity'sdemands in countless subtle ways. So pervasive and constant isitsinfluence,and so completely

has lifeadapted to itand evolved utilizingitsconstant reference,that gravity's

role in directing biologicalprocesses was largelyignored in lifesciences research

until the space program both underscored itsimportance and provided opportunitiesto experimentally explore the gravity continuum at less than Earth's

normal gravitational force.

7-10
A life sciences research laboratory on the Moon would allow fundamental research in both animal and plant physiology, concentrating on the processes of

reproduction, growth, development, and aging, using the combination of sensitive developmental stages and controlled gravitational exposures to elucidate

response mechanisms. It would address fundamental questions concerning how

living organisms perceive gravity, how gravity is involved in developmental and

physiological regulation, and how gravity has affected evolutionary history.

The lunar biology laboratory would also provide a means of undertaking long

duration experiments in radiation biology. The goals are to study the stability of

cellular DNA to determine the effects of radiation on both gametogenesis and

developmental processes, and to determine the frequency of malignant cell

transformations subjected to high radiation from proton, neutron, or galactic

cosmic ray bombardment.

The Moon's suitability as a platform and laboratory relies on unique

characteristics of the lunar environment. However, the lunar environment is

not necessarily stable if contaminants are introduced into it. The instruments

left by Apollo recorded residual contaminants several months after the

astronauts returned to Earth. As humans begin to inhabit the Moon, it will be

important to monitor the lunar environment and determine the mechanisms by

which human activity _ degrade it. By starting early in the exploration

program to learn about the effects of human habitation on the Moon's surface, it

should be possible to preserve the lunar environment.

Exploration and Study of Mars

The exploration and study of Mars can uniquely address the theme "Did life ever

start on Mars?" It can make unique contributions to our understanding of "What

is the relationship between the Sun, planetary atmospheres, and climate?" and

augment our understanding of _How were Earth and the Moon born and what

was their shared early history?" by adding Mars to the list of terrestrial planets

studied intensively.

Mars is a diverse planet with evidence of intense volcanic activity, weather

associated with its thin atmosphere, indications of a past atmosphere that was

denser and able to support liquid water at the planet's surface, and evidence

that suggests water deposits as permafrost in higher latitudes. These observations indicate that Mars's geological history is intermediate between that of the

Moon and the Earth, as befits its intermediate size, and suggest that life could

have existed in the past. It is much less likely that life, if it started, could have

persisted in the present cold, dry environment. Geoscience, climatology, and

exobiology merge in their interests to study the planet intensively.

7-11
A sciencestrategy for the exploration of Mars hasbeenrecommendedfor many

years by the National Academy of Sciences' Space Science Board and other

scientific advisory bodies. The strategy requires capabilities that systematically

address the wide range of science issues, including global mapping from Mars

orbit to determine the distribution of rocks at the surface and study geophysical

and atmospheric properties; emplacing a network of geophysical stations to

probe the interior structure and obtain long-term global weather data; returning

samples to Earth for detailed study in order to understand chemical composition, mineralogical makeup, evidence for biological activity in the past, age of

major features, and nature of weathering processes; and regionally exploring the

planet's surface to extend the compositional information, interpolate between

local observations and the global data base, and investigate unique locations for

evidence of past life or water-related processes.

Two types of information not heretofore considered essential to the robotic

scientific strategy for Mars are important ff we are to send humans there. The

first type will make human operations safer or improve the capability to design

systems to operate in the Mars environment. This includes data on atmospheric

structure (for the design of entry vehicles), on surface hazards to landing and

mobility (mainly through high resolution imagery), on trafficability of the surface, and on the presence of materials that could be toxic or debilitating to

human activity. The second type, valuable to the long-term habitation and

utility of an outpost on Mars, could include clues to the location of water, ice, or

other resources, data on the capability of the soil to support the growth of plants,

or information that allows an outpost site to be selected that will enable an

optimum long-term scientific investigation program.

A complete sequence of robotic missions, described in Section 3, is proposed for

the Human Exploration Initiative to meet both the fundamental science objective of understanding Mars and the informational needs of human exploration.

The mission elements utilize robotic systems prior to sending humans to Mars,

then take advantage of the humans to further explore and investigate the scientific problems as they learn to live and work on Mars.

The strategy for Mars exploration utilizes robots in the form of planetary orbiters, landers, rovers, and sample return missions to build the base of understanding of the planet and locate the best sites to advance science and exploration in

the human phase. Each of the robotic missions would be multidisciplinary,

addressing at the appropriate scale, and at an appropriate place in the strategy,

the questions of geoscience, climatology, and exobiology.

Throughout the robotic exploration phase, our geological, biological, and climatological models of Mars will improve. A major result of that improvement will

be our understanding of landing targets that will optimize additional important

scientific observations by humans who will collect specific samples and emplace

7-12
geophysical stations. Such observations willconfirm or rejecthypotheses developed in the roboticphase and initiatean era of more intensive scientificexploration concurrent with the firsthuman habitation of the planet'ssurface.

Humans will make valuable contributionsto the Mars science objectivesbecause

of theircapabilityto extrapolate theirobservations, interpret subtle clues,

assimilate information, and revise theirexploration strategy in real time. No

scientistcurrently believes that the discovery of past lifewill be straightforward.

The probability that the question willbe resolved by roboticexperiments is

small; the data, whether positiveor negative, will need to be confirmed by direct

human observation.

Evolution of human capabilityat a Mars outpost willparallelthat forthe lunar

case. In early stages,itislikelythat the mobility ofhumans willbe limited,but

dependable and versatilelong-range roboticrovers should already have been

developed. As the outpost grows, the range of the human explorers should grow

as well,eventually providing global access.

Relationships to Current Programs

Advancing science through space research missions and the use of space platforms to improve the quality oflifeon Earth are central to NASA's mission. The

way in which we Americans view our Earth, our solar system and universe, and

our opportunities forthe future are directlyrelated to the accomplishments of

the NASA space science and applicationsprograms. To an important extent, the

Human Exploration Initiativeis already underway in the science missions that

have begun to elucidate conditions in space and on the Moon and Mars, through

Earth- and space-based studies.

NASA's experience in planetary exploration isimportant to our understanding

ofEarth. Comparison of Earth to Venus and Mars, for example, has heightened

our understanding ofthe greenhouse effect.The planetary exploration program,

in addition,has demonstrated the power ofsimultaneous measurements by

various sensors and the merging of data sets to obtain new insights into planetary phenomena.

In the coming years, a Mission to Planet Earth will allow us to examine, understand, and predict changes in Earth's environment. This knowledge will,in

turn, help us to understand other planets as well.

The next few decades promise to be excitingand productive forspace science. A

program of human exploration ofthe Moon and Mars will renew additional

opportunities held in abeyance since Apollo. The base program of space science

in NASA is well prepared for a renaissance of human exploration.

7-13

SECTION8

Technology Assessment

ne of the principal challenges of the Human Exploration Initiative is to build a program that is credible in costs and schedules for critical nearterm technology development and at the same time is cognizant of the broader

spectrum of technologies that enable longer-term program goals. Success in

meeting this challenge depends upon a solid understanding of state-of-the-art

engineering systems, as well as a feasible projection of what can confidently be

achieved through focused research, technology development, and system-specific

advanced development programs.

Figure 8-1 illustrates the strategy for developing technology to meet the objectives of all phases ofthe Human Exploration Initiative. Because adequate lead

time is essential to technology development, focused research begins in the early

1990s and advances with program milestones. In this section, specific areas of

high-priority technology development that will follow this strategy are discussed

in detail, and summary sketches of other areas of technology development

needed for the Initiative follow.

Technology Drivers

Prior to the landing of the first system for the lunar outpost, one or more orbital

missions may be launched to survey the Moon for resources and to certify the

landing site. The current reference mission to meet this need, the Lunar Observer, requires no notable new technology developments.

Concurrent with the Lunar Observer and the establishment of the lunar outpost, a series of robotic missions to Mars will develop the scientific, engineering,

and technology foundation upon which subsequent human missions will be

based. These missions require a variety of major technological developments.

The long-lived Mars Global Network will need durable power supplies, impacttolerant electronics and instruments, and the technology for deep subsurface

penetration. The return of samples from specific sites on Mars mandates capabilities for autonomous landing, rendezvous, decking, and techniques for sample

acquisition, analysis, and preservation. Extended-range rovers on Mars need

mobile power, onbeard and ground-based automated operations, and mobility.

Use of aerocapture at Mars requires advances in aerothermodynamic modeling

of the martian atmosphere, thermal protection systems for the aeroshell, and

adaptive guidance, navigation, and control.

8-1
TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIC SCHEDULE

ud Technology iill

Early to Mid1990's J!]

Development ii:/:i_i Development _!_i_.

.......... :_iiii!i

Mid to Late 1990'. Ji] Late90's/Early2000's!! S000-,,dI,*ter

INITIALSYSTEMMILESTONES

MissionRequirementsforTechnologies

Mission.Focused _ I I

Research and _ [ [

Teehnology_ _ JJJJ

I

I I

I I

I m "_"::_'::'::::" .............. .#."i'_'-;.

I

I en I

I ,_...._.._.. I

_l:_,_.._'._:'-__ ................. I

• Detailed( I

___'__-;"_" ' Design and _sy_m._.,//

I ......._/_: j Development

I , I

Operations

Figure 8-1 Exploration Technology Development Strategy

Our technologicalinheritancefrom theApolloProgram couldpermit short-term

expeditionstothe Moon without any significantadvance in technology.However,establishinga long-termlunaroutpostwillrequiremajor advances in

engineeringcapabilitiesin lunar surfacesystems,transportation,and lowEarth-orbitoperations.

8-2
For lunar surface activities, several innovative systems must be implemented

over more than a decade. These systems will require development of technologies for low-cost, highly reliable life support, extended extravehicular activity,

and high capacity power generation at the lunar surface, including generation of

power during the 354-hour lunar night. Transportation and in-space operations

will involve a family of closely coupled systems: Earth-to-orbit transportation

systems, Space Station Freedom elements, and spaco-based vehicles for transportation to the lunar surface. Space-based vehicles must be reliable and reusable with high-performance cryogenic engines and space-assembled, reusable

aerobrakes. Techniques will be needed for in-space cryogenic propellant handling, storage, and transfer, and for vehicle assembly and processing at Space

Station Freedom. Technology must also be developed for automation of the

planning and execution of outpost operations, information processing, software

engineering, and training techniques.

Human exploration and settlement of Mars will build directly on the technologies developed for and proven during the robotic phases of the Mars and lunar

outpost missions. Sending humans to Mars will mandate developments in

almost all areas of technology. In particular, major advances will be required in

life support for the Mars transfer vehicle and Mars surface habitats, space

transportation (large, reusable aerobrakes for the Mars transfer and excursion

vehicles), in-space operations such as vehicle assembly and processing, and

surface systems such as construction equipment.

A number of technology requirements apply to more than one mission element.

These include substantial increases in ground and surface operations automation; in-space system autonomy; diverse applications of advanced electromechanical manipulator systems, using control approaches ranging from teleoperation,through telerobotics,to fullrobotics;and requirements for data and control

system components and software that increase the faulttolerance of system

operations, including automated faultdetection,isolation,and resolution.

Across allphases of the Human Exploration Initiative,human safety and health

during long-duration missions willhave high priorityand will pace and direct

technology development.

Assessment of Critical Technologies

A major challenge of human settlement ofthe Moon and Mars is the need to

dramatically decrease the totalmass that must be launched into low Earth orbit

and transported to the lunar and Mars surfaces. Although additional factors,

such as crew time, power, and servicing requirements, are very important,

reducing launched mass is an overarching need for long-term self-sufficiency

and acceptable operations costs. Criticaltechnologies in regenerative lifesup8-3
port, aerobraking, and advanced space-based cryogenic engines must be developed to substantially reduce the mass of near-term systems. Mid-term technologies critical to decreased mass are surface nuclear power, in situ resource

utilization, and radiation shielding. In addition, although human expeditious to

Mars can be conducted using cryogenic propulsion and aerobraking, nuclear

propulsion presents a compelling prospect for tremendously reducing the mass

or travel time required. Development in each of these seven technologiesregenerative life support, aerobraking, cryogenic engines, surface nuclear power

systems, in situ resource utilization, radiation protection, and nuclear

propulsion-needs to be accelerated. These areas are described in detail below.

Regenerative Life Support Systems

The piloted vehicles and pressurized surface systems planned for use on the

Moon and Mars will require life support systems with varying degrees of capability. For the lunar outpost, short-term life support will be required for the

lunar transfer and excursion vehicles. Long-term life support will be required

for both emplaced and constructed lunar habitats, as well as for the Mars transfer vehicle.

The state of the art in technology for environmental control and life support is

the physical-chemical open-loop system used on the Space Shuttle, which supports 7-day maximum flights followed by ground-based maintenance and resupply. This state of the art will be enhanced in the Space Station Freedom openloop support system, which provides some closure of the water cycle and is

designed for on-orbit resupply, repair, and maintenance approximately every 90

days.

Also, numerous factors of outpost operations preclude long-term reliance on

Earth-based servicing; for example, the costs of transportation to a lunar outpost, the long duration of Earth-Mars transits (14 months nominal round-trip

time, and 36 months for an abort mission), and the duration and remoteness of

Mars surface operations (up to 600 days without resupply). Regenerative life

support systems will provide enormous mass savings for exploration systems

and operations. In situ recycling of life support resources, especially air and

water, could reduce the launch mass by 20 kilograms for each crew member each

day of the mission.

Research and technology development for both physical-chemical and bioregenerative life support systems is in progress. Because of the time required to

achieve technology maturity, early lunar outpost elements will rely on physicalchemical life support systems derived almost entirely from Space Station Freedom systems. The initial lunar outpost habitat may be equipped with more

technologically advanced systems. Concurrently, life support research and

technology development for Mars-mission vehicles and surface systems can

8-4
achieverequired levels of maturity by about 2006.

Regenerative life support systems for constructible habitats, planned for use on

both the Moon and Mars, can incorporate improved technologies that enable

high levels of closure, high reliability, and in situ maintenance and repair.

These improvements will reduce operations costs and mission risks.

To improve current and projected life support systems, technology development

is needed in the critical areas of air revitalization, water purification and/or

reclamation, waste management and processing, air and water quality control,

and sensors and processors for reliable environmental monitoring and autonomous operations. All systems must be designed for high reliability, in situ

maintainability, and a high degree of system autonomy. Complete closure of the

life support system for long-duration human surface operations on the Moon and

Mars will, of course, require local food production. Although not critical, complete closure is a major strategic program option. NASA is currently researching controlled ecological life support systems to determine their feasibility, and

is beginning to plan for eventual integration of bioregenerative life support

subsystems into physical-chemical life support systems.

8-5
Aerobraking

Aerobraking is a technique whereby the atmosphere of a planet is used to decelerate a spacecraft and change its trajectory, instead of using costly propellants

to achieve the same results. Aerobraking is needed for space transportation for

the lunar outpost, robotic Mars missions, and human flights to Mars; thus,

reusable aerobrakes might provide substantial total cost savings. An aerobrake

is considered low- or high-energy depending on the incoming velocity of the

spacecraft on which it is mounted and the resultant heat generated by deceleration; both present technology challenges. Knowledge relating to low-energy

aerobraking comes from the Apollo program and current experience with Space

Shuttle flights. The Space Shuttle program has produced a base of ceramic

thermal protection technology and of computer modeling and computational

fluid dynamic techniques for determining aerodynamic and aerothermodynamic

characteristics. However, the combined Apollo and Shuttle experience covers

only simple blunt configurations operating in a narrow corridor; these programs

have yielded very limited data relative to in-space aerobraking. For high-energy

aerobraking, Apollo-era ablative thermal protection materials represent the

state of the art. These materials are inherently heavy and cannot meet desired

design goals. Although not required, high-energy aerebraking, especially for the

return to Earth from Mars, is a significant option that could further reduce the

weight of the Human Exploration Initiative flight systems.

For lunar transfer vehicle designs currently under study, the use of an aerobrake for deceleration into low Earth orbit would reduce initial mass in low

Earth orbit by approximately 20 percent for each flight. Thus, a fully loaded

lunar transfer vehicle with crew would weigh approximately 30 metric tons less,

saving approximately 60 metric tons per year during steady-state lunar outpost

operations. The savings would be even greater -- perhaps as high as 50 percent

m for a lunar transfer vehicle that was fully reusable, had no drop tanks, and

used a lighter aerobrake. For each Mars sample-return mission, initial mass in

low Earth orbit can be reduced by approximately 45 percent by the use of aerocapture rather than all-propulsive orbit insertion at Mars. The aerobrake can

also be used for entry into the Mars atmosphere, providing additional savings.

Efforts are already underway within NASA to develop the technologies needed

for aerobraking. Within the Civil Space Technology Initiative, the Aeroassist

Flight Experiment will provide in-space validation of computer models by the

mid-1990s. An integrated technology program for interplanetary aerobraking

(in particular, for high-energy aerobraking) is also in progress. Key areas for

technology development include low-mass high-strength composite materials for

aeroshell supporting structures; thermal protection materials for both the lunar

8-6
transfer vehicle and robotic Mars mission aeroshells;adaptiveonboard guidance,navigation, and control for robotic Mars applications; and analytical computer codes for the martian atmosphere. Technology readiness for an initial

lunar transfer vehicle flight in 1999 or 2000 may be very difficult to achieve.

However, readiness for post-2000 robotic Mars spacecraft and post-2010 piloted

missions to Mars should be achievable.

Cryogenic Hydrogen-Oxygen Engines

A family of advanced cryogenic hydrogen-oxygen propulsion systems will be

required for the Human Exploration Initiative. The most important of these is

the moderate-thrust (90 kilonewton class) engine with a specific impulse of

about 480 seconds for the lunar transfer vehicle and 460 seconds for the lunar

excursion vehicle. Related technology developments in high-thrust (e.g., 900

kilonewtons) cryogenic engines and in integrated, cryogenic attitude-control

thrusters will be needed for the Mars transfer and excursion vehicles. Critical

design developments include space-basing, high thrust, throttling (for landers),

reusability without servicing at Freedom or on the Moon, and small engine size

for aerobrake compatibility.

The only upper-stage, expander-cycle cryogenic engine currently in operation is

the RL-10. Although physically quite large, the RL-10 reliably provides only

about 70 kilonewtons of thrust, with a specific impulse of approximately

444 seconds. However, with upgrades, the RL-10 could provide the capabilities

essential to cost-effective lunar outpost operations. In addition, a long-term

NASA program has been under way for several years to develop components for

more advanced high-performance space-based cryogenic engines. Among these

developments are high-speed turbomachinery, high heat transfer combustors,

large-area-ratio nozzles, and engine-health monitoring systems.

The lunar transfer and excursion vehicle systems will use an advanced space

engine to achieve greater specific impulse, space-basing, throttling capability,

and long life with multiple starts. Advanced space engine technology improves

on that for RL-10 engines by saving approximately 16 metric tons of initial mass

in low Earth orbit (10 percent of total) for each lunar transfer vehicle delivery of

a fixed payload to the Moon.

Building on its foundation of basic research and technology development in

engine components, NASA has initiated a program to integrate early component-level technology into breadboard engines, including that for essential

throttling and in situ engine-health monitoring capabilities. An accelerated

program of major research and technology development and advanced system

development could provide technology readiness for advanced space engine

production and flight in 1999 or 2000.

8-7
Surface Nuclear Power Systems

The initial lunar outpost will require approximately 100 kilowatts of continuous

electric power for operations (including habitat life support), research (such as in

situ resource utilization experimentation), and maintenance of surface systems.

As initial lunar outpost systems evolve toward more permanent installations,

including full-scale lunar oxygen production, requirements for power will grow

to several hundreds of kilowatts or more. Solar power systems (photovoltaic

arrays and regenerative fuel cells) can provide the lower levels of power, but

they require relatively frequent system maintenance and significantly more

mass than space nuclear power systems, especially on the Moon with its long

nights. A space nuclear power system would provide power in the 100-kilowatt

range, limited total system mass, long life, and high reliability. For production

of 100 kilowatts of power at the lunar outpost, a nuclear system would provide a

savings of more than 300 metric tons in initial mass in low Earth orbit when

compared with advanced photovoltaic arrays and regenerative fuel cell energy

storage. Later, when the lunar outpost requires 1,000 kilowatts of power, use of

photovoltaic and regenerative systems rather than nuclear systems would result

in a penalty of more than 1,800 metric tons in initial mass in low Earth orbit.

Beginning with the early part of the consolidation phase of the lunar outpost

program, nuclear reactors offer the only cost-effective approach to providing

high levels of continuous power for the lunar outpost. In the far term, surface

nuclear power may provide the long-lived, highly reliable power necessary for

Mars surface systems.

The state of the art in space nuclear power systems is represented by radioisotope thermoelectric generators that typically provide about 250 watts of power.

However, research programs in progress will lead to more powerful systems.

The SP-100 program, sponsored and managed jointly by NASA, the Department

of Defense, and the Department of Energy, will provide ground validation of a

space reactor system and technologies yielding thermoelectric conversion efficiencies of approximately 3 to 4 percent. Those advances will make possible a

space reactor power system that produces about 100 kilowatts of power and has

a projected system lifetime of 7 to 10 years. Another NASA research and technology development program has the objective of producing more advanced

subsystems for thermal-to-electric conversion. This program will produce more

efficient solid state converters and a dynamic conversion subsystem (with a

Stirling-cycle heat engine) that could generate power levels up to 1,000 kilowatts using the same SP-100 space reactor system with multiple dynamic conversion units.

Key areas for technology development in the SP-100 program include the space

reactor system, thermal control systems, and thermal-to-electric conversion

8-8
technologiesincluding solid state thermoelectric convertersand dynamic conversion systemssuchas Stirling engines,and thermal control systems. If the

program continues on schedule, technology readiness for lunar surface applications should be achieved by the mid-1990s, permitting possible development and

launch of a flight system by about 2003. For the initial human outpost on the

Moon in 1999 or 2000, photovoltaic arrays and regenerative fuel cells employing

high-pressure gaseous storage or cryogenic liquid storage of reactant gases will

have to be used until a space nuclear power system becomes available in 2003 or

2004.

In Situ Resource Utilization

The use of nonterrestrial resources can provide substantial benefits to a variety

of future space activities by dramatically reducing the amount of material that

must be transported from Earth to a planetary surface. For example, through

the processing of lunar rocks and soil, liquid oxygen could be produced for propulsion and life support, and the lunar soil could be a source of materials for

construction and radiation shielding. In situ resource utilization will rely on

technology development in resource processing and mining and beneficiation.

Substantial application of robotics to mining and handling equipment and of

automation to processing equipment will be critical, given the limited work force

on the Moon and Mars. In situ resource utilization is a critical component of

long-term, largely self-sufficient outpost operations.

Although resource processing has been the subject of considerable study, very

little technology has been developed for nonterrestrial utilization of in situ

resources. Lunar samples have been studied extensively, and several processes

have been proposed for producing lunar oxygen and other materials, such as

ceramics, metals, and construction components. The most promising of those

processes are based on either chemical-thermal or electrolytic processes. However, little process engineering has been done to date, and no single process can

be considered to be proven for long-term use in the lunar outpost.

No experience from the Apollo program or from Earth-based operations can be

applied confdently to lunar mining or beneficiation systems. The only complex

mechanical equipment operated on the Moon during Apollo was the lunar rover,

a low-mass vehicle that had a minimal power supply, did only light work, and

had a very brief required lifetime, with no servicing. Related Earth-based

equipment is typically very massive, requires routine servicing, and employs

high levels of mobile power. Some degree of automation is being implemented in

terrestrial mining operations, but it is unclear whether systems for long-term

lunar use can be derived directly from Earth-equipment experience. Beneficiation concepts, including electrostatic and magnetic separation, have undergone

8-9
somelaboratory experimentation. Early results suggestthat low gravity and

low electrical conductivity may actually improve processperformanceand reducesystemmass and powerrequirements.

Nearly 85 percent of the propellant mass required for the Human Exploration

Initiative Earth-Moon transportation system is oxygen, which is also the principal constituent of the lunar soil, at about 42 percent. Although precise specifications vary, a typical objective for lunar outpost in situ resource utilization is to

produce approximately 50 metric tons of liquid oxygen per year, beginning in

about 2010. This oxygen would be used in lieu of liquid oxygen brought from

Earth for use in lunar-based transportation systems. Given a full-scale production plant with a mass of approximately 50 to 100 metric tons, the payback

period in terms of simple mass to the lunar surface would be 1 to 2 years, depending on final production requirements. In situ resource use could achieve a

total savings in initial mass in low Earth orbit of approximately 300 metric tons

per year or approximately 3,000 metric tons for a 10-year period on the lunar

outpost.

Processes for extracting martian resources are believed to be much simpler,

because oxygen could be produced through straightforward reduction of the

atmosphere, which is primarily carbon dioxide. Mining and beneficiation reqnirements for Mars have not yet been defined.

Major processing issues include system mass, power requirements, durability,

and the quantity, purity, and consistency requirements for feedstock. At present, several small studies of in situ resource utilization are being conducted, and

a major technology effort has been planned. It should be quite feasible to provide technology readiness for preliminary in situ resource utilization experiments on the lunar surface by 2000 to 2002, with development of an operational

flight system by the end of the first decade of the 21st century. In the longer

term, technology development will be focused on in situ resource utilization on

Mars; however, in the immediate future, work related to Mars will be limited to

fundamental research and studies.

Radiation Protection

The damaging effects of space radiation never reach humans on Earth; they are

protected by the thick shield of Earth's magnetic field and atmosphere. However, human space flight beyond low Earth orbit will entail a high degree of risk

from the radiation environment of space. For the lunar outpost, this risk can be

substantially mitigated through the use of bagged lunar surface materials to

attenuate radiation from space. However, for the Mars transfer vehicle, with its

multi-month flights between Earth and Mars, there will be a significant requirement to accurately predict the dose received by crew members and to provide

low-mass radiation shielding from solar flares and galactic cosmic rays.

8-10
The Apollo missions were only a few days long, and they did not involve major

total exposures to space radiation. Human missions are currently confined to

short-duration Space Shuttle missions in low Earth orbit, where radiation

protection is a minimal concern due to the protective character of Earth's magnetic fields. It is well known that the primary sources of radiation exposure in

space are galactic cosmic rays and solar particle events. However, due to a

number of independent variables associated with these sources of radiation,

there is considerable uncertainty about the total shielding mass required for

long-duration human missions. Current health requirements limit the total

yearly radiation dose from all sources to not more than 50 rein.

Although tons of soil may be used indefinitely to provide shielding for stationary

objects on planetary surfaces, crews in transit between Earth and Mars must

also be protected, and each pound of in-transit shielding entails an enormous

penalty in initial mass in low Earth orbit. The current state of knowledge is

such that the total required shielding mass of a Mars transfer vehicle to ensure

crew health and safety could vary by as much as a factor of 10. Only through a

more accurate understanding of the radiation present and of radiation protection techniques can the actual amount of shielding required to ensure the longterm health and safety of crew members be determined. Reducing the present

large uncertainties in radiation shielding requirements could significantly

reduce the amount of mass margin required for human expeditions to Mars.

There is a critical need to confidently predict, within 10 percent, the shielding

capabilities of various materials and spacecraft components. In addition, research and technology development is needed for lightweight shielding techniques and materials that will ensure adequate protection for crews during

Earth-Mars transits. NASA is planning a significant, focused program to build

upon current low-level research efforts. This program should be readily capable

of providing needed research results to support Mars transfer vehicle development for post-2010 flights and possible upgrades of initial lunar outpost systems.

Nuclear Propulsion

Detailed mission planning for human exploration has centered on the use of

high-performance cryogenic engines and aerobraking technologies as the foundation for Earth-Moon and Earth-Mars transportation. However, nuclear propulsion is a major alternative for Earth-Mars transportation. Two specific technologies are nuclear thermal rockets and nuclear electric propulsion.

Nuclear thermal rocket technologies include solid-core nuclear thermal rockets,

which have lower performance (specific impulse on the order of 900 seconds) and

lower development risk, and gas core nuclear thermal rockets, which have much

8-11
higher performance (1,500 to 6,000 seconds) and much higher development risk.

During the Rover and NERVA solid-core nuclear thermal rocket programs from

1955 to 1973, twenty propulsion reactors were designed, built, and tested.

Power and thrust levels ranged from 1,100 megawatts-thermal and 55,000

pounds-force, to 5,000 megawatts-thermal and 250,000 pounds-force. The

NERVA program demonstrated a sustained engine burn endurance of more than

1 hour at rated conditions, and a restart capability in excess of 20 cycles in

conjunction with powered operation. Solid-core nuclear thermal rockets have

thus far completed breadboard validation and demonstration, but further component and system level tests will be required before the technology is ready for

flight system development. Concepts for gas-core nuclear thermal rockets were

formulated during the Rover and NERVA programs. Between 1958 and 1979, a

variety of critical subcompenent tests and physics and process-oriented experiments were conducted on both solid and gas core concepts. A large investment

in facilities will be required to achieve mature technology for both types of

nuclear thermal rockets.

For human missions to Mars, solid-core nuclear thermal rocket technology can

provide performance comparable to that of advanced cryogenic engines and

aerobraking. However, for a fixed flight duration of approximately 565 days,

gas core nuclear thermal rocket technology can provide a savings of almost

50 percent (more than 350 metric tons) in initialmass in low Earth orbitfora

typicalhuman mission to Mars. More important, fora fixedinitialmass in low

Earth orbit of approximately 800 metric tons, gas-core nuclear thermal rockets

could reduce round-trip travel time approximately 65 percent, from 1-1/2 years

to approximately 200 days. This could eliminate most concerns about long-term

exposure ofcrews to zero gravity,and human missions to Mars could be flown

within the current experience base.

No significantUnited States program isinvestigatingthe potential of nuclear

thermal rocket propulsion for explorationmissions. The feasibilityofusing

solid-coreand gas-core nuclear thermal rockets for human flightsto Mars could

be determined through a program beginning in 1991. The firststep would be an

assessment in the mid-1990s ofbasic feasibilityfor gas-core rockets,and then,

depending upon the resultof that assessment, a finalbreadboard-level proof of

concept would be conducted in the late 1990s. Facilitiesfortestingnuclear

thermal rocket systems is a major issue that must be resolved in order to make

development of this extremely effectivetechnology possible.

Nuclear electricpropulsion offersvery high specificimpulse (2,000 - 10,000

seconds) which resultsin a reduction in propellant mass requirements. By

nature, low thrust electricpropulsion systems offerincreased mission flexibility

compared to high thrust chemical propulsion systems (i.e.,unconstrained by

launch windows). At power levelsof 5 megawatts, nuclear electricpropulsion

8-12
has the potential to reduce initial mass to low Earth orbit for Mars cargo missions by 50 - 60% compared to chemical/aerobrake systems. For the cargo missions, trip time to Mars will be relatively long compared to chemical propulsion

systems. At considerably higher power levels (40 - 200 megawatts), nuclear

electric propulsion can potentially reduce trip time for piloted mission applications.

Electric propulsion thruster systems have been developed up to 10 megawatts

for flight use. High power electric propulsion thrusters (hundreds to thousands

of megawatts) are under development in the Pathfinder program and would

need to be continued. A high power vacuum facility would be required.

Megawatt level nuclear power systems with low specific mass will be required.

The SP-100 reactor development program will demonstrate space reactor technology and can potentially be used for the 5 megawatt class systems when

coupled with advanced dynamic energy conversion systems. For the higher

power nuclear electric propulsion concepts (40 to 200 megawatts), a new reactor

development program will be required, as well as development of energy conversion, heat rejection, and power management and distribution techniques to

achieve low power system specific masses.

Other Technology Needs

The following subsections briefly sketch the remaining technology needs of the

Human Exploration Initiative, organized according to broad functional areas.

These technologies will significantly improve the state of the art, by reducing

crew requirements and logistics, improving performance to required levels, and

enabling advanced scientific payloads. Each subsection notes the priority technologies listed above in order to provide the context within which these remaining technologies have been assessed.

In.Space Operations

Advances in current and planned capabilities for a wide assortment of in-space

operations will provide technologies for Earth-orbit staging and operations for

large-scale human missions to the Moon and Mars, as well as for robotic Mars

missions. Elements needing technology development include in-space assembly

and construction, in-space vehicle processing and servicing, cryogenic fluid

management, and autonomous rendezvous and docking. For example, key

technologies needed for cryogenic fluid management include low-loss transfer,

low boil-off, long-term transfer, reliquefaction of boiloff, and instruments to

monitor and control the status of cryogens in space. Of these elements, the first

three are very important to successful near-term implementation of the lunar

outpost program; the fourth is essential to the cost-effective return of samples

8-13
from Mars as part of the robotic missions. In-space assembly and processing

capabilities initially developed for lunar exploration vehicles will be substantially advanced and upgraded before the launch of the first human mission to

Mars.

Earth-to-Orbit Transportation

To meet long-term performance, cost, and schedule requirements of human

expeditions to Mars, new technologies will be needed for both current and

planned Earth-to-orbit heavy lift launch vehicle systems. Major development

considerations will be safety, reliability, and resiliency, and operational and

manufacturing efficiency to reduce operational costs. Technology development

is needed in the areas of automated systems diagnostics, critical subsystem

technologies (such as integrated thermal control systems, power generation

systems, and adaptive guidance, navigation, and control), primary vehicle systems (for example, reduced-mass cryogenic tankage materials and structures

and reduced-cost main engines), strap-on booster technologies (such as cleanburning solid rocket motors), and a variety of operational applications of automation and robotics (e.g., launch servicing and fluid handling). Future developments for Earth-to-orbit transportation systems will build on the foundation of

continuing Space Shuttle improvements and on the technology developments

being pursued within the Advanced Launch System program.

Space Transportation

Technology development for space transportation systems will provide improvements necessary to ensure efficient, reliable, and safe transportation to, and

return from, the Moon and Mars. Elements on which technology development

will be focused include low-energy and high-energy aerobraking for both lunar

and interplanetary vehicles, cryogenic propulsion systems, vehicle structures

and cryogenic-propellant tanks, autonomous landing systems, and nuclear

electric and nuclear thermal rocket propulsion. Technology development for

cryogenic propulsion systems may include moderate-thrust, cryogenic hydrogenoxygen engines for both space transfer and lander descent and ascent, cryogenic

hydrogen-oxygen attitude control thrusters, and high-thrust, cryogenic hydrogen-oxygen space transfer engines.

Critical near-term space-transportation technologies include those for the lunar

outpost (multiple-use, low-energy aerobrake and moderate-thrust cryogenic

engines) and for the robotic Mars missions (low-energy interplanetary aerobraking and autonomous landing). Technology development to reduce the mass of

lunar vehicle propellant tanks may continue beyond the initial flights of those

systems, with upgrades introduced as planned product improvements.

8-14
Surface Systems

Advanced surface systems will require diverse technological developments to

provide the engineering data for long-term, operationally intensive missions on

the Moon and Mars. Elements requiring technology development include surface nuclear power, surface solar power with chemical energy storage, in situ

resource utilization, including beth initial mining and beneficiation and subsequent resource processing, thermal control systems, surface transportation

systems, and surface habitats and construction. Of these, surface nuclear power

and in situ resource utilization are fundamental to any strategic program of

exploration. In addition, advances in technology for surface transportation

systems, including advances in mobility mechanisms, controlling software and

processors, and mobile power systems, are essential to the robotic Mars missions.

Humans In Space

Building on a foundation of Space Shuttle and Space Station Freedom systems,

development of technology for humans in space will provide the capabilities and

understanding to ensure safe and productive long-term human missions, including beth extended surface operations on the Moon and Mars and long-duration

spaceflights. Elements in which Human Exploration Initiative technological

development is needed include regenerative life support systems, extravehicular

activity/suits, radiation protection, and space human factors (human-machine

interfaces). Of these, substantial advances in the state of the art in the first

three elements will be critical to beth the health and safety of the crew and the

overall success of the Initiative; advances in the fourth will improve overall crew

performance and efficiency.

Lunar and Mars Science

The Human Exploration Initiative will encompass at least three fundamental

classes of scientific objectives requiring technological advances: local planetary

science, use of systems and sites to accommodate space physics and astrophysical instruments, and in situ experimentation that takes advantage of unique

local physical conditions. For example, beginning in the early 2000s, astronomical observatories in a range of electromagnetic frequencies from the visible

through the ultraviolet and the X-ray regions may be constructed and operated

on the lunar surface. To enable new classes of scientific investigation, technological developments are required in sample acquisition, analysis, and preservation, science instruments, probes and penetrators, and astrophysical observatories. Of these, development in sample acquisition, analysis, and preservation is

very important, because the success of the robotic Mars missions will depend

upon scientific instrumentation for the collection, study, and occasional return to

8-15
Earth of Mars surfaceand subsurfacesamples. Technologydevelopmentfor

astrophysical observatorieswill bean exciting, long-term processthat supports

a seriesof initial lunar observatories,evolving to challenging, large-scaleoptical

interferometers.

Information Systems and Automation

In almost all of the systems being projected for the Human Exploration Initiative, advances in cross-cutting technological information systems and automation have the potential to substantially improve the performance, increase the

reliability, and reduce the cost of the systems. Technology development can

decrease delay rates and increase system on-line availability through fault-trend

analysis and management. Development can also substantially decrease the

operational effect of the need for space-based system maintenance through the

application of highly automated system architectures. Technological advancements are needed in automation and robotics, high-rate communications, and

data systems, processors, and recorders. Of these, advances in the automation

and robotics element are the most important to the overall success of the Human

Exploration Initiative, whereas development of advanced high-rate communications (in particular, Ka-Band technology) is required for human missions to

Mars.

In-Space Technology Development

Although the majority of research, technology, development, and advanced

development programs can and will be conducted in ground-based laboratories

and facilities, in many cases technology development must be completed in space

because no terrestrial facility can adequately simulate key physical and operational characteristics of the space environment. Each of the several technology

development areas will involve some degree of in-space experimentation on

Space Station Freedom. The most critical of these will be in-space operations,

for which development and demonstration on Freedom will be needed of assembly and construction techniques that will be essential for lunar and Mars vehicles. These techniques include mating major space components (e.g., assembling segments of the lunar transfer vehicle aerobrake or integrating cryogenic

tankage for that vehicle) and structural inspection and adjustment of vehicle

components following each mission. Also, vehicle processing technologies,

including inspection and integration of payloads and largely automated checkout and testing of integrated vehicle systems and payloads, will be tested on

Freedom. Research and technology development may also be extended to Freedom in regard to testing processes and subsystems for both physical-chemical

life support systems and biologically based regenerative life support systems

needed for Mars transfer vehicles.

8-16
Other National Technology Development

The development of technology for the Human Exploration Initiative will be

driven by the strategic plans of the Initiative itself. However, the program will

also be coordinated with, and will utilize wherever advantageous, advances in

engineering capabilities being achieved in other national technology development programs. Programs such as the National AeroSpace Plane and the Advanced Launch System will provide key technological advances in Earth-to-orbit

transportation that could also have exciting applications elsewhere within the

exploration activities, including advances in guidance, navigation, and control,

vehicle materials and structures, and propellant tankage.

In addition, significant technological expertise resides in institutions and programs outside of NASA. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency is

continually driving toward new and innovative applications of microelectronics,

software, sensors, and other disciplines. One of that agency's programs, the

Advanced Land Vehicle, has provided a substantial part of the technology foundation upon which NASA has built planetary rover development. Similarly,

other Department of Defense organizations provide important capabilities and

expertise. Innovation and excellence have always been hallmarks of the Department of Energy's national laboratories, which will be strong contributors of

technology for the Human Exploration Initiative. For instance, the Los Alamos

National Laboratory is collaborating with NASA in the development of energy

technologies for exploration, including research in regenerative fuel cells and a

major role in the SP-100 space nuclear power program. The development of

technology for the Human Exploration Initiative will challenge the Nation's

entire aerospace science and engineering community.

8-17
Z:-': •

: .:;

. z

.._':_.. ; - . - __ . C-"_: ",'."%.?-:--" 7""

3"-

- , S"

7-7

National .... and Instituti " "onal

--.- :-_ ., -. :- -,, __ - - --

-"- <_............ " 41- "- .... ' :

- C_7

"_ 5r 4." &/ "_

-_.---.._-._> .-':-," .. . ,. .... --.7.":,:C"'-_'-_,._: O'-:L_ .: ;'"- ":-." . -< - "-- . - -A%.... -

.-- ".: _ . ;r;. , ,. ] .... • / .,_...._, .--.- " '. . \" _ .... " . .... ; . ". 7_ ,

,__,, , " _, - . ..... _ , , , _;_ 4." ;_ :,- . : . _ - , ),' --_ .

"- -. ..... -- '_..' ..j, "'<- L . >_ ,.._.s " . _- . < _ '. ' ). ' .'.. -.. :y , .

- _.\ ,_ _ _. >:_-:'- ._ -.-- • • J>._-j--. . .. . . . ., +

-- _-_ _=X.,.,; _:: _':.: -'!" ;> -'- _ ,t . " - :7'. "

" /% - --. - .. , :._. - ,_ -. ___ " ;, . . - -

•.,... , ......... , ' -.::..-.-;?),-., , , . . , ,

7,./ ? ";'.) ". "---.. ; 7 ]] .' ""

.: :t - •

._f f ;1/.•.:_' ": A. :m / _', " -"+ " -- _ ?.. . .

_-..:..- ";... --: _. _._: :':. _' ...,. - . . , ."-- _ - -. C_.. - . -" - ' -.3: +_ . . "_.--: - -- " .

.... :-.::.-%'-::-? , m ,. .z" - " - '- ,;. .... " -

" - "_._1 $2 _ " : .... .

- ?L: " _ "_ - - "- .......

-- . ..-'L-- - - _ . ", ".-+' .; .... :';];" "

• .... - . . . -,_ . -,-:., _ ?,: ;- , .i_- ..... .
SECTION 9

National and

Institutional Impact

Resource Assessment

he Human Exploration Initiative will draw heavily on NASA's personnel, facilities, and equipment. This resource base, the NASA institutional core

capability, is built on 75 years of research, development, and operational experience and hundreds of unique national facilities. From the National Advisory

Committee on Aeronautics to the creation of NASA in 1958, to the present, the

Agency has developed an unparalleled capability in civil space research and

development and aeronautics.

The NASA institution is an important element in preserving U.S. leadership in

space and aeronautics. The institution provides the scientists, engineers, and

technicians required for the research, design, and development of a program,

and it provides the laboratories, wind tunnels, launch pads and control rooms,

and similar facilities needed to conduct a program. The institution also provides

the equipment and logistical support that enable the work to take place.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is made up of approximately 24,000 civil service employees located at its headquarters and at eight

multipurpose field installations. In addition, approximately 40,000 on- or nearsite technical and support service contractors work in partnership with the civil

servants in implementing the Agency's civil aeronautics and space programs.

More than 55 percent of the civil servants are engineers and scientists, over onethird of whom possess advanced degrees. Coupled with the 4,000 administrative

professionals, and the 4,500 technician and clerical personnel, the scientists and

engineers perform the core research and development and provide the management and technical expertise of the Agency. The scientists and engineers form

the backbone of the Agency's abilities in flight systems, materials and structures, power and propulsion, measurement, instrumentation, computer systems,

and space and Earth sciences. This amalgam of science, engineering, and project management expertise represents a major segment of the Nation's aeronautical and space research capability.

NASA will request a significant augmentation of civil servant positions to support the Human Exploration Initiative. These positions will provide the necessary technical expertise, program management, and administrative support to

9-1
meetthe objectivesof the Initiative. The augmentation will also enhance the

in-house work force, providing a strong balance between in-house and contracted

efforts.

The second major component of NASA's institution, the facility infrastructure,

consists of a unique array of research and development complexes, admh_trative areas, manufacturing facilities, and launch and payload processing facilities, with a replacement value of $14.2 billion. NASA core facilities are located

at nine major installations across the continental United States with five component installations and three Deep Space Network sites that provide additional

support. NASA's major facilities are varied and represent a national resource

that is not duplicated in the non-Government sector. The major components of

NASA facilities include Research and Development, which encompasses 22 large

wind tunnels, 16 major test stands, 10 major computing facilities, and 21 large

vacuum chambers; Manufacturing Facilities comprising 3,600,000 gross square

feet of external tank and orbiter replacement assembly areas; and Launch and

Launch-related Facilities, which include launch pads, orbiter preparation facilities, vehicle assembly buildings, and payload processing areas.

Many special purpose facilities required for the Initiative have been identified,

along with upgrades or expansions of current facilities. Additional facility reqnirements will be developed as program plans mature.

The NASA institution also provides computational support in the programmatic

areas of flight, applications, and basic research. NASA flight computational

resources are used to support engineering and mission planning, evaluation,

control, training, and simulation for the Space Shuttle. The applications areas

require computational support for the development and operation of space

probes and scientific satellites and for the study of scientific phenomena in space

and on Earth. For basic research, theoretical computational analysis is required

for avionics, acoustics, structures, aerothermodynamics, and atmospheric modeling. The Numerical Aerodynamic Simulator at the Ames Research Center

integrates state-of-the-art supercomputers with advanced computational techniques in support of basic aeronautics and space research.

Information management, equipment, logistical support, and similar support

activities will be refined as program planning continues.

Enhancing Management Systems

The President and Congress recognized in 1958 that a civilian space agency

would need exceptional authorities to conduct novel and urgent missions.

Therefore, the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 contained many

special provisions, including the authority to establish a certain number of excepted positions without regard to the Classification Act of 1949, authority to

9-2
acceptunconditional gifts, specializedpatent provisions,authority to acquire

real property, authority to enter into contracts on such terms and conditions as

it deems necessary, and other unique authorities. In addition, Congress granted

NASA "no year" appropriations (appropriations available for obligation until

expended) and liberal reprogramming flexibility.

Much has changed since 1958. New legislative and regulatory requirements

have eroded many of the flexibilities originally granted. This erosion, coupled

with the complexity of a 30-year program of lunar and Mars exploration, once

again necessitates a novel approach to administrative and management systems. Never before has a program of this magnitude, requiring such long-term

development and operations, been undertaken. Accomplishment of the President's initiative will be significantly enhanced by restoring the flexibility of the

Space Act of 1958 so that it may operate as originally intended. Although the

Human Exploration Initiative can be accomplished within existing legal and

regulatory structures, a severe penalty in schedules, resources, and efficiencies

would be incurred.

The Human Exploration Initiative, unlike any other, also presents a unique

opportunity to demonstrate the viability of streamlined administrative and

management processes for long-term, complex, highly visible U.S. programs

having significant international implications. The lessons learned will yield

invaluable guidance transferable to other important U.S. programs.

Three areas of concern, if successfully accommodated, Will offer the greatest

opportunity to realize significant efliciencies and enhanced effectiveness: the

acquisition system, the budget process, and human resource management systems. NASA has already begun to address these areas internally, but there are

elements that are outside NASA's control. In each of these areas, NASA will

focus on changes unique to the nature of the enterprise rather than across-theboard changes to laws of general application.

Acquisition System

The existing system is structured to accommodate every type of Federal procurement activity, from routine administrative procurements to state-of-the-art

technology advancements and the development and operation of ultra-sophisticated space programs. Such a system of broad application is ill-suited to the

needs of a research and development agency. In addition, the system has been

encumbered with a variety of restrictions and limitations that actually impede a

research and development agency. Since the early 1980s, the time necessary to

complete a major procurement has increased by about one-third, and the volume

of supporting documentation has grown by about one-half. New or modified

9-3
tools are neededto accommodatetechnologyprograms and the 30-year development of complex, large systems.

Budget Process

In its early years, NASA received so-called _no-year" research and development

appropriations, which enabled realistic planning and efficient utilization of

resources. This flexibility was reduced through congressional imposition of a

2-year research and development appropriation. Broad transfer authority between appropriations has also been significantly reduced. These factors have

contributed to planning instability and unpredictable program continuity. The

uncertainties for long-term programs under these circumstances will severely

affect the Human Exploration Initiative, as well as potential international

cooperation.

Human Resources Management Systems

A critical element of the Human Exploration Initiative is the provision of adequate human resources. Efficient management of those resources will require

flexibility to make adjustments in the work force without artificial ceilings and

related restraints.

An added impediment is the antiquated Federal personnel system, which imposes severe constraints on recruitment, motivation, and retention of a quality

work force. The system is unable to address shortages of scientists and engineers in critical disciplines and noncompetitive pay and benefits.

The projections for the future high-technology work force are not encouraging.

The marketplace for recruiting high-quality scientific and technical personnel

has become increasingly competitive in the last decade. The National Science

Foundation projects that by the year 2000 there will be a shortage of 675,000

scientists and engineers in the United States, arising from anticipated increases

in demand combined with decreases in the number of students trained. More

than half of NASA's work force is composed of scientists and engineers, and that

work force must increase substantially to support the challenges of the Human

Exploration Initiative. If NASA is to attract and retain the caliber of talent

necessary to achieve the Human Exploration Initiative, the agency must secure

greater flexibility in setting competitive pay levels, streamlining the hiring

process, managing career progression, and strengthening the tie between performance and recognition.

The multiplicity of ethics and post-employment restrictions currently applicable

to Federal employment is also a problem in attracting senior managers. A new

law or modification of the existing law may be necessary to attract top level

officials who are discouraged from pursuing a career in the Federal Government.

9-4
Improvementsin the acquisition system,budget process,and human resources

managementsystemscanbemade at three levels: Congress,the Administration, and internally within NASA. A significant number of desired enhancements are within NASA's authority, and actions are underway to make changes

internal to the Agency.

Reoommendzd Actions

NASA will explore a legislative package in the near future to strengthen the acqnisition process and human resources management system. In the acquisition

area, the legislative proposal would address long-term contracting authority and

the use of Usoft_ options to meet the demands of a long-lived program. The

proposal would also identify procurement streamlining features such as the authority to competitively select contractors on the basis of initial proposals without discussions. Further, NASA will explore the feasibility of using a modified

Uniform Commercial Code contracting approach for the Human Exploration

Initiative.

In the area of human resources management, the legislative proposal would include provisions for flexible personnel compensation levels, recruitment and

staffing incentives, enhanced performance appraisal, and a modified personnel

benefits program.

NASA will also explore budget process changes including ano year" appropriations, long-term program authorizations, transfer authority between appropriations accounts, and flexible reprogramming authority.

In addition, NASA will explore an Executive Order or other appropriate Presidential directive to provide necessary authorities for the Human Exploration

Initiative. The request may include exemption from the Office of Management

and Budget Circular A-76 to permit management flexibility in determining the

appropriate civil service and contractor skill mix. A class waiver to Office of

Management and Budget Circular A-109 may be requested as appropriate for

program and procurement planning for the Initiative. NASA may also seek a

blanket delegation of procurement authority from the General Services Administration for the acquisition of automated data processing equipment for other

than routine administrative or business application. The request may include

exemption from non-statutory requirements of the Federal Acquisition Regulation, when required to facilitate execution of the Human Exploration Initiative.

Finally, NASA may request removal of full-time equivalent ceilings to permit

management of the work force composition and size in accordance with budget

levels.

9-5
The scopeand complexity of the Human Exploration Initiative will placesubstantial stress oncurrent administrative and managementsystems. The timeliness,effectiveness,and efficiency of the Initiative will be significantly strengthened by taking the actions just described.

. . • f / .i •.!i._:i:i:_ ̧

National and Institutional Impact _ _ __ i _ _i_ii .....

The Human Exploration Initiative will draw heavily onNASA's person-i

nel, facilities, and equipment. An augmentation of civil service positions

is necessary to provide the in-house work force to meet the objectives of

the Initiative. In addition, many new facilities or upgrades to current

facilities will be required over the life of the Initiative. ...... '_

Although the Human Exploration Initiative can be accomplished within

existing administrative and management authorities, the scope and

complexity of the Initiative will challenge current systems. There is a ......_.....

need to restore the flexibilities originally embodied in the Space Act and

to improve the timeliness, effectiveness and efficiency of the acquisition

system, budget process, and human resources management systems.

The Human Exploration Initiative contains a hierarchy of possible approaches to international cooperation. Different approaches may be

appropriate for different phases of the Initiative and for different

partners.

International Participation

Potential international participationin the Human Exploration Initiativeisthe

subject of a separate policy analysis being conducted under the directionof the

National Space Council. That analysis willassess international capabilities,

opportunities,issues,and options related specificallyto the Human Exploration

Initiative.This sectionprovides information to support that activityby drawing

upon NASA's extensive experience in conducting space missions with foreign

partners.

The Experience Base

NASA has a 30-year history of cooperating with other nations on space projects.

However, the present environment is considerably different from that of the

past. Many U.S. allies are evolving from dependence to autonomy in space, with

strong national commitments to develop indigenous space capabilities. In parallel, the Soviet Union has opened its programs for cooperation with Western

9-6
nations. As a result of this changedinternational environment, NASA's current

projectsinvolve a mix of cooperation forms, including foreign participation in

NASA missions, NASA participation in other nations' missions, coordination of

independent national missions, and jointly defined programs.

Taking into account NASA's experience, particularly with long-term complex

projects such as Space Station Freedom, and considering the growing competence and autonomy of its potential international partners, certain observations

about large scale cooperative programs may be of value in the Human Exploration Initiative context.

First, it is important that prospective partners be included in the early definition of a program; exclusion from the definition process may make later acceptance of the program more difficult. This early consultation sounds out each

partner's interest and level of commitment. It provides an opportunity for

interaction, not only on the technical portion of the program, but also on program management and the possibilities of quid pro quos. Early consultation is

also necessary to match planning, budget, and decision schedules.

Cooperation on large-scale, long-term, U.S.-led projects must increasingly provide foreign partners with operational roles as well as responsibility for developing hardware, especially if significant foreign investments are sought.

The U.S. must also be responsive to its foreign partners' needs for roles that

display national identity and demonstrate indigenous technology within the

context of the cooperative undertaking.

Technical commitments to the program must be matched by equally strong

political commitments on the part of all parties. The larger and more expensive

the program, the higher the level of political commitment and sustained engagement required. Sufficient time must be built into program plans to allow for the

extended negotiations necessary at each stage.

A final observation is that management complexity can be controlled and technology transfer concerns mitigated by conducting cooperation across "clean

interfaces _ at the major element (e.g., laboratory module) level rather than at

the system or subsystem level within elements.

Human Exploration Initiative Characteristics

Several characteristics of the Human Exploration Initiative are important to an

assessment of cooperative possibilities. First, the Human Exploration Initiative

is not a single program, but a series of programs extending over at least 30

years. Cooperative arrangements can thus be phased to reflect U.S. objectives,

take into account partner capabilities and interests, and build upon experience

as it accrues. Further, the Initiative contains a large number of major end-item

elements that provide many opportunities for others to participate. These

9-7
elementsinclude launch vehicles, transfer vehicles, excursion vehicles, crew

return vehicles, mission modules, habitats, rovers, unmanned robotic spacecraft,

soil processing plants, servicing facilities, propellant depots, power plants, and

servicers.

The Human Exploration Initiative contains a hierarchy of critical and noncritical paths, providing opportunities for managing risk while still providing

interested partners with significant technical challenges, operating responsibilities, and investment opportunities. The first critical building block for human

exploration programs, Space Station Freedom, is already an international

program. The memoranda of understanding provide for a potential role by the

Europeans, Japanese, and Canadians in any evolution of Freedom, such as that

required by the Human Exploration Initiative. Specifically, the memoranda

state: "The partners intend that the Space Station will evolve through the

addition of capability and will strive to maximize the likelihood that such evolution will be effected through contributions from all the partners. To this end, it

will be the object of the Parties to provide, where appropriate, the opportunity to

the other partners to cooperate in their respective proposals for additions of

evolutionary capability. _

Finally, the planned program of sustained human exploration of the solar system will require a substantial increase in the NASA budget over time. For

foreign partners to make significant contributions to the exploration program,

they, like the United States, will have to make high-level political commitments

involving major long-term outlays going significantly beyond currently approved

or projected budgets.

Approaches to Cooperation

A number of approaches could be used to structure international cooperation for

the Human Exploration Initiative and its robotic activities. For an undertaking

of such long duration and with many individual elements, no single approach

would be ideal for all partners, and the approach adopted with a given partner

may very well change over time. The following approaches are generic in nature

and may be mixed in practice.

One approach is that of separate but coordinated programs. From a pure management and control standpoint, this approach is attractivein that it minimizes

technical and management interfaces, as well as dependence on external decision-making and performance. Such an approach offers additional program

robustness while permitting the U.S. effort to go forward regardless of whether

a partner's program proceeds; however, it offers very little cost savings. This

approach may have immediate application for certain robotic exploration activities, given the U.S., Japanese, and Soviet interest in developing lunar orbiters

9-8
and the U.S. and Sovietinterest in a variety of _mrn_nned Mars missions. If

this approach were applied to human outposts on the Moon or Mars, it would

imply that NASA's partners have an independent capability of reaching these

destinations, a case that currently can be made only for the U.S.S.R.

Another approach is that of augmentation through cooperation, where international participation is sought in a U.S.-led project, but not for significant critical

path items. This approach creates a modest increase in demands on management but can offer some cost savings. Historically, it has been NASA's most

common approach to international cooperation.

A third approach is interdependence, where internationally provided elements

are on the critical path, but the interfaces are relatively clear. This approach is

one in which the partners must have great confidence in one another and be

assured that the likelihood of interference or cancellation as a result of budgetary problems or political "fallout _ is minimal. Cost savings could be substantial,

depending on the nature of the international contributions. However, close oversight of critical items is clearly necessary, and, therefore, so is additional management overhead for such programs.

Finally, a fourth approach is the joint development and operation of an element.

This is the most intensely _international _ approach from a political perspective.

It also presents the U.S. with the prospect of maximum management overhead

and extremely complex technical interfaces. NASA has not traditionally entered

into this type of cooperation for large projects. Moreover, it may not be

appealing to other nations that are often equally concerned about national

identity, technical autonomy, and technology transfers.

A variety of factors influence the approach taken to cooperation. These factors

affect not only the United States but also the prospective partners' opinions

about the appropriate approach. For example, different approaches may be best

for different phases of the Human Exploration Initiative. Early collaboration on

Space Station Freedom was deliberately structured in the form of parallel studies, in case any of the partners decided not to go forward with the program.

However, once commitments to proceed were made, the approach was changed

to place the activities under a single management structure, with the partners

having additional responsibilities including design, development, and operations. In the case of exploration programs, one approach may be appropriate for

robotic activities, another for the lunar outpost, and yet another for human

exploration of Mars. Similarly, robotic missions could be used as testing

grounds for cooperation on later human phases of the Initiative.

Also, different models may be appropriate for cooperation with different nations.

National capabilities, technology transfer considerations, internal needs, and

various foreign policy factors influence decisions on cooperative arrangements.

9-9
In making decisionsabout approachesto cooperation,the United Statesmust

developa view on the extent of control to be shared among partners, both in

terms of technical oversight and in decision-making authority. The prospective

partners will have their own views regarding the level of control they wish to

exercise in return for their participation.

Of prime importance in the current environment is the course of Space Station

Freedom development. How collaboration on Space Station Freedom proceeds is

being viewed abroad as a measure of U.S. reliability, with respect to both

NASA's success in obtaining funding to proceed with development as planned

and to its method of meeting its international obligations. The next few years of

Space Station Freedom development will be critical in the formation of attitudes

abroad, including attitudes within nations that are not partners in the program.

This period coincides with the period of preparatory activities for the Human

Exploration Initiative.

The Human Exploration Initiative offers the potential for a variety of cooperative approaches with a number of potential partners. Europe, Japan, Canada,

the U.S.S.R., and perhaps other nations possess technical space capabilities that

could potentially benefit the Human Exploration Initiative by adding robustness

and/or reducing overall costs. Expanded cooperation with traditional allies and

political adversaries can also serve important foreign policy goals. At the same

time, international cooperation complicates management and diffuses overall

control. Savings are never "dollar for dollar" and inefficiencies can result because of dependence on multiple decision-making and budget systems that do

not use the same approach or follow the same schedule as those of the U.S.

Also, there is always the potential for _fallout" from political instabilities unrelated to space cooperation. Scientific and technical cooperation on large endeavors can rarely be insulated from the overall political relationship existing between the nations involved. The National Space Council analysis will consider

these and other factors in assessing the feasibility of further international

participation in the Human Exploration Initiative.

Conclusion

The Human Exploration Initiative benefits the nation in a multitude of dimensions. The Initiative has the ability to reinvigorate the human spirit by responding to the imperative to explore new worlds. A wealth of new knowledge will

flow from the exploration and science conducted within the Initiative. And

international leadership and national pride will result from a successful, visible,

long-term U.S. exploration program.

Each of these benefits is substantial and important t9 the vitality of the Nation.

But, there are other benefits more tangible and near term. The Human Exploration Initiative provides a stimulus for science and engineering education; it

9-10
strengthens our national technologicalcapabilities; and it servesas a mechanism for national policy.

International cooperationconsiderationsare discussedearlier and are the subject of a separate policy analysis conducted under the direction of the National

Space Council. The many approaches to international cooperation provide

opportunity to further national objectives today, as well as over the life of the

Initiative.

The Human Exploration Initiative supports the maintenance of our domestic

standard of living by strengthening U.S. competitiveness in an interdependent,

global, Wading economy. NASA plays a leading role among government agendes in developing a body of knowledge that has the potential to advance technology. NASA's research and development budget of $3.3 billion (1988) represents

13 percent of all civilian research and development in the government. NASA

contributes to the Nation's base of technology through the transfer ofresearch

knowledge into the public and private sectors. The application and reapplication of this knowledge has a multiplicative effect, in which the general increase

of eflidency and wealth from the advanced knowledge spreads throughout

society.

Although the measure of contribution varies, there is general agreement among

economists that NASA makes a major contribution to the economy. The Human

Exploration Initiative will expand this contribution as advanced technologies

such as automation and robotics, cryogenic propellants, life support systems,

lightweight, easily assembled structures, aerebrakes, and other technologies are

developed.

Another benefit increasingly important today is the stimulus the Human Exploration Initiative can provide to education. In order to help ensure that the

Nation has an adequate, continuing supply of scientists, engineers, and other

technical personnel to successfully implement the President's Human Exploration Initiative, an aggressive and targeted educational action plan is needech

The Nation faces a predicted shortage of some 675,000 scientists and engineers

by the year 2000. Accordingly, as a part of its implementation of the Human

Exploration Initiative, NASA will contribute to helping solve this national problem. NASA will redirect and enhance its existing aerospace education program

into a new, comprehensive, educational program entitled "Scientific Literacy for

the 21st Century."

This educational program will use the unique and highly motivational educational resources represented by NASA's space science and" technology mission,

its highly trained staff, and its special facilities. The educational outreach

under "Scientific Literacy for the 21st Century" will supplement other national

efforts to help increase scientific literacy among four high leverage groups:

9-11
teachers,students, universities, and the adult general public. An exciting series

of specializededucationalprogramswill bedesignedfor eachof the four groups,

and all will incorporate the space science and technology concepts and activities

associated with the Human Exploration Initiative.

Space is a magnet for learning, and the Human Exploration Initiative, in an

educational context, will captivate new generations of students, who constitute

the Nation's future scientific and technical work force.

The study and programmatic assessment described in the previous pages have

shown that the Human Exploration Initiative is indeed a feasible approach to

achieving the President's goal. Several reasonable alternatives exist, but a longrange commitment and significant resources will be required. However, the

value of the program and the benefits to the Nation are immeasurable.

Some day it may be said that the residents of Earth had to leave their planet in

order to find it. Indeed, from space, humans first got to see their own planet,

floating in blackness above the barren moonscape like a blue and white marble.

Perhaps more than anything else, this view of Earth dramatized our planet's

uniqueness and its fragility.

The last half of the 20th Century and the first half of the 21st Century will

almost certainly be remembered as the era when humans broke the bonds that

bound them to Earth and set forth on a journey into space.

That journey will, in time, extend human presence throughout the solar system.

Historians will note that the Moon became a familiar place to Earthlings very

early in that period. They returned there to follow in the bootprints of Arm9-12
strong,Aldrin, and their Apollo colleagues,to mine the lunar rocksand other

resourcesand to establish an outpost for further exploration and expansion of

human activities, on Mars and beyond.

Historians will further note that the journey to expand the human presence into

the solar system began in earnest on July 20, 1989, the 20th anniversary of the

Apollo 11 lunar landing. On that day, President George Bush announced his

proposal for a long-range, continuing commitment to a bold program of human

exploration of the solar system.

9-13

NASA-JSC

N/kSA

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Washington, D.C.

20546

A

Reply to Attn of:

Vice Admiral Richard H. Truly

Administrator

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASA Headquarters

Washington, DC 20546

Dear Admiral Truly:

I am providing you the report resulting from our 90-day study to examine

elements of the President's Human Exploration Initiative. This report represents

the effort of teams from across the Agency. Each Program Associate

Administrator developed functional and discipline assessments for the Initiative

and participated in the integration of the overall study. NASA centers and JPL

participated in the program office assessments and contributed members to the

study team. A technical study group integrated the inputs of the center

representatives and conducted detailed analyses and trade studies. Finally, a

report assembly team worked with all involved to produce the enclosed report.

Throughout the study, reviews were conducted by the Associate Administrators

and center directors as well as a review team made up of senior agency officials.

As described in the Preface, this report provides a data base for future

Administration decision-making on the Human Exploration Initiative. It

considers five reference approaches and addresses questions of program

objectives, schedules, technologies, and resource requirements. In addition, the

report provides information regarding the benefits of the Human Exploration

Initiative, international participation considerations, and potential management

enhancements. It is significant to note that the approaches are based on current

and forecasted advances in technological capabilities. Should breakthroughs in

any of several key technologies - including propulsion, life support, and power -

cause these technologies to advance more rapidly than anticipated, increases in

performance or reductions in cost could result.

We believe this report represents a good starting point for Council deliberations

and we plan to continue our efforts as the Human Exploration Initiative develops.

The data base will permit the development of implementation options for use in the

policy formulation process. Beyond providing this data base, NASA is also

working with the Space Council on separate assessments of a number of critical

issues including alternati,_e approaches to schedule and technology development,

and international cooperation.
Throughout the effort to develop the report, I have had the opportunity to speak

with a large number of people and I have been encouraged by the enthusiasm

displayed and the thousands of hours so many people willingly contributed to the

study. I am impressed not only with the capability available for the Human

Exploration Initiative, but also with the dedication and excitement of individuals

within the Agency as well as those outside the Agency.

I feel the message is clear from those who participated in the 90-day study. NASA

stands ready to support the Nation's decision to complete Space Station Freedom,

to return to the Moon, this time to stay, and then press onward to Mars.

Sincerely,

Aaron Cohen

Enclosure