Aeronautics

and

SpaceReport

ofthe

President

FiscalYear

1996

Activities

NationalAerona_cs

andSpace Administration

Washington,DC20546
/ic

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Table of Contents

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Executive Summary

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Department of Defense

Federal Aviation Administration

Department of Commerce

Department of Energy

Department of the Interior

Department of Agriculture

Federal Communications Commission

Environmental Protection Agency

National Science Foundation

Smithsonian Institution

Department of State

Arms Control and Disarmament Agency

U.S. Information Agency

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Space Launch Activities

Space Shuttle Missions

Expendable Launch Vehicles

13

13

15

Space Science

Astronomy and Space Physics

Solar System Exploration

19

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23

Space Flight and Technology

Life and Microgravity Sciences

Space Shuttle Technology

Reusable Launch Vehicles

International Space Station

Energy

Safety and Mission Assurance

Commercial Development and Regulation of Space

Surveillance

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27

30
Space Communications

Communications Satellites

Space Network

Ground Networks

Mission Control and Data Systems

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Aeronautical Activities

Technology Developments

Air Traffic Control and Navigation

Weather-Related Aeronautical Activities

Flight Safety and Security

Aviation Medicine and Human Factors

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45

49

51

53

55

Studies of the Planet Earth

Terrestrial Studies and Applications

Atmospheric Studies

Oceanographic Studies

59

59

67

71

International Aeronautical and Space Activities

Cooperation With Foreign Partners

Discussions Concerning Arms Control of Space-Related Weaponry

Space and Public Diplomacy Abroad

75

75

76

77

Appendices

A-1 U.S. Government Spacecraft Record

A-2 World Record of Space Launches Successful in

Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond

A-3 Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles,

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

B U.S.-Launched Satellites, October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

1961-September 30, 1996

Federal Space Activities Budget

E-3 F_I Aeronautics Budget

F-1 Fact Sheet: U.S. Global Positioning System Policy

F-2 Fact Sheet: National Space Policy

Glossary

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This photo of Earth was processed by

NOAA's National Environmental Satellite,

Data, and Information Service.
The National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 directed

the annual Aeronautics and Space Report to include a

"comprehensive description of the programmed activities

and the accomplishments of all agencies of the United

States in the field of aeronautics and space activities during

the preceding calendar year." In recent years, the reports

have been prepared on a fiscal year (FY) basis, consistent

with the budgetary period now used in programs of the

Federal Government. This year's report covers activities

that took place fr_m ()c>ber l, 1995, through September

30, 1996•

wide ments variety of aeronautics and space develop- took place during FY 1996. The

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) successfi_lly completed eight Space

Shuttle flights. Shuttle orbiters made three successful

sorties with the Russian space station Mir m preparation

fi)r building and permanently inhabiting the International Space Station (ISS). Astronaut Shannon Lucid

set records fi_r the longest space flight fi_r a woman and

fi)r an American by staying in space for 188 days.

NASA successfully launched seven Expendable

Launch Vehicles (ELV), while the Department of

Defense (DoD) successfully conducted nine ELV

launches during the fiscal year. These launches included

satellites to study astrophysics and space physics, track

the Earth's global change patterns, and support military

communications. In addition, there were 13 commercial

launches that the Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA), part of the Department of Transportation,

licensed and monitored.

On the Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV) program,

Vice President Albert A. Gore, Jr., announced that

L_+ckheed Martin Corporation had been selected to

design, fitbricate, and flight-test the X-33 vehicle.

NASA hoped tt>develop new kinds of launch technologies that will enable significantly more affordable and

reliable access to space.

In aeronautics, NASA, the FAA, and DoD developed technologies to increase safety, reduce negative

environmental impacts, and assist U.S. industry in

becoming more competitive in the world market. Air

traffic control activities fi_cused on various atttomation

systems to increase flight safety and enhance the efficient use of airspace.

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In space science, researchers at NASA's Johnson

Space Center examined a small meteurite believed tu

have come fr_m_ Mars, which oitL'red exciting evidence

that it may have once cot-Ltained small, primitive f_rnis

of life. Additionally, the Galileo spacecraft detected pussible signs of water on Jupiter's moon Europa, a finding

with potetmally great implications for extraterrestrial

life. In astrophysics, the Hubble Space Telescupe (HST)

gave astronomers their first detailed look at Pluto's stirface and provided impurtant chics tu the univcrsc's age.

Earth scientists cotltinued to study the complex

interactions of physical fi+rces that influence _mr weather

and environment. Agencies such as the E,wironn_ental

Protection Agency (EPA), :is well as the l)cpartments _f

Agriculture and the Interior, used remote-sensing technulogics to better understand terrestrial changes.

Micru_ravity researchers col/dtlcted research and scientific investig:ltions on the Space Shuttle, on the

Russian Mir space station, and through an array of

ground-based and suburbital facilities. Much of thib

research was to prepare for the long-durati_m stays of

hurrums on the ISS.

(.]h+se it3tcrnatit+nal p'<trtncrships, particularly with

Russia, occurred on the Shuttlc-Mir d_cking missions

and on the ISS program. The United States and Japan

increased their cooperation _+n the Pvlissiun t_* l+'lanet

Earth (MTPE) t,rogram. NASA alsu cooperated with

nontraditiotml partners in South Alncrica and Asia.

l)urmg FY 1996, the Federal Governtnent rcleased

two significant mteragency space polio/documents that

are inchided in this report's appendix section. The first

is the Gh+bal P_>sitioning System (GPS) Policy, and the

scored is the National Space Policy.

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

During FY 1996, NASA had eight Space Shuttle

[aunclles, with its crews cunducting a variety of experiments and deploying several payh+ads. Specifically,

Shuttle crews deployed the third U.S. Microgravity

Payload, the secund U.S. Microgravity Laboratury, the

colnniercial SPA(2EHAB module, the SPARTAN-207

astrotaomicat platG_rm, and the Life and Mien>gravity

Sciences Spacelab. A Shuttle crew alsn retrieved the

previ_>usly launched Japanese Space Flyer Unit. Shuttle

orbiters made three successful surties with the Russian

Mir space station in preparatit_n f_lr building ',lnd permanently inhabiting the ISS+ Columbia set a Shuttle record

by staying ahfft fi>r almost 17 days on STS-78. Astronaut

Shannotl Lucid also set records tier lungest space flight

fi_r a woman and fi_r an American by staying m space fi_r

188 days. Shuttle managers made significant strides in

using environmentally friendly technologies to service

the Shuttle.

For the third consecutive year, the ISS program

remained within budgetary guidelines and on schedule

fi)r first element launch in November 1997. NASA

completed work t>n more than 132,000 pounds uf hardware and implemented new procedures tt+ handle any

technical concerns. In April 1996, the Russian Priorda

module was launched to Mir, enabling U.S. researchers

to conduct nulnerous long-duration experiments before

the ISS begins operating.

NASA successfillly launched seven ELV's during FY

1996. Technicians upgraded the Atlas IIAS launch vehicle to accommodate the large Earth Observing System

(EOS) AM-I spacecraft and also outfitted the Delta I1

with new avionics. Engineers designed telcinetry

upgrades fi_r the Atlas Centaur and Titan Centaur vehicles. After several fiiilures m previous years, the Pegasus

XL successfully launched three times in FY 1996.

On the RLV prugram, Vice President Gore

announced that Lockheed Martin Corporation had been

selected to design, fitbricate, ',and flight-test the X-33

vehicle. After canceling the original X-34 cuoperative

agreetncnt, NASA awarded a restructured contract to

Orbital Sciences (_orporatiun. NASA terminated the

Clipper Grahanl (fi+rmerly the DC-XA) project after the

test vehicle was destrt+yed m a landing accident.

In space science, researchers arid the generul public

becamc excited by the pt>ssible discovery of ancient life

ort Mars. A group of researchers, led by Dr. 1)avid

McKay at the Johnson Space Center, exatnined a small

meteorite believed tt_ have come from Mars, actd they

filtmd ex idence that it may have t_nce contained small,

primitive tk>rlns <+flife. Additionally, the (;alile,+ spacecn/ft detected possitqe signs _+f water t>n Jupiter's mr+on

Eun>pa, a finding with potentially great imptic:u irons tier

extraterrestrial lite, and reve',lled a weahh uf infi+rm',ttion

'about Jupiter's ain/_sphere and large moons. In astro-
physics, the HST continued to produce dramatic images

of the solar system and universe. Specifically, the HST

provided astronomers their first detailed look at Pluto's

surface and provided important clues to the universe's

age. The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory continued

its investigation of mysterious gamma rays, which,

according to project scientists, originate from molecular

clouds in our Milky Way galaxy. Similarly, the Rossi Xray Timing Explorer provided valuable new information

on neutron stars and black holes. In space physics, the

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory provided a large

amount of useful data on the Sun's outer atmosphere and

its interior. Additionally, the Polar satellite produced

valuable results about the solar wind.

FY 1996 was a productive year for NASA's MTPE

program, which seeks to expand and publicly disseminate

scientific knowledge of the Earth's system. Data from a

joint U.S.-French satellite challenged a fimdamental

oceanographic theory about the speed of large-scale

ocean waves and provided definitive information on the

principal tidal components of the world's oceans. A scientific paper based in large part on ozone data from

NASA satellites found that solar ultraviolet radiation

reaching the Earth's surface has increased over large

regions of the planet during the past 15 years, as the

amount of total ozone in the atmosphere has decreased.

A joint U.S.-Canadian research campaign revealed that

the air above the northern forests was much drier than

expected, leading to adjustments in the models used by

fi_recasters to predict the weather. Maps produced from a

NASA airborne sensor cut costs and helped speed the

cleanup of hazardous waste at a Superfund site in

Colorado. NASA launched the Canadian RADARSAT

spacecraft, opening new avenues of radar exploration of

the Antarctic ice sheet and other surface features. In

addition, NASA and the Defense Mapping Agency

signed an agreement for a Shuttle radar mission to produce the most accurate and complete topographic map of

the Earth's surface ever assembled. Space radar data also

helped scientists in China locate and study two generations of the Great Wall of China buried under the sand

for centuries.

In FY 1996, NASA's Office of Life and Microgravity

Sciences and Applications conducted research and scientific investigations on the Space Shuttle, on the

Russian Mir space station, and through an array of

ground-based and suborbital facilities. The office conducted a successful 30-day closed regenerative life

support system test, during which atmosphere and water

were recovered and recycled for a crew of four test subjects. Researchers using space-grown protein crystals

designed a drug that effectively stops the spread of the

flu virus within the body and published the highest resolution structure of insulin to date. Record-breaking

stays on the Russian Mir space station by American

astronauts Norman Thagard and Shannon Lucid led to

numerous important findings, including observations on

the course of bone loss in low gravity and surprising

results on the radiation environment in low-Earth orbit.

Researchers at the NASA/National Institutes of Health

Center for Three-Dimensional Tissue Culture produced

the first in-vitro tissue system that permits the study of

HIV inside human lymphoid tissue. Dr. John Lipa published results in Physical Review Letters; these results

confirm a Nobel prize-winning theory that describes

conditions under which matter will change between different states, such as from liquid to gas.

NASA's Aeronautical Research program continued

to pioneer the development, transfer, application, and

commercialization of high-payoff aeronautical technologies in FY 1996. The research remained applicable to

the development of safe, superior, and envmmmentally

compatible civil and military aircraft. NASA program

managers coordinated their efforts with U.S. customers

to ensure that both NASA and the private sector efficiently utilized national investments in aeronautical

research and technology. Researchers supported the

development of new-generation subsonic aircraft and a

safe, highly productive global air transportation system.

Innovations in information science led to significant

advances in the design, manufacture, and testing of aircraft, including the utilization of virtual wind tunnels.

In the past year, researchers made advances in establishing an economically feasible, environmentally friendly

high-speed civil transport. Significant progress also

occurred in demonstrating technologies for air-breathing hypersonic flight. In FY 1996, NASA continued to

hone its many tools used in aeronautical research,

including high-performance computing techniques and

critical national facilities.

In the area of space communications, NASA networks provided support for numerous NASA flight

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missions, including eight Shuttle missions, in FY 1996.

NASA established several bilateral panels with international partners to promote cost-effective ways to share

resources. A team with representatives from NASA,

DoD, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration (NOAA) looked at ways to increase

cooperation on satellite telemetry and tracking. NASA

made its Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS)

system available to other agencies for launch vehicle

telemetry service and to a commercial broadcaster under

a revenue-sharing arrangement for telecommunications

services, including the 1996 Summer Olympics in

Atlanta. Technicians also made significant improvements to NASA's ground networks, as well as mission

control and data systems.

Internationally, NASA and Russian Space Agency

officials reached agreement on a memorandum of

understanding to define mutual roles and responsibilities on the ISS program at the seventh meeting of the

U.S.-Russia Commission on Economic and Technological Cooperation, known more widely as the GoreChemomyrdin Commission. Together with NOAA,

NASA hosted a meeting at which space agencies and

international organizations discussed strategies for assuring long-term global observations of the Earth. The

MTPE program benefited from increased international

cooperation, particularly with Japan. During FY 1996,

NASA c(_peration with nontraditional partners flourished, with Administration officials signing new

cooperative agreements in Argentina and Brazil and

NASA Administrator Daniel S. Goldin meeting with

civilian space officials from Chile, India, Korea, and Israel.

In the area of safety and mission assurance, NASA

safely completed eight Space Shuttle flights and six

expendable spacecraft launches in FY 1996. At the same

time, NASA managers reduced safety and mission assurance costs for Shuttle ground processing through

improved data collection techniques. To oversee the

safety of human space flight, NASA formed a safety

assurance board fi3r its Human Exploration and

Development of Space (HEDS) Enterprise. To comply

with international norms, NASA adopted lntemational

Organization for Standardization (ISO)-9000 as its standard fi_r quality management. NASA safety specialists

also set standards for orbital debris damage risk reduction, as well as oxygen and hydrogen safety.

During FY 1996, NASA updated its new Strategic

Plan. New in this plan are NASA's Roadmaps for its

Strategic Enterprises, the "Centers of Excellence"

approach, the identification of NASA's crosscutting

processes, and the strategies the agency will use to revolutionize itself. In addition, NASA completed its new

Strategic Management Handbook, which describes the ways

in which NASA combined its strategic planning, ZeroBase Review, and new Program Management System to

create a fully integrated management process.

Throughout the Government, NASA was recognized as

a model in successful strategic management. At the

behest of the Office of Management and Budget and the

Office of Personnel Management, NASA developed a

video on strategic planning called "Charting a Course fi3r

the Future," which portrays NASA's successful strategic

planning process and summarizes its Strategic Plan. The

Office of Personal Management distributed the video to

all Federal agencies to assist them in developing their

own strategic plans and in more clearly communicating

their visions, missions, and goals to the American people.

Department of Defense

DoD conducted nine ELV launches during FY 1996.

The Air Force's heavy-lift Titan IV has become the

workhorse of DoD's launch vehicles, with five successful launches in FY 1996. In the medium- and light-lift

categories, DoD successfully launched three Delta II

ELV's and two Pegasus/Pegasus XL ELV's, respectively.

The Air Force also supported NASA Space Shuttle and

ELV launches from Cape Canaveral Air Station in

Florida. To implement its part of the National Space

Transportation Policy, DoD has initiated an Evolved

ELV (EELV) program to replace the current mediumand heavy-lift launch systems. DoD continued to support the NASA-led RLV program through cooperative

technology development.

In terms of surveillance capabilities, the Air Force's

Defense Support Program continued to provide frontline warning of missile attack to the National C_,mmand

Authorities, and the program also has become valuable

to other world leaders. As a follow-on to the Defense

Support Program, DoD proceeded with the development

of a new constellation of infrared detection satellites to
aidin missilewarning, missiledefense, andtechnical

intelligence. TheNavalResearchLaboratoryandthe

NationalReconnaissance OfficesponsoredtheTether

PhysicsandSurvivabilityexperiment forresearchin

gravity-gradient dynamicsandthesurvivabilityoftetheredsystemsin low-Earthorbit. Launched by a

commercial operator in May 1996, the Air Force's

Miniature Sensor Technology Integration-3 satellite is to

gather data to determine whether tracking theater ballistic missiles in the coast phase against a warm Earth

background is feasible. In April 1996, the Ballistic

Missile Defense Organization launched its Midcourse

Space Experiment, the first space system demonstration

to characterize ballistic missile signatures during the

"midcourse" flight phase between booster burnout and

missile reentry.

In the area of military communications, space systems played a critical role as a force multiplier

everywhere DoD deployed U.S. fi_rces, such as Bosnia,

Korea, Europe, the Asian-Pacific rim, and the United

States. To increase communications support to forces in

Bosnia, DoD personnel repositioned several Defense

Satellite Communications System satellites.

In December 1995 the Secretary of Defense and the

Director of Central Intelligence signed the charter for

the Joint Space Management Board (JSMB). The

JSMB's functions include reviewing and approving

tradeoffs among requirements, programs, and resources;

reviewing and approving defense and intelligence space

policies, architectures, and program plans for consistency and budget recommendations; integrating defense

and intelligence space architectures; and making recommendations to the Secretary of Defense and Director of

Central Intelligence on issues that affect national security space activities. After an August 1996 briefing by

the DoD Space Architect, the board approved the architecture and transition plans fi_r the military satellite

communications (MILSATCOM) system. The JSMB

also created a National Security Space Review team to

conduct a comprehensive planning review of all space

activities of the intelligence community and DoD. The

JSMB is cochaired by the Under Secretary of Defense for

Acquisition and Technology and the Deputy Director of

Central Intelligence.

Under the overall direction of the Deputy Under

Secretary of Defense (Space), DoD officials created the

National Security Space Master Plan task force in

March 1996. The specific purpose of this group is to

develop a long-range plan and guidelines for national

security space activities.

In support of the Administration's Global Positioning

System (GPS) policy, DoD continued to work closely

with civil agencies to enhance the GPS contribution to

U.S. and allied civil and commercial users while guarding against a breach in U.S. national security. With

regard to the latter concern, DoD continued to perform

analytical studies and testing on GPS signal protection

against potential enemies on the battlefield. Recognizing

this balance, in March 1996, the Administration

approved a comprehensive national policy on the filture

management and use of GPS. In it, the Administration

announced the Government's intention to discontinue

the use of Selective Availability, which provides for

increased accuracy only to authorized users, within a

decade. DoD proposed to Congress a plan for the effective maintenance of GPS services, as well as the

acquisition of the next block of GPS satellites to sustain

the constellation beyond the year 2000.

The Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating

Board, a body composed of senior managers from DoD

and NASA who coordinate their agencies' activities,

completed a major initiative to increase cooperation

between the two organizations. Integrated Product

Teams studied the following areas: Technology and

Laboratories; Space Launch Activities; Satellite

Telemetry; Tracking and Commanding; Base/Center

Support and Services; Major Facilities; Interagency

Agreements; and Personnel Exchange. The teams completed their work, and the two agencies began to

implement their recommendations.

Federal Aviation Administration

As part of the Department of Transportation (DOT), the

FAA continued a dynamic research and development

program in support of its mission to ensure the safe and

efficient use of the Nation's airspace, to fi_ster civil aeronautics and air commerce in the United States and

abroad, and to support the requirement of national

defense. The FAA embarked on an effort to modernize

the air traffic control system in an economically feasible

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manner, with minimal disruption to users. As part of

that effort, the FAA released the initial version of its

new National Airspace System (NAS) Architecture, a

comprehensive blueprint for the NAS infrastructure

over the next 20 years.

The Display System Replacement (DSR) program to

modernize equipment used at Air Route Traffic Control

Centers (ARTCC's) proceeded on schedule. During FY

1996, the DSR program completed hardware and software design and development, accomplished product

integration, fulfilled the initial requirements for DSR

console testing, and completed its production readiness

review. Work on the interim system, the Display

Channel Complex Rehost, which will provide a modern

and reliable display channel system at five ARTCC's,

proceeded significantly ahead of schedule.

Work on the Satellite Navigation program also continued on track. During the fiscal year, the FAA fielded

the National Satellite Test Bed, which is a research and

development program that mitigates risks for systems

such as the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS).

The WAAS program, developed to serve all phases of

flight from en route through precision approach, is the

key program in FAA's plan to move to a satellite-based

navigation system. In May 1996, the agency signed a

contract with Hughes Aircraft Corporation for WAAS

development.

During FY 1996, the FAA continued developing

integrated terminal weather systems to provide shortrange forecast and warning notices to pilots and air

traffic controllers. The FAA commissioned 13 more

terminal Doppler weather radar systems. In addition,

the agency enhanced a low-level wind-shear alert

system at seven major airports and made the decision

to proceed with full-scale development activities on

another program, the airport surveillance radar

weather systems processor. That system will provide for

the timely detection of hazardous wind shear in the terminal approach and departure areas. Under the wake

vortex program, the FAA and NASA participated on a

Government-industry team to address aircraft classification and air separation standards. The FAA

expanded its international coordination efforts to

include the United Kingdom, France, and Germany in

the analysis of aircraft separation data relevant to wake

vortices.

In the area of airliner safety, the FAA continued its

research efforts on civil aviation structural integrity,

flight loads, and corrosion. FAA engineers made significant progress in decreasing the flammability of new

interior insulation materials and passenger blankets.

During the fiscal year, the FAA also successfully tested

an aircraft arrestor bed.

The FAA's efforts to improve human perfl_rmance in

the national airspace system through its research and

development program had numerous successes during

the fiscal year. In July 1996, the FAA began operational

tests of an automated performance measuring system for

analyzing, processing, and managing digital flightrecorded data. The test allowed the FAA to evaluate the

system's capability to extrapolate and analyze a continuous stream of aircraft data and translate it into

infi_rmation that will help detect and correct safety

problems before accidents happen. The FAA also

deployed and began evaluating the systematic air traffic

operations research initiative, a research tool designed

to support assessments of air traffic control operations at

four en route centers.

During the fiscal year, DoT's Office of Commercial

Space Transportation joined the FAA. Also during FY

1996, the FAA's Associate Administrator for

Commercial Space Transportation (AST) granted

licenses for 13 commercial space launches. In connection with the amended Commercial Space Launch Act,

the Office of Commercial Space Transportation

processed 11 maximum probable loss determinations,

based on the actual risks associated with proposed

launch activities during the fiscal year. The office also

continued a proglam to encourage and facilitate the

development of w_luntary industry and international

standards for launch safety.

A major priority for the Office of Commercial Space

Transportation during FY 1996 was to update and "reinvent" its existing regulations. The AST participated in

several interagency efforts on space policy led by the

White House Office of Science and Technology Policy,

including the National Space Policy and Spaceport

Guidelines initiatives. The office supported the U.S.

Trade Representative's office in its negotiations fi_r a new

space launch trade agreement between the United States

and Ukraine, as well as a delegation led by the U.S. Trade

Representative's office that negotiated several significant
amendments to the space launch trade agreement

between the United States and Russia.

In the area of launch vehicle technology, the AST

provided technical assistance and policy analysis as a

member of DolO's Source Selection Advisory Board for

the EELV program. Similarh/, the AST's staff provided

technical and analytical support to NASA-led RLV

technology programs. The Office of Commercial Space

Transportation contributed significanth/to the inleragency effort to develop policy on space orbital debris fi_r

tl_e U.S. delegation to d_e Unitd Nations (]onunittee

on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space ((7OPUOS). To support pending and anticipated applications for licenses

to launch large constellations of comtnutlications satellites in low-Earth orbit, AST personnel researched

collision risk and the effects t+f service disrul+tions

caused by collisions.

Department of Commerce

Within the Department of Commerce (1)o(_), NOAA

was active m lllany space activities. In atmospheric studies, NOAA participated in and led numerous

mteragency and international studies on topics such as

weather prediction, ozone depletion, and trace gases. In

the oceanograpilic arca, NC)AA involvement in projects sucll as TC)PEX/l'oseidon, CoastW;ltch, mid

RAI)ARSAT led to increased knowledge of ocean color,

temperature, circulation pallerns, alld shore erosi<,n.

NOAA scientists also conducted sienificani research <>n

terrestrial studies topics, such as land tlsefland cover,

vegetation density, and population and energy conSUlllptioll ill urinal1 cetlters.

Do(2's Office of Air and Space (Mmmcrciali:ation

(OAS(]) ensured that U.S. conunercial space imerests

were represented in the f;,_rmulation of space-related

Govermnent D,licies and agrccmcnls. OAS(_ personnel

contributed to the Administration's National Space

Pc_licy and GPS Policy. Interuatioimlly, OAS(] participated ill llCgotiatioils with tile' __{tivernlnenl el Ukraine

on a bilatercd launch agreement, wilh I11c_gtB.ernnlel/r _;t

Japan regarding GPS policies, and with the _o\'eriill/ellt

of (;hina regarding the pricing{ of satellite launch services. Also in P'l" 199(% eASe7 pariicipalcd in tilt'

preparation <it guidelines fi*r licensir, v COmlllerc M space

launch situs (spaceports), l)oD's Source Selection

A& isory _.Muncil li>r the EELV program, thc X-33 RIM

selection panel, and the National Spacelift

[_.Ccluiren_ents process.

Tile Intern_itional Trade Administration's Office of

Aerospace also contributed to a commercial space

iaunctl agreen/enl witt_ Ukraine, as well '<isconsultations

ft_r similar agreellV,_'lits with ]_.tissia and China. Tile office

participated in discussions with the Etlropeall Union

under a 1992 a.<,,recment on trade in large civil aircraft,

and with the W<_rld Trade C)rganization's General

Agrccnlent on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Aircraft

(;Olllll/ittee. Th,,_' Office of Aerospace ellCOtlra_ed as

nlaliV countries as possitqe to sign the GATT Agreement

on Trade in Civil Aircraft as part of the World Trade

()rgalliz_ltion's accession process. To promote the export

of I_J.S. aerospace pn_ducis, office staff led an executive

trade inission to Turkey and Egypt and sponsored nine

"Aerospace Product l.iterature (]enters" at major internation'al aer/,space exhibitions and air shows. Together

with International Trade Administration's Advocacy

(]enter, the (.)ttice of Aerospace helped organize 1J.S.

(]ovcrnll/enl advocacy for several international aerospace competitions, including helicopters, commercial

transport aircraft, and space launch vehicles.

As lilt' leadadvisor$<tTci/cyt-titPcdend(]overnlnelll

Icic, coilllllllllicaliolls isstles, the National Telecolnn/tll'iic:tiit>ns and lntorniation Administration (NTIA)

undertook a l;uml_er of policy initiatives regarding satel-

]lies and other space-l_ased COlllmtlliic',ltiOllS systems.

Specifically, NTIA provided policy guidance on the

restrticturing of the lrLternational Telecolnmunicatiorls

Satellite Organization (INTELSAT)and tile Internation',ll Mobile Satellite Organization (INMARSAT).

While tile Federal (]onununications (]onunission contiDLied to reTulate the electromagnetic spectrun/ for

COllllllercial users, NTIA managed the Federal (.;overnment's use of the spectrum and helped io clear

ullexpected rc*2ulaiory hurdles. NTIA engil_ecrs were

illstrill//ental ill dcvclopinlg a national plan to b/tlglilent

l[le navigation signals c_f(.;i>S for the 1,enefit of a wide

variety of civilian and commercial users.

Tile Nati<_nal liislilUle oi: _taDdards and Technology

pcrfornlcd a wide variety of re>earth in support of aeron:nltics lind space activities during FY 1996. The

il>titulc received fundin_ trol/l N,_tS,'<_ [lcadquarters

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and six NASA centers for 63 projects, totaling $4 million in research and development activities in FY 1996.

Department of Energy

In FY 1996, the Department of Energy (DOE) continued

its work in the fabrication and testing of three general

purpose heat source radioisotope thermoelectric generators (GPHS-RTG's) and 157 lightweight radioisotope

heater units (LWRHU) fl_r NASA's Cassini mission to

Saturn. DoE provided three LWRHU's to NASA fi_r the

upcoming launch of the Mars Pathfinder spacecraft. For

NASA's Pluto Express mission, DoE continued studies

of advanced converter technologies to provide highefficiency, lightweight power sources.

DoE's Sandia and Los Alamos National Laboratories

continued to provide nuclear explosion sensors fl_r integration onto DoD's GPS and Defense Support Program

spacecraft. FY 1996 marked the launch of the 60th payload in this series, which was initiated by the Vela

satellites in the 1960's. DoE personnel also provided

expertise to NASA on power and propulsion options for

exploration of the Moon, Mars, and other planets.

Department of the Interior

The Department of the Interior (Dol) applied GPS

technology and remote sensing from satellites and aircraft to a variety of operational and research programs in

FY 1996. Dol continued to cooperate with I)_D to use

the Navstar GPS Precise Positioning Service (PPS). Dol

established a centralized facility in Denver to maintain

and encrypt approximately 400 precision lightweight

GPS receivers that have been purchased by Dol bureaus

since 1995. Dol used GPS technology for a wide range

of mapping, inventory, monitoring, and research activities in FY 1996.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs continued to use

Landsat and Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre

(SPOT) data and GPS fi_r resource mapping, image

mapping, environmental assessments, inventories, and

other related Geographic Infi_rmation System (GIS)

support activities. Bureau of Land Management resource

specialists continued tt_ use remotely sensed data and

GPS to provide critical information fi_r its inventory,

assessment, modeling, and monitoring programs. During

FY 1996, the Bureau of Reclamation used remotely

sensed data to support a number of water resource management projects, including modeling consumptive

water use for rivers in the western United States, estimating snow precipitation rates from the nextgeneration weather radar Doppler radar system, and

mapping river bottom habitats for endangered fish.

The National Biological Service used Landsat,

SPOT, and Advanced Very High Resolution

Radiometer (AVHRR) data for mapping and research,

such as the Gap Analysis Program, land cover and

change detection mapping, the assessment of damage

from Hurricane Andrew, the analysis of waterfi_wl habitats, and the analysis of surface snow characteristics. The

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service increased its use of

Landsat data fi_r creating baseline habitat maps in several diverse locations and used this information to

determine the suitability of the area for endangered

species. In Alaska, the National Park Service used

remotely sensed data fi_r land cover mapping and the

documentation of glacial changes.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Earth

Resources Observation System (EROS) Data Center

completed a major expansion in FY 1996, providing

additional space fi_r the center's support of NASA's LOS

i)ata lnfi_rmation System (EOSDIS) program and the

Landsat-7 Data Handling Facility. The center has collected, processed, and archived more than 75,000 daily

AVHRR observations since the beginning of the Global

Land 1-kilometer AVHRR Pathfinder project (1972), in

cooperation with NASA, NOAA, and several international partners. Center staff began to develop a baseline

global land cover data set from the project's 18-month

time series of cloud-free vegetation index composites.

The Multi-Resolution Land Characterization project (a

joint activity of USGS, EPA, NASA, NOAA, anti other

agencies) released several data sets covering regional and

continental areas. The USGS EROS Data Center

acquired more than 800,000 recently declassified intelligence photographs and made them available to the

public for the cost of reproduction.

In FY 1996, USGS personnel actively participated

with their NASA colleagues in mission planning and

data anab/sis fi_rseveral planetary exploration missions:
theGalileomission around Jupiter, the NASA Mars

Global Surveyor and Mars Pathfinder missions, and the

Cassini mission to Saturn. USGS investigators also

worked with NASA personnel at the Jet Propulsion

Laboratory on the upcoming New Millennium program

that is to demonstrate and validate advanced technologies for use in the next generation of spacecraft missions.

Department of Agriculture

The Agricultural Research Service used remote sensing

to develop improved techniques fi_r measuring crop

residue cover, classify spring wheat regions, measure

land cover features, determine soil salinity, and improve

farm management practices and crop assessment work.

The Foreign Agricultural Service used remote-sensing

data to perform global crop condition assessments and

production analyses for grains, oilseeds, and cotton.

Working closely with the Foreign Agricultural Service,

the Farm Service Agency acquired and tested the usability of high-resolution Russian imagery to augment aerial

photography coverage.

The Forest Service used satellite imagery to coordinate

firefighting, produce maps, and manage more than 191

million acres of land in the National Forest System. The

National Agricultural Statistics Service used remotesensing data to stratify land for area-based statistical sampies, estimate planted crop area, create crop-specific, land

cover data layers for GIS's, and assess crop conditions.

The Natural Resources Conservation Service shared

costs with State and Federal agencies to acquire aerial

photography through the National Aerial Photography

Program and to develop digital orthoimagery through

the National Digital Orthophoto Program. In addition,

the National Resources Conservation Service cooperated with DoD to use the Navstar GPS PPS and assisted

other Department of Agriculture and Federal agencies

by purchasing and encrypting PPS receivers.

13_0 countries that own and operate the world's most

extensive global communications satellite system. The

FCC also authorized launches of global communications

satellites by PanAmSat, the first private company to provide global satellite services. In addition, the FCC

authorized Comsat's participation in the construction

and launch of five INMARSAT-3 spacecraft and authorized the construction, launch, and operation of

numerous fixed-satellite service satellites during FY

1996. Finally, in January 1996, the FCC released a regulation allowing all U.S. licensed satellites to provide U.S.

domestic service and international service.

Environmental Protection Agency

EPA applied remotely sensed imagery, tools, and technologies to a wide range of environmental applications

in FY 1996. EPA's Environmental Photographic

Interpretation (;enter (EPIC) continued to utilize aerial

photography to research hazardous waste and other

environmental problems. In partnership with DoD,

NASA, DoE, and Dol, EPA managed a study of

advanced remote-sensing techniques to detect wethmds

under fi_rest cover and also applied multiresolution land

characterization data to a variety of environmental

change detection problems, such as water impacts,

urbanization, and wetland losses. EPA scientists also

conducted research utilizing data from the North

American Landscape Characterization data base to

determine vegetation changes from 1970 to 1990.

During FY 1996, EPA's Office of Water participated

in the intelligence community's Government

Applications _sk Force, which Congress created to

demonstrate civilian envirtmmenta[ applications of

advanced remote-sensing technology. Internationally,

EPA personnel participated on an envmmmental task

fi_rce that began developing a remote-sensing GIS data

base fi_r the Priobskoye area of the Russian Arctic.

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Federal Communications Commission National Science Foundation

During FY 1996, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) coordinated and registered several launches

of spacecraft fi_r INTELSAT, a consortium of more than

Scientists, supported by the National Science

Foundation (NSF) or using NSF-sponsored facilities,

made a number of advances in astronomy and space
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physics during FY 1996. NSF-supported scientists

developed new software that interpreted variations in

star light to identify sevcra[ planets orbiting around

other stars similar to our Sun. Another team of scientists fi_cused cameras on more than 9 million stars m a

search for information about massive compact halo

objects, which seem to comprise roughly half of the

dark matter in the halo of the Milky Way galaxy. A

third international team of investigators used the NSFsponsored Cerm Tolelo Inter-American Observatory in

Chile and other ground-based telescopes to identify the

most distant population of normal galaxies ever found.

In another project, an international team using the

Cerro Tolelo observatory discovered 18 supernowls m

galaxies ranging from 4 million to 7 million light-years

away. Some of- these exploding stars destroyed themselves befi_re our own solar system fi_rmed. By analyzing

tile shift m colors associated with these observations,

scientists have begun to test conlpetmg flmories regarding rates of expansion of the universe m an effort to

determine whether the universe will continue indefinite expansion or whether the expansion uhimate[y

will reverse itself.

Researchers also made advances at NSF-sponsored

facilities in polar regions. The Center fi)r Astrophysical

Research in Antarctica completed its third fldl winter

of operations at the South Pole. The center's telescopes

made more than 100,000 observations of neutral

carbon and carbon monoxide in the Milky Way and

other _alaxies, while another experiment resulted in a

fidly sampled map of the cosmic microwave background radiation in a significant patch of the sky.

Elsewhere in Antarctica, five automatic geophysical

observatories, previously deployed by NSE continued

to operate, gathering data on a range of variables without an attelldant.

¢)n the other side of the globe, experimentation

continued at the Early Polar Cap Observatory (EPCO),

a prototype facility exploring the feasibility for establishing a state-of-the-art polar cap t_b._ervatory at

Resotutc Bay in Canada near tile north magnetic pole.

Initial research ',it EPCO included the development of a

new technique ft_r directly observing the signatures of

gravity waves and tides in mesospheric neutral winds.

NSF continued to support a proof-of-concept project called GPS-MET, which uses a lmv-Earth-orbiting

satellite launched in 1995 to measure how signals from

GPS satellites bend as they pass at oblique angles

through various layers of the Earth's atmosphere. By

analyzing these signals, scientists improved their capabilities for estimating ionospheric electron density,

atmospheric density, pressure, temperature, and moisture profiles in the atmosphere.

i)emonstratmg that research and education can be

integrated, Naomi Bates, a recent high school graduate

from Franklin, West Virginia, used a telescope at NSF's

National Radio Astronomy Observatory to conduct a

research project that measured the rotation of our

galaxy. She also completed plans to use a larger telescope to detect high-velocity gases in other galaxies.

Because of the excellence of her research, Naomi Bates

received l]ulnerous awards.

Smithsonian Institution

The Smithsonian Institution contribt, ted to the

national space program through the research of staff scientists at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

(SAO) in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and at the Center

fi_r Planetary Studies and Laboratory fi_r Astrophysics,

based at the National Air and Space Museum in

Washington, D.C. The SAO-designed Ultraviolet

Coronagraph Spectrometer instrument aboard the

NASA-European Space Agency international Solar and

Heliospheric Observatory satellite produced the first

images of the Sun's extended corona. SAO was selected

to operate the Flight Operations Control Center fi_r the

upcoming Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility spacecraft. Special devices for creating images c_f astronomical

objects emitting infrared radiation, developed in part by

SAO and collaborators fi_r flight aboard the proposed

Space [nfrared Telescope Facility mission, won industry

recognition fi_r their contribution to this technology.

An SAO astronomer, using the HST, made the first

direct image of the surface of a star, the stellar behemoth

Betelgeuse, other than the S,m. At the Smithsonian's

(]enter fi_r Planetary Studies, researchers used Shuttle

hnaging Radar (SIR-C) data to identify areas fi_r

detailed field investigations in Egypt.
Department of State

The Department of State (DOS) continued negotiations

with Russia on the ISS and began international discussions on the use of GPS with Japan. In addition, DoS

served as the lead agency for U.S. delegations to meetings of the 1NTELSAT and INMARSAT member

countries and provided relevant policy guidance to

Comsat, the U.S. signatory organization. DoS played an

active role in interagency discussions to develop U.S.

positions on INTELSAT and INMARSAT restructuring

and to promote them internationally. DoS officials also

promoted access to overseas markets for commercial

satellite companies and worked to resolve complex

problems of orbit and spectrum availability.

Arms Control and

Disarmament Agency

During FY 1996, the Arms Control and Disarmament

Agency (ACDA) worked to strengthen and expand the

scope of the 28-member Missile Technology Control

Regime (MTCR), which is intended to prevent the proliferation of missiles, space launch vehicles, and other

unmanned aerial vehicles capable of delivering weapons

of mass destruction. ACDA participated in new MTCR

discussions of missile proliferation from a regional perspective. ACDA also worked on the U.S.-sponsored

MTCR export control seminar on transshipment,

attended by both MTCR members and nonmembers

who are key transshipment countries. ACDA advised

other Government agencies, such as DoC, DoD, and

DoS, on policies relating to space launch joint ventures

and worked to ensure the consistent implementation of

U.S. export control policies. ACDA supported missile

nonproliferation efforts and focused intensely on offensive ballistic missile programs covered by the MTCR

and worked to prevent the acquisition of such weapons

by other countries, particularly in south Asia and the

Korean peninsula. ACDA also supported the vigorous

implementation of sanctions legislation, specifically

against entities in North Korea and Iran. ACDA continued to work on Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty

(START) issues related to the conversion of excess ballistic missiles to space launch vehicles. Finally, ACDA

actively supported the efforts of the United Nations

Special Commission on lraq to destroy or remove from

lraq materials, equipment, and facilities related to missiles with a range greater than 150 kilometers.

U.S. Information Agency

As part of its mission to inform foreign publics of

American achievements, the U.S. Information Agency

(USIA) acquainted worldwide audiences with NASA

activities through regular reporting of Space Shuttle

flights in the daily Washington File and on Voice of

America news broadcasts. Voice of America also held a

live broadcast with astronauts during an Atlantis-Mir

linkup. The Worldnet television service brought live

interviews with astronauts in space to audiences in

Africa and Latin America. For every Shuttle docking

with the space station Mir, USIA officers in Moscow

sent media advisories to American journalists in

Moscow and organized their access to the Star City facility. Worldnet's Newsfile series carried more than 100

stories featuring NASA activities during the year. Many

of these received widespread placement on television

stations around the world. USIA also continued to distribute independently produced video programs about

NASA's work, such as "Exploring the World Beyond"

and "Lift-off to Learning."

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Shannon Lucid in the Spektr module of the

Mir space station. She set records for an

American astronaut and for a woman by

staying in space for more than 6 months.
LAUNCH

IVITIES

Space Shuttle Missions

uring FY 1996, NASA successfully completed

eight Space Shuttle missions. Launch of the first

mission, Space Transportation System (STS)-

73, occurred shortly after the beginning of the year. This

flight was followed by STS-74, -72, -75, -76, -77, -78,

and -79. For the human space flight program, the year

was particularly remarkable in that three of the eight

Shuttle missions involved highly successful linkups with

the Russian space station Mir as part of the ISS program's Phase I, which encompasses a total of nine

Shuttle-Mir docking missions.

Launched on October 20, 1995, the orbiter

Columbia, on its 18th flight, spent nearly 16 days in

space. The mission, the 72nd of the Shuttle program,

carried a crew of seven, including two females. The

second U.S. Microgravity Laboratory (USML-2) was

the primary payload. USML-2 is a Spacelab equipped fi_r

science and technology experiments from the U.S.

Government, universities, and industry in areas such as

fluid physics, materials science, biotechnology, combustion science, and commercial space processing

technologies. During the flight, students at four sites

around the country interacted with the crew, discussing

and comparing onboard microgravity experiments with

similar ground-based experiments. After a highly successful mission, STS-73 landed at Kennedy Space

Center (KSC) on November 5, 1995.

The next mission, STS-74, was launched only a

week later, on November 12. Atlantis, on its 15th flight,

performed the second of the nine planned Shuttle-Mir

docking missions of ISS Phase I. The payload included a

Russian-built docking module, two new solar arrays, and

various supplies. After attaching the docking module to

Mir's Kristal module with Canada's Remote Manipulator

System and linking the Shuttle's airlock to it, the

Atlantis crew of five, including Canadian Chris

Hadfield, was welcomed by the three station occupants--Yuri Gidzenko, Sergei Avdeyev, and Thomas

Reiter, a German. Thus, for the first time in history, representatives of fi_ur nations were together in space.

During 3 days of joint operation, the crews transferred

the U.S. biomedical and microgravity science samples

and data collected by the Mir-18, Mir-19, and Mir-20

resident crews from the station to the Shuttle, along

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with fresh supplies from Atlantis to Mir. On November

18, the Shuttle undocked, leaving the docking module

attached to Mir for fi_ture linkups. Atlantis landed at

KSC on November 20, 1995.

On the next mission, STS-72, launched by the

Shuttle Endeavour on its 10th flight with a six-member

crew, including a Japanese astronaut, and retrieved the

Japanese satellite Space Flyer Unit, which had been

launched by a Japanese H-2 rocket in March 1995. On

January 14, 1996, the crew released the Office of

Aeronautics and Space Technology Flyer, a free-flying

p[atfi_rm carrying four autonomous experiments. Two

days later, the satellite was brought back onboard. Also

on January 14, two of the flight crew performed a 6-hour

spacewalk (extravehicular activity or EVA) to evaluate

a new portable work platform and to build spacewalking

experience for ISS assembly. Two astronauts perfi_rmed a

second EVA of almost 7 hours on January 17 fi)r filrther

testing of spacesuit modifications and ISS assembly tools

and techniques. Endeavour returned to KSC on January

20, 1996.

The fi)llowing mission, STS-75, was launched on

February 22, 1996. Ct)lumbia, on its 19th flight, carried

three international members among its seven-member

crew--two from Italy and one from Switzerland. On

February 25, the crew began to deploy the Tethered

Satellite System (TSS), a joint project between NASA

and the Italian Space Agency. TSS was a reflight from

STS-46 in July 1992. About 5 hours after deployment,

however, the 12.5-mile-long TSS cable snapped near

the Shuttle's cargo bay, and the satellite was lost in

higher orbit (it burned up in the atmosphere on March

19, 1996). Later ewfluations by a failure review board

indicated that the most probable cause was arcing from

the electrically charged tether to the deployment mechanism because of a small defect m the tether's insulation

sheath. Activities onboard STS-75 then fi_cused on the

operation of the third U.S. Microgravity Payload

(USMP-3). Onboard conditions and work progress were

so favorable that mission controllers extended

Columbia's stay in space fi_r an extra day; it returned to

KSC on March 9, 1996.

For the third linkup with Mir in ISS Phase 1,STS-76

lifted off only 2 weeks later, on March 22, 1996. Atlantis

carried a crew of six with the commercial SPACEHAB

module on its first flight. After the docking and hatch

opening on March 23, the two crews of eight conducted

joint operations and transferred 5,000 pounds of supplies

and water to Mir. The first spacewalk by U.S. astronauts

with a Shuttle attached to Mir took place on March 27,

mounting four experiments to its outside for assessing its

environment; this EVA lasted approximately 6 hours.

After concluding science and technology experiments

in SPACEHAB, Atlantis undocked on March 28, leaving astronaut Shannon Lucid aboard Mir with the two

cosmonauts Yuri Onufrienko and Yuri Usachev. Lucid,

in space for the fifth time, was the first U.S. crewmember to be ferried to Mir by Shuttle transport. After a

successful mission, Atlantis returned to Edwards Air

Force Base, California, on March 31.

On the 77th Shuttle mission, STS-77, Endeavour

lifted off on May 19, 1996, with six persons. The

payload included the commercial SPACEHAB module

on its second flight, with nearly 3,000 pounds of

experiments and support equipment, an Inflatable

Antenna Experiment (IAE) on the free-flying Shuttle

Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy

(SPARTAN)-207 platform and a suite of four

technology experiments called Technology Experiments

for Advancing Missions. The crew released SPARTAN

on May 20, and the 50-foot-diameter IAE inflated on its

92-foot-long struts--the most complex and precise

inflatable space structure ever and the largest since the

Echo I1 satellite in 1964. Later, it separated from

SPARTAN and burned up in the atmosphere on May

22, 1996. Astronauts retrieved the satellite on May 21

and then conducted further experiments, including

observations of the behavior of and rendezvous with the

Passive Aerodynamically Stabilized Magnetically

Damped Satellite Test Unit (PAMS-STU). Having set

a new record of four rendezvous maneuvers with two

satellites, Endeavour returned to KSC on May 29 after

successfully completing its 10-day mission.

STS-78 set a new Shuttle duration record of almost

17 days by flying from June 20 to July 7, 1996. Columbia's

main payload, the Life and Microgravity Sciences

Spacelab, was equipped to study fluid physics, materials

science, biotechnology, human and animal plTysiology,

and plant biology in microgravity. The mission involved

dozens of scientists and research institutes with principal

investigators from Belgium, Canada, France, Germany,

haly, Switzerland, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom,
andthe UnitedStates.The seven-member crew

includedFrenchandCanadianpayloadspecialists. After

averysuccessful mission, thefinalapproachandmuchdownphasecouldbeseenforthefirsttimebytelevision

audiences onthegroundviaacamerawiththepilot's

pointofview.

STS-79providedasuccessfid conclusiontoFY1996

withthedockingof Atlantisto Mir.Launchedon

September 16, 1996, it was the third flight to carry a

commercial SPACEHAB in its cargo bay and the first

featuring the two-segment version of the module.

Docking occurred on September 18. The mission's inain

purposes were the exchange of astronaut Shannon Lucid

on Mir with astronaut John Blaha fl_r a 4-momh stay;

hauling 4,600 pounds of supplies, including fi_d, clothing, experimental supplies, and spare equipment to Mir;

and returning 2,200 pounds of Russian, European Space

Agency (ESA), and U.S. science samples and hardware

to Earth. The flight, which drew worldwide attention

because of Dr. Lucid's accomplishments, also marked the

first transfer of powered scientific apparatus to Mir, as

five different experiments were turned off on the Shuttlc

and rapidly transferred to the station. When Atlantis

landed at KSC on September 26, 1996, a new era of permanent space occupancy by U.S. astronauts had begun,

and Shannon Lucid became the holder of the new world

record for longest space flight fi_r a female and fi_r an

American astronaut (188 days).

Expendable Launch Vehicles

NASA conducted seven successfill launches ab_mrd

ELV's in FY 1996. The Canadian-built RADARSAT

spacecraft was launched aboard a 1)elta 11rocket into a

polar orbit on November 4, 1995. RADARSAT did not

use the full capability of the Delta rocket, which enabled

NASA to fly a student undergraduate's research fellingship satellite as a secondary payload. On December 2,

1995, ESA's Solar and Heliospheric Observatory

(SOHO) was launched on an interplanetary trajectory

by an Atlas-Centaur IIAS rocket. The NASA Rc_ssi Xray Timing Explorer (RXTE) was launched _m

December 30, 1995, aboard a Delta 11from the Florida

launch site. NASA's February 17, 1996, launch of the

Near Earth Asteroid Rendezw_us (NEAR) spacecraft

aboard a l)elta tl from Florida was fi_llowed 7 days later

by the launch of the NASA Polar spacecraft. Polar also

was launched on a Delta II rocket, but from the

California launch site. Two NASA payloads that had

been grounded by the resolution of two previous Pegasus

Xk launch fiulures, the Total Ozone Mapping

Spect,'o|neter (TOMS) and the Fast Auroral Snapshot

Exph_rer (FAST), were launched successflllly on July 2,

1996, and Augu._t 21, 1996, respectively.

The Pegasus XI. rocket, which was deployed from a

c_,mmerci'ally owned LI011 aircraft, completed its

return t_ flight after two previ{_us launch failures.

NASA, the United States Air Force (USAF), and

Orbital Sciences Corporation established a series of faili.Jre ant>maly and accident investigation bt+ards, which

reviewed the entire Pegasus XL pr,_gram and hardware

and jointb/ agreed to a corrective action plan+ The

Pcgasus XL dcmt+nstrated its first successfid flight with

the deployment of the Space Test Progr',ml Radiation

Experitnct_t 1I into orbit on March 9, 1996.

Also, in March 1996, NASA signed the Med-Lite

launch services conmtct with McDonnell Douglas

Corporation, which is to provide lower cost launches for

NASA's Discovery, Mars Orbiters/Landers, and Explorers

missions. NASA managers planned to award launch services contracts to supp_3rt smaller missions in FY 1997.

NASA fimded 'and oversaw the upgrade of the Atlas

IIAS launch vehicle m structural capability to accommodatc NASA's Earth Observing System (EOS) AM-1

spacecraft. The EOS AM launch vehicle was strengthened to carry payloads up to 11,000 pounds, the payload

nose fairing was lengthened by 3 feet to accommodate

the 22-fi_,t-hmg spacecraft, and at new payload separation system was developed fl_r the mission. The upgrade

of the Atlas IlAS vehicle will benefit l\lttlre lnissions

planned by the USAE which shared m the cost of the

structural modifications with NASA, as well as commercial ELV customers.

The Delta II coinpleted a major avionics upgrade m

FY 1996. RXTE, launched m December 1995, was the

first spacecraft tL_use the new systeln.

NASA's Lewis Rese',trch Center ([.eRC) released a

request fi_r prt_posals in FY 1996 filr designing and developing a digital telepak to replace the older te[epaks _m

the Ad'as Centaur launch vehicle. Once the digital

telepak is fidly qualified, tracking specialists will use it to

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acquire high-frequency data in a format compatible with

the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS)

and will eliminate the need for costly airborne sensors

used to gather down-range telemetry data. NASA planners designed the new telemetry system to support the

EOS-AM 1 mission. NASA and the USAF shared the

cost of this project.

NASA LeRC also began working with the USAF to

integrate a new, higher powered TDRSS telemetry

transmitter into the Titan Centaur for the upcoming

Cassini mission. When completed, the new design

should allow most future Titan Centaur missions to use

TDRSS and save nearly $1 million per mission.

Additionally, NASA personnel worked with their colleagues at McDonnell Douglas and Orbital Sciences

Corporation to develop a similar strategy to integrate

TDRSS onto the Delta and Pegasus launch vehicles.

At DoD, the military conducted nine ELV launches

during FY 1996. The USAF's heavy-lift Titan IV has

become the workhorse of DoD's launch vehicles, with

five successful launches in laY 1996. In the medium- and

light-lift categories, DoD successfully launched three

Delta II ELV's and one Pegasus XL ELV, respectively.

The Air Force also supported eight NASA Space

Shuttle and eight nonmilitary ELV launches from Cape

Canaveral Air Station, Florida. Additionally, the Air

Force's Western Range at Vandenberg Air Force Base,

California, supported seven operational test flights of

intercontinental ballistic missiles.

DoD's Titan and Delta launch vehicles both made

unprecedented quick turnarounds. The successful qualification of the new stage II nozzle for the Titan IV

averted a potential grounding of the fleet. To sustain its

medium-lift capability, DoD personnel established the

Atlas Reliability Enhancement Program to increase the

reliability of the Centaur upper stage that delivers DoD

satellites to geostationary orbit.

To implement its part of the National Space

Transportation Policy, DoD has initiated an Evolved

ELV (EELV) program to replace current medium- and

heavy-lift launch systems. By using innovative methods,

program managers hope to allow U.S. industry a greater

leadership role in free market access to space.

In FY 1996, the U.S. commercial launch industry

conducted 13 launches licensed by the FAA. Eleven

orbital launches and one suborbital launch went successfully. The one failure was the maiden flight of the

Conestoga launch vehicle with the NASA-sponsored

Multiple Experiment to Earth Orbit and Return

(METEOR) payload aboard. In total, there were 30 ELV

launches during F-'Y1996.

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This potato-sized rock is actually believed to

be a meteorite from Mars that once

contained microscopic life. The meteorite,

ALH84001, was found in the Allen Hills

region of Antarctica in 1984.
Astronomy and Space Physics 1 9

SPACE

SC,ENCe

uring the second full year of Hubble Space Telescope (HST) operations since the successful

Shuttle servicing mission, astronomers from

around the world studied the nearest objects in the solar

system, the birth of young stars across our galaxy, and

tile fllrthest depths {_fthe cosmos. The HST continued

to be one of the lnost heavily used observatories m history, with an estimated 65 percent of U.S. astronomers

using this Great Obserwm_r,/.

Astronomers thrilled people with their stunning

HST images of a stellar nursery in the Eagle Nebula.

The images of embryonic stars emerging from vast

columns of dark, interstellar matter appeared on television and in magazines throughout the world. This

opened a new chapter m the mysteries of star fi_rmation.

Additionally, an astronomer from the Smithsonian

Astrophysical Obserwm_ry (SAO) used the HST to make

the first direct image of the surface of a star other than the

Sun. This scientist observed the stellar behemoth

Betelgeusc and, in the process, revealed the presence of a

huge, hot, and mysterious bright spot _n its face.

The HST's superb optics also allowed astrononlers to

study surface features of Pluto fi_r the first rune since the

planet was discovered. Scientists have speculated that

this distant planet was made up of a mixture of ice and

rock, but the FIST's images show a surface with significant bright and dark regions. Pluto has emerged as an

interesting c3bject m its own right with almost as much

brighmess variation across its surface as the Earth.

At tlle other extreme of the cosmos, the HST produced tilt most detailed images of extraordinarily distant

galaxies yet obtained. Dubbed the "Hubble Deep Field,"

the light from the galaxies in tilt image have been traveling to the Earth fi_r billions of years, perhaps from a

time when the universe was only 10 percent of its present

age. The structure of these young galaxies was discernible

only because of the HST's optical quality. This allowed

astronomers to study the early 'appearance of spiral and

elliptical galaxies, as well as collisions between them,

which may have determined the sub:;cquent appearance

of these vast stellar systems as tile universe aged. One of

the most cxcitmg results is what may be very young

"building blocks" of larger galaxies. Astronomers have

speculated fi_r years on the fi_rmation mechanisms ,_f

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giant galaxies. Were they formed via the gravitational

contraction of enormous gas clouds m the early universe!

Or were they instead built up via the coalescence of

smaller "baby galaxies"? The results from the HST have

suggested the latter, but the Deep Field holds more information in the continuing study of the universe.

Astronomers also used the HST to narrow the range

/_f allowable values for the age of the universe. For

decades, scientists have carefully been estimating how

fi_st galaxies are moving apart as the universe expands.

With an accurate estimate of the distances to galaxies,

astrononlers can estimate tile universe's "expansion

rate," the length of time the universe has taken to reach

its current size. HST observations allowed for the precise

determination of the luminosities of a certain class of

star in galaxies, which permit the best estimates of distahoe. In this manner, HST observations have narrowed

the age of the universe to between 9 to 12 billion years.

Astronomers have planned filrther observations to

narrow this estimation even more precisely.

With tile discovery of the most distant supernow_s

ever observed, an international scientific team spons_red by National Science Foundation (NSF) may be on

the verge of learning the ultimate fitte of our universe.

These scientists discovered 18 supernovas by the brilliant light of their self-destruction and fimnd 11 of them,

including several of the most distant knmvn stars, at the

end of November 1995 within a 48-hour period. The

team fi_und the supernovas in galaxies ranging from

4 billion to 7 billion light-years away. This means that

the filrthest of these explosions took place billions of

years befi_re our own solar system was fi_rmed, halfway

back to the beginning of the universe.

The scientists made these discoveries as part of the

NSF-sponsored Supernova Cosmology Project. The goal

of the project is to measure the universe's "deceleration,"

the rate at which the known continual expansi_m of the

universe is declining. At stake is an understanding of the

way the universe will end. Having begun expanding

with the big bang, will tile universe continue to expand

fi_rever, becoming ever more cold and empty? Or will

tile expansion of the universe slow to 'a bait, reverse

itself, and eventually contract to a fiery dense finate--a

big crunch? The experiment to explore these questions

only recently became pi_ssible, because it depends on the

advances in light detectors and computers and in the

Internet, which ties together the most important ingredients-astronomers using the newest and largest

telescopes around the world. Scientists sighted all of the

recent supernovas on NSF's Cerro Tololo InterAmerican Observatory telescope in Chile.

An international team of scientists concluded that

massive compact halo objects may comprise approximately 50 percent of the dark matter in the halo of the

Milky Way galaxy and that the objects likely are "white

dwarfs," or burned-out stars. The team is associated with

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and the NSFsponsored Center for Particle Astrophysics.

A group of astronomers using NSF's Cerro Tololo

Inter-American Observatory and other ground-based

telescopes identified the most distant population of

nor,hal galaxies yet found. Using a new technique

designed to isolate large numbers of extremely distant,

young galaxies, the scientists discovered what are likely

the progenitors of the bright spiral and elliptical galaxies that are seen today. They observed the galaxies at a

time very soon after they first fi_rmed, roughly 10 billion

years ago. These objects indicate that galaxies were

already fi_rming in large numbers at an epoch when the

universe was only 10 to 20 percent of its current age.

A recent discovery by NSF-supported scientists settied an astronomical controversy by indicating that

certain bright galaxies had in fact fi_rmed quite early in

the universe's history and that it is now quite straightfi_rward to observe them. Astronomers have long had

difficulty finding young galaxies born just after the big

bang fi_r several reasons, including their extreme distances, which makes them exceptionally faint as seen

from Earth. In addition, astronomers did not know

exactly how these early galaxies would appear.

Following the initial discovery of planets around

stars similar to the Sun in FY 1995, NSF-supp_rted

researchers Geoffrey Marcy and Paul Butler of San

Francisco State University and the University of

California at Berkeley, respectively, discovered several

large planets orbiting other stars. These findings make it

clear that planets around other stars arc not isolated

curiosities. Because they are sc_ much dimmer than the

stars they orbit, these planets cann_t be seen directly;

therefi_re, their presence ,nust be deduced by indirect

means. Marcy and Butler measured Doppler shifts in a

star's light t;_ detect a wobble in the star's moti_,n caused
bythepullof aplanet'sgravity.Theyhavedeveloped

special softwarethatgivesthemunprecedented precisionintheanalysisofthedatathatwouldindicatethe

characteristic signatureofanorbitingplanet.

NASA'sComptonGammaRayObservatory

(CGRO)continuedavarietyofobservations of gamma

rays, the most energetic fi_rm of radiation. Gamma ray

bursts appear randomly around the sky and last from a

few milliseconds to tens of seconds, yet c_mtain an

incredible amount of energy. By the end of FY 1996,

CGRO had detected 1,600 gamma ray bursts. CGRO

also has mapped the universe at the highest energies,

including the first detailed map of the Milky Way

galaxy and the first cosmic map of radioactive aluminum. The CGRO team fi_und that cosmic rays are

galactic in origin and discovered a unique high-energy

source that simultaneously exhibits regular pulsations

and outbursts.

The Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE), launched

by NASA in December 1995, has provided invaluable

information on the variations of x rays from neutron

stars and black holes, the bizarre end products of stars.

The time scale of the variations studied was very short,

and RXTE is the first satellite designed to capture

them. Data from RXTE and CGRO have provided

physicists with key insights into the nature of matter

inside neutron stars.

The Center fi_r Astrophysical Research in

Antarctica (CARA), one of NSF's Science and

Technology Centers, completed its third full winter of

operations at the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station

in 1995. CARA's Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope

and Remote Observatory (AST/RO) produced more

than 100,000 spectra of neutral carbon and carbon

monoxide in molecular clouds in the Milky Way and

other galaxies. AST/RO is a joint project of SAO and

Boston University. The South Pole is the only developed site where the water vapor content of the

atmosphere is low enough to make regular neutral

carbon obserwttions useful.

Another CARA experiment, Cosmic Background

Radiation Anisotropy (COBRA), has produced a fidly

sampled map of a significant patch of the sky at two

wavelengths after four summers of operation. At fiscal

year's end, the COBRA team was in a position to help

test several competing m_dels of the early universe.

CARA researchers continued their efforts to characterize the atmospheric conditions, especially in the nearand mid-infrared portions of the spectrum. The South

Pole Infrared Explorer (SPIREX) has now established

that the sky is 20 to 50 times darker at the South Pole

than at an observatory such as Mauna Kea in Hawaii,

but other experiments have shown that there are

"seeing" problems at the South Pole. "Seeing" is an

astnmomical term fi_r the twinkling of star light caused

by small motions of the image from atmospheric turbulence. Thus, fi_r the observation of small objects such as

stars, Mauna Kea may be the best place, but fi_r extended

observations of large objects such as galaxies, the South

Pole may be better because of the darker sky there.

Several collaborative effi_rts with other groups, including NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, continued at

the South Pole.

NSF operated five automatic geophysical observatories (AGO'_) during FY 1996, leaving only one more

AGO to be deployed. The AGO's provide heat, power,

and data storage that enable a suite of remote-sensing

instruments to operate fi)r a year without an attendant.

All five AGO's operated through most of the winter,

returning state-of-health and meteorological data via the

Argos satellite system. When all six AGO's are finally in

the field and working in conjunction with a few manned

stations, they will provide uninterrupted and overlapping

observations of the very high magnetic latitude ionosphere with a number of instruments, ranging from visible

imagers to direct current magnetometers. Becat,se of the

distribution of land masses, it is not possible to make

these observations in the Northern Hemisphere.

Following the lead of NSE the British and Japanese

Antarctic Programs are developing their own AGO's,

which will provide additional data in the lower latitude

auroral zone. The AGO network complements the

International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program (ISTP),

especially NASA's Polar satellite.

During FY 1996, NASA and NSF researchers

launched two large long-duration balloon payloads from

McMurdo Station in Antarctica. One of these, the

Japanese American Cosmic-ray Emulsion Chamber

Experiment (JACEE), collected data on the composition of energetic cosmic rays. The other, which was

funded by NSE NASA, and the USAE produced images

of the Sun to elucidate the processes that cause solar

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flares. Both payloads successfully circumnavigated

Antarctica and were parachuted to the surface, but only

JACEE has been recovered, leaving the solar telescope

to be returned during the austral summer of 1996-97.

SAO was selected to operate the Flight Operations

C_mtrol Center fi_r the Advanced X-ray Astrophysics

Facility (AXAF) satellite, scheduled fi_r launch in 1998.

Together with the previousb; awarded contract to operate the AXAF Science Center, SAO is to be responsible

lot most aspects of the space observatory's mission after

launch, including planning observations, analyzing

results, and archiving data fi_r the world's scientific con>

munity.

Special devices fi_r creating images of asmmomical

objects emitting inhared radiation, develc_ped m part by

SAO and collaborators for flight aboard the proposed

Space Infrared Telescope Facility mission, won industry

recognition for their contribution to this technology.

These multipixel fi)cal-plane arrays produced several

outstanding and important high-resolution images,

ranging from the bright Comet Hyakutake to the "hot

spot" on Jupiter where the Galileo spacecraft entered

the planet's atmosphere.

Naomi Bates, a recent high school graduate froltl

Franklin, West Virginia, has been working fi_r the last 4

years on research projects that used the telescopes at

NSF's Nati_mal Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green

Bank, West Virginia. During FY 1996, Ms. Bates presented the results of a research project that measured the

rotation of our galaxy with the 40-fi_ot telescope using

neutral hydrogen atom spectroscopy. She also refined

plans for a new project that will allow her to spend part

of each week doing research at Green Bank using the

140-fi_ot telescope to detect high-velocity gases in other

galaxies. Ms. Bates' research was recognized through a

diverse array of prestigious awards. She became a finalist

in the Westinghouse Science Talent Search, received

eight awards at the International Science and

Engineering Fair, and also won an expense-paid trip to

attend the Nobel Prize festivities in Stockholm.

In space physics, measurements from the NASAESA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) may

have provided the key to a long-standing puzzle--how is

the Sun's outer atmosphere, the corona, heated to temperatures more than 100 times that of the visible

surface? The SAO-designed Ultraviolet Coronagraph

Spectrometer instrument aboard SOHO produced the

first images of the Sun's extended outer corona. These

data suggested a mechanism that heats ions accc_rding to

their mass. The unexpectedly high ion temperatures also

seem to explain how the solar wind (coronal gas that

flows away from the Sun at supersonic speeds) is accelerated to velocities of 800 kilometers per second.

Additional data from SOHO revealed unexpected

activity on the Sun and the best views yet of the sources

of strange, chaotic "plume" structures that extend from

the solar poles to the corona. SOHO was specifically

designed to observe the Sun during a supposedly "quiet"

period of its solar cycle. To the surprise and excitement

of SOHO's scientific investigators, SOHO ultraviolet

data indicated that there is continuous motion and

activity everywhere on the Sun. Disturbances occurred

even within so-called "coronal holes" (areas of particularb/low density, low temperature, and open magnetic

field lines in the corona), where scientists least expected

such disturbances.

In FY 1996, NSF-sponsored solar researchers also

observed the Sun during its period of quiescence, the

"solar minimum." Solar physicists took advantage of this

quiet period to ascertain how the Sun is preparing itself

for its next cycle of activity, which should peak around

the year 2000. For example, scientists at Stanford

University discovered "hot spots" on the Sun, which

last as long as several solar cycles. These seem to be preferred sites for the emergence of large sunspot groups, as

well as for major solar flares and coronal mass ejections.

Measurements from the joint NASA-ESA Ulysses

mission fi_und a surprisingly small increase in the

amount of helium-_ since the fi_rmation of the solar

system, allowing a more precise estimate of the amount

of dark matter in the universe. The exact nature of dark

matter remained one of the most intriguing mysteries in

astronomy. Although scientists do not know what it is,

their best estimates indicate that most of the universe--

perhaps as much as 90 percent--is composed of dark

matter. I)ark matter may be "ordinary" matter, such as

planets and burned-out stars too dim to detect, or perhaps exotic objects, such as black holes or as-yet

undetected particles that pervade the universe.

The Earth-orbiting Polar spacecraft obtained spectacular movies of the auroral regions in the Earth's polar

regions. Ultraviolet and x-ray images depicted the
development of auroral structurescausedbysolarand

geomagnetic activity.ThePolarspacecraft detectedthe

outflowoflow-energy plasmafromtheionosphereinto

spaceandhasshownhowtheionosphere canbeasource

ofionizedparticlesmakingupthemagnetosphere. Th

Geotailspacecraft hasdetectedtheseatmospheric particlesbeyondtheorbitoftheMoon,inthe"tail"direction

or in thedirectionoppositetheSunwherethesolar

windsweepstheEarth'smagneticfeldtolargedistances

fromEarth.ThePolarspacecraft alsohasdiscovered 20

keyenergeticparticlesabovetheNorthandSouth

Poles,whichseemto besolarwindparticlesthatare

accelerated byinteractionsbetweenthesolarwindand

theEarth'smagneticfeld.

Ineffortstofi3recast spaceweather, NSF-supported

spacescientistshavebegunthedevelopment of the

GeospaceGeneralCirculationModelto explorethe

globaldynamicsof themagnetosphere insponseto

varioussolarwindinputs.Thismodelisuniqueinits

abilityto modelbothlarge-andsmall-scale magnetosphericprocesses,ventuallyeadingto a predictive

capabilityhatcanbeusedto producereliablespace

weather forecasts.

Pioneer10andVoyagers1and2,byfiscalyear'send

at 66,64,and45 astronomical units,respectively,

reachedtheouterfrontierof thesolarsystem. Their

measurements ofenergizedinterstellar gasindicatedthat

theheliospheric shock,inwhichthesolarwindoutflow

encounters theinterstellar medium, isbetweenabout80

and90asm_nomical units.

Solar System Exploration

A group of American researchers, led by Dr. David

McKay of NASA's Johnson Space Center, examined a

2-kilogram meteorite believed to have originated from

Mars and fi_und evidence that it once contained primitive fi_rms of life. The meteorite, known as ALH84001,

was fimnd in the Allan Hills ice field of Antarctica in

1984. ALH84001 is believed m have left the Martian

surface 16 million years ago from a comet or asteroid

impact, and it arrived on Antarctica 13,000 years ago.

The meteorite displays small spheres or gl_,bules of carbonate material that seem to have biological origin. An

abundant number of polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons are

associated with these globules, and the isotopic composititan t_f oxygen in the meteorite is characteristic of Mars.

This was the first reduced carbon ever discovered in a

meteorite from Mars, indicating that mineralization was

an effective means fi_r preserving organic material on the

planet. The report by Dr. McKay and his colleagues stimulated enormous interest, and much scientific work has

gotten under way m fi_llow up on this discovery.

The NASA Galileo probe successfidly entered the

atmosphere (_f Jupiter on December 7, 1995. The entry

was the m_st diffict|lt ever attempted in terms of heat

and deceleration loads. The probe and all its scientific

instruments functi_med successfidly and returned data

on composition, clouds, thermal structure, winds, energy

balance, lighming, and inner radiation belts. This was

the first time that scientists directly sampled the atmosphere of an outer planet. German scientists were highly

involved m Galileo's numerous scientific investigations

of the Jovian atm(_sphere's physical state and chemical

composition.

In June 1996, the Galileo spacecraft obtained its first

rel_/ote-sensing measurements within the Jovian system.

Galileo imaged and measured spectroscopically Jupiter's

atmosphere and the surfaces of its four larRest moons

(Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa). The Galileo

spacecraft also made radio, plasma wave, and magnetic

field nleasurements in the Jt_vian magnetosphere.

Observations by the Galileo plasma wave receiver

revealed that Ganymede is the source of narrow-band

electromagnetic radio waves, making this satellite the

first in the solar system to have non-thermal radio emissicms. In addition, the HST provided images of Jupiter's

ultraviolet aurora that complemented Galileo's ultraviolet, fie[d, and particle measurements.

The USGS was heavily involved in data analyses fi_r

the Galileo mission in orbit around Jupiter. USGS

scientists provided assistance on the use of the NearInfrared Mapping Spectrometer to recognize and map

minerals on Jupiter's fi_ur largest moons, including

active eruptions on the m_on 1o. USGS personnel also

participated _m the Solid-State hnagmg Team, which

did the detailed sequence planning of Galileo

operati_ms. Galilco program personnel began detailed

mapping of Jupiter's fl_ur largest m_ons.

In August 1996, Galile_ images _f Europa provided

tantalizing chics that liquid water may have existed, or

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even may currently exist, beneath this moon's icy crust.

The results were an important first step toward determining whether Europa could support any form of life.

The appearance of Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2}

in early 1996 provided a unique opportunity for

astronomers to observe the closest and brightest comet

to appear in the last 400 years. Scientists made many

new discoveries using both ground-based telescopes

and spacecraft. New discoveries included the detection

of x-ray emissions from the comet, as well as the presence of ethane, methyl cyanide, and acetylene. These

scientists also imaged the comet's nucleus at radio and

infrared wavelengths. Taken together, these observations should enable astronomers to better understand

the nature and origin of comets.

Scientists also obtained radar echoes from seven

near-Earth objects (NEO's) between January and June

1996. These observations, made with NASA telescopes

at Goldstone, California, allowed for a precise measurement of the NEO's positions to be made. Efforts

continued by NASA-supported astronomers to find

NEO's. A "Spacewatch" survey conducted by personnel

at the University of Arizona continued to scan the sky

for near-Earth asteroids with a charge-coupled device

camera system mounted on a 0.9-meter telescope. A Jet

Propulsion Laboratory and USAF system known as

Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking became fully operational

in FY 1996. This system already has detected nearly

6,000 potential objects. Over half of these were new

objects, including comet C/1996 El, five near-Earth

asteroids, and several comets and asteroids that cross

Mars' orbital path. In addition, scientists discovered the

unusual asteroid 1996 PW and determined that it has

the most eccentric orbit of any known asteroid.

The Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR)

spacecraft was successfully launched on February 17,

1996, on its 3-year journey to rendezvous with asteroid

(433) Eros. NEAR is to pass the asteroid (253) Mathilde

in June 1997 on its way to Eros.

USGS scientists have been involved in many phases

of the NASA Mars Global Surveyor mission, such as

the Mars Orbital Camera and the Thermal Emission

Spectrometer instruments. Having completed detailed

mapping of Mars, using data from earlier spacecraft missions, USGS expected to be inw_lved in developing

cartographic products from the Mars Global Surveyor

data.

USGS also has been involved in developing instruments for the NASA Mars Pathfinder mission, which

was launched in December 1996. It is expected to operate at least 30 Martian days, collecting surface

information. Several USGS scientists and technicians

assisted the Pathfinder project in developing a plan for

producing large digital mosaics and extracting digitalterrain models of the landing site.

USGS personnel also helped develop the Cassini

mission to Saturn. USGS participated on the Imaging

Science, Visual Infrared Mapping Spectrometer, Titan

Radar, and Interdisciplinary Science teams.

Meanwhile, personnel at the USGS Flagstaff field

center built a small observatory dedicated to photometric observations of the Moon. This work is to supply

accurate lunar spectral radiance images to NASA for

calibrating Earth-orbiting imaging systems.

USGS investigators also worked with NASA personnel at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory on the New

Millennium spacecraft program. The first New

Millennium flight is to carry an imaging ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared integrated camera-spectrometer to an

asteroid and to a comet. A consortium headed by a

USGS scientist developed the original concept for this

very lightweight and low-power innovative instrument,

the Miniature Integrated Camera Spectrometer.

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A computer-generated image of the X-33.

Lockheed Martin Skunk Works was chosen

to lead an industry team to build and flighttest this subscale technology demonstrator.
SPACE FLIGHT

AND

TECHNOLOGY

Life and Microgravity Sciences

n October 20, 1995, NASA launched the second U.S. Microgravity Laboratory

(USML-2), a 16-day Spacelab mission dedicated to microgravity research. Building on scientific

foundations laid by previous Space Shuttle missions,

USML-2 investigators pursued 22 investigations in

fluid physics, combustion science, materials science,

and biotechnology. Each investigation used the

unique, low-gravity environment of Earth orbit to conduct experiments that are impossible to conduct on the

Earth because of the influence of gravity.

Launched on June 20, 1996, the Life and

Microgravity Spacelab (LMS) completed a highly successful 17-day mission that set a record for the longest

Space Shuttle flight. The LMS mission used the pressurized Spacelab module, carried in Columbia's payload

bay, to conduct 41 investigations with participation

from 10 countries. Science investigations included

experiments in fluid physics, materials science,

biotechnology, human and animal physiology, and

plant biology. Researchers designed their life sciences

investigations to provide infi_rmation on changes in

muscles and bones during space flight, on sleep

rhythms, and on the fimctioning of the human nerwins system. The mission included remote operations

conducted by scientists at five different sites in

Belgium, Italy, France, and the United States. The

international crew successfidly completed all experiments. NASA cut preparation time and ,nission

management costs in half fi_r LMS when compared to

previous Spacelab missions.

The third U.S. Microgravity Payload (USMP-3) was

a remotely controlled set of physics and materials sciences experiments that flew into orbit in the payload

bay of the Space Shuttle Columbia on February 22, 1996.

The mission lasted approximately 13 days. Researchers

on the ground used remote control to conduct three

investigations in microgravity materials science and one

investigation in microgravity physics. The flight crew

conducted small science and technology experiments in

combustion science, using a new middeck glovebox,

which allows crew members to manipulate experiments

directly without exposing the Shuttle's atmosphere to

possible contamination from the experiments.

27

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In addition to the investigations conducted during

dedicated Shuttle missions, NASA's Office of Life and

Microgravity Sciences and Applications used opportunities aboard other Shuttle missions and sounding rockets

to conduct experiments. In January 1996, for example,

NASA launched the third in a series of collaborative

payloads with the National Institutes of Health (NIH),

using the Shuttle middeck. This series has focused on

developmental biology by studying the effects of microgravity on gestation and early development in rats. The

most recent experiment studied the effects of microgravity on the rat family (lactating dam and nursing

pups) in a specially designed habitat. This experiment

successfully demonstrated a hardware concept in preparation for the Neurolab Life Sciences Spacelab mission

scheduled for 1998. Three groups of rat families were

flown in three animal enclosure modules.

in April 1996, NASA and NIH flew the seventh

middeck payload in a series of collaborative research

investigations focusing on cellular and molecular biology. This payload studied the effects of microgravity on

muscle cells maintained in culture in space.

On STS-77, BioServe Space Technologies and the

Wisconsin Center fi_r Space Automation and Robotics

developed and flew a plant chamber that was totally

enclosed and environmentally controlled. The chamber

flmctioned successfully in microgravity, and the plants

thrived. In addition to demonstrating this new technology, the mission contributed to scientists' understanding

of the way environmental factors influence plant

growth.

The last of three sounding rocket tests of the Spread

Across Liquids experiment was successfully launched at

White Sands Missile Range on February 23, 1996. The

experiment was an investigation of the fame-spread

characteristics across a deep pool of combustible liquid

in a microgravity environment. The experimental hardware performed flawlessly. The results showed that

microgravity has a profound effect on the flame spread

across liquids, with important implications for future

space missions.

Also fying on a sounding rocket was the Diffuse and

Radiative Transport in Fires Experiment, which was conducted on June 20, 1996. Researchers investigated flame

initiation, fire spread, and post-spread, steady-state combustion of a solid fuel. Scientists viewed these

experiments as important both for fire safety on orbit and

as fundamental research on the nature of combustion.

As part of NASA's Human Test Initiative, a 30-day

chamber test with a crew of four was completed on July

12, 1996. This was the second in a series of fimr regenerative life-support technology demonstration tests

with humans. During the test, the atmosphere and

water were recovered with prototype physicochemica[

regenerative life-support systems and reused by the

crew. More than 6,500 pounds of water were recovered

from more than 6,840 pounds of waste water, consisting

of shower water, hand wash water, flush water, urine,

laundry water, and humidity condensation. Most of the

carbon dioxide removed from the chamber atmosphere

was combined with hydrogen to fi_rm water, which was

then converted to oxygen for reuse.

Protein crystal researchers took advantage of the

Mir space station to conduct the hmgest period of protein crystal growth in space, with the placement of

samples on Mir in June 1995 and their return to the

Earth in November 1995. Experiments on Mir led to a

discovery that may allow thousands of protein crystal

samples to be grown on a single Space Shuttle mission.

Protein crystals grown on orbit already have supported

drug development efforts by major pharmaceutical

companies.

Record-breaking stays on the Russian Mir space station by American astronauts Norman Thagard and

Shannon Lucid led to numerous important findings.

Bone loss in the hip and lower spine progressed at a rate

of 1.2 percent per month and did not lessen over time.

Researchers observed that the benefits of exercise were

specific to muscles targeted and identified certain muscles as important for specific countermeasures.

An analysis of the radiation dosimetry data from Mir

indicated that the absorbed radiation dose was higher

than predicted, but still only about 20 percent of the

allowed annual dose. There are two sources of concern

for radiation on orbit: galactic (cosmic) radiation and

trapped radiation from the Earth's magnetk field and

the Van Allen radiation belts. Scientists rL'dt,ced the

uncertainties in predicting the galactic cosmic radiation

envmmment from approximately 50 to 10 percent by

applying a new set of mathematical models.

John Hart of the University of Colorado used the

low gravity of space to create a physical model of the
Earth'satmosphere. Hisdevicesubstituteda liquidfor

theatmosphere andelectrostatic forcesforgravity.He

observedpatternformationin theliquid,whichmay

helptorefinefuturemathematical modelsoftheEarth's

atmosphereandclimate.Dr.SimonOstrachofCase

WesternReserveUniversityfoundandcharacterized a

typeof fluidmotion,drivenbythethermodynamic

propertiesofgas-liquidinterfaces, thatplaysanimportantrolein materialprocessingin spaceandonthe

Earth.Thesexperiments haveprovidedthescientific

communitywiththefirstconclusiveevidenceoftransitionfromsteadyto oscillatory flows, a transition that

can have major consequences for crystal growth and

other processing technologies.

John Lipa of Stanfi)rd University analyzed scientific

results from the highly successful Lambda Point

Experiment flown aboard the Space Shuttle in FY 1995.

In February 1996, the journal Physical Review Letters

published his results. The Lambda Point Experiment

confirmed the validity of a Nobel Prize-winning theory

describing the conditions under which matter will

change between different states, such as from liquid to

gas. This theory constituted one of the greatest achievements of theoretical physics of the past 30 years and has

very broad applications. This theory is important to scientists seeking to develop better models for the ways

water seeps through soil, frost-heaving occurs in arctic

climates, and turbulent weather systems ew_lve.

On STS-77, flown in May 1996, Paragon Vision

Sciences successfully processed 56 polymer samples on

its third space flight. Paragon researchers used microgravity to develop enhanced polymers for manufacturing

rigid, gas-permeable contact lenses. They began verifying that polymers formed in microgravity exhibit greater

uniformity and durability of material, increased oxygen

permeability for improved comfort to contact lens wearers, and improved manufacturing properties.

Scientists at NASA's Center for Macromolecular

Crystallography (CMC) at the University of Alabama in

Birmingham isolated the neuraminidase protein and used

its space flight opportunities to grow high-quality crystals

to determine its structure. These scientists used that

knowledge to design a drug to inhibit the function of this

enzyme and, thereby, effectively stop the spread of flu

within the body. Researchers tested this drug in culture

and in animals and found that it specifically blocks every

known strain of the flu virus. The CMC began work to

configure the drug so that it is even more effective in

order to minimize the effective dosage and any possible

undesirable side effects. The CMC expected to have a

drug within 1 to 2 years that can be used in human clinical trials and has teamed with BioCryst Pharmaceuticals

on this project.

Using space-grown protein crystals, NASA life sciences researchers published the highest resolution

structure for insulin to date. By studying the structure

and function of insulin, scientists hoped to produce

improved drugs for diabetics.

Dr. Robert Cheng and Dr. Larry Kostiuk, combustion science researchers under contract to NASA at

the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, developed

a device that significantly reduced pollution from natural gas burners such as residential heating furnaces

and hot water heaters. Cheng and Kostiuk fitted the

device into an off-the-shelf home heating furnace and

were able to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions by a

factor of 10, while slightly increasing efficiency. The

device can be readily sized to industrial scales. In May

1996, Cheng and Kostiuk received a U.S. patent for

their work.

A cooperative effi_rt between NASA and the

National Institute of Child Health and Human

Development to exploit NASA's bioreactor technology

has produced some encouraging results. In FY 1996,

researchers at the NASA/NIH Center for ThreeDimensional Tissue Culture produced the first in-vitro

tissue system that permits the study of HIV pathogenesis inside human lymphoid tissue. At year's end, there

were 15 ongoing projects at the center addressing a spectrum of biomedical research issues that NIH identified as

potentially benefiting from the NASA tissue culture

technology.

Dr. David J. Larson of the State University of New

York at Stony Brook reported that cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) crystals grown from the melt in the

Crystal Growth Furnace on the first and second USML

missions, flown in October 1992 and October 1995

respectively, were far superior to crystals grown in the

best Earth-based laboratories. Larson found that dislocation densities, a particular kind of defect important in

determining the electronic properties of the crystals,

were 50 times lower than the best commercially avail29

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able crystals and 10 times lower than the best crystals

grown in research laboratories. Dr. l..arson used space

flight to verify his mathematical models for semiconductor crystal growth, which researchers can now apply

to improve crystal fabrication on the Earth. CdZnTe is a

commercially significant member of the family of semiconductors that are used in the fabrication of high-tech

infrared cameras and detectors, as well as other radiation

detectors, fi_r numerous commercial, industrial, and

Earth observation applications.

Dr. Martin Glicksman of the Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute continued his study of the dynamics of dendrite

formation with the second flight of the Isothermal

Dendritic Growth Experiment on the USMP-3 mission

in February t996. Dendritic growth is a phenomenon

occurring in virtually every industrially important solidification process and is primarily responsible for

determining the ultimate properties of metals and alLoys

as they solidify. Such properties include hardness, toughness, and corrosion resistance. Dr. Glicksman used his

dendritic growth data from space to test competing theories of solidification.

A 3-year collaborative effort by NASA, industry,

and university researchers resulted in the development

of an instrument that can produce the world's most

intense source of x rays from commercial generators.

Researchers at NASA used the newly developed x-ray

instrument to determine the atomic structure of important proteins that are the targets for drug design.

Researchers hoped that this new x-ray technology will

significantly accelerate the ability of researchers to

gather the information necessary to design entire families of highly effective disease-fighting drugs.

NASA and the National Eye Institute began developing a prototype laser light-scattering instrument for

the early detection of cataracts. Originally developed

fi_r microgravity research, the instrument has proven

valuable fi_r measuring the size distribution of a protein

in the eye that is related to the early developmental

stages of cataracts. The instrument is about the size of

a pencil and works by shining a laser into the eye and

analyzing the pattern of light scatter that results. The

American Academy of Ophthalmology selected

NASA's instrument as one of the technologies that

will change ophthalmic and medical care into the 21st

century.

Space Shuttle Technology

In 1992, NASA established the NASA Operational

Environment Team to coordinate the search for technologies to replace environmentally offensive materials

and processes. In addition, the Shuttle program has

established the Shuttle Replacement Technology Team

to carefully examine the specific environmental challenges that are unique to Shuttle elements. These

groups have been highly successful in identifying and

replacing the offending materials. NASA and the

affected Shuttle prime contractors continued to replace

ozone-depleting chemicals (ODC's) and hazardous air

pollutants in Space Shuttle manufacturing operations.

Results of a NASA-wide survey indicated that ODC

usage has decreased drastically throughout NASA's

operations. NASA reduced its consumption of ODC's

from approximately 3 million pounds in 1990 to 1.7

million pounds in 1994, and this favorable trend has

continued through 1996.

A cooperative research and development effort

between NASA and Lockheed Martin has resulted in a

usage reduction of trichloroethylene (TCE). TCE is a

hazardous air pollutant that technicians traditionally

used in large quantities during the cleaning and verification of the Shuttle's External Tank. Historically,

technicians needed 10,000 gallons of TCE to clean each

flight tank. At the end of FY 1996, they used only 5 galhms of TCE per tank.

Engineers are continuing to develop plans and have

begun some of the Shuttle fleet and facility upgrades that

will provide safe and cost-effective operations well into

the 21st century. The strategy for the upgrades will be a

four-phase approach: safety and performance enhancement, systems reliability, advanced technology upgrades,

and cost reductions. Phase I addresses safety and performance enhancement upgrades that are currently

approved and under way, such as the fuel pump for the

main engines and the super lightweight external tank.

Space Shuttle Main Engine project managers successfully delivered the last three Block 1 engines in FY

1996. Project managers and engineers then turned their

collective attention to the development activities

required to implement a Block II engine. The Block II

consists of the Block I safety and reliability improvements (a new phase II powerhead, a single coil heat
exchanger, andanalternatehigh-pressure oxidizerturbopump), aswellasanalternatehigh-pressure tiol

turbopumpandalargethroatmaincombustionchamber.DuringFY 1996,managersemphasizedthe

development testingofthenewBlockI1components.

Thistestingresultedinatotalof23,061testsecondson

thealternatehigh-pressure fulpump.Asaresultof

thesetests,engineersidentifiedesigndeficienciesin

theturbinesectionofthepumpandcolnpleteddesign

fixesfi)rthesedeficiencies. AttheendofFY1996,techniciansdeliveredthefirsttestpumptoNASA'sStennis

SpaceCentertoresumetsting.

A new"environmentally friendly"sprayoninsulation was flown on the Solid Rocket Booster fi_r the first

time in FY 1996. This NASA-developed material,

which protects the booster structure from aerodynamic

heating during flight, is much easier to process and

nearly eliminates the use of ODC's during mixing and

spraying. The private sector has sought out this technology for diverse applications such as roof coatings and

roadway repair.

The booster assembly contract underwent a major

restructuring during FY 1996. The existing contract,

slated to expire in early 1997, was extended through FY

1999 and modified to include significant performance

incentives and cost reductions. As part of this restructuring, the c{mtractor, USBI Company, began

consolidating its workfi_rce to NASA's Kennedy Space

Center from several locations across the southeastern

United States.

Engineers made significant progress during FY 1996

in the design and certification of the new super lightweight external filel tank. Project personnel scheduled

the first launch of the redesigned tank fi}r late in calendar year 1997. The super lightweight tank is constructed

of aluminum lithimn, which is a lighter, stronger material than the metal alloy currently used in the production

of the Shuttle's external tank. NASA was the first to use

this new alloy in a major development program. NASA's

Marshall Space Flight Center and its contractors worked

jointly to develop this alloy fi_r the special applications

required in the design of the super lightweight tank. The

new external tank is the same size as the current one but

is 7,500 pounds lighter. This lighter weight means that

programs will benefit from the Shuttle's ability to carry

an additional 7,500 pounds of payload per flight.

A major component of the super lightweight tank

verification program, the Aluminum Lithium Test

Article, successfully completed all its certification tests

on September 5, 1996. Engineers designed the tests to

prove the tank's ability to withstand loads greater than

flight certification requirements. The successful tests represented a significant milestone for both the Shuttle and

ISS programs. The lighter fuel tank will improve the

Shuttle's capability to carry cargo to the high-inclination

51.6-degree orbit where the 1SS is to be built.

With the production of this alloy and the development of manufacturing processes to machine, form, and

weld the material, engineers and technicians significantly advanced the aluminum lithium metals

technology associated with the super lightweight tank.

Designers may use this information for future designs of

weight-critical space vehicles.

In the area of Space Shuttle systems integration, the

Day-of-Launch I-Load Update, Version 2 (DOL1LU II)

system was used fi_r all FY 1996 launches. The DOLILU

II system updates the flight trajectory to account for

actual winds and atmospheric conditions on launch day.

The system has eliminated significant amounts of flightto-flight trajectory design and assessment activities and

has increased system flexibility to adapt to mission

requirement and launch date changes. FY 1996 accomplishments also included analyses of structural loads and

aerodynamic heating; resolution of inflight anomalies,

waivers, and changes; and software development and

testing fi)r the control of each mission.

In support of the ISS mission requirements, NASA

continued to develop and schedule Shuttle performance

enhancements. Engineers developed systems integration

plans to ensure the orderly implementation of the

enhancements into the Space Shuttle program.

Engineers and technicians also developed plans for the

phased implementation of the flight software perforlnance enhancements, to provide flight data verification

on the efficacy of the enhancements prior to their use on

the launch of the first ISS assembly flight.

On the Multifunction Electronic Display System,

technicians began work to replace the current Shuttle

cockpit displays with an integrated liquid crystal display

system. The objectives are to improve safety, reduce

weight and power consumption, and reduce the aging

and obsolescence problems currently being experienced.

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The first test flight of GPS on STS-79 was a success.

The need for the GPS on the Shuttle is driven by DoD's

phaseout of the Tactical Air Navigation System. The

GPS project is a two-phased approach to reduce program cost, improve abort landing site availability,

improve reliability, and save weight and power.

DoS supported the Shuttle program by providing

direct telecommunications links to U.S. embassies in

countries with emergency landing facilities. This system

became operational with the flight of STS-74 in

November 1995.

Reusable Launch Vehicles

NASA continued the RLV technology development

and demonstration program in FY 1996 in response to

the National Space Transportation Policy of 1994. DoD

worked with NASA on this program in such areas as

flight testing, operations, and composite structures.

NASA has structured the RLV program differently from

previous similar programs, with new relationships

between the U.S. Government and industry, a faster

program pace, and a streamlined management structure.

In FY 1996, technicians successfully upgraded the

IX2-X (Delta Clipper-Experimental), which the Air

Force had previously transferred to NASA, into the

DC-XA (Delta Clipper-Experimental Advanced).

Program personnel accomplished this in 11 months by

integrating several advanced technologies, such as composite materials, into a vehicle designed to test the

feasibility of a vertical landing liquid oxygen and hydrogen rocket operated with the same simplicity as

conventional aircraft. The DC.XA, renamed the Clipper

Graham in honor of Lieutenant General David Graham,

completed fimr flight tests in the spring and summer of

1996, including a set of tests with only 25 hours between

flights. Project personnel met all their goals, including

demonstrating operability with small ground and flight

crews of a vehicle incorporating advanced technologies.

NASA terminated the project after the vehicle was

destroyed in a landing accident unrelated to the demonstration of its advanced technologies.

NASA's partners revoked the original X-34 cooperative agreement after concluding that the program did

not justify the level of their planned investment.

Program managers released a NASA Research

Announcement (NRA) on March 27, 1996, calling for

a much smaller X-34 technology demonstrator filling

the gap between the subsonic Clipper Graham in the

summer of 1996 and the Mach 15 X-33 in the spring of

1999. NASA managers identified new goals, including

Mach 8 velocity, first flight in the third quarter of calendar year 1998, 25 flights in 1 year, less than $500,000

average per flight cost, autonomous landing, subsonic

flight through rain, and landing in 20-knot crosswinds.

NASA awarded a contract to Orbital Sciences

Corporation on August 28, 1996, based on an airlaunched concept incorporating many advanced

technologies, including composite primary and secondary airframe structures, composite fuel tank,

advanced thermal protection system and materials, lowcost avionics including differential GPS, integrated

vehicle health monitoring, and a flush air data system.

NASA issued a Cooperative Agreement Notice

(CAN) on April 1, 1996, for the design, fabrication, and

flight test of the suborbital X-33 vehicle. NASA, with

the assistance of DoD, DoC, and DoT, evaluated the

three competing industry proposals using a fast-track

process. Setting a new procurement standard, the industry teams submitted their proposals in CD-ROM format,

and the evaluation process, involving 100 experts from

across Government as well as outside consultants, was

carried out in an electronic, totally paperless manner. A

final nonadwx:ate review of the X-33 program was conducted in May and the results presented to the NASA

Program Management Council in June. NASA's

Administrator, Daniel S. Goldin, certified that the criteria for moving into the next phase of the X-3) program

had all been satisfied. On July 2, 1996, Vice President

Albert A. Gore, Jr., announced that Lockheed Martin

had been selected as the X-33 industry team. Their concept is a vertical-takeoff, horizontal-landing lifting body

that features a linear aerospike engine, metallic thermalprotection system, a composite primary structure and fuel

tank, and many other advanced technologies.

RLV program managers have committed themselves

to developing new operations and component technologies, as well as to producing an industry-Government

relationship that will revolutionize the space launch

industry worldwide. If successful, the RLV program will

deliver "leapfrog" technology that will permit the
UnitedStatesto regainworldwideladershipin lowcostspacelaunchoperations.

In accordancewith the NationalSpace

Transportation Policy,DoDcontinuedto supportthe

NASA-ledRLVdevelopment andtechnologydemonstrationprogramthroughcooperativeandsynergistic

technologydevelopment. Thishasbeenprimarily

fundedthroughcongressional additionstotheAirForce

budget request.

TheFAA'sOfficeofCommercial SpaceTransportationparticipatedonthesourceevaluationboardandthe

nonadvocatereviewteamof NASA'sX-33reusable

vehicleprogram, withparticularinterestin theeconomicfeasibilityofacommercial follow-ontotheX-33

vehicleandinthelicensingofasuchavehicle.The

FAAalsoprovidedinputothesourceselectionofficial

ontheX-33.Towardtheendofthefiscalyear,theFAA

receivedthefirstlaunchlicenseapplicationfromKistler

Aerospace CorporationforinitialflightsofanRLV.The

proposedtestoperationswouldtakeplaceat DoE's

NevadaTestSite.

International Space Station

For the third consecutive year, the ISS program

remained within budgetary guidelines and on schedule

for the first element launch in November 1997. ISS

made significant progress in many technical areas.

Technicians began qualification and development testing on a major scale and also completed the fabrication

of several flight components. Program personnel delivered software and coordinated the timely delivery of

components and modules to the Kennedy Space Center

for processing and integration with the Space Shuttle.

Three successful Shuttle-Mir space missions in FY

1996 highlighted Phase I of the program, the joint U.S.-

Russian effort to expand cooperation in human space

flight. The successful integration of two major space programs--separated not only by language differences, but

by differences in hardware design, operational procedures, and philosophy, as well as differences in

engineering and developmental approaches--has continued on track.

As part of Phase I preparations for ISS, Dr. Shannon

Lucid conducted a record-breaking stay aboard Mir

during FY 1996. On March 22, 1996, Dr. Lucid was

launched to Mir aboard the Shuttle Atlantis, and she

returned aboard Atlantis 188 days later on September 26,

1996, setting records for the longest stay in space for an

American astronaut and fi_r a woman. Dr. Lucid also was

the first astronaut delivered to Mir on a Space Shuttle,

and the mission that retrieved her was the first Shuttle

mission to change out crews on the Mir.

During her stay on Mir, Dr. Lucid and the two cosmonaut crewmembers conducted a wide range of

research using both U.S. and Russian hardware. They

conducted and participated in studies on human physi-

_logy, behavior and performance, and advanced life

support. They also worked to characterize the air and

microgravity environment aboard Mir and to gain

insights into the research environment that will be provided by ISS. On April 23, 1996, the Russian Space

Agency launched Priroda, a Russian-developed and

U.S.-outfitted laboratory module, to the Mir space station. The module was equipped with more than 1,000

kilograms of equipment for Dr. Lucid's use and joined

the Spektr module already on orbit. Astronaut John

Blaha replaced Dr. Lucid on Mir and continued more

than 100 life and microgravity sciences investigations.

As FY 1996 closed, less than 1 year remained until

hardware fi_r the first assembly flight of ISS needed to be

shipped to KSC. Technicians structurally completed

Node 1, the mating adapters, and stowage rack hardware

before beginning to outfit and test this equipment. After

the installation of the strengthening struts, the node

passed pressure test requirements in August 1996.

NASA passed the 45-percent completion mark of

scheduled work in FY 1996, having built more than

132,000 pounds of hardware in the process. NASA

implemented new processes to respond to technical concerns arising through an ongoing series of internal and

external independent reviews.

Regarding international activities, negotiators

agreed to significant changes in the historic U.S. and

Russian cooperative space plans at the Joint Commission on Economic and Technological Cooperation

(commonly referred to as the Gore-Chernomyrdin

Commission) in July 1996. Key elements of the revised

plan call for two additional Phase I flights to Mir and

helping the Russians overcome a Mir logistics shortfall

in 1998. ISS officials agreed to launch the Russian Solar

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Power Platform, which performs critical power and control functions, aboard the Space Shuttle, reducing the

number of Russian launches required for assembly and

increasing overall launch confidence.

Energy

In FY 1996, DoE continued its work in the fabrication of

three general purpose heat source radioisotope thermoelectric generators (GPHS-RTG's) and 157 lightweight

radioisotope heater units (LWRHU's) required for

NASA's Cassini mission to Saturn. RTG's directly convert heat from the decay of the radioisotope

Plutonium-238 (Pu-238) into electricity without any

moving parts. They have been employed successfully on

more than 20 spacecraft of long-duration missions.

Technicians completed the assembly of the heat source

for each of the Cassini spacecraft RTG's and installed the

heat sources into the thermoelectric converters. The

prime system contractor completed fabrication and

acceptance testing of the second and third thermoelectric converters. In FY 1996, technicians also developed a

new RTG transportation system for shipping the Cassini

RTG's. Workers also finished fabricating the 157

LWRHU's and then stored them, pending final shipment

to KSC. Finally, DoE continued to support NASA in

developing environmental documentation and performing safety testing for the safety analysis reports required

fi_r the Cassini launch approval prtxzess.

DoE delivered three LWRHU's to KSC for the Mars

Pathfinder spacecraft, which was launched in December

1996. Technicians took the LWRHU's from spares

remaining from NASA's Galileo mission. In FY 1996,

DoE completed a final safety review on the LWRHU's

for the Mars Pathfinder mission.

For NASA's Pluto Express mission, DoE continued

its studies of advanced converter technologies to provide high efficiency and lightweight power sources.

DoE personnel continued technology development

work to investigate and demonstrate the viability of

advanced power converters using thermophotow_ltaic,

alkaline metal, and Stirling engine technologies in FY

1996.

Safety and Mission Assurance

In FY 1996, NASA safely and successfully completed

eight Space Shuttle flights and six spacecraft launches.

NASA certified for use an automated Space Shuttle

orbiter window defect analyzer that will reduce costs and

improve inspection confidence. In addition, NASA

reduced safety and mission assurance (S&MA) costs for

Space Shuttle ground processing through new and

improved data collection techniques. Through the ISS

independent assessment process, NASA developed an

independent critical risk assessment matrix. NASA also

conducted probabilistic risk assessment studies for the

Soyuz Crew Escape Vehicle and ISS, field center S&MA

self-assessments, several hazardous facility assessments,

the Mars Pathfinder Safety Evaluation Report, and an

independent assessment of initial program risk management processes for the X-33.

NASA formed a safety assurance board in June 1996

for the Human Exploration and Development of Space

(HEDS) Enterprise. The Associate Administrator for

Safety and Mission Assurance leads this group, which

consists of top-level S&MA managers from the HEDS

field centers and the Shuttle and ISS programs. The

HEDS Assurance Board began meeting monthly to help

resolve safety concerns on human space flight missions,

with emphasis on the transition to the consolidated

space flight operations contract.

In FY 1996, NASA set standards for orbital debris

damage risk reduction, as well as oxygen and hydrogen

safety. NASA also completed a joint test program with

the Japanese National Space Development Agency

(NASDA) on liquid oxygen and hydrogen explosion

safety distances. NASA adopted International Organization for Standardization (ISO)-9000 as its standard fi_r

quality management, developed plans for 1SO-9000

implementation, and provided training to relevant personnel. NASA developed and piloted training courses

fi_r certified quality engineer, certified reliability engineer, and certified quality technician. To capitalize on

the economy of computer-based training, NASA developed 19 computer-based courses in S&MA disciplines,

including nondestructive evaluation, contractor oversight, and performance-based contracting.

NASA continued to improve the effectiveness and

efficiency of its mission assurance practices and t(_ls.
Specifically, engineers tailoredproduct andmissionassurancerequirements forthe Mars Pathfinder and Mars

Rover programs, and they successfully implemented risk

management approaches early in the life cycle for the

New Millennium program, Deep Space 1. In addition,

NASA completed an integrated, multicenter mission

assurance program fi_r the Office (if Aeronautics' High

Speed Research program and initiated activities to

develop a quality assurance program fi_r the Advanced

Subsonics Technology program. NASA's Flight Performance program provided spacecraft projects with on-orbit

flight performance results correlated against the design,

development, and mission assurance process to serve as

guidance for filture projects. Additional advances made by

NASA to improve mission assurance capabilities included

nondestructive evaluation techniques fi_r screening

advanced turbopump silicon nitride ball bearings, composite pressure vessel certification and acceptance testing,

and composite debond detection. Also, NASA instituted

a pooled process for calibrating equipment at all its field

centers and provided a user-friendly "lessons learned" data

base via the World Wide Web.

Staff at NASA's Independent Verification and

Validation Facility in Fairmont, West Virginia, conducted software assurance activities for the Cassini,

ISS, and Shuttle programs. They developed and piloted

a formal methods approach that verified complete software assurance requirements for Cassini; baselined a

quantitative software methods and measurements

guidebook for the Shuttle and the Space Operations

Management Office; and applied software domain reuse

principles to wind tunnel control systems. NASA's software assurance experts produced a software safety

guidebook and continued to develop approaches fi_r the

assurance of complex software systems.

Commercial Development

and Regulation of Space

[n FY 1996, DoT's Office of Commercial Space

Transportation became part of the FAA. The new FAA

Associate Administrator for Commercial Space

Transportation (AST) reorganized this office to accomplish its mission more efficiently. The most notable

changes were the establishment of a Chief of Regulations

position and the reorganization of the two divisions, the

Space Systems Development Division and the Licensing

and Safety Division.

U.S. launch operators conducted 13 licensed commercial launches during the fiscal year, one more than

during the previous },ear and more than in any year since

commercial launching began in this country in 1989.

The FAA, which now has responsibility for overseeing

this industry, particularly with regard to safety, licensed

all of these launches. Also during FY 1996, the FAA

issued four new launch licenses and four amendments to

existing licenses. In support of these and other active

licenses, the agency conducted 11 maximum probable

loss analyses in support of financial responsibility determinations required by statute.

In its role as the regulator of commercial launch

facilities, the FAA granted its first license to Space

Systems International for the operation of a commercial

launch site at Vandenberg Air Force Base. Additional

launch site facilities are being planned or under development in Alaska, Florida, and Virginia.

In April 1996, the AST held a public meeting to discuss certification standards for new launch vehicles,

financial responsibility fi_r joint ventures, domestic and

international use of commercial spaceports, and orbital

debris. The AST collected comments made at the public

meeting, which then formed the basis of new initiatives

in financial responsibility.

The FAA followed up by releasing a significant

notice of proposed rulemaking addressing financial

responsibility requirements for launches from Federal

ranges. This notice was published July 26, 1996, and

allowed fi_r the submission of comments by September

23, 1996. (The comment period was extended for an

additional 60 days.) The FAA also performed preliminary work on two other notices dealing with licensing

requirements for launches from Federal ranges and with

licensing of non-Federal launch sites.

The FAA and DoD cochaired an interagency working group to develop guidelines for Federal interaction

with commercial spaceports. DoC and DoS supported

the efforts of this working group. In addition to giving

advice on spaceports, the FAA's Commercial Space

Transportation Advisory Committee provided widely

used market fi_recasts and advice on space launch and

satellite policy issues.

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The office of the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR)

led interagency delegations during negotiations and consultations with China, Russia, and Ukraine on their

respective bilateral commercial space launch agreements. The interagency delegations consisted of

representatives from DoC's Office of Air and Space

Commercialization (OASC) and the International

Trade Administration's Office of Aerospace (OA), in

addition to the FAA/AST and DoS. A launch agreement

signed between the United States and Ukraine in

December 1995 will allow Ukraine, on its own and in

partnership with a U.S.-led joint venture, to enter the

international space launch market. Negotiators worked

out quantitative limits and pricing guidelines to ease

Ukraine's entry into the market. Launch prices offered by

the U.S. Government must be "comparable" to those

offered by market economy providers for comparable services. The agreement will allow Ukraine a minimum of

16 launches to geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO),

including I 1 set aside for a U.S.-Ukrainian joint venture.

In January 1996, the United States and Russia signed

an agreement amending the September 1993 Commercial Space Launch Agreement. The new agreement

provides for up to 20 GEO launches, plus the potential

for 4 additional launches. Terms for pricing comparability are similar to those under the Ukraine accord.

During July 1996, OASC, OA, the FAA/AST, and

DoS supported USTR in the first annual consultations

held under the 1995 bilateral commercial space launch

trade agreement with the Chinese government. The

U.S. and Chinese delegations discussed market development for commercial launch services to GEO and

low-Earth orbit (LEO), the role of Chinese launch

vehicles in international commercial launch service

competitions, and pricing comparability factors

involving LEO.

Through the U.S.-Russia Business Development

Committee, part of the Gore-Chernomyrdin

Commission meetings held in January 1996, DoC

Ombudsman Jan Kalicki and Russian Space Agency

Director General Yuri Koptev held discussions to

improve business relations in the commercial space

arena. Negotiators resolved a number of specific export

licensing and international coordination issues.

OA participated in discussions with the European

Union to ensure continued compliance with a 1992

agreement on trade in large civil aircraft. Similarly, OA

personnel met with a World Trade Organization subgroup, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT) Aircraft Committee, to discuss international

subsidies with U.S. trading partners.

OA personnel also met with their Russian and

Ukrainian counterparts to encourage their countries to

sign the GATT Agreement on Trade in Civil Aircraft as

a part of the World Trade Organization's accession

process. OA has been encouraging as many countries as

possible to follow this accession plan.

OA represented DoC in the Interagency Group on

International Aviation and at the White House to formulate a response to the International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) motion proposing a more stringent level of nitrous oxide emissions from airliners in

international air service. DoC's position, supporting that

of the FAA and DoT, to oppose such an increase became

part of the formal U.S. position at ICAO.

In trade promotion, OA personnel led several meetings with the U.S.-Russia Business Development

Committee Aerospace Subgroup to implement current

understandings on import tariff waivers and to explore

additional avenues of cooperation. A similarly composed U.S.-China Joint Committee on Commerce and

Trade Aviation and Airport Infrastructure Sub-Group

met to promote intergovernmental cooperation and

expanded trade in civil aviation and airports.

OA personnel led an executive trade mission to

Turkey and Egypt. Additionally, OA sponsored aerospace product literature centers at nine international

aerospace exhibitions and air shows in Dubai, China,

Malaysia, Singapore, India, South Africa, Germany,

Indonesia, and the United Kingdom. OA worked closely

with overseas posts to maximize the exposure of smaJl

and medium U.S. companies to the export market at

these events.

As a result of the Administration's new GP$ Policy,

OASC supported DoS in consultations with the government of Japan in August 1996. The United States

and Japan are the two major users of GPS. The meeting

was the first in a series of consultations with the

Japanese to discuss the feasibility of developing bilateral

or multilateral guidelines with the provision and use of

GPS services. OASC discussed the potential international GPS market and advocated the removal of
potential nontarifftradebarrierstomaintaincontinuous

growthintheGPSmarket. DoSplannedtoholdsimilar

discussions withtheEuropeanCommunityandRussia.

Surveillance

The Air Force's Defense Support Program continued to

provide the front-line warning of missile attack to the

National Command Authorities, but it also has grown

to take on additional use for world leaders. The Theater

Event System provided theater commanders with warnings of missile launches; it can be used for civil defense

warning, missile engagement, and launch site attack

operations. In April 1996, the United States began proriding launch warnings to the governments of NATO

member countries and to Japan.

DoD proceeded with the development of a new constellation of infrared detection satellites for use in GEO,

LEO, and highly elliptical orbits. This program is a

follow-on to the Defense Support Program and supports

the missile warning, missile defense, and technical intelligence and battlespace characterization effort.

At the Naval Center for Space Technology, part of

the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), scientists and

engineers designed and built the Tether Physics and

Survivability (TIPS) experiment. Sponsored in part by

the National Reconnaissance Office, this small satellite

is intended for research in gravity-gradient dynamics to

understand the way natural forces hold satellites in quiescently stable orbits. In addition, this experiment is to

provide information on the survivability of tethered systems in LEO. In June 1996, DoD deployed TiPS with its

small end masses connected by a 4-kilometer nonconductive braided tether. In a cooperative effort, NRL,

NASA, and an international network of satellite laser

ranging stations began tracking the end masses to gather

this information.

The Miniature Sensor Technology Integration

(MSTI) program, run by the Air Force, launched its

third and most advanced satellite, MSTI-3, on May 17,

1996, from Edwards Air Force Base, California, aboard a

Pegasus launch vehicle. Scientists and technicians at the

Phillips Laboratory and Edwards Air Force Base integrated MSTI-3. The spacecraft carried a payload of three

sensors: a medium-wave infrared camera, a short-wave

infrared camera, and a visible imaging spectrometer. Its

1-year primary mission is to gather infrared data to

resolve whether tracking theater ballistic missiles in the

coast phase against a warm Earth background is feasible.

The Ballistic Missile Defense Organization launched

its Midcourse Space Experiment (MSX) in April 1996.

In August 1996, it successfully accomplished its first

dedicated ballistic missile flight. MSX is the first system

demonstration in space of technology to characterize

ballistic missile signatures during the "midcourse" flight

phase between booster burnout and missile reentry.

Engineers designed MSX to gather data for future spaceand ground-based missile defense systems. Specifically,

they designed this first test to perform functional

demonstrations and collect radiometric signature measurements of ballistic trajectory targets.

37

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The first INMARSAT-3 communications

satellite was launched on April 3, /996.
SPACE

COMMUNICATIONS

uring FY 1996, NASA established bilateral

interagency tracking, communications, and

operations panels (ITCOP's) with other international space agencies. The ITCOP's promote the

cost-effective use and exchange of NASA and other

space agency assets, resources, and capabilities necessary

to the success of space flight missions being carried out

by either agency. This past year, NASA built on the success of the previously established ITCOP's with ESA

and NASDA and established new panels with the

Russian, French, and German space agencies.

In April 1996, a tri-agency team representing

NASA, DoD, and NOAA completed a study chartered

by the Aeronautics and Astronautics Coordinating

Board to examine the potential for increased cooperation among the three agencies. One of the integrated

product teams (IPT's) established under this charter

addressed the subject of satellite telemetry, tracking, and

commanding. Aside from recommendations to modify

NOAA's Alaskan ground station for DoD compatibility

and consolidate some control center activities, the IPT

stressed the need fi_r consolidation and standardization.

The IPT offered several initiatives, including the joint

development of a space-qualified GPS receiver,

increased reliance on commercial standards, and coordinated interagency use of the radio frequency spectrum.

A multi-agency architecture development team, led by

the DoD Space Architect, began making use of the IPT

study results, incorporating them into the broad assessment of long-term alternatives of satellite operations

and control capabilities. Another IPT that dealt with

space communications was the Space Launch Activities

IPT. It also recommended consolidation and standardization among launch ranges and supporting stations,

and it recommended increased usage of TDRSS and

GPS to reduce costs. In a related development, TDRSS

began providing launch support services to DoD's Titan

Centaur launches.

The Space Communications Advanced Development Program accomplished several enhancements of

telecommunications services. Specifically, program personnel successfully demonstrated the first two-way

optical communications between a satellite in geosynchronous orbit and a ground-based terminal. This

offered a significantly faster transfer of data from die

spacecraft to the researcher than previous methods.

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Engineers also modified spacecraft and ground systems to operate at very high frequencies to avoid

interference and overcrowding in the lower bands. In

addition, NASA personnel successfully demonstrated

new encoding techniques, which almost doubled the

error-free communications transmission rate.

Communications Satellites

On March 29, 1996, President Bill Clinton announced

a comprehensive national policy on the future and management of GPS, which was designed as a dual-use

system to enhance the effectiveness of U.S. and allied

military forces. The growing demand from military, civil,

commercial, and scientific users has generated a U.S.

commercial GPS equipment and service industry that

leads the world. Under the policy, the Government

fi_rmed a GPS Executive Committee, chaired by the

Secretaries of Defense and Transportation, to consult

with Federal agencies, international entities, and U.S.

industry on GPS operations.

During FY 1996, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) coordinated and registered several

launches of spacecraft for the international Telecommunications Satellite (INTELSAT) Organization, a

consortium of more than 130 countries that own and

operate the world's most extensive global communications satellite system. INTELSAT's attempted launch of

its INTELSAT 708 failed on February 14, 1996, aboard a

Long March launch vehicle in China. This was INTELSAT's first complete launch failure in 10 years.

INTELSAT successfully launched its INTELSAT 707

spacecraft aboard an Ariane launch vehicle from Kourou,

French Guiana, on March 14, 1996. INTELSAT also

successfillly launched its INTELSAT 709 spacecraft

aboard an Ariane 44LP launch vehicle from Kourou on

June 15, 1996. The launch of INTELSAT 709 brought

[NTELSAT's total on-orbit fleet to 25 satellites.

The FCC also authorized launches of global communications satellites by PanAmSat, the first private

company to provide global satellite services.

PanAmSat's PAS-3 satellite (designated PAS-3R by the

FCC) was launched on January 12, 1996, aboard an

Ariane 4 rocket and began broadcast and telecommunications services in February 1996.

The FCC authorized Comsat, the U.S. signatory to

the International Mobile Satellite Organization

(INMARSAT), to participate in the procurement and

construction of five INMARSAT third-generation communications satellites (INMARSAT-3). These satellites

will make it possible for 1NMARSAT to introduce

smaller terminals for portable data and text messaging.

INMARSAT successfully launched its first 1NMARSAT3series satellite on April 3, 1996, aboard an Atlas launch

vehicle from Cape Canaveral, Florida. This satellite was

deployed in the Indian Ocean region. INMARSAT successfully launched its second INMARSAT-3 series

satellite on September 6, 1996, aboard a Proton rocket

from Baikonur, Kazakstan. This satellite is deployed in

the Atlantic Ocean region.

The FCC authorized the construction, launch, and

operation of numerous fixed-satellite service satellites

during FY 1996. In October 1995 and April 1996, it

authorized GE American Communications, Inc., to construct, launch, and operate two replacement satellites,

GE-2 and GE-4. In May 1996, the FCC adopted the

1996 Orbital Assignment Plan and authorized the construction, launch, and operation of 11 new satellites. The

FCC granted authority to the AT&T Corporation to

construct, launch, and operate two hybrid satellites,

TELSTAR 5 and 6, and to construct a ground spare. The

FCC also authorized GE Americom to construct, launch,

and operate two hybrid satellites, GE-3 and GE-5. The

FCC further authorized Hughes Communications

Galaxy, Inc., to construct, launch, and operate the

Galaxy IX and Galaxy X satellites. Hughes successfully

launched its Galaxy III and Galaxy 1X domestic satellites

on December 14, 1995, and May 23, 1996, respectively.

The FCC's expansion rule authorized new entrants in the

fixed-satellite service to consmtct, launch, and operate

up to two new satellites. The FCC granted authority to

Loral Space & Communications for two new hybrid

satellites, Loral 1 and 2. EchoStar Satellite Corporation

received conditional authorization fi_r two new satellites,

FSS-1 and FSS-2. Orion Network Systems, Inc., entered

the domestic FSS field and received conditional authority to construct, launch, and operate one new Ku-band

satellite, O-F4. The FCC authorized Starsys Global

Positioning Corporation to construct, launch, and operate its nonwhite, nongeostationary mobile satellite

service system.
In January1996,theFCCreleaseda regulation

allowingall U.S.licensedsatellitesto provideU.S.

domesticserviceandinternational service. TheFCC

alsoissuedasecondnoticeofproposedrulemakingin

May1996toconsider allowingforeignsatellitesintothe

U.S.domesticmarket.

Astheprincipaladvisorto the President, Vice

President, andtheSecretaryofCommerceontelecommunicationsisues,NTIA undertooka numberof

policyinitiativesinvolvingsatellitesandotherspacebasedtelecommunications systemsduringFY1996.For

example, NT1Aprovidedpolicyguidancetothepotential restructuringof INMARSATandINTELSAT

duringtheyear.NTIArepresented Federal usersofthe

radiofrequencyspectrumin variousdomesticand

international regulatoryforums,suchasthosesponsoredbytheInternational Telecommunication Union

andtheRadioTechnical CommissionAeronautics.

Inparticular, NTIAplayedakeyroleinimplementing

the resultsof the WorldRadiocommunications

Conferencethat tookplaceduringOctoberand

November1995.NTIA beganpreparationsforthe

WorldRadiocommunications Conference1997,sponsoredby the InternationalTelecommunications

Union,byworkingwithotherFederal agenciesandthe

privatesectorto guidethedevelopment ofconsistent

U.S.policiesonissuessuchasspacescienceandmobile

satelliteserviceallocations.

AsdesignatedbyCongress, thePresident, andthe

SecretaryofCommerce, NTIAcontinuedto authorize

andmanageallFederal useoftheelectromagnetic spectrum.DuringFY1996,NT1Aauthorized24future

Federal satellitesandspacesystemsforfrequencyuse.

NTIAcontinuedtochairaninteragency committeethat

reviewsdomesticandforeignspacesystems todetermine

thepossibleimpactandelectromagnetic compatibility

withFederal telecommunications networks. Throughte

administration ofthecommunications spectrumforthe

Government (theFCCcontinuedtoregulatehespectrumfornon-Government users), NTIApreventedthe

interferenceof commercial communications sytems,

suchascommunications satellites, fromweather, scientific,andnational securitysatellites. NTIAassistedthe

commercial sectorincoordinatingwithFederal usersof

theradiofrequency spectrumsothatindustrycouldmake

quickuseofnewfrequency allocations.

Inthemilitary,spaceforcesplayedacriticalroleasa

forcemultipliereverywhere theUnitedStatesemployed

itsforces. InBosnia, themilitarydeployedspacesupport

teamstoadvisethetaskforcecommander ontheeffectiveuseof spaceassetsin conductinga varietyof

peacekeeping, peacenforcement, andhumanitarian

missions. Spacesystemsdirectlysupportedexercisesin

Korea,Europe,thePacific,Southwest Asia,andthe

UnitedStates. Thefirstsmalltacticalterminals, providingdirectweathersatelliteimageryatthetacticallevel,

werefieldedinKoreandBosnianFY1996.Thetimely

receiptof high-resolutionweatherdataaddresseda

shortfallnotedin OperationDesertStormandhas

enabledfieldcommanders touseweather datatoexploit

U.S.technicaldvantages overanadversary.

Toincreasecommunications supportforforcesin

Bosnia,DoDpersonnel repositionedseveralDefense

SatelliteCommunications System(DSCS)satellites,

optimizingthehigh-capacity communications services.

Toreplaceafailedsingle-channel transponder onthe

westernAtlanticDSCSsatellite(B-10),DoDlaunched

anewDSCS.TechniciansthenmovedtheB-10over

theIndianOceanregiontoreplacetheprimesatellite

that had a failing transponder. The satellite replaced by

B-10 in the Indian Ocean then became a reserve satellite and supported U.S. DSCS requirements in Bosnia.

DoD used communications satellite capabilities to

enhance force operations and training. The launch of

the second Milstar satellite (DFS-2) occurred in

November 1995, with the first cross-link testing in

December 1995. DFS-2 began passing operational traffic

in June 1996 to support Strategic, Joint Staff, and

National Command Authority users. During FY 1996,

the Milstar constellation supported five aircraft carriers

and portions of their battle groups.

Space Network

NASA personnel activated the sixth Tracking and Data

Relay Satellite (TDRS-6) C-band package prior to the

1996 Summer Olympics. Columbia Communications

Corporation utilized this resource to provide commercial services for the Olympics. Under a partnership

arrangement, the expansion of the C-band network will

result in additional revenues for NASA.

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NASA continued to snake its TDRS spacecraft

available to other Government agencies and industry for

testing and demonstrating various new mobile comlnunications technologies. At NASA's Goddard Space

Flight Center, specialists began developing low-power,

portable transmit/receive terminals that operate with

the TDRS spacecraft. NASA's space network also supported industry testing of new phased-array antenna

systems fi_r future use on aircraft and small satellites.

NASA personnel also initiated the development of a

compact transponder suitable for use by new, small satellites. This endeavor will provide an engineering model

and a small number of flight units fi_r use by upcoming

flight projects, thereby expanding TDRS use to a new

class of missions.

TDRSS assumed responsibility fi_r covering postBurn-1 telemetry data acquisition fi_r required and

mandatory periods of Titan IV/Centat,r and Atlas

ll/Centaur launches. TDRSS has reduced--and in most

cases replaced--support provided by the Air Force's

advanced range instrumemation aircraft fi_r major

phases of Titan IV/Centaur and Atlas ll/Centaur missions. Previously, up to five aircraft were needed to

support a launch.

TDRSS provided support fi_r 25 NASA flight missions, including eight Space Shuttle missions. Utilizing

the TDRS remote ground terminal in Australia, technicians supported Shuttle-Mir crews during rendezwms

and docking operations. NASA personnel began work

to establish a more robust, full-service remote terminal

in the TDRS zone of exclusion.

In June 1996, technicians completed the modernization of the original ground terminal in White Sands,

New Mexico. The White Sands complex now has dual

operational ground terminals, eliminating the ground

terminal as a single point of failure in space network

operations, extending the uset\d life of partially failed

TDRS spacecraft, and reducing the life cycle costs

through operating efficiencies.

Ground Networks

NASA telecommunications specialists used groundbased facilities to provide telemetry, command, and

navigation services to a number of NASA and international spacecraft, such as the Space Shuttle, Earth-orbiting spacecraft, planetary orbiters, and spacecraft on deep

space missions, in addition to supporting suborbital

sounding rocket and balloon flights. Accomplishments

during FY 1996 included providing services to the

Galileo spacecraft during its flybys of Jupiter and the

Jovian moons, to the European Remote Sensing missions

(ERS-1 and ERS-2), and to RAI)ARSAT from new

facilities in Antarctica, Virginia, and Alaska.

Technicians also provided support to more than 75 other

spacecraft missions and ELV launches, more than 1,000

aeronautical test flights, 28 sounding rocket launches,

and 31 atmospheric balloon flights. NASA personnel

made capacity and capability enhancements to the

telecommunications facilities to ensure the fulfilhnent of

NASA's science mission requirements, such as the electronic arraying of antennas to capture Galileo data.

NASA's development of a stnall, fully autonomous

ground station for command and telemetry support of

low-Earth-orbiting spacecraft provided a new low-cost

paradigm fi_r future LEO missions. Program personnel

expected that a new micrmvave feed system would

improve significantly the perfi_r,nance of the Deep

Space Network (DSN) antennas, while reducing implementation and maintenance costs. This device provided

the same benefit as ahnost doubling the size of each

DSN antenna. Technicians implemented high-electron

mobility transistor devices m the DSN's ground stations

for use as low-noise amplifiers. These systems offer much

lower implementation costs, while maintaining antenna

perfi)rmance in capturing very weak signals from space.

Mission Control and Data Systems

In FY 1996, five new spacecraft were launched, bringing

NASA Mission Control and Data Systems' operational

fleet to 15 spacecraft. Mission Control and Data Systems

continued to provide the contrail and per_-ormance

analysis of NASA's robotic Earth-orbiting spacecraft,

the capture of the spacecraft data received on the

ground, and the preparation of the data fl_r scientific

analysis. In FY 1996, Mission Control and Data Systems

provided 45,000 hours of mission control services to the

15 on-orbit spacecraft and processed 15.5 trillion bits of

received spacecraft data.

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The May 1996 test of the soft ground

arrestor system at the FAA's William J.

Hughes Technical Center.
AERONAUTICAL

:,ACTIVITIES

Technology Developments

N ASA's Hypersonic Research program

remained fi_cused on developing the enabling

technology for future aircraft and space access

vehicles. In FY 1996, NASA initiated the Mach 5 to 10

Hyper-X program, which is to validate hypersonic analytical methods and wind tunnel tests with the flight of

a 12-fi_ot-long unmanned aircraft. The Hyper-X is to

employ a dual-mode ramjet/scramjet hydrogen-fueled

propulsion system and integrated airframe. Another key

hypersonic hardware experiment was the U.S. flight

test of a Russian scramjet engine designed by the

Central Institute of Aviation Motors of Moscow.

NASA researchers designed a flight experiment named

PHYSX, which is to measure the boundary layer transition along the first stage wing of the Pegasus launch

_'ehicle up to speeds of Mach 8. NASA, together with

DoD and NSF, also funded a flight vehicle called

LoFLYTE fi)r the study of stability and control characteristics of waverider-designed aircraft.

NASA concluded its High Angle of Attack program

in FY 1996. The program has fi_cused on understanding

the aerodynamics, control characteristics, and airflow

phenomena associated with flight at very high angles of

attack. The principal objectives of this program were the

development of design data, methods, and guidelines

and the associated reduction of technological risk to

enable industry designers to employ new technologies

that will allow future fighter aircraft to perfimn with

much greater agility and air combat effectiveness.

NASA researchers employed the full range of experimental and analytical techniques throughout the

program to develop new control concepts for flight

beyond the traditional angle of attack limits. As a result,

the F-18 High Alpha Research Vehicle, which

researchers used to flight-test these new concepts,

reached a 70-degree angle of attack--far beyond the

normal F-] 8 limits. This highly successfiJl program concluded in September 1996 with a major technical

conference in which program personnel presented

important results, accomplishments, and conclusions.

Industry personnel already have begun to employ the

aircraft design knowledge and tools developed by

NASA during the High Angle of Attack program in the

development of the next generation of fighter aircraft.

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In FY 1996, NASA's propulsion researchers focused

on the critical technology needs that will provide

improved understanding and predictive capability for

propulsion components. Turbomachinery investigations

concentrated on achieving improved levels of aerodynamic efficiency, improved cooling effectiveness, and

enhanced operability. In order to minimize environmental impact, the smart green engine program has

addressed challenging concepts such as reduced, but

safe, engine operating margins. Combustor researchers

aimed at reducing nitrous oxides, unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and soot emissions. Hybrid

hyperspeed propulsion systems researchers addressed

critical technologies in the area of turboramjets. The

high-temperature materials program focused on a multidisciplinary approach to demonstrate a small gas turbine

combustor at 3,000 ° F with a minimally cooled liner.

High-risk/high-payoff research began on the Numerical

Propulsion System Simulator (NPSS). These

researchers directed their efforts at improving the fundamental understanding of flow physics in inlets,

nozzles, turbomachinery, and combustors. Engineers

expected that the establishment of the NPSS, along

with advances in single-discipline and multidisciplinary

analysis, will provide faster and less expensive methods

fi_r conducting both component and engine analyses.

NASA and its industry partners continued to make

progress in the High Speed Research (HSR) program.

The objective of HSR is to reduce the risk of technology

applications, enabling industry to develop an environ.

mentally compatible and economically viable highspeed civil transport (HSCT) aircraft. During FY 1996,

program personnel continued to develop advanced technologies essential for economic viability, reduced air and

noise pollutants, weight reductions and long life in

extreme temperatures, and safety and efficiency in the

cockpit.

On the F-16 XL-2 program, researchers achieved all

of their flight objectives in the area of supersonic laminar flow control. By achieving laminar flow over the

speed range of Mach 1.7 to 2.0 and altitudes up to

55,000 feet, researchers demonstrated that wing suction

at supersonic speeds can significantly reduce drag leading to HSCT gross takeoff weight. Engineers established

suction requirements to maintain the laminar flow

during the flights. While not incorporated in the

Technology Concept Airplane baseline, the supersonic

laminar flow control testing showed promise, and

researchers retained it as an option should the technology be required in the future for the airplane to meet

weight and range goals.

NASA personnel worked with their Russian counterparts to complete Tu-144 engine tests. The tests,

conducted with the Tupolev Aircraft and Design Bureau

at Zhukovsky Air Base near Moscow, measured the flow

field between the inlet and the engine to provide data

for validating design tools that would allow HSCT

engines with a shortened inlet/engine/nacelle section to

increase engine efficiency. Eight fast actuated doors

{designed primarily fi_r use as a control device fi_rstabilizing supersonic inlets) around the periphery of the

inlet acted as a source of internal airflow disturbances to

provide the data necessary to validate boundary conditions used in computational fluid dynamics calculations.

Researchers obtained high-quality, steady-state, and

fluctuating pressure data, including measurements of the

reflective characteristics of the engine face to incoming

perturbations of pressure amplitude and frequency.

Recent small-scale tests on models of an HSCT

engine nozzle design indicated that the design was

within 2 decibels of the final noise goal and 99 percent

of the final nozzle aerodynamic performance goal. This

integrated noise/aerodynamic performance test was a

crucial interim step in the development of HSR engine

technology. Using the results of this experiment, vehicle

integration results indicated a robust design space with

the engine cycle and nozzle, resulting in a 3-percent

reduction in vehicle weight.

Researchers tested the initial wind tunnel model of

the Technology Concept Airplane, the HSR baseline

configuration defined in December 1995, in the Langley

Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel in July 1996. Experimental

results confirmed the analytical supersonic optimized

nonlinear aerodynamic design of the twist and camber

of the double-delta wing. The nonlinear optimization of

the total configuration will continue over the next 2

years, leading to a projected 15-percent improvement

over linear optimization methods.

Researchers continued to make advances in materials and structural concepts to meet the requirements of

light weight and long life in the extreme temperatures of

the HSCT environment. During FY 1996, NASA man-
agersselectedbothmetallicandcompositematerials

andstructural concepts, movingtmvardtheSeptember

1998preliminarydesignreviewofthefinalc_mfigurationsfi_rthelarge-scaletechnologyvalidationtestsof

wingandfilselagecomponents. EngineersandtechniciansatNASA'sLangleyResearchCenterscaledupthe

bestcandidatehigh-temperature compositematerial,

PETI-5,fromtest-tube-size quantitiesto 1,000-pound

quantitiesfi_ruseinelement andsubcomponent tsing

tosupport thepreliminarydesignreview.

Researchers atNASA'sAmes,Dryden, Langley, and

LewisResearchCentersmadeimportantcontributions

totheadvancedtechnologyofthenewBoeing777aircraft.Boeingdirectlyreimbursed NASAfi3rwindtunnel

testingatLangleyandalsobuiltonLangley'sworkon

reduced engine noise, mathematical procedures fi_rcomputer-generated airflow images, and radial tire testing.

Langley personnel also did significant research that led

to the 777's advanced cockpit, digital data system, "flyby-wire" system, and lightweight composite materials.

Also in the area of digital systems validation, the

FAA and Boeing began assessing the structural coverage

requirements outlined in a Radi_3 Technical

Commission on Aeronautics document, "Software

Considerations m Airborne Systems and Equiplnent

Certification." Industry indicated that some of the tests

required by that document are repetitive and very

expensive and do not find additional s{}ftware errors

over previously required verification tests. In addition,

the FAA began working with industry to develop a minimum operational perfi_rmance standard for an avionics

computer resource. The goal of the project is to apply

fi_rmal methods to the design _f such an avionics

resource that can provide protection between various

applications with a sharing of resources.

Based on two ground-based simulation tests at the

Vertical Motion Simulator at Ames Research CenTer

and one test using the Calspan Total In Flight

Simulation aircraft, NASA managers selected a baseline

hmgitudinal control response type in July 1996. The

control response type determines The long-term behavior of the airplane to pilot inputs and can affect pilot

workload, actuator rate requirements, windshear penetration, pilot-induced oscillation st,sceptibility, and

touchdown perfi_rmance in landing. Researchers compared control response types in takeoff, approach, and

landing tasks. Pilots from Ames, Boeing, Calspan,

Langley, ',andMcDonnell Dtmglas participated, completing more than 600 test runs.

The primary role of NASA's High Perfi}rmance

Computing and Communications (HPCC) program in

the Federal HPCC program includes leading the developmeat _f applications software and algorithms tbr

scalable parallel computing systems that will increase

system perfi_rmance to the sustained teraFLOPS (10 le

floating point operations per second) level fi_r NASA

applications. NASA also continued to develop and

evah|ate high-perfl_rmancc computing, communications, and information technologies, and transferred

these technologies into use fi_r national needs. As

researchers develop HPCC technologies, NASA has

used these technologies to solve its "Grand Challenge"

research problems. These are fimdamental problems

whose solutions require significant increases in computational power and are critical to meeting national

needs. NASA's "Grand Challenges" include improving

the design and simulation of advanced aerospace vehicles, enabling people at remote locati_ms to

communicate more effectively and share information,

increasing scientists' abilities to model the Earth's climate and to fi_recast global environmental trends, and

improving the capabilities of advanced spacecraft to

explore the Earth and solar system.

The lnfi_rmation Infrastructure Technology and

ApplicaTions (IITA) component of the HPCC program

broadened the public outreach of the overall program

and furthered the development of a Global lnfi_rmation

Infrastructure (GII) by supporting research :and development in education, digital library technology, and access

to Earth :and space science data. The IITA efforts consisted of critical information technologies and the

application of these technologies to "National

Challenges," in which the application of HPCC technology can provide major benefits to all Americans.

IITA managers developed a technology base underlying

a tmiversally accessible GI1 and demonstrated substantial pilot programs. NASA's IITA K-12 effort has

reached more than 650 schools in 48 states, providing

teacher training; aeronautics, space, and Earth science

curricula; lnternet support; presentations at education

conferences; and tests of low-cost networking technology in schools. IlTA accomplishments during FY 1996

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included the development and use of new and innovative technologies to support digital libraries, such as

those being developed by NASA, the Library of

Congress, and other Federal and local agencies, and the

availability of new remote-sensing data bases for agricultural, urban, and disaster relief planners.

The Earth and Space Science component of HPCC

completed the award of a new 384-processor Cray T3E

testbed at NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center.

Targeted as primary users of the testbed, nine research

projects were awarded, encompassing 86 researchers at

22 U.S. universities and six Federal laboratories.

Collectively, these awards are to develop improved

methods of modeling changes in global climate and the

Earth's surface, to simulate the evolution and dynamics

of stars, to probe microgravity environments, and to

process remote-sensing imagery and signals. As a

broader benefit, the new computer programs and documentation are to be made available to the research

community on the "National HPCC Software

Exchange" via the Internet.

NASA personnel began work on the Remote

Exploration and Experimentation component of HPCC

in FY 1996. This component is to provide low-powered,

high-performance computation capabilities onboard our

Nation's spacecraft. It began conducting study contracts

with industry and academia to establish the requirements, identify candidate designs and architectures, and

qualify potential methodologies.

The Computational AeroSciences component of

HPCC improved the design and simulation of aerospace vehicles at significantly reduced cost; developed

the NPSS, whose goal is to perform 1-day-turnaround

design simulations of full turbomachinery engines;

developed the HSCT analysis and optimization codes

to perfi_rm medium-fidelity HSCT modeling and to

demonstrate accelerated aerospace design techniques;

and demonstrated advanced coupling of fluid dynamics

simulation and structural simulation at gigaFLOP

speeds. To better address critical industry-defined needs

in the area of distributed computing, NASA awarded a

cooperative agreement for clustered workstation applications to an industrial/academic team led by Pratt &

Whitney. This consortium has been effective in developing specialized techniques and has demonstrated the

routine management of hundreds of workstations. In

support of the National Research and Education

Network, NASA tripled its previous capability by connecting five of its research centers through a

high-speed, 155-megabits-per.second asynchronous

transfer mode (ATM) network. Researchers began to

use this network to explore the management of geographically dispersed supercomputers at lowered costs.

FY 1996 Computational AeroSciences program accomplishments included demonstrating interoperability

between independently managed networks based on

ATM technology supplied by multiple vendors, demonstrating portability and scalability of software

component tools to teraFLOP systems, and demonstrating multidisciplinary aeroscience applications on 10 to

50 gigaFLOP testbeds.

The Numerical Aeronautics Simulation program

and facility at NASA's Ames Research Center continued its improvements during FY 1996 in support of the

advanced research requirements in the aeronautics community. These requirements lead to the program's goal

to provide the Nation's aerospace research and development community by the year 2000 with a highperformance, operational computing system capable of

simulating an entire aerospace vehicle system within a

computing time ranging from 1 to several hours. Many

aerospace industry leaders have already attributed major

cost savings to breakthroughs in the Numerical

Aeronautics Simulation facilities, which many specialists consider to be the Nation's model for future

high-performance computer centers. The Numerical

Aeronautics Simulation program has led the efforts to

accomplish many new visualization breakthroughs, but

one of the more important accomplishments was the

installation of the new Portable Batch System that permits a researcher's computer code to be transporled from

one high-performance computing platform to another

without modification.

During FY 1996, the FAA and NASA began an

assessment of the Joint Subsonic Jet Noise Reduction

Research program to reduce engine noise levels of future

subsonic airplanes by 3 to 5 decibels. Specifically, a new

jet engine exhaust mixer system developed by NASA

provided a 2- to 3-decibel reduction in effective perceived noise levels--when applied to future engine

designs, this will substantially reduce jet noise near airports. The two agencies also prepared a joint assessment
of currentnoisereductiontechnologyfor propellerdrivenairplanesandrotorcraft. In theareaofengine

emissions, theFAAparticipatedwithNASAonthe

AtmosphericEffectsofAviationprojectto developa

scientificbasisfortheassessment oftheimpactofaircraftemissions ontheenvironment, particularlyonthe

ozonelayerandglobalclimatechange. InFY1996,the

FAAdevelopedasecond-generation systemfi_rassessing

changesincommunitynoisexposure, duetomajorairspaceredesignproposals.

NASA'sAdvancedSubsonicTechnology researchers

alsodevelopedapressure-sensitive pantfi_ruseonwind

tunnelmodels.Thispainthasgreatpotentialfor

improvingtheeffectiveness of dataobtaineduring

windtunneltestsandwillsubstantially reducetheaerodynamicdesigncycletimeandcostof aircraftwings.

Theseresearchers alsomadeprogress inreducingnitrous

oxideemissionsfromjet enginesin small-scaletests.

Programpersonnel developedanewcapabilityformanufacturingcompositewingsurfacesthatcanreducethe

costofwingmanufacturing by20percent.

ThroughoutFY 1996,the Army Research

Laboratorycooperated onmanytechnical researchprojectswithNASA.Highlightsincludedpowerstream

aerodynamics ingasturbineengines, magneticbearing

operationifuturegasturbineengines, thermal barrier

coatingsfordieselengines, auniquegasturbineengine

thatreducesweightandvolume,ti[trotoraircraft,

advancedcomposites thatreducewingdragwithout

compromisingaerodynamic performanceor stability,

and"smartmaterial"actuatorsinaircrafttrimpanelsto

controlinteriornoiselevels.

Air Traffic Control and Navigation

The FAA embarked on an effort to modernize the

national airspace system in an economically feasible

manner, with minimal disruption to users. As part of

that effort, the FAA began the development of the

system's architecture, a comprehensive blueprint to

improve the system's infrastructure over the next 20

years. In February 1996, the FAA released version 1.5 of

the system's architecture, covering the timeframe 1998

to 2015. The FAA received comments internally, from

the aviation industry, and from the general public and

worked to incorporate suggestions into the development

of version 2.0

The FAA's Display System Replacement (DSR) program to modernize equipment used at the 21 Air Route

Traffic Control Centers (ARTCC's) and implement

modern system operations and maintenance techniques

completed its hardware and software design and development in FY 1996. The DSR team successfully

accomplished product integration, fulfilled the initial

requirements fi_r DSR console testing, and completed its

production readiness review.

While development of the DSR was under way, the

agency began acquiring an interim system, the Display

Channel Complex Rehost ([X,'CR), which is to provide

a modern and reliable display channel system at five

ARTCC's. DCCR acquisition and implementation proceeded significantly ahead of schedule in FY 1996. The

FAA also completed system development and delivered

[X2CR equipment to fi_ur of the five selected sites.

In FY 1996, a Voice Switching and Control System

(VSCS) at each of 11 ARTCC's became fully operational, bringing the total to 15 sites. VSCS is a

state-of-the-art digital switching system that provides

air-to-ground communications between pilots of en

route aircraft and controllers, as well as ground-toground communications between controllers and other

users of the national airspace system. FAA software

engineers also developed the first VSCS planned product improvement in FY 1996.

In January 1996, the RTCA (formerly the Radio

Technical Commission fl_r Aeronautics) Technical

Management Committee approved the Minimum

Operating Perfi_rmance Standards for the Wide Area

Augmentation System (WAAS). The WAAS program,

developed to serve all phases of flight from en route

through precision approach, is the key program in the

FAA's plan to move the Nation from a ground-based to

a satellite-based navigation system. The Minimum

Operating Perfi_rmance Standards provided the guidelines for the avionics to be used in conjunction with

WAAS. In May 1996, the FAA signed a contract with

Hughes Aircraft Corporation fl_r WAAS development,

replacing the initial contract the agency canceled last

April.

Several years ago, the FAA initiated an effort to

modernize the tools available to air traffic controllers

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using the Oceanic Automation System, and the FAA

implemented some of these new system features during

FY 1996. The first system enhancement was the

telecommunications processor, which became operational during the last quarter of FY 1996, and supports

flight data input and output for future applications and

the functional expansion of oceanic systems. The

interim situation display became operational in the last

quarter of FY 1996, replacing the plan view display.

Air-to-ground communications within a single air

traffic control sector became operational at Oakland in

October 1995 with the implementation of the Oceanic

Data Link. A mu[tisector variant of the system became

operational at the Anchorage site in April 1996. An

expanded multisector Oceanic Data Link will vastly

improve the speed and reliability of controller-pilot

communications at three oceanic sites.

The FAA also worked to enhance air traffic services

in the Gulf of Mexico airspace for en route aircraft flying

at 18,000 feet and above. During FY 1996, the FAA

began implementing communications enhancements

and prototype development of an ocean buoy-based

satellite communications system.

In response to the growth in air traffic and increased

terminal area delays, the FAA initiated the development of an automated system to assist traffic

management specialists and controllers in the management of terminal area traffic. This Center-terminal

radar control (TRACON) Automation System

(CTAS) provides automated decision support tools for

the phmning and controlling of arrival traffic within

200 nautical miles of the arrival airport. During the

fiscal year, FAA technicians implemented prototypes of

two CTAS tools, the Traffic Management Advisor and

the Final Approach Spacing Tool, at the Denver and

Fort Worth ARTCC's and the Dallas-Fort Worth

TRACON facility.

During the fiscal year, the FAA also continued work

on the St,rfitce Movement Advisor (SMA), an automation system designed fi_r use at high-activity airfields.

SMA facilitates the sharing of infommtion among the

air traffic, airline, and airport operations communities

to assist in the decisionmaking process related to the

surfitce movement of aircraft. The FAA installed a prototype SMA system in the control tower of Atlanta's

tiartsfield Airport and perfi_rmed a functionality stress

test on the prototype in FY 1996. In August 1996, the

SMA prototype underwent functionality validation and

completed a 96-hour stability test.

As the first step in modernizing the traffic flow management infrastructure, the FAA began "reengineering"

traffic flow management software using commercial

"off-the-shelf' products. In FY 1996, the FAA, in collaboration with NASA, focused its new traffic flow

management research and development efforts on the

development of collaborative decision-making tools

that will enable FAA traffic flow managers to work

cooperatively with airline personnel in responding to

congested conditions. Additionally, the FAA provided

a flight scheduling software system to nine airlines.

In FY 1996, the FAA and NASA also began studying ground operations during low visibility at 10 U.S.

airports. This research for the Terminal Area

Productivity program began creating computer simulation models of the ground operations and investigating

the operations effects of introducing a situational awareness aid in the cockpit during ground operations.

In addition, the FAA and NASA created the Air

Traffic Management Interagency Integrated Product

Team (IAIPT) to formally integrate research efforts

directed at enhancing the safety, efficiency, and costeffectiveness of the national airspace system. The IAIPT

solicited inputs from a broad spectrum of national airspace system stakeholders and combined these with

guidance from relevant NASA and FAA advisory committees to establish technical goals and collaborative

working procedures fi)r individual research projects.

During FY 1996, the IAIPT released an integrated plan

fi_r air traffic management research that defined the

research scope, described the schedule and resources

proposed for individual projects, and specified agency

responsibilities.

In another joint FAA-NASA project, the FAA

completed the first of three development efforts of the

National Airspace Resource Investment Model. This

model is being developed with three interrelated modeling capabilities: operational, architectural, and

investment.

The FAA continued work on the Standard Terminal

Automation Replacement System (STARS) during FY

1996. A joint program being undertaken by the FAA

and DoD, STARS is designed to replace the Automated
RadarTerminal System(ARTS)withamodern, commerciallybased, fullydigitalsystem. TheFAAawarded

acontractfortheSTARSprocurement inSeptember

1996to a teamled by the RaytheonCompany.

Meanwhile, theFAAcontinuedto provideupgrades

andenhancements toARTStoimproveairtrafficsafety

andequipmentreliabilityat TRACONfacilities.

Significant accomplishments duringFY1996included

theimplementation of theARTSIIIEhardwareand

softwareupgrades attheChicago, Dallas/Ft. Worth,and

NewYorkTRACON's.

Duringthefiscalyear,theFAAalsomadegreat

stridesinupgradingthecapabilityofthenational airspacesystemby modernizinglandingsystems.

Techniciansinstalledmorethan100newMark-20

instrumentlandingsystemsaroundthe country,

replacing instrument landing systems that were as

much as 30 years old. The Mark-20's ensure that reliable, supportable landing systems will be in place until

technicians implement the augmented GPS landing

capability. Additionally, the FAA has used a service

life extension program to modernize instrument landing systems that are 20 to 30 years old. At the end of

the fiscal year, the factory had shipped 89 of these systems, and the FAA has outfitted more than 50 airports

with the new systems.

For the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta,

the FAA joined NASA and industry in a consortium

known as the Advanced General Aviation Transport

Experiment (AGATE) to successfully complete

Operation Heli-STAR. AGATE supplied the air and

ground avionics, surveillance, and communications

equipment fi>r Hell-STAR aircraft, helicopters, and

blimps operating within the Olympics' controlled airspace. AGATE also equipped the commercial aircraft

that transported cargo fi3r the Atlanta Olympic Games.

These aircraft flew more than 1,400 flight-hours during

the 6-week operation in which there were as many as

10 to 14 aircraft operating within a 3-mile radius at

altitudes of 200 to 500 feet. Although the w>lume of

low-altitude traffic was more than the Atlanta area had

ever seen, the related "Fly Neighborly" community

response system helped minimize adverse noise impacts

in Atlanta neighborhoods.

Weather-Related Aeronautical

Activities

During FY 1996, the FAA and NOAA awarded a contract fi)r the development of a water wlpor sensing

system. United Parcel Services, Inc., agreed to equip its

aircraft with the sensors and downlink the data fi_r use in

computer weather forecasting. Scientists believe that frequent observations of water vapor aloft will enable them

to make significant advances in in-flight icing, ceiling,

and visibility fi>recasts. In January 1996, local aviation

officials used the findings of FAA in-flight icing research

at the Aviation Weather (;enter in Kansas City, which

issued the first fi_recast of freezing precipitation aloft.

In another joint project with NOAA, the FAA

worked to develop a snowfall-rate system. During the

fiscal year, scientists from the Nati_mal Center fi_r

Atmospheric Research conducted a field experiment at

Chicago's O'Hare Airport to gather data on the impact

of snowfall on airport operations and airline de-icing

progranls.

In another area of weather data collection and

reporting systems, the FAA continued to install the

Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), commissioning the 100th system in September 1996.

l)urmg FY 1996, the FAA completed its purchase of

537 systems. The ASOS project is a joint effort of the

FAA, the National Weather Service, and DoD to

deploy automated weather observing capability at more

than 800 sites throughout the United States. During

the fiscal year, the FAA fimded the purchase and continued development of ASOS Contn_ller Equipment

(ACE), which displays weather and airport infi>rmation

to tower controllers and TRACON personnel. A very

reliable configuration using a low-cost automatic

switchm, er capability resulted from these efforts. The

FAA funded 10 ACE installations, m addition to the

two already installed, and upgraded the ACE at Will

Rogers W_rld Airport in Oklahoma City. The ACE

underwent an operational test and evaluation at

Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in the summer

of 1996, resulting in only minor software modifications.

During FY 1996, the FAA continued developmental

efforts of the Integrated Terminal Weather System, which

provides short-range fi>recast and warning notices to

pilots and air traffic controllers. The system's prototype

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operations at the Orlando, Memphis, and Dallas/Fort

Worth airports continued during the year. The FAA also

awarded a contract to develop a weather and radar processor to provide next-generation weather radar data for

ARTCC controllers.

As part of the FAA's wake vortex program, personnel

from the FAA and DoT's Volpe National Transportation

Systems Center (VNTSC) began establishing a test site

at New York's John E Kennedy International Airport.

FAA and VNTSC personnel installed a ground wind

vortex sensing system at the Memphis airport as a part of

a suite of NASA instruments at that airport that

inch,des Lidar and meteorological sensors. Researchers

used the fill suite of instruments to collect wake w_rtex

and weather-related measurements, as well as data for

determining the meteorological effects on wake w_rtex

behavior. FAA, VNTSC, NASA, and industry personnel collaborated to recommend new aircraft

classification, separation standards, and operational procedures related to wake w_rtices. The FAA implemented

new standards fi_r aircraft classification and separation

in August 1996. FAA and VNTSC personnel continued

working closely with British officials in the analysis of

aircraft separation data from Heathrow Airport, as well

as the Chicago (O'Hare) and Toronto airports. FAA

specialists also worked closely with German and French

officials to increase capacity at the Frankfurt and De

Gaul[e Airports.

Additionally, NASA aviation and operations systems research in FY 1996 validated a wake w_rtex hazard

computer model through key flight and wind tunnel

experiments. The model has predicted terminal area

capacity increases up to 12 percent with no compromise

in safety.

In the area of aircraft icing, the FAA conducted a

3-day international conference in May 1996. Recommendations emanating from the conference formed the

basis fi_r an FAA in-flight icing phm that addresses

both [ong- and short-term FAA actions to enhance aircraft safety. In cooperation with NASA, FAA

engineers continued to develop techniques fi_r recognizing susceptibility to ice-induced tailplane stalls

during icing certification testing, and they initiated

eflorts to ascertain the susceptibility of modern airfi_ils

to large supercooled icing droplet accretions. Also,

FAA researchers continued their in-depth investigations of technologies fi_r ground de-icing and anti-icing

fluids, with an emphasis on environmentally friendly

fluids. FAA engineers undertook research, development, and evaluation efforts for area-coverage,

aircraft-mounted surface ice detectors for use during

ground operations to ensure that all critical aircraft

surfaces were clean of frozen contaminants prior to

takeoff. In addition, NASA initiated the Supercooled

Large Droplet icing research program to study unusual

aircraft icing, such as that which contributed to the

ATR-72 crash in October 1994.

During FY 1996, the FAA awarded two Direct User

Access Terminal service follow-on contracts. The previous, telephone-based service provided general aviation

and other FAA-authorized users with toll-free access to

an FAA database for preflight weather infi_rmation, as

well as a flight plan processing service for filing, amending, or canceling flight plans using a personal computer.

The new "off-the-shelf" system provides all of the functionality and performance of the previous service while

adding several new FAA-mandatory and vendoroptional features at no cost to the user.

Also during the fiscal year, the FAA commissioned

13 additional Terminal Doppler Weather Radar

Systems. This brings the number of commissioned systems to 19 out of a total of 45 that are planned fi_r

deployment at operational airports. These systems provide for the timely detection of hazardous wind shear in

and near airport terminals' approach and departure corridors and report that information to pilots and

controllers.

Devel_pment also continued on the Airport

Surveillance Radar-Weather Systems Processor (ASRWSP), which provides fi3r the timely detection of

hazardous wind shear in the terminal approach and

departure areas. ASR-WSP performance is similar to

that of a Terminal Doppler Weather Radar System. FAA

specialists evaluated the system in Orlando, and it also

began operating in Albuquerque. As a result of initial

ASR-WSP prototype successes, the FAA made a decision to proceed with full-scale development activities.

The FAA also began enhancing the Low Level Wind

Shear Alert System (LLWAS) at nine major airports.

I.LWAS provides real-time detection of hazardous wind

and wind-shear activity in the terminal appr_ach and

departure are'as. During FY 1996, the FAA deployed the
LLWAS-Network Expansion(LLWAS-NE) systemto

sevenairports, commissioning fourofthenewsystems

priortoSeptember 30,1996.LLWAS-NEextendsthe

coverageareandprovidesrunway-oriented windinformationandwind-shear detections.

Finally,theFAAcontinuedworkontheWeather

MessageSwitchingCenterReplacement system, commissioningthesesystemsinSaltLakeCityandAtlanta.

Suchsystemsprocessand disseminateFAA and

NationalWeatherServiceweatherdataandspecial

noticestoairspaceusers.

Flight Safety and Security

In the area of visual guidance, FAA specialists completed simulation studies for approach lighting systems

during FY 1996. Work continued on research to find a

more cost-efficient source for approach lighting. In addition, FAA specialists demonstrated the friction effects of

retroreflective bead and sand additives to pavement

marking material.

In FY 1996, the FAA and the Engineered Systems

Company successfully tested an aircraft arrestor bed

composed of cellular cement, a fi_am-like material that

absorbs energy, at the FAA's William J. Hughes

Technical Center in Atlantic City, New Jersey. 1)uring

the test, the FAA's Boeing 727 aircraft taxied ont_ the

bed at 55 knots and came to rest in 278 feet, only 16 feet

beyond the math model prediction. A second partnership with the Port Authority of New York and Net'

Jersey produced a design for an operational arrestor bed

to serve John E Kennedy International Airport.

In the area of aircraft systems fire safety, FAA engineers made progress in improving the performance of

aircraft interior materials during a fire. Researchers identified a promising lightweight thermal acoustical

insulation material that provided an excellent barrier

against fuel fires. Also, the FAA issued a service bulletin

recommending the replacement of flammable polyester

blankets at the end of their service life with blankets

meeting net, fire test criteria.

The FAA completed the final installation of a

driver's enhanced vision system for emergency vehicles

at airports in August 1996. This system, used to improve

emergency rescue responses under adverse weather conditions, uses infrared thermal imaging technology to see

through fog, rain, sleet, and snow. The system includes

GPS mapping for locating and navigating to accident

sites and a radio frequency data link that allows the

vehicles to receive and transmit vital messages.

The FAA continued its work to improve postcrash

interior fire suppression. The FAA and the Crash

Rescue Equipment Services Company developed a fully

functional 55-fi_ot arm boom with an aircraft cabin skin

penetration system. In March 1996, working under a

cooperative research and development agreement, the

FAA Technical Center and the San Antonio Airport

Authority demonstrated a fi_ll interior fire-suppression

event using the vehicle's cabin skin penetration system.

With the cabin interior fi_lly on fire and with temperatures of more than 2,000 degrees in the aft end of a

salvaged Boeing 707 aircraft, the cabin interior fire was

quickly controlled in 30 seconds and fully suppressed in

under 2 minutes with tess than 600 gallons of fine mist

water spray.

Under the auspices of the FAA-National Institute

fi_r Occupational Safety and Health Aircraft Cabin

Exposure Assessment Study, researchers collected

indoor air quality and cosmic radiation data on eight

commercial flights in FY 1996. The FAA also developed

a muhiyear research program to address broader disease

transmission issues in commercial aircraft.

During FY 1996, the FAA worked with the National

Highway Traffic Satety Administration to revise the

testing requirements in child restraints used on aircraft.

Based on research done by its Civil Aeromedical

Institute, the FAA issued revised regulations prohibiting

the use of backless booster seat and harness-type child

restraints on aircraft during takeoff and landing.

Researchers tested prototypes of aircraft-specific child

restraints being developed for airline use. Specialized

crashworthiness assessments included an airbag system

being developed fi_rservice in commercial airline applications. The FAA also tested a net,er design of a crash

dummy that more closely represents a person and features enhanced injury measurement capabilities.

In December 1995, the FAA held a meeting with

industry representatives on the use of crew oxygen systems in aircraft. The meeting highlighted the lack of

comfortable design and inconveniences associated

with these systems' use. The FAA initiated research to

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identify the cause of disincentives and began investigating a solution. The FAA also began examining the

strength and testing techniqucs for aircraft ew_cuation

slides during FY 1996. Newly proposed test methods

rem_ved the need to place human subjects at risk of

injury during a test, while resulting in a more reliable

emergency slide. The FAA also continued design work

to install utilities, heating, ventilation, and air conditioning equipment on a retired B-747 that is to be used

for emergency passenger and crew tests.

In FY t996, the FAA formed a parmership with the

Boeing Commercial Airplane Company to build the

wor[d's first full-scale airport pavement test filcility at

the FAA Technical Center. The National Airport

Pavement Test Facility will research pavement technologies that will accommodate the dramatic changes

associated with the next generation of large aircraft.

Current pavement standards work well for today's jumbo

jets, but new standards will be needed to handle new

designs that could weigh more than 1 million pounds.

FAA personnel began developing three-dimensional

models to assess accurately the life and load bearing

capacities of airport pavements.

In the area of advanced materials and structural

safety research, the FAA established test methods fi_r

the compression loading of composites and developed

computer programs fi)r the reliability assessment of composite aircraft structures. FAA researchers conducted a

vertical drop test of a Beechcraft 1900 commuter aircraft

fitselage to determine structural dynamic loads and a

horizontal sled test of a narrow body (Boeing-737) fitselage section with an auxiliary fiml tank. During the fiscal

year, FAA personnel continued to participate in the

development of a Composite Materials Handbook, which

is to establish goals toward the standardization of composite materials. The ageno/also updated the Handbook

_,n the Manufi_ture and lnspectiml of Composites and

Vo[ume[ of the Fiber Cumposite Analysis and Desi,,m

t landbook.

Under the auspices of its aging aircraft research program, the FAA, in cooperation with NASA, sponsored

a symposium m Atlanta on the continued airworthiness

of aircraft structures. The two agencies also conducted

technical workshops on structt,ra[ integrity, corrosion,

and inspection research. The FAA completed reports

describing the testing of a series of large-scale flat aluminum panels with multisite damage and on two fullscale, wide-body panels. During the fiscal year, the FAA

completed and distributed the initial phase of a repair

design and assessment software tool. FAA personnel also

conducted a video landing loads survey at the Honolulu

airport and reported the analytical results from a previous survey. Work continued on developing improved

safety inspection programs for critical engine components of commuter aircraft.

NASA's Advanced Subsonic Technology program

developed a hand-held, eddy current probe fi)r crack

detection that has excellent capability to detect hidden

cracks and corrosion beneath an aircraft's metallic skin.

Airline operators began to use the device and are saving

considerable cost and time as well as significantly

improving aircraft safety.

The FAA specified a new inspection technique for

the DC-9 wing box T-cap, where the wing joins the fuselage. This procedure reduced the time required for the

mandated inspection from 800 work-hours to approximately 40 work-hours. The FAA also completed a draft

advisory circular on the development of a corrosioncontrol program fi)r commuter aircraft. FAA specialists

continued developing and beta site testing emerging

nondestructive inspection devices. In addition, FAA

personnel developed a strategic plan for aviation maintenance human performance, which integrates and

coordinates human factors and human performance

across flight standards, aviation medicine, and aviation

research. Engineers and technicians continued the field

testing of a multizone ultrasonic inspection system at a

titanium billet manufacturing plant. During these tests,

researchers detected a titanium billet defect not flmnd

by the conventional inspection system used by industry.

As part of the FAA's propulsion systems and aviation

fuels program, researchers began developing a probabilistically based damage assessment tool. The FAA also

completed a computer code for determining turbine

engine combustion performance when operating with

mixtures of air and water and published a final report on

turbine engine diagnostics. The FAA Technical Center

continued working on the development of an unleaded

aviation gasoline for use in the existing fleet of general

aviation aircraft with piston engines. FAA personnel validated ground-based procedures for determining octane

requirements for unleaded aviation fuel and initiated in-
flightandgroundevaluations ofhigh-octaneunleaded

aviationgasolineformulasprovidedbyindustry.

TheFAAcontinuedtodevelopandresearchwaysto

mitigateandpreventthethreatofcatastrophic failureto

aircraft.Researchers conductedstudiesandtestsinflight

controltechnologies, lightweight material barriersfor

high-energyrotorfragmentmitigation,andaircraft

loads.Grantandsmallbusinessinnovationresearch

awardsfurtherexpandedresearchin aircraftcontrol,

loadtechnology, androtorfragment mitigation. In FY

1996,theFAAcompletedsmallturbineenginecontainmenttestsandhigh-temperature containment ring

tests.It alsocompletedananalytical studyofanuncontainedturbinerotorfragmentpenetrationthreatto

aircraftwingfueltanksanda technologyreviewof

advancedarmorconceptsforturbinedebrismitigation,

aswellasthefirstphaseofaneffortodevelopanaircraftprobabilisticrskassessment mehodology.

In theareaof aviationsecuritytechnologies, the

FAAcertifiedthelnvisionCTX5000SPexplosive

detectionsystemafterthecontractor mademajorsystem

hardwareandsoftwarechangestothepreviouslycertifiedCTX5000to improvesystemperformance. The

airportdemonstration programoftheCTX5000SPcontinuedon trackat theSanFrancisco, Atlanta,and

Manilainternational airports.

TheFAAalsosponsoredthethirdworkshopofthe

International CivilAviationOrganization todiscussthe

screeningofelectronicsuingtraceexplosives detection

equipment. Participantsdiscussedthenewcontrolled

depositionprocessfor explosives, wherebya known

amountofexplosivesisplacedonasurfacetotestthe

detectionequipment. Thatprocessrepresented amajor

stepforwardinthedevelopment ofstandards fortrace

explosives detectionequipment.

TheFAA'sairportsecuritytechnologyintegration

programheldaworkshopandthencompletedareport

onthevulnerabilityanalysisof 76surveyedairports

throughout thecountry.Theworkshopincludedthe

development of atestmethodology forimprovingthe

vulnerabilityassessment capabilityatU.S.airports. The

programalsoreceivedindustryconcurrence onatechnicalreporton positivepassenger baggagematching,

whichincludedanassessment oftheindustry-wide cost

andoperational effectsofimplementingandoperating

domesticpositivepassenger baggagematching.

FAAhumanfactorsspecialists workedwithindustry

to improvethescreener selectionprocessthroughthe

testingofx-rayscreeningandCTX5000screeningaptitudetestsfor theirabilityto predicton-the-job

detectionperformance. FAApersonnel developedcomputer-based trainingprogramsfi_rbothx-rayandCTX

5000screeners toimprovethedetectionofimprovised

(noncommercial) explosivedevices.

TheFAAalsocompletedaperformance-monitoring

projecthatrandomlyinsertsfictionalthreatimages

duringscreeningoperations. Becausecreeners cannot

distinguishrealversusfictionalthreatimagesonthis

program, theprojectprovidesameanstomaintainvigilanceandprovideanaccurateindexof individual

screener performance.

In theareaofpassenger profiling,theFAAbegan

workingwithcommercial airlinestoreducethenumber

ofdomesticpassengers whoneedspecialdditional securitytreatment. TheFAAawardedagranttoNorthwest

Airlinesto upgradeitsprototypeautomatedprofiling

softwareprogramforsystem-wideimplementation on

reservationsystemsandto providespecifications supportingtechnologytransferto othermajorairline

reservationsystems.

Additionally, in theaircrafthardeningarena,the

FAAanditsresearchpartnersinitiatedaprocessfor

acquiringblastcontainersfi_rairlineaircraftuse.Inthe

firstoftwophasesofthisacquisitionprocess, theFAA

evaluatedsixpotential bidsandselectedtwosuppliersto

provide16units.

Aviation Medicine and Human Factors

During FY 1996, the FAA continued efforts to improve

human performance in the national airspace system

through research and development. FAA's Civil

Aeromedical Institute (CAM[) scientists supported the

deployment and evaluation of the Systematic Air

Traffic Operations Research Initiative research tool,

designed to support assessments of air traffic control

operations at fimr en route centers. The FAA began

developing prototype air traffic control sector objective

measures of workload, began collecting data to identify

factors that affect team interactions and performance

on a simulated air traffic control task, and completed a

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human factors study, using the new advanced CAMI

general aviation simulator to provide recommendations

for the certification of autopilot systems.

During the fiscal year, the FAA deployed the first

user-tailored version of the Automated Performance

Measurement System to Alaska Airlines for operational

tests. This computerized system for analyzing, processrag, and managing digital flight-recorded data makes

aircraft flight performance data accessible and usable.

The FAA also released a model pilot training program

designed to enhance regional air carrier safety.

The FAA also provided human factors support to

members of NASA Langley Research Center's AGATE

flight systems team of Government and industry

experts. The team expanded its research on the effects

of shift work and fatigue on job perfi_rmance to include

a collaborative study with scientists from CAMI,

USAF Armstrong Laboratories, and Japan to evaluate

the role of "bright lights" as a potential fatigue countermeasure for personnel working the night shift. As

part of a collaborative study, specialists at CAMI and

the U.S. Anny's Aeromedical Research Labcmm_ry

evaluated napping as another fatigue countermeasure.

In addition, FAA, NASA, and DoD scientists fi_rmed

a team to assess the effect of fatigue on national airspace system operators and to develop appropriate

cotmtermeasures to elilninate or nlitigate adverse

effects on perfi_rmance. With FAA direction, a commercial firm produced a video, titled "Fatigue Busters,"

fi_r use at safety seminars to help general aviation pilots

recognize and address fimgue. In response to the aviation community's increased interest in discordant

aircraft-pilot couplings, which has played an important

role in numerous aviation accidents, NASA

researchers completed a study on the safety repercussions of adverse aircraft-pilot interactions.

During this fiscal year, the FAA added three new

chapters to its Human Factors Guide fi_r Aviation

Maintenance and provided them to airline industry maintenance managers. The FAA also sponsored several

studies at Ohio State University concerning how general

aviation pilots make in-flight decisions. From this

research, the FAA produced a videotape to help general

aviation pilots establish a set of safety criteria and to

create personal safety checklists. In addition, researchers

made progress in developing methods to train general

aviation pilots to aw_id encounters with hazardous

weather.

The FAA also completed a usability study to evaluate a hand-held GPS receiver. It used the results to

enhance the checklist developed for the evaluation of

standalone GPS receivers.

During the fiscal year, the FAA's Toxicology and

Accident Research Laboratory at the Civil Aeromedical

Institute provided toxicology analysis and site support

for post-accident assessments of ValuJet flight 592 on

May 11, 1996, and TWA flight 800 on July 17, 1996. In

the area of biochemical research, preliminary studies

indicated that current projections for pilots dying in aviation accidents indicate a positive blood alcohol level in

about 4 percent of the accident cases, as well as the use

of over-the-counter drugs in 24 percent of the cases.

Researchers also investigated the prevalence of controlled dangerous substances in the bloodsm.am.

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A remarkable view of Earth's horizon was

taken by the crew of STS-75.
Terrestrial Studies and Applications 59

STUDIES

OF THE

PLANET

EARTH

uring FY 1996, NASA's Mission to Planet Earth I(MTPE) program accomplished many goals in

environmental monitoring. MTPE uses observations from space, the air, and the ground to assist

scientists in better understanding how the interaction of

Earth's systems of land, water, air, and life influence our

climate and environment. MTPE is part of a larger interagency research effort, the U.S. Global Change

Research Program, and also includes extensive international cooperation.

MTPE's centerpiece is the Earth Observing System

(EOS), a series of advanced interdisciplinary spacecraft

that, as of the end of the fiscal year, were scheduled to

be launched beginning in 1998. Over a planned 15- to

18-year period, EOS is to make the first sustained, integrated measurements of global changes in Earth's

atmosphere, land surface, and water resources. The

National Academy of Sciences (NAS) completed its

review of MTPE and the EOS program in 1996. The

NAS Board on Sustainable Development indicated its

strong support fi_r the program's science priorities, validated NASA's plan for near-term EOS missions, urged

greater incorporation of advanced technologies in later

flights, and suggested a way to improve data processing

and distribution.

EOS is to begin with the AM-I mission, scheduled

fi_r a June 1998 launch. AM-I is to fi_cus on the physical

and radiative properties of clouds, trace gases, and airland and air-sea exchanges of carbon and water. AM-1

development continued on schedule throughout FY

1996 as fabrication, assembly, and test of flight model

subsystems proceeded with no significant problems.

Technicians completed the fabrication and assembly of

the spacecraft's primary structure. All five AM-1 instruments-three sensors from the United States and one

each contributed by Canada and Japan--were in final

test at the end of FY 1996.

MTPE also made substantial progress on the development of the EOS PM mission, which is to provide

measurements of clouds, precipitation and radiative balance, snow and sea ice, sea-surface temperature,

terrestrial and oceanic productivity, and atmospheric

temperature. During FY 1996, Brazil agreed to provide a

PM-1 sensor to aid in weather prediction; the sensor will

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measure aunospheric humidity and precipitation under

clouds.

NASA also initiated three efforts designed to help

MTPE evolve in the future. First, NASA expanded its

implementation of its new initiative for technology

infusion, the New Millennium program. In the spring of

1996, MTPE managers selected the first Earth science

mission of the New Millennium program, an advanced

land imager, incorporating several innovative design

features. Second, MTPE began the Earth System

Science Pathfinder program to expedite the acquisition

of key scientific data. This program is to accommodate

new scientific priorities and infuse new scientific participation into MTPE. NASA managers issued the first

Announcement of Opportunity in July 1996. Third,

MTPE conducted a joint workshop with the commercial

sector to incorporate industry suggestions into the final

version of MTPE's commercial strategy, which aims to

lower the cost of science data by exploiting cutting-edge

industry technologies and information systems.

The EOS Data and Information System (EOSDIS)

continued its development during FY 1996, with plans

for a federation of prototype Earth Science Infi_rmation

Parmers. These changes to EOSDIS, which will provide

the data capturing, processing, and archiving functions

fi_r EOS, are omsistent with the recommendations of the

NAS Board on Sustainable Development to broaden the

base of potential public and scientific users of EOS data.

NASA placed draft solicitations on the Internet for comments and suggestions from potential providers on ways

to process creatively and distribute MTPE data products.

Work also continued on EOSD1S versions 1 and 2 to

support the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission and

AM-1 flight mission, respectively.

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Earth

Resources Observation System (EROS) Data Center's

EOSDIS Distributed Active Archive Center distributed 22 terabytes of data in FY 1996. Approximately

5 terabytes of global data products were distributed,

including 10-day cloud-free composites of North

America and global land cover data created from

Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

(AVHRR) data; digital elevation data sets of Japan,

North America, Eurasia, South America, and Africa;

and selected Landsat scenes over various areas of the

world. An additional 17 terabytes of data were distributed on CD-ROM, consisting primarily of Shuttle

imaging Radar-C (SIR-C) products from data acquired

on two 1994 missions of the Space Shuttle Endeavour.

The Data Active Archive Center also initiated the electronic distribution of data products via the Internet by

moving data products to an online mass storage system.

With the completion of an agreement between

NASA and the Russian Academy of Sciences Institute

for Radioengineering and Electronics, program officials

extended EOSDIS to Russia. NASA and the Russian

Academy will work together to ensure that specialists

catalog each country's data and make them available to

Russian and American scientists for EOSDIS research.

In FY 1996, scientists made major progress in using

land cover characterization to improve weather prediction. During a joint U.S.-Canadian study of northern

forests, the Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study

(BOREAS) project, scientists made an important

advance in characterizing the role of the northern

forests as a control on water, heat, and momentum transfers between the surface of the Earth and the lower

atmosphere. BOREAS researchers also accurately measured the growth rate of the northern forests for the first

time, demonstrating that the slow growth of boreal

forests results in the low transpiration of water to the

atmosphere. They also found that the stron_ control of

forests on water fluxes to the atmosphere is a primary

reflection of the strong link between biology and

weather. Researchers introduced BOREAS data from

ground-based, airborne, and satellite sources into experimental weather prediction models, significantly

improving regional weather predictions. BOREAS has

become another important part of the MTPE program.

During FY 1996, NASA took the lead on an interagency, long-term initiative to foster the incorporation

of Earth system science concepts and results into State

and local education systems. State teams of education

policymakers and science experts gathered in regional

forums, in which each State presented unique action

plans fi_r using existing resources to overcome obstacles

that prevent the incorporation of Earth system science

into the education system. Earlier in the year, NASA

convened an interagency panel to peer-review proposals

from 33 State teams. Based on the panel's recommendation, NASA awarded 19 grants, and EPA contributed

support fi_r an additional 6 grants.
NASAagainjoinedNSFandNOAAincontributing to the interagencyGlobal Learningand

Observations to BenefittheEnvironment (GLOBE)

program. Morethan2,000teachershavebeentrained

acrossthecountry,andstudentsfromaroundtheworld

continuedtomakedailymeasurements adreceivevisualizedresultsoftheircompileddata.

Studieslinkinglandcoverandlandusechangeto

globalchangeindicatedthatclimatevariabilityisaprimarydeterminant offorestmetabolism. Newobservations

onannual variationsinthegrowthpatternsofthenorthern forestsassociatedrelativelylargeshifts in

photosynthesis withthetimingoftheleafcycle.Research

alsoindicatedthatclimatevariationsonseasonal time

scalescanmodifyannual carbondioxidexchangewith

theatmosphere intheNorthemHemisphere by1billion

metrictonsofcarbonormoreachyear.

Recentresearchhighlightedtheuseof synthetic

apertureradar(SAR)fornaturaldisasterscienceand

applications. ScientistsusedSARtostudyvariousnaturaldisastersbypreciselydocumentingtopographical

changes. FY1996examplesincludedmeasuring thespatialeffectsof groundmotionassociatedwithrecent

Californiaearthquakes, quantifyingregional subsidence

causedbygroundwater extractionin theLosAngeles

area,andmeasuringvolcaniceruptionratesatHawaii's

Kilaueavolcano. InChina,scientistsuedSARmeasurementstolocateandstudytwogenerations oftheGreat

Wallthatcenturiesofblowingsandhaderoded. Radar

dataalsohelpedscientistsunderstand thewaythecourse

oftheNileRiverhaschangedovertime,theformation

ofa "supercontinent" 650millionyearsago,andthe

potential forfuturefloodingalongtheMississippi River.

InNovember 1995,NASAlaunchedtheCanadian

RADARSATspacecraft onanELVfromVandenberg

Air ForceBase,California.Scientistsexpected

RADARSATtoopennewavenuesofradarexploration

of theAntarcticicesheetandothersurfacefatures.

TheCanadiansatellitebeganoperatingandacquiring

datawithSAR,aspartofaNASA-NOAAcooperative

agreement wihtheCanadianSpaceAgency.

NASAalsoagreedwith the DefenseMapping

Agencyto fly a radarinterferometry missiononthe

SpaceShuttle,continuingtheShuttleRadarLaboratory

series. NASAandtheGermanspaceagency, DARA,

beganegotiatinganagreement fortheflightof the

GermanX-SARalongwiththeNASAC-bandSARfor

thismission,scheduledforMay2000.Thespecially

modifiedradarsystemisto producethemostaccurate

andcompleteopographic mapoftheEarth'ssurface.

Toimprovethemeasurement ofgroundmotionproducedby underlyingeological faultsin southern

California,NASA,in collaborationwithUSGSand

NSF,beganimplementing ahigh-densityGPSgeodetic

array.Inadditiontoprovidingbetterdataforanalyzing

thisimportant naturalhazard, theGPSarrayprovidesa

testbedforevaluatingtheaccuracyofnewmethodsof

SARremote-sensing techniques.

MapsproducedbyUSGS,usingdatafromNASA's

AirborneVisibleandInfraredImagingSpectrometer

(AVIRIS)flyingaboarda NASAER-2high-altitude

researchaircraft, cutcostsandhelpedspeedthecleanup

of hazardous wasteat a Superfundsitein Colorado.

Several Federal agencies usedthemapstolocatesources

ofacidminedrainageandheavymetalcontamination at

theCaliforniaGulchSuperfundsite.Thiscontaminationistheresultof morethan130yearsof mining

activitiesassociated withtheLeadvilleMiningDistrict.

The imagingspectroscopy mineralmappingallows

researchers to identifypotential contaminatingsources

assmallasindividual minedumpsforevaluation; it also

offersthepossibilityofusingAVIRIStoproducerelatively inexpensivethematicsite mapsto aid in

remediationat otherU.S.sites.Earthscientistsuse

AVIRIStotakemeasurements relatedtoglobalclimate

andenvironmental changeresearchinecology, geology,

oceanography, snowhydrology, andcloudandatmosphericstudies.

Inanefforttoimproveaerialfirefightingsafetyand

efficiency, NASAteamedwiththeBureauof Land

Management, the ForestService,andtheNevada

DivisionofForestrytouseadvancedNASAinformationtechnologytofight wildland fires. These agencies

also began evaluating an electronic Advanced

Navigation Display System, developed by NASA, to

aid aerial firefighters in their communications and

operations. The system indicates the position of other

firefighting aircraft, establishes an airspace structure

graphically on the computer screen, identifies areas

needing retardant or water drops, and transmits those

images to other aircraft. The system uses graphics displays of CD-ROM moving maps, radio modems, and

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GPS signals to show each aircraft's position and provide

two-way data communications between aircraft.

A new, animated view of the dramatic growth in

urban sprawl over the Baltimore-Washington metropolitan region during the past 200 years was produced by

the Baltimore-Washington Regional Collaboratory, a

cooperative effort of the University of Maryland

Baltimore County, USGS, and NASA. Using a combination of historical ,naps, census records, satellite-based

imagery, and GIS's, project officials planned to put the

animation tool and its supporting information on the

lnternet to aid local and regional urban planners.

The development of the next generation of land

imagers, Landsat-7, continued on schedule. During FY

1996, technicians completed the telescope assembly

integration and mechanical structure and initiated environmental testing. Project personnel also completed a

review t_f the design fi_r the ground system and began

development work.

The first flight of the Shuttle Laser Altimeter took

place in January 1996, aboard Shuttle flight STS-72.

Project managers planned a second mission fi_r FY 1998.

The Lewis spacecraft accepted deliver?' of all instruments in early FY 1996, with flight scheduled for early

1997. Lewis is to carry 25 new technologies, in addition to

three advanced sensors for commercial remote-sensing and

Earth science purposes. USGS scientists helped develop a

multi-agency aircraft imaging spectrometer managed by

the Naval Research Lah_rator?'. NASA selected this spectrometer to be the first hyperspectral imager placed into

the Earth's orbit, as part of the Lewis spacecraft.

Agricultural Research Service scientists at the

Remote Sensing and blodeling Laboratory in Beltsville,

blaryland, working with NASA scientists at the

Goddard Space Flight Center, developed improved

techniques for measuring crop residue cover. Crop

residues, the portion of the crop left in the field after

harvest, are an important factor in conserving soil and

water, particularly on highly erodible land. About onethird of U.S. cropland is classified as highly erodible

land. The project team demonstrated that crop residues

fluoresce more than soils and received a patent on the

technique. The team began developing a portable agricultural residue sensor.

Scientists at the Remote Sensing and Modeling

Laboratory also worked with the National Agricultural

Statistics Service to investigate the feasibility of using

AVHRR data t_ classify regions of spring wheat.

Typically, researchers use coarse-resolution AVHRR data

to classify vegetation on a continental scale. The group

succeeded in developing a stratified sampling approach,

which uses the high spatial resolution (30 tneters) of the

Landsat-5 TM (Thematic Mapper) to estimate crop

proportions within each AVHRR class. The acreage

estimates of spring wheat using remotely sensed data

closely matched the acreage estimates reported by the

National Agricultural Statistics Service. The scientists

incorporated the remotely sensed data into crop growth

models to simulate spring wheat yields at the county

level. The simulated yields agreed with the ground

survey reports of the National Agricultural Statistics

Service.

Scientists at USDA's Hydrology Laboratory in

Beltsville, Maryland, demonstrated the feasibility of

using airborne laser altimeters to measure land surface

features over large areas quickly, easily, and accurately.

The airborne laser measurements of micro- and macrotopography quantified water retention, infiltration,

evaporation, and water movement across land surfaces

and into channels. Researchers used channel and gully

measurements to estimate soil loss and explain water

quality and flow patterns. Measurements of plant canopy

distributions across the landscape provided a better

understanding of evaporative loss, infiltration, and surfi_ce water movement.

Agricultural Research Service scientists at the U.S.

Water Conservation Laboratory in Phoenix, Arizona,

developed remote-sensing approaches to assist resource

managers in making management decisions on farms,

rangelands, and natural plant communities. They measured spectral reflectance, canopy temperature, daily

growth, and the water status of cotton plants under various irrigation regimes. They also evaluated various crop

management scenarios through computer simulations to

determine the most cost-effective and environmentally

sensitive approaches.

As a part of the Free-Air Carbon Dioxide

Enrichment project at the Maricopa Agricultural

Center near Phoenix, U.S. Water Conservation

Laboratory scientists characterized the response of

spring wheat to the mteractive effects of elevated carbon

dioxide and nitrogen stress by acquiring hyperspectral
reflectancedataat theleafandcanopylevels. Their

small-scale studies provided the detailed knowledge necessary for interpreting imagery obtained from airborne

and satellite-based sensors. They also identified the way

data derived from the imagery can be used as input in

farm management applications.

USDA's Remote Sensing Research Unit at Weslaco,

Texas, developed a Cooperative Research and

Development Agreement with Site-Specific Technology

Development Group, inc., to design a calibrated digital

video imaging system for the assessment of natural

resources. Also, the Remote Sensing Research Unit

entered into an agreement with EPA's Aerial

Surveillance Division in Las Vegas, Nevada, to develop

video technology. Technicians assembled a true digital

imaging system fi}r evaluation in FY 1996.

Scientists at the Remote Sensing Research Unit

determined the salinity of the soil and mapped the yields

of 145,000 hectares of wheat and cotton m the Yaqui

Valley Irrigation District in Mexico. The unit successfully

developed procedures to provide reliable information on

the extent and severity of soil salinity and the resulting

reductions in crop yields, using field samples, satellite

data, and a G1S. These maps provide a permanent record

of salinity conditions within fields. Equati_ns describing

the reductions in crop yields in response to increasing soil

salinity provide data for the cost-benefit analyses of

amelioration efforts. The National Institute of Water

Technology and the National Water Commission of

Mexico used this research to illustrate progress in their

areas of responsibility.

The National Agricultural Statistics Service used

remote-sensing data to construct area frames for statistical sampling, estimate crop area, create crop-specific,

land cover data layers for GIS's, and assess crop conditions. Products from the first three areas were based on

medium-resolution digital satellite data, such as the

Landsat-5 TM and Satellite Pour l'Observation de la

Terre (SPOT) Multispectral Scanner data, while crop

condition assessments used low-resolution data from the

NOAA- 14 satellite.

For area frame construction, the National

Agricultural Statistics Service combined digital Landsat

and SPOT data with USGS digital line-graph data,

enabling the user to assign each piece of hind in a State

to a category based on variables such as the percentage

of cultivation. The National Agricultural Statistics

Service tested data fi_r the Indian Remote Sensing

(IRS-1C) satellite and fi_und several technical problems;

the Service will be a beta-test site fi_r the corrected

IRS- 1C data.

During FY 1996, USDA's delta remote-sensing project in Arkansas focused on the analysis of Landsat-5

TM data for the 1995 crop season. An end-of-season

analysis produced crop acreage estimates fi_rrice, cotton,

and soybeans at county levels plus a crop-specific categorization usable fi_r a digital GIS data layer. National

Agricultural Statistics Service analysts working on the

delta project also participated in a USDA Government

Applications "Eisk Force research and development project to evaluate the feasibility of using National

Technical Means data sets for improving statistical

infi_rmation on cr_}p acreage and yield. Researchers

c_mlpared a subset of the delta project data from

('raighead County, Arkansas, to analysis based on the

data sets. Scientists began work on an expert system to

aid statisticians, rather than remote-sensing analysts, in

perfi_rming analyses based on Landsat-5 TM or similar

remotely sensed data to estimate crop acreage. During

the summer, Landsat-5 TM and corresponding ground

data were collected fi}r Arkansas in preparation fi_r the

end-of-season crop acreage estimation.

A severe drought in the southern Great Plains

winter wheat areas caused USDA crop analysts to search

fi_radditional crop condition infi_rmation. In addition to

conventional survey data, vegetation condition images

based on NOAA-14 AVHRR data aided analysts in

describing drought-affected areas. An imagery product

indicating the ratio of a 1996 biweekly composite image

to its corresponding 1995 biweekly period was first created in May 1996. Spring imagery helped graphically

depict the extent of the problem to the media. Summer

imagery was usefid in analyzing the possible effects of

late planting in the Corn Belt. Ahhough the original

distribution of the imagery was in paper map fi_rm,

demand from users fi_r digital copies led to the creation

of an lnternet Web site available to the general public.

This Web site was updated biweekly with new imagery

throughout the 1996 growing season.

The Foreign Agricultural Service's satellite remotesensing program remained a critical element in USDA's

analysis of domestic and fi_reign agricultural production,

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supply, and demand by providing timely, accurate, and

unbiased estimates of global area, yield, and production.

Satellite-derived early warning of unusual crop conditions and production made it possible for more rapid and

precise determination of global supply conditions, contributed to efficient price adjustment, and helped

maximize the returns of U.S. farmers. The agency used

AVHRR, Landsat, and SPOT imagery, crop models,

weather data, attach6 reports, field travel, and ancillary

data to predict foreign grain, oilseed, and cotton pro.

duction. Last year, the Foreign Agricultural Service's

remote sensing supported DoS assessments of food needs

in the former Soviet Union, particularly in droughtaffected Ukraine. The Service also prepared detailed

analyses of the U.S. southern Great Plains drought, the

northern Mexico drought, and flooding in China and

North Korea.

The Farm Service Agency continued to fund the

analysis of Landsat TM, SPOT, and AVHRR imagery by

its sister agency, the Foreign Agricultural Service, from

which it received timely reports on U.S. crop conditions. These imagery-based reports, combined with

weather data, crop model results, and GIS products, led

to the development of accurate and timely projections

and comprehensive evaluations of crop disaster situations. Also, the Farm Service Agency continued to be a

parmer in the National Aerial Photography Program

and the National Digital Orthophoto Program. Seeking

to reduce National Aerial Photography Program

imagery collection costs, the agency tested the usability

of Russian high-resolution KVR-1,000 imagery to augment aerial photography coverage of Hawaii.

The Forest Service used a wide range of remotely

sensed data for managing and protecting the 191 million acres of land in the National Forest System--

AVHRR data fi_r wide-area coverage and Landsat,

SPOT, and aerial panchromatic and multispectral

imagery fi_r small- to large-scale coverage. These systems provided data that supported virtually all aspects

of ecosystem management, such as land management

planning, wildfire detection and suppression, resource

inventory construction and updating, and wildlife habitat assessment. Remotely sensed data were also the

primary source for the Forest Service's topographic

mapping contribution to the National Mapping

Program, which is managed by USGS. Forest Service

map revisions provide up-to-date information for more

than 10,000 l:24,000-scale maps of National Forest

System lands. These maps are essential tools for Forest

Service resource managers; they also are distributed to

the general public.

NASA supported the Forest Service with the acquisition of approximately 30,800 square miles of

high-altitude aerial photography over the Chugach and

Tongass National Forests in Alaska. In addition, NASA

provided real-time Thematic Mapper Simulator imagery

of several major fires. The ER-2 aircraft transmitted the

imagery to ground users, as it was being acquired, using

the Satellite Telemetry and Return Link system.

The Natural Resources Conservation Service shared

costs with State and Federal agencies in acquiring aerial

photography through the National Aerial Photography

Program. Program officials and local agencies began costsharing the development of digital ortho-imagery

through the National Digital Orthophoto Program, with

the goal of completing conterminous coverage of the

United States by 2002. Approximately 35 percent of the

United States was complete or in progress at the end of

FY 1996. The National Resources Conservation Service

continued to increase its use of remote sensing to conduct

the National Resource Inventory--the most comprehensive and statistically reliable natural resource inventory of

its kind in the world. The inventory is used to report how

well the Nation is sustaining natural resources on land

that is not federally owned. The National Resources

Conservation Service uses the National Aerial

Photography Program, large-scale tree-color aerial photography, color slides, and satellite imagery to interpret

and classify more than 800,000 sample sites in forming

the inventory's database. The inventory offers land cover

and use, soil erosion by water and wind, wetlands, prime

farmland acreage, conservation treatment needs, and

other natural resource characteristics.

Also, the National Resources Conservation Service

continued to cooperate with DoD to use the Navstar

GPS Precise Positioning Service (PPS). The Service

purchased an additional 285 PPS receivers and used

approximately 475 precision lightweight GPS receivers

to correlate precise geographic coordinates with natural

resource and environmental data for use in making

better assessments of agricultural resources with GIS's.

The National Resources Conservation Service also pro-
videdtechnicalsupportto otherUSDAunitsand

Federal agencies, includingNASA.

Byanalyzingmeteorological satelliteimagerythat

showedurbanlightsatnight,NOAAscientistsinferred

populationandenergyconsumption bycitiesandtowns.

DefenseMeteorological SatelliteProgram(DMSP)

satellitesrecordednightlyemissionsinthevisibleand

near-infrared emissionbandsatverylowlevels.Stable

emissionsourcesafaintastowns,squidfishermen, the

aurora, andmoonlitcloudswerecapturedintheimages.

Severalstudiesdemonstrated the techniqueandits

applicationtopopulationdynamicsandeconomicvitality.NOAAscientistsalsodevelopedtechniquesto

monitorfi_restfiresby interpretingthermalinfrared,

near-infrared,and visible emissionsfrom the

GeostationaryOperational Environmental Satellite

(GOES)series,DMSPsatellites, andthePolar-orbiting

Operational Environmental Satellite(POES)series.

Aspartof aninternational experiment onglobal

energyandthewatercycle,NOAAdevelopedaglobal

monthlyclimatologyofthefractionalreaofthesurface

coveredwithactivegreenvegetation. Scientistsderived

this"vegetationindex"fromAVHRRdata.Researchers

alreadyusedthevegetationfractioninnumerical weather

forecast modelsandgeneral circulationmodelstohelp

specifytheenergyandwaterbudgetsatthesurface.

NOAAscientistsconductedastudyoftheeffectsof

changesinlanduseandlandcoveronmonthlyandseasonalaverages ofdiurnaltemperature range.Thestudy

continuedtocombineAVHRRdatawithmonthlytemperaturesandassociatedmetadatafromthe U.S.

Historical ClimatologyNetworkfortheperiod1981to

1990.Thepreliminaryresultsindicatedthatsignificant

differences indiurnaltemperature rangecouldbeassociatedwithcertainpredominant landuseandland

covertypes.

NOAAdevelopedanobjectivealgorithmtomonitor

theglobaldistributionofsnowcoverfromtheDMSP

Special SensorMicrowave/hnager. In addition,NOAA

personnel begandevelopingamethtxttoblendin situ

datawithanear-surface global temperature poductfrom

theDMSPSpecial Sensor Microwave/Imager. Thistemperatureproductintegratesmeasurements fromthe

geostationar3' andpolar-orbiting satellites' infraredbands.

EPAappliedremotelysensedimagery, tools,and

technologies toawiderangeofenvironmental applicationsin FY1996.EPA'sEnvironmental Photographic

InterpretationCenter(EPIC)continuedtoutilizecurrentandhistorical aerialphotography to researchand

identifypastandcurrenthazardous wasteandotherenvironmental problems. EPICproducedhundredsofaerial

photographic productsperyearonhazardous wastesites

aroundthecountry. EPICpersonnel participatedinvisualizationresearcheffortsthatutilizedavarietyoftools

andsoftware, includingNASA/JPLsurveyor softwarefi_r

creatingavideo"fly-through" ofspecificareasofenvironmentalstudyto supportEPA'semphasison

community-based environmental protection.

InpartnershipwithDoD,NASA,DoE,USGS,and

theU.S.FishandWildlifeService,EPAmanageda

studyofadvancedremote-sensing techniquestodetect

wetlandstinderfi_restcoverandalsoappliedmultiresolution landcharacterizationdatato a variety of

environmental change detection problems such as water

impacts, urbanization, and wetland losses. The multiresolution land characterization program continued to

provide land cover data and has completed land cover

mapping fi_r a number of States in the Northeast.

Scientists completed the global land cover characterization component of this project, using 1-kilometer

AVHRR data, and a data set fi_r the Western

Hemisphere is available on the World Wide Web.

EPA scientists also conducted research using data

from the North American Landscape Characterization

data base to determine vegetation changes from 1970 to

1990. Researchers used data from the National

Technical Mean data sets as a training and accuracy

assessment tool in this process.

EPA's Office of Water analyzed thermal imagery of

approximately 950 miles of river in three States in the

Northwest, where deforested streambanks have contributed to warmer water temperatures that threaten

declining salmon populations. Forward Looking Infrared

Radiometer imagery, which detects general temperature

patterns, cool groundwater seeps, and areas in which

water becomes warmer, provided useful new information

fi_r river restoration and salmon habitat management.

EPA's Office of Water also participated in the intelligence community's Govermnent Applications Task

Force during FY 1996. Congress created this task fi)rce

tO demonstrate civilian environmental applications of

advanced remote-sensing technology. The EPA project

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measured vegetation structure and topography in riparian zones to calculate the reduction in sunlight reaching

the water surface. EPA personnel used the results to

model and predict water temperature.

Internationally, EPA personnel participated on an

environmental task force that began developing a

remote-sensing GIS data base for the Priobskoye area of

the Russian Arctic. The data base is to provide ecological risk assessment information on oil and gas

exploration in the region.

USGS continued to operate the National Satellite

Land Remote Sensing Data Archive, as mandated by law.

A key component of this archive is the data collected

over the last 24 years by the Landsat satellites. USGS also

began preparing for its role as the operations manager for

the Landsat-7 Data Handling Facility. USGS delivered

the suite of computer algorithms required for the geometric correction of Landsat-7 data.

In FY 1996, USGS completed its expansion of the

EROS Data Center to provide facilities for installing

and operating the computer equipment, data archives,

and personnel required to receive, process, and distribute data from the EOS and Landsat-7 spacecraft.

Delivery of initial equipment components began immediately after the new facility was occupied in April 1996.

Dol continued to c_×_perate with DoD to use the

Navstar GPS PPS. DoI bureaus have purchased approximately 400 precision lightweight GPS receivers since

1995. Each Dol bureau now has the approval to purchase

receivers fi_r its authorized users, and DoI established a

centralized facility in FY 1996 to service DoI receivers,

including the periodic rekeying of the encrypted DoD

GPS code. By accessing this code, Dol users obtain more

accurate, real-time, on-the-ground geographic location

infi_rmation (approximately 10 meters horizontal accuracy) than is currently available using other GPS

technology.

Dol used GPS technology in FY 1996 for a wide

range of mapping, inventory, monitoring, and research

activities. For example, the Fish and Wildlife Service

used GPS for tracking the location of radio-tagged fish,

determining the geographic coordinates of survey

points, and documenting the locations of endangered

species. Fish and Wildlife Service staff frequently

worked in such remote areas that GPS was the only feasible means to determine locations.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs continued to use both

Landsat and SPOT data and GPS technology for

resource mapping (including land cover and land use,

vegetation, fire fuels, irrigation networks, and transportation corridors), image mapping, environmental

assessments, inventories, and other related GIS support

activities. The analysis of both aerial photographs and

satellite images directly supported programs in mineral

resources, land and water, wildfire management, wildlife

habitat, and hazardous material impacts across all lands

managed by the bureau.

Remotely sensed data derived from satellites and aircraft and GPS technology continued to play an

important role in efforts by the Bureau of Land

Management to sustain the health, diversity, and productivity of public lands. The data provided critical

information to resource specialists for inventory, assessment, modeling, and monitoring efforts. Bureau of Land

Management personnel used aerial photographs and

satellite images, supplemented by GIS and GPS technology, to support management activities related to

wildlife habitat, wilderness, recreation, rangeland,

timber, fire, minerals, and hazardous materials. The use

of GPS and GIS technology for spatial data analysis was

increased significantly by Bureau of Land Management

field personnel because the bureau has implemented the

Automated Land and Mineral Record System

Modernization program.

During FY 1996, the Bureau of Reclamation used

remotely sensed data in support of a number of water

resource management projects. Reclamation staff used

crop acreage information derived from Landsat TM and

SPOT High Resolution Visible data as inputs to models

of consumptive water use on rivers. They developed

algorithms for estimating snow precipitation rates from

the next-generation Doppler weather radar system.

They also mapped in-channel and flooded bottomland

habitat for endangered fish using large-scale aerial photographs, airborne videography, and thermal scanner

images. Technicians mapped noxious wetland weeds

with large-scale aerial photographs to evaluate the effectiveness of biological control programs.

The Fish and Wildlife Service increased its use of

satellite image data over the past year. Service personnel

used Landsat data to create baseline habitat maps in several diverse locations, such as Casco Bay, Maine; the
DelawareBayarea;southernFlorida;Alaska; thePacific

Northwest; andtheMontanaprairie.Inmanycases, personnelusedthehabitatinformationto determinethe

suitabilityoftheareafi_rendangered species. TheFish

andWildlifeServicecontinuedtousesatellitedataand

GPStoverifyandupdateNationalWetlandInventory

mapdata.

TheNationalBiological Servicehasbeenusing

LandsatTM andMultispectral Scanner, SPOT,and

AVHRRdatafora varietyof mappingandresearch

applications. Thisworkincludedongoingworkinthe

GapAnalysisProgram, landcoverandchangedetection

mappingintheupperMississippi Riverarea,theassessmentofdamagefromHurricaneAndrewinLouisiana,

ananalysisofwaterfowl winterhabitatsinCalifornia,

andtheuseofAVIRISdataforestimatingsnowgrain

size,albedo, andliquidwatercontentinsurfacesnowin

theSierraNevada.

TheNationalParkService'sAlaskaFieldArea

acquiredandusedatafromsatelliteandaircraftplatformsforseveralpplicationsduringFY1996.A land

covermappingprojectbeganforLakeClarkNational

ParkandPreserveusingSPOTdata.New1:60,000

color-infraredaerialphotographsof GlacierBay

NationalParkfor assessingland-cover changewere

obtainedthroughanagreement betweenNASAandthe

ForestService.TheNationalParkServiceestablished

anagreement wihDoDtouseclassifiedsatellitedatafor

resourcemanagement applications.

In 1995,aPresidential ExecutiveOrderdeclassified

morethan800,000photographs takenduringthe1960's

and1970'sfromintelligencesatellites. Theseimages

offerviewsoftheEarth'ssurfacefromspaceforadecade

priorto thefirstLandsat satellite.TheUSGSEROS

DataCenteracquiredcopiesofthesephotographs and

beganmakingcopiesoftheseimagesavailableto the

publicfi_rthecostofreproduction. Userscanaccess

theseimagesthroughacatalogontheWorldWideWeb

thatisaccessible throughtheelectronicUSGSGlobal

LandInformationSystem.

Since1992,USGShasconductedtheGlobalLand

1-kilometer AVHRRPathfinder projectincooperation

withNASA,NOAA,theEuropeanSpaceAgency, and

aninternational networkof31AVHRRdata-reception

facilities. Thenetworkhascollectedmorethan75,000

dailyAVHRRobservations andarchivedthemat the

EROSDataCenter.Researchers producedan18-month

timeseriesofcloud-freevgetationindexcomposites for

theEarth'slandarea.TheEROSDataCenterdistributed

approximately 1terabyteofdataontapemediandvia

electronicfiletransfer. Oneoftheprimaryusesof the

datasetistodevelopabaselineglobal landcoverdataset.

At the SmithsonianInstitution'sCenterfor

PlanetaryStudies, researchers usedSIR-Cdatatoidentify areasfor detailedfieldinvestigations in Egypt.

SIR-Chaddetectedanetworkofancientdrainagethat

wasnot visibleon theground.In January1996,

researcherstargetedan expeditionto samplethe

Pleistocene sedimentsof thisdrainagenetwork.After

correctingtheimagedatausingGPScontrolpoints,

researchers wereabletotargetthelocationfortrenches

in thefieldto within100meters.Researchers began

datingsediment fromtheseriversto determinewhen

theclimatechangedfromwettoitspresent hyperarid

condition.

Atmospheric Studies

NASA launched a small spacecraft carrying a Total

Ozone Monitoring Spectrometer (TOMS EP-1) in July

1996, and provided another TOMS instrument, which

was launched as part of the Japanese Advanced Earth

Observing Satellite (ADEOS) in August 1996. The two

TOMS instruments began producing the data for continued ozone and ultraviolet trend determinations with

improved resolution and precision. New analysis techniques developed for earlier TOMS data provided the

first global data set on surface ultraviolet radiation.

These results documented the first confirmation of

global trends in increasing ultraviolet radiation related

to stratospheric ozone depletion, and they provided the

basis for improved health effects assessments.

Atmospheric ozone studies also indicated a promising response to policy actions such as the Montreal

Protocol, a 1987 agreement that challenges its many

international signatories to adopt rigorous environmental standards. NASA and NOAA ground-based

measurements documented a continued decrease in the

growth of ozone-depleting industrial chemicals in the

lower atmosphere, confirming the industrial response to

the Montreal Protocol. From these results, scientists

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expected stratospheric ozone to reach a minimum

within the next decade and then begin to recover. In

addition, NASA cooperated with private industry

researchers to verify the environmental acceptability of

the chlorofluorocarbon replacement chemicals. The

Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet instrument flew in

early FY 1996, in support of the continuing mission to

monitor the Earth's ozone status.

NASA's Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite successfully completed its fifth year in orbit. It continued to

provide data to monitor upper atmospheric structure

and variability, the response of the upper atmosphere to

natural and human-induced changes, and the role of the

upper atmosphere in climate variability.

Scientists developed an improved understanding of

long-term climate variability, along with improved climate prediction skills, through studies of natural

variability. Global observations by the Stratospheric Gas

and Aerosol Experiment and the Earth Radiation

Budget Experiment provided a unique understanding of

the climate effects of the Mount Pinatubo volcanic

eruption. The climate model also produced a prediction

of the effects of Mount Pinatubo aerosol substances on

surface temperatures, which definitely agreed with subsequent observations. This verification of skill in

modeling the effects of aerosols on climate was a major

accomplishment in global climate research.

The Optical Transient Detector completed its first

year in orbit after uncovering tantalizing links between

space-based lightning measurements and the intensity

of severe storms. Launched on a private satellite, the

orbiting detector produced the first high-quality images

of lightning on a global scale, enabling researchers to

use lightning flash rates as an aid in predicting tornado

fi_rmation.

In addition, the United States and Japan signed an

agreement on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

in FY 1996. Technicians integrated the spacecraft and

payload of five instruments and began testing.

Theseus, an innovative Uncrewed Aerial Vehicle

being developed to support research in stratospheric

ozone depletion and to validate satellite-based global

environmental change measurements made by EOS,

moved from the development to testing phase last

spring. Theseus flew twice at NASA's Dryden Flight

Research Center: on May 24, 1996, for 61 seconds, to

an altitude of 60 feet, and again on July 1, 1996, for

1 hour 17 minutes, to an altitude of 8,999 feet.

The EOS Chemistry-1 mission, focusing on the

effects of greenhouse gases on global climate, also proceeded on schedule toward a 2002 launch. Scientists

conducted a special assessment study of possible cost

reductions. This would be done through the aggressive

pursuit of new technology and multiple spacecraft to

implement the mission, while still maintaining the project's schedule. Project managers awarded 3-month

cooperative agreements to eight commercial firms to

explore the feasibility of jointly developing low-cost,

mid-range spacecraft from existing or imminent product

lines for use with the Chemistry suite of instruments.

NASA and NOAA hosted a meeting of the interagency Committee on Earth Observation Satellites to

discuss the committee's role in developing an integrated

global observing strategy. The meeting endorsed efforts

to increase coordination in planning and implementing

observing systems to meet shared objectives.

NOAA technicians removed the GOES-7 satellite

from operational status in January 1996, after 9 years of

uninterrupted service. GOES-9 replaced GOES-7 as

the Western Hemisphere's geostationary satellite.

Contingencies to bring GOES-7 back into operational

status remained in place should the need arise.

The improved resolution and dynamic range of the

GOES spacecraft allowed for the development of

advanced image products and virtually real-time forecasting techniques. With the new generation of GOES,

imagery was taken over the continental United States

and coastal waters, Hawaii, and Alaska once every 15

minutes under normal operational modes and at

approximately 7.5-minute intervals when severe

weather threatened. In special cases, analysts obtained

imagery over hurricanes at minute intervals and over

tornado thunderstorms once every 30 seconds. This

rapid scan imaging made a number of exciting new

quantitative measurements and qualitative observations possible. Technicians installed a demonstration,

evaluation, and training program that allows for the

receipt and analysis of digital GOES imagery at more

than 50 National Weather Service field offices. The

capabilities to use digital GOES imagery significantly

improved the use of satellite imagery for virtually realtime forecasting at those offices.
NOAApersonnel alsodevelopedreal-timeexperimentalsatelliteproductsforquantitativeprecipitation

forecast andflashfloodprediction. Thefamilyofexperimentalproductsincludedprecipitationestimatesthat

coveredthe entireGOESimagederivedfromthe

GOES-8AutomaticFlashFloodPrecipitationAlgorithm,precipitationefficiencyanalysesfordetecting

precipitablewaterplumes, andsoilwetnessindicesfor

floodedareasandgroundconditionspriortoflashfloods.

NOAA researchers begandevelopinga gridded

cloudproductfromtheGOES-8/9imagerasareplacementfor thesounderproduct.Othercloud-related

researchwithGOESimagerdataincludedimagesto

detectfogusingtemperaturedifferences, aircrafticing

riskimages, andanaerosol opticalthicknessimage.

In preparationfor theupcominglaunchof the

NOAA-Ksatellite, softwareengineers prepareddatafi3rmatsforgroundprocessingtheNOAA-Kinstrument

dataandannouncedtheavailabilityoftheseformatso

theusercommunity. Technicians alsocompletedmuch

ofthepreprocessingoftwareneededtosupport instrumentdataproductprocessing.

UndertheSharedProcessingNetwork,NOAA's

lnfom3ationProcessing Divisionservedakeyroleinthe

interagency sharingofdataproductsfromtheDoDand

DoCenvironmental satelliteprograms. TheShared

Processing NetworkallowedeachoftheGovernment's

primaryenvironmental dtaprocessing centerstoaccess

thesatellitedatabaseslocatedat theothercenters.

Specifically, DMSPandNOAA'sPOESprogramprovidedmanydataproducts.

InOctober1996,NOAA'sNationalEnvironmental

Satellite,Data,andInformationService(NESDIS)

beganregularlyproducinganexperimental versionof

theGOESinfraredhistogramprogramfortheNational

WeatherService'sClimatePredictionCenter.This

experimental versionofthesoftwarecollectedGOES

infrareddatafor 1-degreelatitude/longitudeareas

(versustheoperational 2.5-degree aras)forinputintoa

globalprecipitationindex.

TheGlobalClimatePerspectives SystemisascientificventuresponsoredbyNOAA'sOfficeof Global

Programs. In FY1996,programscientistsandtechniciansestablishedcomplexqualitycontrolprocedures,

producedgriddedglobal products, andpublishednumerousscientificpapers.

NOAA'sComprehensive Aerological ReferenceData

Setprojectcompletedthebuildingofadatabase containingdailyglobal upperairobservations fortheperiod1948

to1992.Programpersonnel combineddatafromapproximately20sourcestoformthisonlinedatabase.

NOAApersonnel continuedtheirworkontheTrace

GasProject.Scientistscollectedglobalbaselinetrace

gasdatasetsoncarbondioxide,methane, ozone,and

chlorofluorocarbons. NOAAspecialistsalsochecked

thedatasetsfi_rqualitycontrol,placedthemonline,and

archivedthem.

NOAA's Precipitation Metadata project continued

to produce unbiased data sets of monthly rainfall and

snowfall. Project personnel removed wind-induced turbulence biases by using data on gauge sites, gauge

shields, and average monthly wind speeds.

NOAA's Surface Reference Data Center continued

to support precipitation validation within the Global

Precipitation Climatology project. This data center

provided support to the project by collecting and validating precipitation data from test sites around the

globe. Work during FY 1996 concentrated on the production of area-averaged validation data for all test

sites, with the inclusion of precipitation/elevation

adjustment algorithms.

The U.S. Historical Climatology Network is a joint

project between DoE and NOAA. During FY 1996,

project personnel updated the data set on a workstation-based system, improving efficiency and data

handling capability.

The Global Historical Climatology Network is

another cooperative data collection and quality assurance

project between DoE and NOAA. Project personnel

made significant headway in developing version 2, which

is to include many more global stations extending back to

the 19th century in its coverage of monthly temperature,

precipitation, and pressure data. In FY 1996, network personnel released a temperature data set. In addition, they

completed the development of the population metadata

to assess global temperature trends that are free of urban

heat island biases. Analysts developed a near real-time

update and analysis system in FY 1996.

NOAA studies of the upper atmosphere using GPS

data revealed the flow of areas of ionization in the lowlatitude ionosphere. Analysts interpreted GPS signals

from several satellites to infer the total electron content

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of the atmosphere between the ground and the satellite.

Measurements from a variety of ground stations and

satellites showed that the movement of these areas is

controlled by the low-latitude electric fields, a critical

parameter for space weather models. This turned out to

be a new and exciting technique to monitor ionospheric

parameters in a region that is very difficult to observe.

The ozone data set generated from NOAA and NASA

Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet instruments on

NOAA operational satellites and the NASA Nimbus-7

was extended with the launch of the NOAA-14 satellite

in FY 1996. An increased number of international

researchers used these data, especially for ozone depletion

analyses.

Researchers on the AVHRR project began to

reprocess all the afternoon data sets from 1981 to 1995

with atmospheric parameter retrieval algorithms. These

researchers processed a benchmark period of 18 months

in 1987 and 1988 to yield cloud/clear radiances, total

cloud amount, Earth radiation budget parameters, and

aerosol optical thickness over oceans.

NOAA scientists made formulas available to international users for calculating near-real-time calibration

updates fi_r the visible and near-infrared channels of the

AVHRR aboard the NOAA-14 spacecraft. Researchers

in national space agencies, remote sensing laboratories,

weather services, and academia began using the formulas, which were made available on the World Wide

Web. Additionally, NOAA initiated an investigation of

the feasibility of using the AVHRR to monitor the onorbit performance of other meteorological satellite

sensors.

NOAA scientists developed a fast and accurate

procedure fi_r calculating atmospheric spectral transmittances, which are used in satellite observations to

determine atmospheric radiances. Researchers also

developed a rapid cloud clearing and retrieval procedure for application in high-spectral-resolution

observations. NASA personnel have used this as the

initial step in the retrieval model for their

Atmospheric Infrared Sounder. Additionally, NOAA

scientists partially solved the problem of constructing

consistent atmospheric data sets, such as temperature

sets, from multiple satellite observations.

NOAA's National Climatic Data Center continued

to develop global atlases for the marine, surface, and

upper-air environments and basic data sets for distribution on CD-ROM. The activities include joint ventures

with DoD, NOAA's Environmental Research

Laboratories, USDA, and the National Renewable

Energy Laboratory.

The National Climatic Data Center also created several new home pages to educate the public in the

availability and potential benefits of using satellite data.

The first is a general introduction to NOAA's satellite

systems, data availability, and methods of access to data.

The second is a significant events page, which links

satellite images of various environmental phenomena

such as hurricanes, fires, and volcanoes to surface charts,

radar charts, and various other in-situ measurements. It

also includes narrative analyses of the images, and observations, as well as basic classroom information such as

how hurricanes are rated and how they form. In addition, the center published several technical reports on

hurricanes and tropical storms and posted them on the

World Wide Web.

At NSF, scientists made plans to construct a state-ofthe-art Polar Cap Observatory at Resolute Bay, Canada,

very close to the Earth's north magnetic pole. The centerpiece of this observatory will be a powerful upper

atmospheric scatter radar supported by a complement of

other radio and optical measurements. In preparation,

researchers established an Early Polar Cap Observatory,

which contains several optical and radar instruments

from U.S. and Canadian scientists for studying the

Earth's upper atmosphere. Important first results from

the Early Polar Cap Observatory included observations

from sensitive optical instruments of waves and tides in

the upper atmosphere at heights around 90 kilometers.

Scientists modeled unique auroral arc structures, seen

only within the polar cap (known as Sun-aligned arcs)

and identified by the sensitive remote-sensing instruments using a magnetosphere-ionosphere coupling

model. Predictions of this model are in accord with both

the satellite and ground observations of such arcs.

NSF continued to support the Global Positioning

System-Meteorological (GPS-MET) proof-of-concept

project. The demonstration system observed occulted

GPS satellite signals received on a low-Earth-orbiting

satellite, MicroLab-1. From raw GPS-MET observations, researchers retrieved vertical profiles of

ray-bending angle and refractivity. Researchers then
usedtheseprofilestocomputeionospheric electrondensity,neutralatmospheric density, pressure, temperature,

andmoistureprofiles. GPS-METhasbeenexceptionally

successful, havingaccomplished nearlyallof itsinitial

goalsplusa numberof newones.Asa result,NSF

believesthatGPS-METtechnology hasgainedrecognitionasastrongcandidatefora new,low-costglobal

observingsystemtosupportweatherresearchandprediction,climateresearchandclimatechangedetection,

andionospheric physicsresearch.

Oceanographic Studies

The TOPEX/Poseidon satellite completed its fourth year

of providing definitive data on the principal tidal components of the world's oceans. Understanding tidal

patterns is critical in accurately assessing the effects of

the oceans on global and regional climate patterns.

TOPEX/Poseidon data have provided a precise description of global ocean circulation, a key element of

climate change research. During FY 1996, NASA

agreed with the French space agency to undertake a

follow-on mission to the highly successful

TOPEX/Poseidon satellite. The follow-on altimetry

radar mission, "Jason-l," was scheduled for launch in

1999. The French space agency is to provide the spacecraft and altimeter, while NASA is to provide the

radiometer, ground system, and launch.

Throughout FY 1996, TOPEX/Poseidon data challenged a fundamental oceanographic theory about the

speed of large ocean waves--a finding that ultimately

could revise science textbooks and improve global

weather forecasting. The large-scale ocean waves, which

span hundreds of miles from one wave crest to the next,

are called "Rossby waves." Using data gathered by the

satellite, scientists tracked the waves as they moved

through the open ocean and determined that, at midlatitudes, the Rossby waves were moving two to three

times faster than previously thought. Rossby waves can

alter currents and their corresponding sea-surface temperatures, thereby influencing the way the oceans

release heat to the atmosphere and thus affecting

weather patterns. This more precise information about

how fast the waves travel may help forecasters improve

their ability to predict the effects of El Ni_o events on

weather patterns years in advance. The improved characterization of air-sea interaction was able to increase

the forecasting skill for El Ni_os for the 1980s, compared with previous forecasting procedures. These

results suggested that El Ni_o is more predictable than

previously estimated.

NOAA implemented a second, more accurate

TOPEX/Poseidon altimeter data stream in July 1996,

taking advantage of an automated, near-real.time GPS

tracking system operated at the Jet Propulsion

Laboratory. NOAA made the resulting data available

with a delay of about 2 days for research on global _cean

circulation models, such as NOAA's El Nifio model.

Additional new science results demonstrated the

importance of the El Nifio effects on climate and vegetation. Scientists used meteorological satellite data

from 1982 to 1990 to document, for the first time, the

link between El Nifio rainfall perturbations and vegetation stress for Africa, Australia, and South America.

The U.S. Aid Famine Early Warning System used the

unique technique for identifying stressed vegetation as

an early warning indicator of potential food supply

problems in Africa.

The NASA Scatterometer was launched in August

1996 aboard the Japanese ADEOS satellite. This radar

scatterometer is for sea-surface measurements and also

provides measurements of ocean-surface winds in clear

sky and cloudy conditions. Such information is valuable

for understanding the interaction between the atmosphere and oceans, as well as for improving the

prediction and tracking of severe storms.

NOAA scientists, engineers, and technicians moved

toward implementing near-real-time ground-processing

and delivery systems for SAR imagery from the

Canadian RADARSAT satellite and fl_r ocean color

and wind measurements from the Japanese ADEOS

spacecraft. NOAA is to process data from the NASA

Scatterometer on ADEOS for NOAA meteorological

and oceanographic models. Japan and Canada are to

provide coastal U.S. coverage from the Ocean Color

and Temperature Scanner on ADEOS as well as limited

RADARSAT SAR imagery to NOAA's CoastWatch

program for use in coastal environmental management

and research. Researchers at a number of Government

and academic laboratories began developing geophysical

measurement algorithms for these sensors.

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During FY 1996, CoastWatch personnel used nearreal-time high-resolution satellite images fro,n AVHRR

to monitor the U.S. coastal environment. Products

included sea-surface temperature imagery and visible

imagery (useful fi_r ice analysis and for the calculation of

relative turbidity in estuaries).

NOAA's Laboratory for Satellite Altimetry has been

generating near-real-time altimetry data from ESA's

European Remote Sensing {ERS) satellite missions since

November 1995. Utilizing predicted satellite orbits, seasurface height information is generated automatically

within 12 hours of acquisition and made available to

select altimetry groups. These data are particularly suitable for large-scale oceanographic studies in western

boundary currents.

NOAA scientists constructed maps of high-resolution gravity fields that cover the world's oceans using

Geosat (Geodetic and Get,physical Satellite) and ERS-1

satellite altimeter data. A comparison with ship tracks

showed that these fields can resolve gravity anomalies

down to wavelengths of about 25 kilometers. Because

ship track coverage of the oceans is sparse, these gravity

fields showed fine tectonic details of the sea floor that

were previously undetected. Plate tectonic reconstructions constrained by fracture zones and plate boundaries

visualized m these gravity maps revealed details of past

plate motions. Researchers subsequently used this gravity

field to predict sea floor topography by determining the

gravity-topography transfer fimction in local areas via

calibration to archival shipboard bathymetric surveys.

NOAA also derived new altimetric marine gravity

fields from the ERS-I geodetic mission data set for the

polar oceans. This project to retrieve gravity measurements over ice-covered regions required the reprocessing

of the full waveform telemetry data set to correct for

errors in surface elevation measurements that occur over

ice. This is a cooperative project with the Mullard Space

Science Laboratory at the University College of London.

The Comprehensive Ocean-Atmosphere Data Set

Project is a multiyear, multi-agency program funded by

NOAA to provide an updated reference data set covering

the world's ocean environment. FY 1996 accomplishments included the completion of the keying of 2 million

ship observations for 1820 to 1860 and 1 million U.S.

Merchant Marine observations for 1912 to 1946.

NESDIS scientists developed an experimental seasurface temperature anomaly product. NESI_)IS

researchers created this product by subtracting a newly

developed satellite-only climatology from the current

NOAA-14 analysis. Scientists used these products to

identify anomalous features, including potential coral

bleaching in the tropics (areas where temperatures are

anomalously warm).

NOAA's National Marine Mammal Laboratory continued to use satellite tracking to monitor the

movements of several species of marine mammals

around the world. Specifically, this laboratory has documented the 20,000-kilometer round-trip movements of

sea lions between Baja California and British Columbia,

the habitat and behavior of Antarctic ice seals, threatened sea lions in Alaska and Russia, and areas within

the high seas driftnet fisheries frequented by harbor porpoise in the Pacific Ocean.

74

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This representative illustration shows U.S.

international cooperation in space. Phase III

of the International Space Station is depicted

here in its completed/fuUy operational state,

with elements from the United States,

Europe, Canada, Japan, and Russia.
INTERNATIONAL

AERONAUTICAL

AND

SPACE

ACTIVITIES

Cooperation With Foreign Partners

oS and NASA continued negotiations on the fi_rmal agreements relative to the International

Space Station (1SS). During FY 1996, DoS held

five rounds of negotiations among the various partners

on the ISS lntergovernmental Agreement. At the same

time, NASA continued negotiations with the Russian

Space Agency (RSA) on a bilateral memorandum of

understanding, as well as with the other ISS partners--

including Europe, Canada, and Japan--to reflect their

specific contributions.

The U.S.-Russia Commission on Economic and

Technological Cooperation, known more widely as the

Gore-Chernomyrdin Commission, held its seventh

meeting in Moscow in July 1996. At this meeting,

NASA and RSA officials reached agreement on a mem-

_randum of understanding t(_ define mutual roles and

responsibilities on the ISS program. NASA and RSA

also a_reed on schedule milestones for the early ISS elements, including the Russian-provided Service Module,

the Russian-built FGB (fimctional cargo block) module,

and the first U.S.-provided node module.

Follmving the Administration's new policy on GPS,

DoS took the lead in consultations with other governments on developing guidelines fi_r the use of GPS

services. DoS led a U.S. Government delegation to

Japan in August 1996 and anticipated further talks with

Europe and Russia in FY 1997.

DoS also conducted negotiations with Canada on

the training of Canadian mission specialists and on several scientific experiments on the Shuttle. On one

Shuttle mission, a Canadian mission specialist tested a

robotic seeing device, which is to be used to assemble

the ISS.

During FY 1996, there was increased international

activity related to the study of the Earth's system. In

March 1996, under the auspices of the Committee of

Earth Observation Satellites, NASA and NOAA hosted

a meeting on the space component of an Integrated

Global Observing Strategy, where space agencies and

international organizations discussed strategies for assuring long-term global observations. The year was also

highlighted by increasing international cooperation in

NASA's MTPE program, especially with Japan. Through

the year 2000, Japan represents more than 60 percent of

75

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the international contributions to MTPE. In October

1995, NASA and the National Space Development

Agency of Japan (NASDA) signed the memorandum of

understanding on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring

Mission. In August 1996, NASDA launched its ADEOS

spacecraft, carrying two instruments provided by NASA

that are designed to measure global ocean-surface winds

and atmospheric ozone content.

During FY 1996, cooperation with emerging civil

space programs in Latin America significantly

expanded. During a visit to Latin America, NASA

Administrator Goldin and the president of Argentina's

space agency (CONAE) signed the renewal of the

NASA-CONAE framework agreement for civil space

cooperation on February 29, 1996. In Brazil, Secretary of

State Christopher and Brazilian Foreign Minister

Lampreia signed a U.S.-Brazilian framework agreement

on March 1, 1996, which marked a new phase of space

cooperation; NASA and the civilian Brazilian space

agency (established in 1994) are to implement this

agreement. In Chile, Administrator Goldin continued

to encourage Chilean government officials to follow the

example of Argentina and Brazil and establish their own

civilian space agency.

During February and March 1996, the first joint

U.S.-Latin American experiment in crystal growth flew

on the Space Shuttle. This experiment may pave the

way fi_r the development of effective pharmaceuticals to

combat Chagas' disease, which currently affects 15 million people in Central and South America.

In addition to ct×)peration with Latin America,

there were opportt, nities for expanded cooperation with

other nontraditional partners. In April 1996, the chairman of the indian Space Research Organization met

with Administrator Goldin to discuss U.S. receipt of

Indian meteorological data from INSAT satellites in

near real time. In June 1996, the NASA Administrator

and the science and technology minister of the Republic

of Korea signed a space and Earth science cooperation

framework that established two investigator consultative groups. As a followup to discussions between

President Clinton and former Israeli Prime Minister

Peres, a NASA delegation visited Israel in July 1996 for

discussions with the Israeli space agency. The delegation

also visited Tel Aviv University, Hebrew University, and

the Desert Research Institute of Ben Gurion University.

NASA and Israeli space officials identified the establishment of an EOSDIS node within Israel as an area of

mutual interest.

The FAA's Associate Administrator for Commercial

Space Transportation provided analytical and policy

support to negotiations led by the U.S. Trade

Representative to establish a commercial space launch

trade agreement between the United States and

Ukraine. The negotiations were completed in December

1995, and the agreement was signed on February 21,

1996. The FAA provided expertise for negotiations with

Russia to modify the U.S.-Russia commercial space

launch trade agreement, making its terms and provisions

more compatible with those in the agreements with

China and Ukraine. These negotiations were completed

in January 1996, and the amendments were signed into

force later that month.

In July 1996, the FAA supported the annual consultations with the People's Republic of China concerning

the 1995 U.S.-Chinese commercial space launch trade

agreement. In addition, the agency continued to serve as

chair of the interagency working group on infi)rmation

responsible for monitoring foreign compliance with the

U.S.-Chinese, U.S.-Russian, and U.S.-Ukrainian

launch trade agreements.

Discussions Concerning Arms Control

of Space-Related Weaponry

During FY 1996, the U.S. Arms Control and

Disarmament Agency (ACDA) developed and implemented national and international policies relating to

missiles and space. ACDA supported U.S. efforts to

strengthen and expand the scope of the 28-member

Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR), which

works to prevent the proliferation of missiles, space

launch vehicles, and unmanned aerial vehicles capable

of delivering weapons of mass destruction. The MTCR,

the centerpiece of U.S. missile nonproliferation efforts,

is the only multilateral nonproliferation and export contml arrangement of its kind. During FY 1996, ACDA

participated in MTCR discussions that covered regional

proliferation issues for the first time. ACDA also worked

on the U.S.-sponsored MTCR export control seminar

on transshipment attended by both MTCR members
andnonmembers whoarekeytransshipment countries.

ACDAworkedonexportcontrolinitiativestoaidnew

jointventurecompanies withvariousspacelaunchprogramsandworkedto ensurethatU.S.exportcontrol

policieswereadministered fairly.ACDAcontributedto

U.S.regional missilenonproliferation efforts,particularlyin southernAsiaandtheKoreanpeninsula, to

worktowardthereductionandeventual eiminationof

offensiveballisticmissileprogramsandto preventthe

acquisitionof suchweaponsfromothercountries.

ACDAalsosupportedthevigorousimplementation of

U.S.legislationrequiringtheimpositionofsanctionson

foreignentitiesthattradeorattempttotradeinmissiles

ormissiletechnologycontrarytotheMTCR,andwas

activein bringingaboutsanctionsagainstentitiesin

NorthKoreandIran.

ACDAhascontinuedits leadershipof START

treatyimplementation policyregardingtheuseofintercontinental ballisticmissilesandsubmarine-launched

ballisticmissiles as space launch vehicles in the Joint

Compliance and Inspection Commission (JCIC). Since

the signing of a September 1995 agreement, the parties

to the treaty have been discussing the allocation of space

launch facilities among the states of the former Soviet

Union that are parties to the treaty and the application

of the treaty's telemetry provisions to space launches

that employ treaty-accountable space launch vehicles.

ACDA also has promoted the conversion of ballistic

missiles and technology to nonweapons applications in

its support to the DoD/DoC Ukraine Entrepreneurial

Conference. This conference promoted joint ventures

between U.S. and Ukrainian companies to convert military and aerospace technologies and facilities to

commercial products.

ACDA continued to be an active member of several

interagency committees concerned with missile-related

issues. At the policy level, these include various committees chaired by the National Security Council, such

as the Interagency Working Group on Nonproliferation

and Export Controls. ACDA participated in the Missile

Trade Analysis Group, which reviewed intelligence

related to transfers of missile-related items, and in the

Missile Technology Export Control Group, which

reviews export license applications subject to missile

proliferation controls. ACDA participated in interagency working groups that culminated in a new

National Space Policy and a Presidential directive on

GPS security policy. Additionally, ACDA actively supported the efforts of the United Nations Special

Commission on Iraq to destroy or remove from lraq

materials, equipment, and facilities related to missiles

with a range greater than 150 kilometers. Finally,

ACDA participated in the Weapons and Space Systems

Intelligence Committee to ensure that U.S. policy initiatives were based on accurate intelligence assessments.

Space and Public Diplomacy Abroad

As part of its mission to infi_rm fi_reign publics of significant American achievements, the U.S. Information

Agency (USIA) acquainted worldwide audiences with

NASA activities through regular reporting of Space

Shuttle flights in the daily Washington File and on Voice

of America news broadcasts. Voice of America also did a

live broadcast with astronauts during an Atlantis-Mir

linkup.

The Worldnet television service brought live interviews with astronauts in space to audiences in Africa

and Latin America. African-American astronaut

Winston Scott, who carried a South African flag into

space with him, spoke to a large gathering of high school

students and government officials in Johannesburg

during his flight in January 1996. In support of a space

study program in South Africa's schools, the USIA post

there distributed a large number of NASA-produced

educational materials and organized a program for Scott

to visit South African schools.

Worldnet also broadcast an interview from space

with astronaut Franklin Chang Dfaz to audiences in San

Jos_, Costa Rica, and Santiago, Chile. In addition to

coverage on national news in both countries, the interview was broadcast live by cable networks throughout

Chile, with a potential audience of more than 1 million

people.

For every Shuttle docking with the space station

Mir, USIA officers in Moscow, working with NASA

Headquarters, sent media advisories to resident

American journalists in Moscow and organized their

access to the highly restricted Star City facility. This

assistance resulted in regular U.S. television network

coverage of the bilateral space program.

77

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Worldnet's Newsfile series carried more than 100

stories featuring NASA activities during the year. Many

of these received widespread placement on television

stations around the world. USIA also continued to

acquire independently produced video programs about

NASA's work, such as "Exploring the World Beyond"

and "Lift-off to Learning." USIA made these programs

available to posts abroad in a variety of languages with

all rights, including direct use on foreign television.
79

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b.

APPENDICES

The Galileo spacecraft provided this image

of Europa, one of Jupiter's moons.

Scientists believe that liquid water may once

have existed, or even now exists, beneath

Europa's crust.
8O

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m

APPENDIX A- 1

U.S. Government Spacecraft Record

(Includes spacecraft from cooperatingcountries launched by U.S. hunch vehicles.)

¢0 Calendar Earth Orbit* Earth Escape"

Year Success Failure Success Failure

.g:

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1957 0 1 0 0

1958 5 8 0 4

1959 9 9 1 2

1960 16 12 1 2

1961 35 12 0 2

1962 55 12 4 l

1963 62 11 0 0

1964 69 8 4 0

1965 93 7 4 1

1966 94 12 7 1 b

1967 78 4 10 0

1968 61 15 3 0

1969 58 1 8 1

1970 _6 1 3 0

1971 45 2 8 1

1972 33 2 8 0

1973 23 2 3 0

1974 27 2 1 0

1975 30 4 4 0

1976 33 0 1 0

1977 27 2 2 0

1978 34 2 7 0

1979 18 0 0 0

1980 16 4 0 0

1981 20 1 0 0

1982 21 0 0 0

1983 31 0 0 0

1984 35 3 0 0

1985 37 1 0 0

1986 ll 4 0 0

1987 9 1 0 0

1988 16 1 0 0

1989 24 0 2 0

1990 40 0 I 0

1991 32 { 0 0 0

1992 26 _ 0 1 0

1993 28 _ 1 1 0

1994 31 ' 1 1 0

1995 24 _,a 2 1 0

1996 26 0 1 0

(through September 30, 1996)

TOTAL 1,368 148 87 15

a. Tile criterion of success or failure used is attainment {}fEarth orbit or Earth escape rather than judgn]ent of mission succes,,. "Escape"

flights include all that were intended t{} go to at least an altitude equal t{} lunar distance from the Earth.

b. This Earth-escape failure did attain Earth orbit and, therefore, is included m the Earth-orbit success totals.

c. This excludes commercial satellites. It counts separately spacecraft launched by the same launch vehicle.

d. This ct}unts the five orbital debris radar calibration spheres that were launched from STS-63 as one set of spacecraft.
APPENDIX A-2

World Record of Space Launches Successful

in Attaining Earth Orbit or Beyond

(Enumerates launches rather than spacecraft; some launches orbited multiple spacecraft.)

81

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People's European

Calendar United USSR/ Republic United Space

Year States CIS France" Italy" Japan of China Australia Kingdom Agency India Israel

1957 2

1958 5 1

1959 10 3

1960 16 3

1961 29 6

1962 52 20

1963 38 17

1964 57 30

1965 63 48

1966 73 44

1967 57 66

1968 45 74

1969 40 70

1970 28 81

1971 30 83

1972 50 74

1973 23 86

1974 22 81

1975 27 89

1976 26 99

1977 24 98

1978 32 88

1979 16 87

1980 13 89

1981 18 98

1982 18 101

1983 22 98

1984 22 97

1985 17 98

1986 6 91

1987 8 95

1988 12 90

1989 17 74

1990 27 75

1991 20 _ 62

1992 31 _ 55

1993 24 _ 45

1994 26 ' 49

1995 27 _ 33 _'

1996 26 _ 19

1 l

2 1 t' 1 l

1 2 _ 2 1 1

1 1

1

2 3

1 2

2

3 1

2 l

2

3 l 2

1 1

3 l 2

3 3 4

2 1 3

2 2 2

3 2 2

2 4 7

2 7

3 5 5

2 1 9

2 3 7 b

1 1 7 t'

2 5 6 t'

l 2 _' 12 b

1 2 a 9

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m

TOTAL 1,077 2,519 10 8 50 41 1 1 85 9

a. Since 1979, all launches fi_r ESA member countries have been joint and are listed under ESA.

b. Includes fi_reign launches of U.S. spacecraft.

c. This includes commercial expendable launches and launches of the Space Shuttle, but because this table records launches rather than spacecraft, it &_es not include separate spacecraft released |r.m the Shuttle.

d. This includes the launch L_fChinaSat 7, even though a third stage rocket failure led to a virtually useless orbit for this communications satellite.
82 APPENDIX A-3

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Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPAR Designation

Launch Vehicle

Apogee and

Perigee (kin),

Period (min),

Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

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Oct. 20, 1995

Space Shuttle Cdumbia

{STS-7 _,)

56A

Space Shuttle

Oct. 22, 1995

EHF-F6

(USA 114)

(UFO-6)

S7A

Atlas ll*

Nov. 4, 1995

RADARSAT

59A

Delta II

Nov. 4, 1995

SURFSAT

59B

I'k'ha I1

Nov. 6, 1995

Milstar 2

(USA 115)

60A

Titan IV

Nov. 12, 1995

Space Shuttle Atluntis

{STS-74)

61A

Space Shuttle

Carry out microgravity experiments in the

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory Space[ab.

Military UHF coinmunications.

Remote sensing.

Summer Undergraduate Research

Fellowship Satellite.

Military communications.

Install Docking Module on the Mir space

station and provide l{_gistic support.

-267 km

1 hour 30 minutes

39 °

27,571 km

277 km

7 hours 59 minutes

27 °

790 km

785 km

1 hour 41 minutes

98.6 °

1,495 km

935 km

1 hour 50 minutes

100.6 °

Geosynchronous

396 km

391 km

1 hour 32 minutes

51.6 °

Canadian spacecraft.

Microsatellite to assist tests of

Deep Space Network. Launched

from second stage of Delta I1.

Second {]f 9 planned flights

t{} Mir.

Dec. 2, 1995

SOttO

65A

Atlas ('entaur IIAS

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory on

space physics mission.

Orbits the Sun European Space Agency-NASA

spacecraft to examine the Sun

and its corona.

Dec. 5, 1995

USA 116

66A

_tan IV

('lagsified military reconnaissance. 976 km

156 km

1 hour 36 minutes

97.8 °

(data estimated by

Itar-Tass agency)

Reported to be member of

Keyhole constellation.

Dec 14, 1995

Galaxy LR

69A

Atlas llA*

Commercial communications satellite. Geosynchronous
APPENDIX A-3

(Ctmtinued)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

83

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Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPAR Designation

Launch Vehicle

Apogee and

Perigee (km),

Period (min),

Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

Dec. 30, 1995

RXTE

74A

Delta I1

Jan. 11, 1996

Space Shuttle E_u_.,avour

(STS-72)

IA

Space Shuttle

Jan. 14, 1996

OAST Flyer

IB

Space Shuttle

Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, an

astrophysics mission.

Retrieve Japanese Space Flyer Unit;

deploy and retrieve OAST Flyer.

Small spacecraft sponsored by NASA's

Office of Aeronautics and Space

Technology.

58 _, km

565 kin

l hour _6 minutes

22.9 °

459 km

176 km

1 hour 31 minutes

28.5 °

_07 kln

303 km

l hour 31 minutes

28.5 °

Also carried micr_gravity and

life sciences payloads.

('arried t_ur experiments to

measure spacecratt

contamination, test GPS

equipment+ test amateur radio

equipment+ and analyze s_dar

radiatiLm effects _+t/ laser-fired

ordnance devices.

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Jan. 14, 1996

Koreasat-2

3A

Delta lI*

South Korean conllnercial comn/unications

satellite.

(]eosynchrontms

Jan. 31, 1996

Palapa C- 1

6A

Atlas IIAS*

Indonesian commercial communications

satellite.

(]eosynchronous

Feb. 17, 1996

NEAR

8A

Delta II

Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous spacecraft. Not Earth-orbiting Will _rbit a inab_r asteroid, Eros,

and pass by am_ther aster_fid,

25 LMathilde. First spacecraft

in NASA's Disct)verv pr_gram.

Feb. 22, 1996

Space Shuttle Columbia

(STS-75)

12A

Space Shuttle

Feb. 24, 1996

Polar

13A

Delta I[

Tethered Satellite System reflight; perform

microgravity experiments using the U.S+

Microgravity Payload (USMP-3).

Polar-orbiting space physics satellite.

294 km

294 km

1 ht>ur 31 millutes

28.5 °

50,551 km

5,100 km

l 5 hours 38 minutes

85.9 °

Feb. 25, 1996

TSS-IR

12t3

Space Shuttle

Deployed and retrieve Tethered Satellite

System.

Orbital parameters

similar to STS-75

American/Italian satellite.

Tether separated, restllting in

early terminati_m of experiments.
84

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APPENDIX A-3

(Continued)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPAR Designation

Launch Vehicle

Apogee and

Perigee (kin),

Period (min),

Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

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Mar. 8, 1996

REX-1I

14A

Pegasus XL

Mar. 22, 1996

Space Shuttle Atlantis

(STS-76)

18A

Space Shuttle

Mar. 28, 1996

GPS IIA (25)

(USA 117)

19A

Deha 11

Apr. 3, 1996

INMARSAT LFL

20A

Adas IIA*

Apr. 24, 1996

MSX

24A

Dcha ll*

Apr. 24, 1996

USA 118

26A

Tram 1V

Radiation Experiment 2.

Dock with Mir space station; transfer

astronaut Shannon Lucid to Mir.

Global Positioning System navigation

satellite.

(;ommunicati_ms satellite of mternati_mal

COl'lSOrtiuln.

Midc_ursc Space Experiment.

Classified military payk_ad.

832 km

801 km

1 hour 41 minutes

89.9 °

411 km

389 km

1 hour 33 minutes

51.6 °

20,282 km

20,078 km

11 hours 58 minutes

54.7 °

(3eosynchronous

905 km

897 km

1 hour 44 minutes

99.3 °

Orbital parameters

unavailable

Small military spacecraft.

Third of 9 planned flights to

Mir. Carried SPACEHAB with

experiments and logistic support

fi_r Mir.

Military spacecraft designed to

detect missile launches during

"midcourse" phase.

Apr.

SAX

27A

Atlas

Satellite per Astronomia a raggi X. 603 km

58_ km

1 ht_ur 37 minutes

96.5 °

Italian/Dutch celestial ×-ray

monitoring telescope.

May

USA

29A

Titan

12, 1996

119

IV

Classified military payload. Orbital parameters

unavailable

May

USA

29B

Titan

12, 1996

120

IV

Classified military payload. Orbital parameters

unavailable

May 12,

USA 121

29C

Titan IV

1996 Classified military payload. Orbital parameters

unavailable
APPENDIXA-3

(Continued)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

85

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Launch Date Apogee and

Spacecraft Name Perigee (km),

COSPAR Designation Period (min),

Launch Vehicle Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

May 12, 1996

USA 122

29D

Titan IV

May 12, 1996

USA 123

29E

Titan IV

May 12, 1996

USA 124

29F

Titan IV

Classified military payload.

Classified military payload.

Classi(ied military payload.

Orbital parameters

unawfilable

Orbital parameters

unavailable

Orbital parameters

unavailable

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May 17,

MST1 I11

3]A

Pegasus*

1996 Miniature Sensor Technology Integration

spacecraft.

384 km

297 km

1 hour 31 minutees

97.0 °

Military spacecraft to n-u_nitor

baseline data on Earth's

atmosphere and environment.

May 19, 1996

Space Shuttle Endeavour

(STS-77)

32A

Space Shuttle

Deploy SPARTAN/IAE and PAMS-STU;

conduct microgravity experiments

in the SPACEHAB.

287 km

278 km

1 hour 31 minutes

39.0 °

See below fi_r information

on SPARTAN/IAE.

May 20, 1996

SPARTAN 207

32B

Space Shuttle

I%ploy 1AE. Orbital paralneters

similar to STS-77

Shuttle Pointed Autonomous

Research Tool fi_r Astronomy.

May 20, 1996 Inflatable Antenna Experiment.

IAE

32C

Space Shuttle/SPARTAN 207

Orbital parameters

similar to STS-77

May 22, 1996

PAMS-STU

32D

Space Shuttle

Passive Aerodynamically Stabilized

Magnetically Damped Satellite-Shuttle

Test Unit.

Orbital parameters

similar to STS-77

Small experimental spacecraft.

May 24, 1996

Galaxy IX

33A

Delta 11"

Commercial communcitions satellite. (3eosynchronous

Jun. 20, 1996

Space Shuttle Columbia

(STS-78)

36A

Space Shuttle

Perform life and microgravity experiments

in the Spacelab module (LMS-I).

267 km

267 km

1 hour 30 minutes

39 °
86

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APPENDIX A-3

(Continued)

Successful Launches to Orbit on U.S. Launch Vehicles

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

D..

Launch Date

Spacecraft Name

COSPAR Designation

Launch Vehicle

Apogee and

Perigee {km),

Period (min),

Mission Objectives Inclination to Equator (°) Remarks

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Jul. 2, 1996

TOMS

37A

Pegasus XL

Jul. 3, 1996

USA 125

_SA

Titan IV

Jul. 16, 1996

GPS IIA (26)

(USA 126)

41A

l)eha 11

Jul. 25, 1996

E1 tF-F7 (UFO-7)

42A

Atlas 11"

Aug. 2 I, 1996

FAST

49A

Pevasu> XL

Sep. 8, 1996

GE-I

54A

Ada_ IIA*

Sep. 12, 1996

GPS I1A (27)

(USA 128)

56A

Deha 11

Sep. 16, 1996

Space Shuttle Atlantis

(STS-7_))

57A

Space Shuttle

Total Ozune iVlapping Spectrometer.

Classified military surveillance spacecraft.

Global Positioning System satellite.

Military communications satellite.

Fast Atm_ral Snapshot Explorer, an

asm,physics spacecraft.

(.'omlnercial c_mmunications satellite

Global Positioning System satellite.

i-lock with Mir, retrieve Shannon Lucid,

and mmsfer John Blaha, experiments, and

logistic st,pport to Mir.

Sun-synchronous orbit

500 km

500 km

1 hour 38 minutes

97.4 °

Orbital parameters

unavailable

20,365 km

20,272 km

12 hours 4 minutes

55.0 °

Geosynchronous

4,159 km

348 km

2 hours 13 minutes

83 °

Oeosynchronous

3,649 km

17,055 km

15 hours 38 minutes

61.5 °

385 km

375 km

1 hour ?,2 minutes

51.6 °

Fourth of 9 planned flights to

Mir. Used SPACEHAB module.

* Commercial launch licensed as such by the Federal Aviation Administration,
APPENDIX B

U.S.-Launched Satellites

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

87

COMMUNICATIONS

Date Name Launch Vehicle

Oct. 22, 1995 EHF-F6 (UFO-6) Atlas II*

Nov. 6, 1995 Milstar 2 Titan 1V

Dec. 14, 1995 Galaxy 3-R Atlas [IA*

Jan. 14, 1996 Koreasat-2 Delta 1I*

Jan. 31, 1996 Palapa C-1 Atlas IIAS*

May 24, 1996 Galaxy IX Delta II*

Jul. 25, 1996 EHF-F7 (UFO-7) Atlas II*

Sep. 8, 1996 GE-1 Atlas IlA*

Remarks

Military communications satellite.

Military c{}tmnunications satellite.

Commercial communications satellite.

South Korean communications satellite.

Indonesian conununications satellite.

Commercial communications satellite.

Military comnnmications satellite.

C{}mnlercial c{}mmunJcatit_ns satellite.

-<

_3

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>

EARTH OBSERVATION AND GEODESY

Date Name

Nov. 4, 1995 RADARSAT

Launch Vehicle

Delta I1

May 17, 1996 MSTI II1 Pegasus*

Jul. 2, 1996 TOMS Pegasus XL

Remarks

Canadian spacecraft; small student spacecraft

(SURFSAT) also flew.

Military spacecraft to monitor baseline data on Earth's

amlosphere and environlnent.

Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer.

NAVIGATION

Date Name Launch Vehicle

Mar. 28, 1996 GPS IIA {25) Delta 11

Jul. 16, 1996 GPS IIA (26) Delta 11

Sep. 12, 1996 GPS IlA (27) Delta 11

Remarks

Global Positioning System satellite.

Global Positioning System satellite.

Global Positioning System satellite.

SCIENTIFIC

Date Name

Nov. 4, 1995 SURFSAT

Launch Vehicle

Delta I1

Dec. 30, 1995 RXTE Delta I1

Jan. 11, 1996 OAST Flyer Space Shuttle

Feb. 24, 1996 Polar Delta 11

Feb. 25, 1996 TSS-IR Space Shuttle

Mar. 8, 1996 REX-If Pegasus XL

Apr. 24, 1996 MSX Delta 11'

Apr. 30, 1996 SAX Atlas 1'

May 20, 1996 SPARTAN 207 Space Shuttle

Remarks

Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship Satellite.

Small spacecraft designed to test aspects of the Deep

Space Network. Launched from second stage of

Delta 11.

Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer, an astrophysics

spacecraft.

Payload sponsored by NASA's Office of Aeronautics

and Space Technology. "Mini-spacecraft" carrying four

experiments.

Polar-orbiting spacecraft for space physics research.

Tethered Satellite System reflight. American/Italian

experiment on electricity in space.

Second Radiation Experiment. Military "minispacecraft."

Midcourse Space Experiment. Military spacecraft to

detect missile launches during "midcourse" phase.

Satellite per Astronomia a raggi X. halian/Dutch

x-ray monitoring spacecraft.

Used as platfi}rm to launch IAE.
88

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APPENDIX g

(Continued)

U.S.-Launched Satellites

October 1, 1995-September 30, 1996

..c

SCIENTIFIC (c_mtinued)

Date Name Launch Vehicle

blay 20, 1996 IAE Space Shuttle/

SPARTAN 207

Aug. 21, 1996 FAST Pegasus XL

Remarks

Inflatable Antenna Experiment. Reentered

atmosphere after several orbits.

Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer, an astrophysics

spacecraft.

©

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SPACE PROBES

Date Name Launch Vehicle

Dec. 2, 199'3 SOHO Atlas Centaur IIAS

Feb. 17, t996 NEAR Deha 11

* Commercial launch licensed as such by the Federal Aviation Administration.

Remarks

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, a joint

ESA-NASA space physics spacecraft.

Near Earth Asteroid Rendezwms spacecraft. Will orbit

a major asteroid, Eros, and pass by another asteroid,

255-Mathilde. First spacecra¢t in NASA's lJisowery

program.
APPENDIXC

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

89

_a

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

Vostok 1 Apr. 12, 1961 Yury A. Gagarin 0:1:48

Mercury-Redstone 3 May 5, 1961 Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 0:0:15

Mercuig'-Redstone 4 July 21, 1961 Virgil I. Grissom 0:0:16

Vostok 2 Aug. 6, 1961 German S. Titov 1:1:18

Mercury-Atlas 6 Feb. 20, 1962 John H. Glenn, Jr. 0:4:55

Mercury-Atlas 7 May 24, 1962 M. Scott Carpenter 0:4:56

Vostok 3 Aug. 11, 1962 Andriyan G. Nikolayev 3:22:25

Vostok 4 Aug. 12, 1962 Pavel R. Popovich 2:22:59

Mercury-Atlas 8 Oct. 3, 1962 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 0:9:13

Mercury-Atlas 9 May 15, 1963 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. l:10:20

Vostok 5 June 14, 1963 Valery E Bykovskiy 4:23:6

Vostok 6 June 16, 1963 Valentina V. Tereshkova 2:22:50

Voskhod 1 Oct. 12, 1964 Vladimir M. Komarov 1:0:17

Konstantin P. Feoktistov

Boris G. Yegorov

Voskhod 2 Mar. 18, 1965 Pavel I. Belyayev 1:2:2

Aleksey A. Leonov

Gemini 3 Mar. 23, 1965 Virgil h Grissom 0:4:53

John W. Young

Gemini 4 June 3, 1965 James A. McDivitt 4:l:56

Edward H. White, 11

Gemini 5 Aug. 2l, 1965 L. Gordon Cooper, Jr. 7:22:55

Charles Conrad, Jr.

Gemini 7 Dec. 4, 1965 Frank Borman 13:18:35

James A. Lm'ell, Jr.

Gemini 6-A Dec. 15, 1965 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 1:I:51

Thomas [2 Stafford

Gemini 8 Mar. 16, 1966 Nell A. Armstrong 0:10:41

David R. Scott

Gemini 9-A June 3, 1966 Thomas P. Stafford 3:0:21

Eugene A. Cernan

Gemini 10 July 18, 1966 John W. Young 2:22:47

Michael Collins

Gemini 11 Sep. 12, 1966 Charles Conrad, Jr. 2:23:17

Richard E Gordon, Jr.

Gemini 12 Nov. 11, 1966 James A. Lovel[, Jr. 3:22:35

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.

Soyuz 1 Apr. 23, 1967 Vladimir M. K_marov 1:2:37

Apollo 7 Oct. 11, 1968 Walter M. Schirra, Jr. 10:20:9

Donn E Eisele

R. Walter Cunningham

Soyuz 3 Oct. 26, 1968 Georgiy T. Beregow_y 3:22:51

Apollo 8 Dec. 21, 1968 Frank Borman 6:3:1

James A. Lovell, Jr.

William A. Anders

Soyuz 4 Jan. 14, 1969 Vladilnir A. ShatalL_v 2:23:23

Soyuz 5 Jan. 15, 1969 Boris V. Volynov 3:0:56

Aleksey A. Yeliseyev

Yevgeniy V. Khrunov

Apollo 9 Mar. 3, 1969 James A. Mcl)ivitt 10:1:1

David R. Scott

Russell L. Schweickart

First human fight.

First U.S. flight; suborbital.

Suborbital; capsule sank after landing;

astronaut safe.

First flight exceeding 24 hrs.

First American to t_rhit.

Landed 400 km beyond target.

First dual missi_m (with Vostok 4).

Came within 6 km of Vostok 3.

Landed 8 km from target.

First U.S. flight exceeding 24 hrs.

Second dual missitm (withVostok 6).

First woman in space; within 5 kin o(Vostok 5.

First three-person crew.

First extravehicular activity (EVA), by Leonov,

10 rain.

First U.S. two-person flight; first manual

maneuvers in orbit.

21-min. EVA (White).

Longest duration human flight to date.

Longest human flight to date.

Rendezw_us within 30 cm of Gemini 7.

First docking of two orbiting spacecraft

(Gemini 8 with Agena target rocket).

EVA; rendezvous.

First dual rendezvous (Gemini 10 with

Agena 10, then Agena 8).

First initial-orbit docking; first tethered flight;

highest Earth-_rbit altitude (1,372 kin.).

Longest EVA tit date (Aldrin, 5 hrs.).

Cosmonaut killed in reentry accident.

First U.S. three-person mission.

Maneuvered near uncrewed Soytlz 2.

First human orbit(s) of Moon; first human

departure from Earth's sphere t)f influence;

highest speed attained in human flight to date.

Soyuz 4 and 5 docked and transferred two

cosmonauts from Soyuz 5 to Soyuz 4.

Successfully simulated in Earth orbit operation

of lunar module to landing and takeoff from

hmar surface and rejoining with cCmmmnd

module.

_a

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90

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APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

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Apollo 10 May 18, 1969

Apollo 11 July 16, 1969

Soyu: 6 Oct. 11, 1969

Soyuz 7 Oct. 12, 1969

Soyuz 8 Oct. 13, 1969

Apollo 12 N,,v. 14, 1969

Apollo 1_ Apr. 11, 1970

Soyuz 9 June 1, 1970

Apollo 14 Jan. 31, 1971

Soyuz 10 Apr. 22, 1971

So vuz 11 June 6, 1971

Apollo 15 July 26, 1971

Apollo 16 Apr. 16, 1972

Ap,_lk, 17 Dec. 7, 1972

Skylab 2 May 25, 1973

Skylab 3 July 28, 1973

Soyuz 12 Sep. 27, 1973

Thomas P. Stafford

John W. Young

Eugene A. Cernan

Nell A. Armstrong

Michael ('t_llins

Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.

8:0:3

8:3:9

Georgiy Shonin 4:22:42

ValeD' N. Kubasovf

A. V. Filipchenko 4:22:41

Viktor N. Gorbatko

Vladislav N. Volkov

Vladimir A. Shatahw 4:22:50

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev

Charles Conrad, J r. 10:4:36

Richard E Gordon, Jr.

Alan L. F%an

James A. Lovell, Jr. 5:22:55

Fred W. Haise, Jr.

John L. Swigert, Jr.

Andriyan G. Nikolayev 17:16:59

Vitally I. Sevastyanov

Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 9:0:2

Stuart A. Roosa

Edgar D. Mitchell

Vladimir A. Shatahw 1:23:46

Aleksey S. Yeliseyev

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov

Georgiy T. Dobrow_lskiy 23:18:22

Vladislav N. Volkov

Viktor I. Patsayev

David R. Scott

Alfred M. Worden

James B. Irwin

12:7:12

Jt_hn W. Young 11:1:51

Charles M. Duke, Jr.

Thomas K. Mattingly 11

Eugene A. Cernan 12:t :_:52

Harrison H. Schmitt

Ronald E. Evans

Charles Conrad, Jr. 28:0:50

Joseph E Kerwin

Paul J. Weitz

Alan L. Bean 59: l 1:9

Jack R. Lousma

Owen K. Garriott

Vasiliy G. Lazarev 1:23:16

Oleg G. Makarov

Successfully demonstrated complete system,

including lunar module to 14,300 m from the

lunar surface.

First human landing on lunar surface and safe

return to Earth. First return of rock and soil

samples to Earth and human deployment of

cxperinlents on lunar surface.

Soyuz 6, 7, and 8 operated as a group flight

without actually docking. Each c,nductcd

certain experiments,

including welding and Earth and celestial

observation.

Second human lunar landing explored surfime of

Moon and retrieved parts of Surveyor 3

spacecraft, which hmded in Ocean of Storms

on Apr. 19, 1967.

Mission aborted; explosion in service module.

Ship circled Mo_m, with crew using LM as

"lifeboat" until just before reentry.

Longest human spaceflight to date.

Third human lunar landing. Mission demon

strated pinpoint landing capability and

c_ntinued human exploration.

Dtuzked with Salyut 1, but crew did not board

space station launched Apr. 19. Crew

recovered Apr. 24, 1971.

Docked with Salyut 1, and S(,yttz 11 crew

_ccupied space station t_r 22 days. Crew

perished in final phase of Soyuz 11 capsule

rec_wery on June 30, 1971.

Fourth human lunar landing and first Apollo "J"

series mission, which carried Lunar Roving

Vehicle. Worden's inflight EVA of 38 rain.,

12 sec. was perft_rmed during return trip.

Fifth human lunar landing, with nwing vehicle.

Sixth and final Apollo human luna_ landing,

again with roving vehicle.

Docked with Skylab 1 (launched uncrewed May

14) for 28 days. Repaired damaged station.

Docked with Skylab 1 fi_r mt_re than 59 days.

Checkout of improved Stwuz.
APPENDIXC

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

91

,-.m

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Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min) -<

Skylab 4 Nov. 16, t973 Gerald P. Carr 84:1:16

Edward G. Gibson

William R. Pogue

Soyuz 13 Dec. 18, 1973 Petr I. Klimuk 7:20:55

Valentin V. Lebedev

Soyuz 14 July 3, 1974 Pavel R. Popovich 15:17:30

Yury i2 Artyukhin

Soyuz 15 Aug. 26, 1974 Gennady V. Sarafanov 2:0:12

Lev S. Detain

Soyuz 16 Dec. 2, 1974 Anatoly V. Filipchenko 5:22:24

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikov

Soyuz 17 Jan. 10, 1975 Aleksay A. Gubarev 29:13:20

Georgiy M. Grechko

Anomaly (Soyuz 18A) Apr. 5, 1975 Vasiliy G. Lazarev 0:0:20

Oleg G. Makarov

Soyuz 18 May 24, 1975 Petr I. Klimuk 62:23:20

Vitally 1. Sevastyanov

Soyuz 19 July 15, 1975 Aleksey A. Leonov 5:22:31

Valery N. Kubasov

Apollo July 15, 1975 Thomas P. Stafford 9:1:28

Dtma[d K. Siayton

Vance D. Brand

Soyuz 21 July 6, 1976 Boris V. Vo[ynov 48:t:32

Vitally M. Zholobov

Soyuz 22 Sep. 15, 1976 Valery E Bykovskiy 7:21:54

Vladimir V. Aksenov

Soyuz 23 Oct. 14, 1976 Vyacheslav D. Zudov 2:0:6

Valery I. Rozhdestvenskiy

Soyuz 24 Feb. 7, 1977 Viktor V. Gorbatko 17:17:23

Yury N. Glazkov

Soyuz 25 Oct. 9, 1977 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 2:0:46

Valery V. Ryumin

Soyuz 26 Dec. 10, 1977 Yury V. Romanenko 37:10:6

Georgiy M. Grechko

Soyuz 27 Jan. t0, 1978 Vladimir A. Dzhanibekov 64:22:55

Oleg G. Makamv

Soyuz 28 Mar. 2, t978 Aleksey A. Gubarev 7:22:17

Vladimir Remek

Soyuz 29 June 15, 1978 Vladimir V. Kovalenok 9:15:23

A[eksandr S. lvanchenkov

Soyuz _0 June 27, 1978 Petr 1. Klimuk 7:22:4

Miroslaw Hermaszewski

Soyuz 31 Aug. 26, 1978 Valery E Bykovskiy 67:20:14

Sigmund Jaehn

Soyuz 32 Feb. 25, 1979 Vladimir A. Lyakhov I08:4:24

Valery V. Ryumin

Nikolay N. Rukavishnikm,

Soyuz 33 Apr. 10, 1979 Georgi 1. Ivanov 1:2_:1

Soyuz 34 June 6, 1979 (unmanned at launch) 7:18:17

D_mked with Skylab l in long-duration mission;

last of Skylab program.

Astrophysical, biological, and Earth resources

experiments.

Docked with Salyut 3 and Soyuz 14 crew

_ccupied space station.

Rendezvoused but did not dock with Salyut _.

Test of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP)

configuration.

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station.

Soyuz stages failed to separate; crew recovered

after abort.

Docked with Salyut 4 and occupied station.

Target fi_r Apollo in docking and joint

experiments of ASTP mission.

Docked with Soyuz 19 in joint (ASTP)

experiments of ASTP mission.

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station.

Earth resources study with multispectral camera

system.

Failed to dock with Salyut 5.

Docked with Salyut 5 and occupied station.

Failed to achieve hard dock with Salyut 6

station.

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in

Soyuz 27; crew duration 96 days, 10 hrs.

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned m

Soyuz 26; crew duration 5 days, 22 hrs., 59 rain.

Docked with Salyut 6. Remek was first Czech

c(_sfllonatlt U.) orbit.

Dtxzked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 31;

crew duration 139 days, 14 hrs., 48 min.

Docked with Salyut 6. Hermaszewski was first

Polish cosmonaut to orbit.

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 29;

crew duration 7 days, 20 hrs., 49 min.

Jaehn was first German Democratic Republic

coslrlt)nal.lt t(I orbit.

Dt_cked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz _4;

crew duration 175 days, 36 rain.

Failed to achieve docking with Sa[yut 6 station.

lvanov was first Bulgarian cosmonaut to orbit.

Docked with Salyut 6, later served as ferry fi_r

Soyt,z 32 crew while S_yuz _2 returned

without a crew.

v_

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92

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APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

o_

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs'.min)

O

L

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Soyuz 35 Apr. 9, 1980 Leonid I. Popov 55:1:29

Valery V. Ryumin

Soyuz _6 May 26, 1980 Valery N. Kubasov 65:20:54

Bertalan Farkas

Soyuz T-2 June 5, 1980 Yury V. Malyshev _:22:21

Vladimir V. Aksennv

Soyuz 37 July 23, 1980 Viktnr V. G_)rhatko 79:15:17

Pham Tuan

Soyuz :_8 Sep. 18, 1980 Yury V. Romanenko 7:20:43

Arnaldo Tamayo Mendez

Soyuz T-:_ Nov. 27, 1980 Leonid D. Kizim 12:19:8

Oleg G. Makarov

Gennady M. Strekalov

Soyuz T-4 Mar. 12, 1981 Vladimir V. Knvalennk 74:18:38

Viktnr [': Savinykh

Soyuz _,9 Mar. 22, 1981 Vladimir A. l_hanibeknv 7:20:4_

Jugderdemidiyn Gurragcha

Space Shuttle Apr .12, 1981 John W. Young 2:6:21

Cdumbkl (STS- 1)

Robert L. Crippen

Soyuz 40 May 14, 1981 Leonid 1. Popov 7:20:41

cosmonaut

Dumitru Prunariu

Space Shuttle Nov. 12, 1981 Joe H. Engle 2:6:13

Columbia (STS-2) Richard tf. Truly

Space Shuttle Mar. 22, 1982 Jack R. Lousma 8:4:49

(7_lumbicl (STS- 3 ) C. Gordon Fullerton

Soyuz T-5 May 1 _, 1982 Anatoly Berezm, oy 211:9:5

Valentin 1.ebedev

Soyuz T-6 June 24, 1982 Vladimir l)zhanibekov 7:21:51

Aleksandr lvanchenkov

Jean-Loup Chrdtien

Space Shuttle June 27, 1982 Thomas K. Mattingly 11 7:l:9

Columbia (STS-4) Henry W. Hartsfield, Jr.

Soyuz T-7 Aug. [9, 1982 Leonid Popnv 7:21:52

Aleksandr Serebrov

Svettana Savitskaya

Space Shuttle Nov. 11, 1982 Vance D. Brand 5:2:14

Columbua (STS-5) Robert E Overmyer

Joseph P. Allen

William B. Lenoir

Space Shuttle Apr. 4, 1983 Paul J. Weitz 5:0:24

Challenger {STS-6) Karn[ J. Bobkn

Donald H. Peterson

Story" Musgrave

FX_cked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 37.

Crew duration 184 days, 20 hrs., 12 min.

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz _5.

Crew duration 7 days, 20 hrs., 46 min.

Farkas was first Hungarian to orbit.

Docked with Salyut 6. First crewed flight of newgeneration ferry.

Docked with Salyut 6. Crew returned in Soyuz 36.

Crew duration 7 days, 20 hrs., 42 rain.

Pham was first Vietnamese to orbit.

Docked with Salyut 6. Tamayo was first Cuban

to orbit.

Docked with Satyut 6. First three-persnn flight

in Sin, let program since 1971.

Docked with Salyut 6.

Docked with Salyut 6. Gurragcha first Mongolian

cosm(inaHt tll orbit.

First flight t_f Space Shuttle; tested spacecraft in

_rbit. First landing of airplane-like craft from

_rbit for reuse.

[kinked with Sal'¢ut 6. Prunarm firsl Romanian

to orbit.

Second flight of Space Shuttle; first scientific

payload (OSTA 1). Tested remote manipulator

arm. Returned fnr reuse.

Third flight of Space Shuttle; second scientific

payload (OSS t). Second test of remote

manipulator arm. Flight extended 1 day

because of flooding :it primary landing site;

alternate landing site used. Returned for reuse.

Docked with Salyut 7. Crew duration of 211 days.

Crew returned in Soyuz T-7.

l)tuzked with Salyut 7. Chrdtien first French

cosmonaut to orbit.

Fourth flight of Space Shuttle; first I)._D payload;

additional scientific payloads. Returned July 4.

Completed testing program. Returned f_r reuse.

Docked with Salyut 7. Savitskaya second woman

to orbit. Crew returned in Soyuz T-5.

Fifth flight of Space Shuttle; first operational

flight; launched two ctmlmercial satellites

(SBS 3 and Anik ('-]}; first flight with four

crew members. EVA test canceled when

spacesuits malfunctioned.

Sixth flight of Space Shuttle; launched TDRS 1.
APPENDIXC

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

93

-.n

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

{days:hrs:min)

-<

Soyuz T-8 Apr. 20, 1983 Vladimir qStov 2:0:18

Gennady Strekalov

Aleksandr Serebrov

Space Shuttle June 18, 198"3 Robert L. Crippen 6:2:24

Challenger (STS-7) Frederick H. Hauck

John M. Fabian

Sally K. Ride

Norman T. Thagard

Soyuz T-9 June 28, 198"3 ladimir Lyakhov 149:9:46

Aleksandr Aleksandrnv

Space Shuttle Aug. "30, 198:_ Richard It. Trub/ 6:1:9

Challenger (STS-8) Daniel C. Brandenstein

Dale A. GaMner

Guion S. Bluford, Jr,

William E. Thornton

Space Shuttle Nov. 28, 1983 John W. Young 10:7:47

Columbia (STS-9) Brewster W. Shaw

Owen K. Garriott

Robert A. R. Parker

Byron K. Lichtenherg

Ulf Merbold

Space Shuttle Feb. "3, 1984 Vance D. Brand 7:23:16

Challenger Robert L. (+iibs_m

(STS 4 l-B) P,rucc Mc(2andless

Ronald E. McNair

Roben L. Stewart

Soyuz T-10 Feb. 8, 1984 Leonid Kizim 62:22:43

Vladimir Soh,vev

Oleg Atkm,

Snyuz T-II Apr. `3, 1984 Yury Malyshev 181:21:48

Gennady Strekalov

Rakesh Sharma

Space Shuttle Apr. 6, 1984 Robert L. Crippen 6:2"3:41

Challenger Frances R. Scobee

(STS 41-C) Terry J. Hart

George D. Nelson

James D. van Hoften

Soyuz "I--12 July 17, 1984 VhMimir Dzhanibekov 11:19:14

Svellana Savistskaya

Igor Vtdk

Space Shuttle Aug. 30, 1984 Henry W. Hartsfield 6:0:56

Discuverx Michael L. (.;.ats

(STS 41-17) Richard M. Mullane

Steven A. tlawley

Judith A. Resnick

Charles D. Walker

Space Shuttle Oct. 5, 1984 Robert L. Crippen 8:5:24

Challenger Jon A. McBride

(STS 41-G) Kathryn D. Sullivan

Sally K. Ride

David Lcestma

Paul D. Scully-Power

Marc Garneau

Failed to achieve docking with Salyut 7 station.

Seventh flight of Space Shuttle; launched two

commercial satellites (Anik C-2 and Palapa

B-l); also launched and retrieved SPAS 01;

first flight with five crew members, including

first woman U.S. astronaut.

Docked with Salyut 7 station.

Eighth flight of Space Shuttle; launched one

c_m3mercial satellite (lnsat I-B); first flight of

U.S. black astronaut.

Ninth flight of Space Shuttle; first flight of

Spacelab 1; first flight of six crew members,

one of whom was West Gennan; first non-U.S.

astronaut to fit,, in U.S. space program

(Merbold).

Tenth flight of Space Shuttle; two communicati_m satellites t;ailed to achieve orbit; first

use of Manned Maneuvering Unit in space.

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Crew set space

duration record of 2"37 days. Crew returned

in Soyuz T- [ 1.

Docked with Salyut 7 statinn. Sharma first

Indian in space. Crew returned in

Soyuz W-10.

Eleventh flight of Space Shuttle; deployment of

Long-Duration Exposure Facility (I.I?EF-1)

fl_r later retrieval; Solar Maxinmm Satellite

retrieved, repaired, and redeployed.

Docked with Salyut 7 station. First female EVA.

Twelfth flight of Space Shuttle. First flight o!

U._. nnnastrnnaut.

Thirteenth flight of Space Shuttle; first with

seven crew tnembers, including first flight

of tw,_ U.S. women and one Canadian

((Sarneau).

,23

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94 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

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Space Shuttle

Discovery

(STS 51-A)

Space Shuttle

Discover_

(STS 5I--C)

Space Shuttle

Disc_ve_

(STS 51-D)

Space Shuttle

( _.ludlenger

(STS 51-B)

Soyuz T- 1

Space Shuttle

Discovery

(STS 51-0)

Space Shuttle

CMllenger

(STS 5 I-F)

Space Shuttle

Discovery

(STS 51-I)

Soyuz 1--14

Space Shuttle

,Atlantis

{STS 51.J)

Nov. 8, 1984 Frederick H. Hauck 7:23:45

David M. Walker

Joseph E Allen

Anna L. Fisher

Dale A. Gardner

Jan. 24, 1985 Thomas K. Mattingly 3:1:33

Loren J. Shriver

Ellison S. Onizuka

James E Buchli

Gary E. Payton

Apr. 12, 1985 Karol J. Bobko 6:23:55

Donald E. Williams

M. Rhea SeddDn

S. David Griggs

Jeffi'ey A. Hoffman

Charles 1-).Walker

E. J. Gam

Apr. 29, 1985 Rt_bert E (.)vermyer 7:0:9

Frederick D. GR'gory

Don L. Lind

Nomum E. Thagard

William E. Thornton

Lodewijk wm den Berg

Taylor Wang

June 5, 1985 Vladimir Dzhanibekov 112:3:12

Viktor Savinykh

June 17, 1985 Daniel C. Brandenstein 7:1:39

John O. Creighton

Shannon W. Lucid

John M. Fabian

Steven R. Nage[

Patrick Baudry

Prince Suhan Salman AI-Saud

July 29, 1985 Charles G. Fullerton 7:22:45

Roy D. Bridges

Karl C. Henize

Anthony W. England

E Story Musgrave

Loren W. Acton

John-David E Bartoe

Aug. 27, 1985 Jtx: H. Engle 7:2:18

Richard O. Covey

James D. van Hoften

William E Fisher

John M. Lounge

Sep. 17, 1985 Vladimir Vasyutin 64:21:52

Georgiy Grechko

Aleksandr Volkov

Oct. _,, 1985 Kaml J. Fk_bko 4:1:45

Ronaid J. Grabe

Robert A. Stewart

David C. Hilmers

William A. Pailes

Fourteenth flight of Space Shuttle; first retrieval

and return of two disabled communications

satellites (Westar 6, Palapa B2) to Earth.

Fifteenth STS flight. Dedicated I)oD mission.

Sixteenth STS flight. Two communications

satellites. First U.S. Senator in space (Garn).

Seventeenth STS flight. Spacelab-3 in cargo bay

of Shuttle.

Repair of Salyut-7. Dzhanibekov returned to

Earth with Orechko on Soyuz T-1 } spacecraft,

Sept. 26, 1985.

Eighteenth STS flight. Three communications

satellites. One reusable payload, Spartan-l.

First U.S. flight with French and Saudi

Arabian crew members.

Nineteenth STS flight. Spacelab-2 in cargo bay.

Twentieth STS flight. Launched three communi

cations satellites. Repaired Syncom 1V-3.

Docked with Salyut 7 station. Viktor Savinykh,

Aleksandr Volkov, and Vladimir Vasyutin

returned to Earth Nov. 2 l, 1985, when

Vasyutin became ill.

Twenty-first STS flight. Dedicated [-MD mission.
ii!!:

APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

95

-,m

m

_a

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highfights

(days:hrs:min)

Space Shuttle

Challenger

(STS 61-A)

Space Shuttle

Atlantis

(STS 61-B)

Space Shuttle

Columbia

(STS 61-C)

Oct. 30, 1985

Nov. 27, 1985

Jan. 12, 1986

Soyuz T-15 Mar. 13, 1986

oSoyuz TM-2 Feb. 5, 1987

S,.wuz TM-'_ July 22, 1987

Soyuz TM-4 Dec. 21, 1987

Soyuz TM-5 June 7, 1988

Soyuz TM-6 Aug. 29, 1988

Space Shuttle Sep. 29, 1988

Discovery (STS-26)

Soyuz TM-7 Nov. 26, 1988

Henry W. Hartsfield 7:0:45

Steven R. Nagel

Bonnie J. I)unbar

James E Buchli

Guion S. Bluford, Jr.

Ernst Messerschmid

Reinhard Furrer (FRG)

Wubbo J. Ockels (ESA)

Brewster H. Shaw 6:22:54

Bryan D. O'Connor

Mary L. Cleve

Sherwood C. Spring

Jerry L. Ross

Rudolfi> Neri Vela

Charles D. Walker

Robert L. Gibson 6:2:4

Charles E B_)lden Jr.

Franklin Chang-Diaz

Steve A. Hawley

George D. Nelson

Roger Cenker

Bill Nelson

Leonid Kizim 125:1:1

Vladimir Solovyt,v

Yury Romanenko 174:3:26

Aleksandr Laveykin

Aleksandr Viktorenko 160:7:16

Aleksandr Aleksandrov

Mohammed Faris

Vladimir Titov

Musa Manarov

Anatoly Levchenko

180:5

Viktor Savinykh 9:20:13

Anatoly Soh)vyev

Aleksandur Aleksandn)v

Vladimir Lyakhov 8:19:27

Valery Polyakov

Abdul Mohmand

Frederick H. Hauck 4:1

Richard O. Covey

John M. Lounge

David C. Hihners

George D. Nelson

Aleksandr Volkm, 151:11

Sergey Krikalev

Jean-Loup Chr_Stien

Twenty-second STS flight. Dedicated German

Spacelab D- 1 in shuule cargo bay.

Twenty-third STS flight. Launched three corn

munications satellites. First flight of Mexican

astronaut (Neri Vela).

Twenty-fl_urth STS flight. Launched one com

munications satellite. First member of U.S.

House of Representatives in space (Bill

Nelson).

Docked with Mir space station on May 5/6

transffrred to Salyut 7 complex. On June 25/26

mmsferred from Salyut 7 back to Mir.

Docked with Mir space station. Romanenko

established hmg-distance stay in space record

of }26 days.

Docked with Mir space station. Aleksandr

Aleksandrov remained in Mir 160 days,

returned with Yury Romanenko. Viktorenko

and Faris returned in Soyuz TM-2, July a,O,

with Aleksandr Laveykin who experienced

medical problems. Faris first Syrian in space.

Docked with Mir space station. Crew of Yury

Romanenko, Aleksandr Aleksandrov, and

Anamly Levchenko returned Dec. 29 in

Soyuz TM- L

Docked with Mir space station; Aleksandrov first

Bulgarian in space. Crew returned Jun. 17 in

Soyuz TM-4.

Docked with Mir space station; Mohmand first

Afghanistani in space. Crew returned Sept. 7,

in Soyuz TM-5.

Twenty-sixth STS flight. Launched TDRS _,.

Docked with Mir space station. Soyuz TM-6

returned with Chr_tien, Vladimir Witov,

and Musa Manarov. Titov and Manarov

completed _66-day mission Dec. 21. Crew of

Krikalev, Votkm,, and Valery Polyakov

returned Apr. 27, 1989, in Soyuz TM-7.
96

c

m

APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

0

©

D.

rv.

L_

r_

c

m

c

©

_D

<

Space Shuttle

Adan[is (STS-27)

Space Shuttle

Disc m,ery (STS-29)

Space Shuttle

Atlantis (STS-30)

Space Shuttle

Coh4mbia (STS-28)

Soyu: TM-8

Space Shuttle

A_lantis (STS- :t4)

Space Shuttle

Discover* (STS- 37,)

Space Shuttle

Cmlumbia (STS-32)

Soyuz TM-9

Space Shuttle

,Atl*lntis (STS- _6)

Space Shuttle

Discovery (STS-31 )

Soyu: TM- 10

lXec. 2, 1988 Robert "1toot" Gibson 4:9:6

Guy S. Gardner

Richard M. Mullane

Jerry L. Ross

William M. Shepherd

Mar. t :i 1989 Michael L. Coats 4:2 _,: _9

John E. Blaha

James E Bagian

James E Buchli

Robert C. Springer

May 4, 1989 David M. Walker 4:0:57

Ronald J. Grabe

Nomman E. Thagard

Mary L. Cleave

Mark (7. Lee

Aug. 8, 1989 Brewster 1[. Shaw 5:1

Richard N. Richard.,

James ( .'. Adamson

David t2. kecstma

Mark N. Brown

Sep. 5, 1989 Aleksandr Viktorenko 166:6

Aleksandr Serebn,v

Oct. 18, 1989 l)_,nald E. Williams 4:2+:+9

Michael J. McCulley

Shannon W. Lucid

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz

Ellen S. Baker

Nov. 2 ?_, 1989 Frederick l'l. Gregory 5:0:7

J_hn E. Blaha

Kathryn (L Thornton

E Story Musgrave

Manley L. "Sonny" Carter

Jan. 9, 1990 l)aniel C. Brandenstein 10:21

James 1). Wetherbee

Bonnie J. Dunbar

Marsha S. lvins

G, David Low

Feb. 11, 1990 Anatoly Solovy, w 178:22:19

Aiek.,and r Balandin

Feb. 28, 1990 John O. Creighton 4:10:19

John H. Casper

l)avid C. Hihners

Richard t 1. Mullane

Pierre J. Thuot

Apr. 24, 1990 Loren J. Shriver 5:t:16

Charles E Bolden, Jr.

Steven A. t tav,'ley

Bruce McCandless 11

Kathryn D. Sullivan

Aug. 1, 1990 Gennady Manakov 1_0:20:_,6

Gennady St rekalov

Twenty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated Dol)

nlission.

Twenty-eighth STS flight. Launched TDRS-4.

Twenty-ninth STS flight. Venus orbiter

Magellan launched.

Thirtit.th STS flight. Dedicated I').l'_ mission.

Docked with Mir space station. Crew of

Viku_renko and Serebrov returned m

S_Wuz TM-8, Feb. 9, 1990.

Thirty-first STS flight. Launched Jupiter probe

and orlqter Galileo.

Thirt,,'-seo,nd STS flight, l'ledicated 1)oI)

inissitln.

Thirty-third STS tlighi. Launched Svncom I\:-5

and retrieved LDEE

Docked with Mir space station. Crev+' returned

Aug. 9, 1990, in Soyuz TM-9.

Ti_irty-fi_urth STS flight. Dedicated !'loD

IlliSSit}12,

Thirty-fihh STS flight. Launched Hubble Space

Telescope (lIST).

Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned

Dec. 10, 1990, with Toy,,hiro Akiyama,

Japall.esc • tllsnllll'lillll arid jotlrnalisl in space.
APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

97

m

m

ma

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

-<

Space Shuttle Oct. 6, 1990 Richard N. Richards 4:2:10

Disco+:ery (STS-41) Robert D. Cabana

gmce E. Melnick

William M. Shepherd

Thtm_as I). Akers

Space Shuttle Nov. 15, 1990 Richard O. Covey 4:21:55

Atlantis (STS-38) Frank L. Culbertson, Jr.

('harles "Sam" Ciemar

Robert C. Springer

Carl J. Meade

Space Shuttle Dec. 2, 1990 Vance D. Brand 8:23:5

Columbia (STS-35) Guy S+ Gardner

Jeffrey A. ttoffinan

John M. "Mike" Lounge

Robert A. R. Parker

Soyuz TM-11 Dec. 2, 1990 Viktor Atanasyev 175:01:52

musa Manarov

Tovohiro Akiyama

Space Shuttle Apr. 5, 1991 Steven R+ Nagel 6:0:32

Atlantis (STS-+,7) Kenneth D. Cameron

I.inda Godwin

Jerry L. Russ

Jay Apt

Space Shuttle Apr. 28, 1991 Michael L. Coats 8:7:22

l)iscot,ery (STS-_9) Blaine Hammtmd, Jr.

Gregory L. Harbaugh

Dunald R. MclVlonagle

Guion S. Blufurd, Jr.

l_acy Veach

Richard J. ttieb

Soyuz TM-12 May 18, 1991 Anatoly Artsebarskiy 144:15:22

Sergei Krikalev

ltelcn Sharman

Space Shuttle June 5, 1991 Bryan l). O'Conner 9:2:15

Cohtmbia (STS-40) Sidney hi. Gutierrez

James 1_Bagian

Tamara E. Jernigan

M. Rhea Seddon

Francis A+ "Drew" Gaffney

Millie Hughes-Fulfi_rd

Space Shuttle Aug. 2, 1991 John E. Blaha 8:21:21

Atlantis (STS-43) Michael A. Baker

Shannon W. t.ucid

G. David Low

James C. Adamson

Space Shuttle Sep. 12, 1991 John (]reighton 5:8:28

Disc_very (STS-48) Kenneth Reightler, Jr.

Charles D. Getnar

James E Buchli

Mark N. Bruwn

Thirty-sixth STS flight. Ulysses spacecraft to

investigate interstellar space and the Sun.

Thirty-seventh STS flight. Dedicated DoD

inission.

Thirty-eighth STS flight. Astro-I in carvo bay.

l)ocked with Mir space station. Toyohiro

Akiyama returned Dec. 10, 1990, with

previous Mir crew of Gennady Manakov

and Gennady Strekalov.

Thirty-ninth STS flight. Launched Gamma Ray

Observatory to measure celestial gamma-rays+

Fortieth STS flight. Dedicated DoD mission.

Docked with Mir space station. Helen Shannan

first from United Kingdom to fly in space.

Crew of Viktor Afanasyev, Musa Manarov,

and Helen Sharman returned May 20, 1991.

Artsebarskiy and Krikalevremained on Nmrd

Mir, with Artsebarskiy returning (%t. 10, 1991,

and Krikalev doing so Mar. 25, 1992.

Forty-first STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life

Sciences (SLS-I) m cargo hay.

Forty-second STS flight. Launched fi>urth

Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

(TDRS-5).

Forty-third STS flight. Launched Upper

Annosphere Research Satellite (UARS).

>

<
98

E

"O

m

APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

¢o

_E

O

O

r_

u

he}

c

ka

E

o

<

Soyuz TM- 13

Space Shuttle

,Atlantis (STS-44)

Space Shuttle

Discover_ (STS-42)

Soyuz TM-14

Space Shuttle

Atlantis {STS-45)

Space Shuttle

Endeavour (STS-49)

Space Shuttle

C(dumbia {STS-50)

Soyuz TM-15

Oct. 2, 1991 Aleksandr Vnlkov 90:16:00

Toktar Aubakirov

(Kazakh Republic)

Franz Viehboeck {Austria)

Nov. 24, 1991 Frederick D. Gregory 6:22:51

Tom Henricks

Jim Voss

Story Musgrave

Mario Runco, Jr.

Tom Hennen

Jan. 22, 1992 Ronald J. Grabe 8:1:12

Stephen S. Oswald

Norman E. Thagard

David C. Hilmers

William E Readdy

Roberta L. Bondar

Ulf Merbold (ESA)

Mar. 17, 1992 Alexandr Viktorenko 145:15:11

Alexandr Kaleri

Klaus-Dietrich Fiade

(Germany)

Mar. 24, 1992 Charles E t%lden 9:0:10

Brian Duffy

Kathryn D. Sullivan

David C. Leestma

Michael Foale

Dirk D. Frimout

Bynm K. Lichtenberg

May 7, 1992 Daniel C. Brandenstein 8:16:17

Kevin P. Chilton

Richard J. Hieb

Bruce E. Mdnick

Pierre J. Thuot

Kathryn C. Thornton

Thomas D. Akers

June 25, 1992 Richard N. Richards 13:19:30

Kenneth D. Bowersox

Bonnie Dunbar

Ellen Baker

Carl Meade

July 27, 1992 Anatoly Soh)vyov 189:17:43

Sergei Avdeyev

Michel Tognini {France)

Docked with Mir space station. Crew returned

Oct. 10, 1991, with Anatoly Artsebarsky

in the TM-I 2 spacecraft.

Forty-fi_urth STS flight. Launched Defense

Support Program (DSP) satellite.

Forty-fifth STS flight. Carried International

Microgravity Laboratory-I in cargo bay.

First manned CIS space mission. Docked with

Mir space station Mar. 19. The TM- 1

capsule with Flade, Aleksandr Volkov, and

Sergei Krikalev returned tl} Earth Mar. 25.

Krikalev had been in space 313 da'_s.

Viktorenko and Kaleri remained {m the

Mir space station.

Forty-sixth STS flight. Carried Atmospheric

Laboratory fi}r Applications and Science

{ATLAS-1 ).

Forty-seventh STS flight. Reboosted a crippled

INTELSAT VI communications satellite.

Forty-eighth STS flight. Carried U.S.

Micn}gravity Laboratory- 1.

Docked with Mir space station Jul. 29. Tognini

returned to Earth in TM-14 capsule with

Alexandr Viktorenko and Alexandr Kaleri.

Soh)vyov and Avdeyev spent over six months

in the Mir orbital complex and returned to

Earth in the descent vehicle of the TM- 15

spacecraft on Feb. 1, 1993.
APPENDIXC

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

99

m

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min) ..<

Space Shuttle Jul. 31, 1992 Loren J. Shriver 7:23:16

Atlantis (STS-46) Andrew M. Allen

Claude Nicollier (ESA)

Marsha S. Ivins

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz

Franco Malerba (Italy)

Space Shuttle Sep. 12, 1992 Robert L. Gibson 7:22:30

Endeavour (STS-47) Curtis L. Brown, Jr.

Mark C. Lee

Jerome Apt

N. Jan Davis

Mae C. Jemison

Mamnru Mohri

Space Shuttle Oct. 22, 1992 James D. Wetherbee 9:20:57

Columbia (STS-52) Michael A. Baker

William M. Shepherd

Tamara E. Jemigan

Charles L. Veach

Steven G. MacLean

Space Shuttle Dec. 2, 1992 David M. Walker 7:7:19

Discovery (STS-53) Robert D. Cabana

Guion S. Blufi_rd, Jr.

James S. Voss

Michael Richard Clifford

Space Shuttle Jan. 13, 1993 John H. Casper 6:23:39

Endeavour (STS-54) Donald R. McMonagle

Gregory J. Harhaugh

Mario Runco, Jr.

Susan J. Hehns

Soyuz TM-16 Jan. 24, 1993 Gennady Manakov 179:0:44

Ateksandr Poleshchuk

Space Shuttle

Discovery (STS-56)

Space Shuttle

Columbia (STS-55)

Space Shuttle

Endeavour ( STS- 57)

Apr. 8, 1993 Kenneth D. Cameron 9:6:9

Stephen S. Oswald

C. Michael Foale

Kenneth D. Cockerell

Ellen Ochoa

Apr. 26, 1993 Steven R. Nagel 9:25:39

Terence T. Henricks

Jerry, L. Ross

Charles J. Precourt

Bernard A. Harris, Jr.

Ulrich Walter (Germany)

Hans W. Schleget (Germany)

June 21, 1993 Ronald J. Grabe 9:23:46

Brian J. Dully

(.3. [)avid Low

Nancy J. Sherlock

Peter J. K. Wisoff

Janice E. Voss

Forty-ninth STS flight. Deployed Tethered

Satellite System- l and Eureka- 1.

Fiftieth STS flight. Carried Spacelab J. Jemison

first African American woman to fly in

space. Mohri first Japanese to fly on NASA

spacecraft. Lee and Davis first married couple

in space together.

Fifty-first STS flight. Studied influence of

gravity on basic fluid and solidification

processes using U.S. Microgmvity

Paylnad-1 in an international mission.

Deployed second Laser Geodynamics Satellite

and Canadian Target Assembly.

Fifty-second STS flight. Deployed the last major

DoD classified payload planned for Shuttle

(l'k_D 1) with ten different secondary payloads.

Fifty-third STS flight. Deployed Tracking and

Data Relay Satellite-6. Operated Diffused

X-ray Spectrometer Hitchhiker experiment to

collect data on stars and galactic gases.

|_}cked with Mir space station Jan. 26. On

July 22, 1993, the TM-16 descent cabin

landed back on Earth with Manakov,

Poleschuk, and French cosmonaut Jean-Pierre

Haignere from Soyuz TM-17 on board.

Fifty-fourth STS flight. Completed second flight

of Atmospheric Laboratory, for Applications

and Science and deployed SPARTAN-201.

Fifty-fifth STS flight. Completed second

German microgravity research program in

Spacelab D-2.

Fifty-sixth STS flight. Carried Spacelab corn

mercial payload module and retrieved

European Retrievable Carrier in orbit since

August 1992.

;>

¢'3

<

m
I00 APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

.£:

0

0

e-/

La

e_

e_

La

e_

c

O

<

Soyuz TM- l 7

Space Shuttle

Discovery (STS-51 )

Space Shuttle

Cl_lumbia (STS-SS)

Space Shuttle

ETkleav{_ur (STS-61 )

Soyuz TM- 18

Space Shuttle

Discovery (STS-60)

Space Shuttle

Columbia (STS-62)

Space Shuttle

Endeavlmr (STS-59)

Soyuz TM- 19

July 1, 1993 VasiIiy Tsibliyev 196:17:45

Aleksandr Serebrov

Jean-Pierre Haignere

Sep. 12, 199_ Frank L. Culbertson, Jr. 9:20:11

William E Readdy

James H. Newman

Daniel W. Bursch

Carl E. Walz

Oct. 18, 199 _) John E. Blaha 14:0:29

Richard A. Searfoss

Shannon W. Lucid

David A. Wolf

William S. McArthur

Martin J. Fettman

Dec. 2, 1993 Richard O. Covey 10:19:58

Kenneth D. Bowersox

Tom Akers

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

Kathryn C. ThL_rnton

Claude Nicotlier

E Story/Vtusgrave

Jan. 8, 1994 Viku,r Afimasyev 182:0:27

Yuri Usachev

Valery Polyakov

Feb. _, 1994 Charles E P_lden, Jr. 8:7:9

Kenneth S. Reightler, Jr.

N. Jan Davis

Ronald M. Sega

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz

Sergei K. Krikalev (Russia)

Mar. 9, 1994 John H. Casper 13:23:17

Andrew M. Allen

Pierre J. Thuot

Charles D. Gemar

Marsha S. Ivins

Apr. 9, 1994 Sidney M. Gutierrez 1t:5:50

Kevin 1"_Chilttm

Jerome Apt

Michael R. Cliffi)rd

Linda M. Godwin

Thomas D. Jones

July 1, 1994 Yuri 1. blalenchenko 125:22:5}

Talgat A. Musabayev

Docked with Mir space station July 3. Haignere

returned to Earth with Soyuz TM-16. Serebrov

and "Esihliyev landed in TM-17 spacecraft on

Jan. 14, 1994.

Fifty-seventh STS flight. Deployed ACTS

satellite to serve as testbed for new

communications satellite technology and

U.S./German ORFEUS-SPAS.

Fifty-eiRhth STS flight. Carried Spacelab Life

Sciences-2 payload to determine the effects

of microgravity _n M. Rhea Seddon

human and animal subjects.

Fifty-ninth STS flight. Restored planned

scientific capabilitities and reliability ,f the

Hubble Space Telescope.

LX_cked with Mir space station Jan. 10.

Afanasyev and Usachev landed tn the TM-18

spacecraft on July 9, 1994. Polyak, lv remained

aboard Mir in the attempt to establish a new

record for endurance in space.

Sixtieth STS flight. (2arried the Wake Shield

Facility to generate new semi-conductor

fihns fi)r advanced elecmmics. Also carried

SPA('EHAB. Krikalev's presence signified a

new era in c_n)peratk_n in space between

Russia and the United States.

Sixty-first STS flight. Carried U.S. Micro_ravity

Payload-2 to conduct experiments in materials

processing, bi_techno[ogy, and other areas.

Sixty-second STS flight. Carried the Space

Radar 1.aboratory-1 to gather data on the

Earth and the effects humans have on its

carbon, water, and energy cycles.

Docked with Mir space station July g. B_)th

Malenchenko and Musabayev returned m

Earth with the Soyuz TM-19 spacecraft,

landing in Kazakhstan on Nov. 4 together

with Ulf Merbold t,f Germany, who went up

aboard S,_yuz TM-20 _n Oct 3, 1_94.

Merbold gathered biological samples on the

effects _t weightlessness _m the human body

body in the first _l two ESA missums t_ Mir

to prepare for the International Space

Statism.
APPENDIXC

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

101

-'n

_a

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min) -<

Space Shuttle July 8, 1994 Robert D. Cabana 14:17:55

Columbia (STS-65) James D. Halsell, Jr.

Richard J. Hieb

Carl E. Walz

Leroy Chiao

Donald A. Thomas

Chiaki Naito-Mukai (Japan)

Space Shuttle Sep. 9, 1994 Richard N. Richards 10:22:50

Discovery (STS-64) L. Blaine Hammond, Jr.

J. M. Linenger

Susan J. Helms

Carl J. Meade

Mark C. Lee

Space Shuttle Sep. 30, 1994 Michael A. Baker 11:5:36

Endeavour (STS-68) Terrence W. Wilcutt

Thomas D. Jones

Steven L. Smith

Daniel W. Bursch

Peter J. K. Wisoff

Soyuz TM-20 Oct. 3, 1994 Alexsandr Viktorenko *

Yelena Kondakova

Ulf Merbold (ESA)

Space Shuttle Nov. 3, 1994 Donald R. McMonagle 10:22:34

Atlantis (STS-66) Curtis L. Brown, Jr.

Ellen Ochoa

Joseph R. Tanner

Jean-Francois Clerw_y (ESA)

Scott E. Parazynski

Space Shuttle Feb. 3, 1995 James D. Wetherbee 8:6:28

Discoveu (STS-63) Eileen M. Collins

Bernard A. Harris, Jr.

C. Michael Foale

Janice E. Voss

Vladimir G. Titov (Russia)

Space Shuttle Mar. 2, 1995 Stephen S. Oswald 16:15:8

Endeavour (STS-67) William G. Gregory

John M. Grunsfeld

Wendy B. Lawrence

Tamara E. Jernigan

Ronald A. Parise

Samuel T. Durrance

Sixty-third STS flight. Carried International

Microgravity Laboratory-2 to conduct research

into the behavior of materials and life in near

weightlessness.

Sixty-fourth STS flight. Used LIDAR In-Space

Technology Experiment to perform atmos

pheric research. Included the first untethered

spacewalk by astronauts in over 10 years.

Sixty-fifth STS flight. Used Space Radar

Laboratory-2 to provide scientists with data to

help distinguish human-induced environmental

change from other natural forms of change.

Soyuz TM-19 returned to Earth on Nov. 4, 1994,

with Yuri Malenchenko, "Falgat Musabayev,

and Ulf Merbold. Valeriy Polyakov remained

aboard Mir.

Sixty-sixth STS flight. Three main payloads: the

third Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications

and Science (ATLAS-3), the first Cryogenic

Infrared Spectrometers and Telescopes fi_r the

Atmosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite (CRISTASPAS-I), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter

Uhmviolet (SSBUV) spectrometer. Astronauts

also conducted protein crystal growth

experiments.

Sixty-seventh STS flight. Primary objective: first

close encounter in nearly 20 years between

American and Russian spacecraft as a prelude

to establishment of International Space

Station. (Shuttle flew close by to Mir.) Mare

Payloads: Spacehab 3 experiments and Shuttle

Pointed Autonomous Research To_l fi_r

Astronomy (SPARTAN) 204, Solid Surface

Combustion Experiment (SSCE), and Air

Force Maul Optical Site (AMOS) Calibration

Test. Also launched very small Orbital Debris

Radar Calibration Spheres (ODERACS).

Sixty-eighth STS flight. Longest Shuttle mission

to date. Primary payload was a trio o( ultraviolet telescopes called Astro-2.

Ba

,,D

vO

O"
102

c

ca

m

APPENDIX C

{Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

So,,.u: TM-2I Mar. 14, 1995

©

o Space Shuttle June 27, 1995

m. At&mtis (STS-71 )

ca

e.,/

ca

e_

m Space Shuttle July 13, 1995

Disc.ver_" (STS-70)

c

Soyu: TM-22 Sep. :i, 1995

m

Space Shuttle Sep. 7, 1995

= ETuteavour (STS-69)

c

Space Shuttle Oct. 20, 1995

C.lumbia (STS-7 _)

.<

Space Shuttle Nov. t2, 1995

Atlantis (STS-74)

Space Shuttle Jan. 11, 1996

En&avour (STS-72)

Soyu: TM-2 _, Feb. 21, 1996

Vladimir Dczhurov

Gennadi Strekalov

Norman Thagard (U.S.)

Robert I.. Gibson

Charles J. Precourt

Ellen S. Baker

Gregory Harbaugll

Bonnie J. Dunl_ar

9:19:22

Terence t lenricks 8:22:20

Kevin R. Kregel

Nancy J. Currie

I)onald A. Thomas

Mary Ellen Weber

Yuri Gidzenko *

Sergci Avdeev

Thomas Reiter (ESA)

David M. Walker 10:20:28

Kenneth D. Cockrel[

James S. Voss

James I-t. Newman

Michael L. Gernhardt

Kenneth D. Bowersox 15:21:52

Kent V. Rominger

('atherine G. (.tdeman

Michael Lopez-Alegria

Kathryn C. Thornton

Fred W. Leslie

Albert Saccn, Jr.

Kenneth D. Cameron 8:4:a,1

James D. Halsell, Jr.

Chris A. l ladfield (('SA)

Jerry L. Ross

William S. McArthur, Jr.

Brian DuffS, 8:22:1

Brent W. Jett, Jr.

Leroy Chiao

Winston E. Scott

Koichi Wakata (Japan)

Daniel T. Barry

Yuri (_nufrienko *

Yuri Usachyou

Thagard was the first American astr_naut to fly

on a Russian rocket and to stay on the Mir

space station. Soyuz TM-20 returned to Earth

on Mar. 22, t995, with Valeriy Polyakov,

Alexsandr Viktorenko, and Yetena

Kondakova. P_lyakov set world record by

remaining in space for 438 days.

Sixty-ninth STS fight and one hundredth U.S.

human spaceflight. Docked with Mir space

station. Brought up Mir 19 crew (Anatoly Y.

Solnvyev and Nikolai M. Budarin). Returned

to Earth with Mir 18 crew (Vladimir N.

Dezhurov, Gennady M. Strekahw, and

Norman Thagard). Thagard set an American

record by remaining in space fi_r 1 t 5 days.

Seventieth STS flight. Deployed Tracking and

l)ata Relay Satellite (TDRS). Also c.nducted

variotls biomedical experiments.

Soyu: TM-21 returned t_ Earth on Sop. 11, 1995,

with Mir 19 crew (Anatoliy Snlovyev and

Nikolay Budarin).

Seventy-first STS flight. Deployed Wake Shield

Facility (WSF-2) and SPARTAN 201-0:L

Seventy-second STS flight. Carried out micrngravity experiments with the U.S.

Microgravity haborat.rv (USML-2)

payload.

Seventy-third STS flight. Docked with Mir

space station as part of ]ntcrnatiotxal Space

Station (ISS) Phase 1 efforts.

Seventy-t;.mrth STS flight. Deph+yed OAST

Flyer. Retrieved previously launched

Japanese Space Flyer Unit satellite+ Crew

pcrfi+rmed spacewalks to build experience

fi+r ISS construction.

Snyuz TM-22 returned to Earth .n Ftb. 29, 1996,

with Mir 20 crew (Yuri Gidzenko, Sergei

Avdeev, and Th.mas Reiter).
APPENDIX C

(Continued)

U.S. and Russian Human Space Flights

1961-September 30, 1996

103

m

Spacecraft Launch Date Crew Flight Time Highlights

(days:hrs:min)

-<

Space Shuttle Feb. 22, 1996

Columbia (STS-75)

Space Shuttle Mar. 22, 1996

Atlantis (STS-76)

Space Shuttle May 19, 1996

E_J.eat,our (STS. 77 )

Space Shuttle June 20, 1996

Columbia (STS-78)

Soyuz TM-24

Space Shuttle

Atlantis (STS-79)

Aug. 17, 1996

Sep. 16, 1996

Andrew M. Allen 13:16:14

Scott J. Horowitz

Jeffrey A. Hoffman

Maurizin Cheli (ESA)

Claude Nicollier (ESA)

Franklin R. Chang-Diaz

Umberto Guidoni (ESA)

Kevin P. Chilton 9:5:16

Richard A. Searfoss

Linda M. Godwin

Michael R. Cliffhrd

Ronald M. Sega

Shannon W. Lucid**

John H. Casper 10:2:30

Curtis L. Brown

Andrew S. W. Thomas

Daniel W. Bursch

Mario Runco, Jr.

Marc Garneau (CSA)

Terrence T. Henricks 16:21:48

Kevin Kregel

Richard M. Linnehan

Susan J. Helms

Charles E. Brady, Jr.

Jean-Jacques Favier (CSA)

Robert B. Thirsk (ESA)

Claudie Andre-Deshays (ESA) *

Valery Korzun

Alexander Kaleri

William E Readdy 10:3:19

Terrence W. Wilcutt

Jerome Apt

Thomas D. Akers

Carl E. Walz

John E. Blaha**

Shannon W. Lucid***

Seventy-fifth STS flight. Deployed Tethered

Satellite System, U.S. Microgravity Payload

(USMP-3), and protein crystal growth

experiments.

Seventy-sixth STS flight. Docked with Mir

space station and left astronaut Shannon

Lucid aboard Mir. Also carried SPACEHAB

module.

Seventy-seventh STS flight. Deployed

SPARTAN/Inflatable Antenna Experiment,

SPACEHAB, and PAMS-STU payloads.

Seventy-eighth STS flight. Set Shuttle record

for then-longest flight. Carried Life and

Microgravity Sciences Spacelab.

Soyuz TM-23 returned to Earth on Sep. 2, 1996,

with Claudie Andre-Deshays, Yuri

Onufrienko, and Yuri Usachev.

Seventy-ninth STS flight. Docked with Mir

space station. Picked up astronaut Shannon

Lucid and dropped off astronaut John Blaha.

ga

_D

vD

G>

2>

m

* Mir crew members stayed fi)r various and overlapping lengths of time.

** Flew up on Space Shuttle; remained in space aboard Russian Mir space station.

*** Returned to Earth via Space Shuttle from Russian Mir space station.
104 APPENDIX D

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

m

o..

Stages;

Vehicle Engine/Motor PropellanP

Max. Dia

Thrust x Height

(kilonewtons) b' _ (m)

Max. Payload (kg) a

185.km

Orbit

Geosynch.

Transfer

Orbit

Sun.

Synch.

Orbit"

First

Launch f

Pegasus

,_ 1. Orion 505 Solid

o 2. Orion 50 Solid

_,. Orion 38 Solid

o Pegasus XL

1. Or,_n 50S-XL Solid

a_

2. Orion 50-XL Solid

v

_,. Ori_,n _,8 Solid

rv'

6.71x15.5 h

484.9 1.28x8.88

118.2 1.28x2.66

31.9 0.97x1.34

6.71x16.93

743._ 1.28x10.29

201.5 1.28x3.58

31.9 0.97xl.34

380

28_'

460

350"

210

335

1990

1994 e

TALIrtlS

0. Castor 120 Solid

,',a 1. Orion 50S Solid

2. Orion 50 Solid

_,q _, Orlon ?,8 %lid

2.34x28.3

1,687.7 2.34x11.86

580.5 1.28x8.88

1_8.6 1.28x2.66

31.9 097x1.34

1,400

1,08_'

255 l,OZO Not

scheduled

c

u

c

©

<[

l'k'ha II

(7920, 7925)

I. RS-270/A LOX/RP-I

Hercules GEM (9) Solid

2. AJIO-118K N204/A-50

t. Star 48B' Solid

Atta_ E

I, Atlas: MA-3 LOX/RP-I

Atlas I

1. Atlas: MA-5 LOX/RP-I

2 Centaur I: LOX/LIt.

RLIOA-_-_A (2)

1,04L0 (SL)

487.6 (SL)

42.4

66.4

1,739.5 (SL)

1,952.0 (SL)

7L4/

engine

2.44x29.70

3.05x38.1

1.01x12.95

2.44x5.97

1.25x2.04

3.05x28. l

3.05x21.3

4.2x43.9

3.05x22.16

3.05x9.14

5,089

3,890 _

82O"

1,860"' k

1,842'

2,255

3,175

910 k

1990,

Deha-7925

11960, Delta]

1968, Atlas F

I]958,

Adas LV-3A]

1990, 1 [1966,

At las Centaur]

Atlas 11

1,

2,

Atlas: MA-SA LOX/RP-I

Centaur lh I.OX/l.tt,

RLIOA-L :_A (2)

2,110.0 (SL)

7 _,.4/cngine

4.2x47.5

3.05x24.9

}.05x10.05

6,580

5,510 "

2,810 4,300 1991, 1111966,

Alias Centaur]

Atlas IIA

1. Arias: MA-5A

2. Centaur II:

RL10A-4 (2)

LOX/R P-1

I.OX/LH,

2,l 10.0 (SL)

92,55/engine

4.2x47.5

LO5x24.9

3.05x10.05

6,828

6,170"

't,062 4,750 1992, Atlas

IIA 11966,

AIlas ( ._enliiurl

Atlas IIAS

I. Atlas: MA-SA

Castor IVA (4) _

2. ¢.'cntaur 1I:

RLIOA-4 (2)

LOX/R P-1

Solid

LOX/LH,

2,110.0 (SL)

433.6 (SL)

92.53/cngme

4.2x47.5

3.05x24.9

1.O1Xll.16

LO5xlO.05

8,640

7,_00 _

},606 5,800 1993, IIAS

[1966,

Adas Centaur]
APPENDIX D

(Continued)

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

105

--m

m

Stages:

Vehicle Engine/Motor Propellant*

Max. Dia

Thrust x Height

{kilonewtons) b'' (m)

Max. Payload {kg) a

185.km

Orbit

Geosynch.

Transfer

Orbit

Sun.

Synch.

Orbit*

First

Launch _

R

-<

Titan I1

I. LR-87-AJ-5 (2)

[R91 _J

Titan HI

0. Titan I]ISRM(2)

(5-1/2 scgmcms)

I. LR87-AJ-11 {2)

2. LR91-AJ-11

"W/t:lrl IV

0. Titan 1\/SRM (2)

(7 sctm/cnts)

1. LR87-AJ-11 {2)

2. LR91-AJ-tl

Tit:m IN"/

0. Titan IV SRM (2)

(7 segments)

1. LR87-AJ-11 (2)

2. LR91-A]-I 1(1)

_,. Centaur:

RL- 10A- :_-:_A

4. SRMU

( :_sevments )

Space Shuttle"

1. SRB:

Shuttle SRB (2)

2. Orbiter/ET:

SSME (3)

:L Orbiter/OMS:

OMS engines (2)

N2041A-50

N204/A-50

%lid

N204/A-'30

N204/A-50

S,}lid

N204/A-'30

N204/A-'30

Solid

N204/A-50

N204]A-50

LOX/Lt t2

Solid

LOX/LI t 2

N,0jMMH

L0%42.9

1,045.0 L0%21._

440.0 _.05x12.2

1,909

].0%47.] 14,515 5,000 I

6,210.0 ].11x27.6

1,214.5 LOSx24.0

462.8 L05xl0.0

L0%62.2 17,700 6,350 m

7,000.0 Ltlx_4.1 14,I10 _

1,214.5 L05x26.4

462.8 L05xl0.0

4._x62.2 - 5,760;'

7,000.0 Lllx_4.1

1,214.5/cn_mc 3.05x26.4

462.5 L05xl0.0

73.4 4.]x9.0

7690 3._x]4.3

2_.79x56.14 I' 24,900" S,gLX3P

I1,790.0 (SI_) 3.70x45.46

1,668.7 (SI.) 8.41x47.00 (ET)

2U9x_7.241' (_rbitcr)

26.7 2L79x37.24 ]_

1988,

Titan II SLV

11964, Titan II

Gemini]

1989,

Titan 111

[1964,

Titan IIIAI

1989,

TiI;m IV

1904,

Titan IV

Centaur

1981,

('.olumbia

c2"

2>

<

_e
106

c

oo

APPENDIX D

(Continued)

U.S. Space Launch Vehicles

u,1

O

0

_D

pc'

_o

c

c

O

_o

<

NOTES:

Propellant abbreviations used are as follows:

A-50 = Aerozine 50 (50% Monomethyl Hydrazine,

50% Unsymmetrical Dimethyl Hydrazine)

RP-I = Rocket Propellant l (kerosene)

Solid = Solid PropeUant (any type)

LH2 = Liquid Hydrogen

LOX = Liquid Oxygen

MMH = Monomethyl Hydrazine

N,04 = Nitrogen Tetroxide

b. Thrust at vacuum except where indicated at sea level (SL).

c. Thrust per engine. Multiply by number of engines fi_r

thrust per stage.

d. Inclination of 28.5 ° except where indicated.

e. Polar launch from Vandenberg AFB, CA.

f. First successful orbital launch [ditto of initial version].

g. First launch was a failure

h. Diameter dimension represents vehicle wing span.

i. Applies to Delta I1-7925 version only.

j. Two Castor IVA motors ignited at lift-off. Two Castor IVA

motors ignited at approximately 57 seconds into flight.

k. With TE-M-364-4 upper stage.

1. With Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS),

m. With appropriate upper stage.

n. Space Shuttle Solid Rocket l:k_sters fire in parallel with the

Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSME), which are mounted on

the aft end of the Shuttle Orbiter Vehicle and burn fuel, and

oxidizer from the External Tank. The boosters stage first, with

SSME's continuing to fire. The External Tank stages next, just

before the orbiter attains orbit.The Orbiter Maneuvering

Subsystem is then used to maneuver or change the orbit of the

Orbiter Vehicle.

o. 204-kin circular orbit.

p. With Inertial Upper Stage or Transfer Orbit Stage.

NOTE: Data should not be used for detailed NASA mission planning without concurrence of the

Director of Space Transportation System Support Programs.
APPENDIX E-1A 107

Space Activities of the U.S. Government

HISTORICAL BUDGET SUMMARY--BUDGET AUTHORITY

(in millions of real-year dollars)

.-m

m

..<

NASA NASA Total

FY Total Space a DoD Other c DoE DoC Dol USDA NSF DoT EPA d Space

1959 331 261 490 34 34 .................. 785

1960 524 462 561 43 43 ......... 0.1 ...... 1,066

1961 964 926 814 69 68 ......... 1 ...... 1,809

1962 1,825 1,797 1,298 200 148 51 ...... 1 ...... 3,295

1963 3,673 3,626 1,550 259 214 43 ...... 2 ...... 5,435

1964 5,100 5,016 1,599 216 210 3 ...... 3 ...... 6,831

1965 5,250 5,138 1,574 244 229 12 ...... 3 ...... 6,956

1966 5,175 5,065 1,689 217 187 27 ...... 3 ...... 6,971

1967 4,966 4,830 1,664 216 184 29 ...... 3 ...... 6,710

1968 4,587 4,430 1,922 177 145 28 0.2 1 3 ...... 6,529

1969 3,991 3,822 2,013 141 118 20 0.2 l 2 ...... 5,976

1970 3,746 3,547 1,678 115 103 8 1 1 2 ...... 5,340

1971 3,3ll 3,101 1,512 127 95 27 2 l 2 ...... 4,740

1972 3,307 3,071 1,407 97 55 31 6 2 3 ...... 4,575

1973 3,406 3,093 1,623 109 54 40 l0 2 3 ...... 4,825

t974 3,037 2,759 1,766 116 42 60 9 3 2 ...... 4,641

1975 3,229 2,915 1,892 106 30 64 8 2 2 ...... 4,913

1976 3,550 3,225 1,983 tll 23 72 10 4 2 ...... 5,319

TQ* 932 849 460 32 5 22 3 1 1 ...... 1,341

1977 3,818 3,440 2,412 131 22 9l 10 6 2 ...... 5,983

1978 4,060 3,623 2,738 157 34 103 10 8 2 ...... 6,518

1979 4,596 4,030 3,036 177 59 98 10 8 2 ...... 7,243

1980 5,240 4,680 3,848 233 40 93 12 14 74 _ ...... 8,761

1981 5,518 4,992 4,828 233 41 87 12 16 77 ...... 10,053

1982 6,044 5,528 6,679 311 61 145 12 15 78 ...... 12,518

1983 6,875 6,328 9,019 325 39 178 5 20 83 ...... 15,672

1984 7,458 6,858 10,195 392 34 236 3 19 100 ...... 17,445

1985 7,573 6,925 12,768 580 34 423 2 15 106 ...... 20,273

1986 7,807 7,165 14,126 473 35 309 2 23 104 ...... 21,764

1987 10,923 9,809 b 16,287 462 48 278 8 19 108 1 ... 26,558

1988 9,062 8,322 17,679 737 24l 352 14 18 1ll 1 ... 26,738

1989 10,969 10,097 17,906 560 97 301 17 21 116 3 5 28,563

1990 12,324 11,460 15,616 512 79 243 31 25 125 4 5 27,588

1991 14,016 13,046 14,181 697 251 251 29 26 131 4 5 27,924

1992 14,317 13,199 15,023 769 223 327 34 29 145 4 7 28,991

1993 14,310 1_,064 14,106 698 165 324 33 25 139 4 8 27,868

1994 14,570 13,022 13,166 601 74 312 3l 31 140 5 8 26,789

1995 13,854 12,543 10,644 629 60 352 31 32 141 6 7 23,816

1996 13,884 12,569 11,514 707 46 430 35 37 147 6 6 24,790

,D

>

"2

<

m

* Transition Quarter

a. NSF has recalculated its space expenditures since 1980, making them significantly higher than reported in previous years.

b. Includes $2.1 billion fi_r replacement of Space Shuttle Challenger.

c. "Other" column is the total of the non-NASA, non-DoD budget authority figures that appear in succeeding columns. The total is

sometimes different from the sum of the individual figures because of rounding. The "Total Space" column does not include the

"NASA Total" column because it includes budget authority for aeronautics as well as in space.

d. EPA has recalculated its aeronautics and space expenditures since 1989, making them significantly higher than reported m previous

years.

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget
108 APPENDIXE- 1B

c

m

¢D

Space Activities of the U.S. Government

BUDGET AUTHORITY IN MILLIONS OF EQUIVALENT FY 1996 DOLLARS

(adjusted for inflation)

1996 NASA NASA Total

FY Deflator Total Space DoD Other DoE DoC Dol USDA NSF DoT EPA Space

O

©

e_

0_

L_

e_

-o

¢,a

L_

c

O

_D

<

1959 5.1974 1,720 1,357 2,547 177 177 ...

1960 5.0759 2,660 2,345 2,848 219 218 ...

1961 5.0297 4,849 4,657 4,094 347 342 ...

1962 4.9415 9,018 8,880 6,414 988 731 252

1963 4.8563 17,837 17,609 7,527 1,258 1,039 209

1964 4.7861 24,409 24,007 7,653 1,034 1,005 14

1965 4.6828 24,585 24,060 7,371 1,143 1,072 56

1966 4.5462 23,527 23,027 7,679 987 850 123

1967 4.3953 21,827 21,229 7,314 949 809 127

1968 4.2364 19,433 18,767 8,142 751 614 119

1969 4.0338 16,099 15,417 8,120 570 476 81

1970 3.8264 14,334 13,572 6,421 440 394 31

1971 3.6372 12,043 11,279 5,499 462 346 98

1972 3.4568 11,432 10,616 4,864 335 190 107

1973 3.2935 11,218 10,187 5,345 359 178 132

1974 3.0599 9,293 8,442 5,404 355 129 184

1975 2.7833 8,987 8,113 5,266 295 83 178

1976 2.5845 9,175 8,335 5,125 287 59 186

TQ* 2.4949 2,325 2,118 1,148 80 12 55

1977 2.3913 9,1_0 8,226 5,768 313 53 218

1978 2.2231 9,026 8,054 6,087 349 76 229

1979 2.0456 9,401 8,244 6,210 362 121 200

1980 1.8763 9,832 8,781 7,220 437 75 174

1981 1.7031 9,398 8,502 8,222 397 70 148

1982 1.5851 9,580 8,762 10,587 493 97 230

1983 1.5218 10,463 9,630 13,726 495 59 271

1984 1.4577 10,87l 9,997 14,861 571 50 344

1985 1.404l 10,633 9,723 17,927 814 48 594

1986 1.3636 10,645 9,770 19,262 645 48 421

1987 1.3243 14,465 12,990 21,569 612 64 368

1988 1.2779 11,581 10,635 22,592 942 308 450

1989 1.2228 13,413 12,347 21,896 685 119 368

1990 1.1725 14,450 13,437 18,309 600 93 285

1991 1.1257 15,778 14,686 15,964 785 283 283

1992 1.09t4 i5,654 14,432 16,426 841 244 358

1993 1.0680 15,283 13,952 15,065 745 176 346

1994 1.0475 15,262 13,640 13,791 630 78 327

1995 1.0200 14,130 12,793 10,856 641 61 359

1996 1.0000 13,884 12,569 ll,514 707 46 430

* Transition Quarter

............... 4,080

...... 0.5 ...... 5,411

...... 5 ...... 9,099

...... 5 ...... 16,282

...... 10 ...... 26,394

...... 14 ...... 32,694

...... 14 ...... 32,574

...... 14 ...... 31,692

...... 13 ...... 29,493

0.8 4 13 ...... 27,661

0.8 4 8 ...... 24,107

4 4 8 ...... 20,433

7 4 7 ...... 17,240

21 7 10 ...... 15,815

33 7 l0 ...... 15,891

28 9 6 ...... 14,201

22 6 6 ...... 13,675

26 10 5 ...... 13,747

7 2 2 ...... 3,346

24 14 5 ...... 14,307

22 18 4 ...... 14,490

20 16 4 ...... 14,816

23 26 139 ...... 16,438

20 27 131 ...... 17,121

19 24 124 ...... 19,842

8 30 126 ...... 23,850

4 28 146 ...... 25,429

3 21 149 ...... 28,465

3 31 142 ...... 29,677

11 25 143 1 ... 35,171

18 23 142 1 ... 34,169

21 26 142 4 6 34,927

36 29 147 5 ¢; 32,346

33 29 147 5 ¢, 31,435

37 32 159 4 8 31,698

35 27 148 4 o 29,763

32 32 147 5 8 28,061

32 33 144 6 7 24,291

35 37 147 6 6 24,790

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget
APPENDIX E-2

Federal Space Activities Budget

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

109

",m

_a

Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays

1994 1995 1996 1994 1995

actual actual est. actual actual

1996

est.

t_

NASA ............................ 13,022 12,543 12,569 12,363 12,593 12,694

Defense ........................... l 3,166 10,644 11,514 10,973 l 1,494 11,353

Energy ............................ 74 60 46 83 70 46 o,

Commerce ......................... 312 352 430 297 330 322

Interior ........................... 31 .31 3 5 31 31 3 5 >

Agriculture ........................ 31 32 37 31 32 137

Transportation ...................... 5 6 6 4 5 6 -.

EPA .............................. 8 7 6 8 7 7 <

NSF .............................. 140 141 147 139 140 143 7.

TOTAL ........................... 26,789 23,816 24,790 23,929 24,702 24,643

m

SOURCE: Office of Management and Budget.
1 1 0 APPENDIX E-3

c

0_

"o

m

Federal Aeronautics Budget

(in millions of dollars by fiscal year)

¢D Federal Agencies Budget Authority Budget Outlays

1994 1995 1996 1994 1995

actual actual est. actual actual

1996

est.

©

0

e-/

"13

c

_a

D

c

0

_D

<

NASA _' . .......................... 1,546 1,310 1,315 1,350 1,153

l)efense _' . ......................... 6,848 7,196 6,792 7,203 7,152

Transportation _ . .................... 2,509 2,212 2,052 2,604 2,870

TOTAl ............................ 10,703 10,718 10,159 11,137 11,155

a. Research, Development, Construction of Facilities, Rescarch and Prograu_ Management

b. Research, Devch_pmcnt, Testing, and Evaluatinn of aircraft and related equipment.

c. Federatl Aviation Administration: Research, Engineering, and Development; Facilities, Enginccring, and I')cvclopmcnt

SO[rRCE: Office of Management and Budget.

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APPENDIX F- 1

Office of Science and Technology Policy

National Security Council

March 29, 1996

FACT SHEET

U.S. GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM POLICY

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The President has approved a comprehensive national policy on the future management and use of the U.S. Global

Positioning System (GPS) and related U.S. Government augmentations.

Background

The Global Positioning System (GPS) was designed as a dual-use system with the primary purpose of enhancing the

effectiveness of U.S. and allied military forces. GPS provides a substantial military advantage and is now being integrated into virtually every facet of our military operations. GPS is also rapidly becoming an integral component of the

emerging Global Information Infrastructure, with applications ranging from mapping and surveying to international

air traffic management and global change research. The growing demand from military, civil, commercial, and scientific users has generated a U.S. commercial GPS equipment and service industry that leads the world. Augmentations

to enhance basic GPS services could further expand these civil and commercial markets.

The basic GPS is defined as the constellation of satellites, the navigation payloads which produce the GPS signals,

ground stations, data links, and associated command and control facilities which are operated and maintained by the

Department of Defense; the Standard Positioning Service (SPS) as the civil and commercial service provided by the

basic GPS; and augmentations as those systems based on the GPS that provide real-time accuracy greater than the SPS.

This policy presents a strategic vision for the future management and use of GPS, addressing a broad range of military, civil, commercial, and scientific interests, both national and international.

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Policy Goals

In the management and use of GPS, we seek to support and enhance our economic competitiveness and productivity while protecting U.S. national security and foreign policy interests. Our goals are to:

Strengthen and maintain our national security.

Encourage acceptance and integration of GPS into peaceful civil, commercial, and scientific applications worldwide.

Encourage private sector investment in and use of U.S. GPS technologies and services.

Promote safety and efficiency in transportation and other fields.

[21 Promote international cooperation in using GPS for peaceful purposes.

Advance U.S. scientific and technical capabilities.
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Policy Guidelines

We will operate and manage GPS in accordance with the following guidelines:

J We will continue to provide the GPS Standard Positioning Service fi_r peaceful civil, commercial, and scientific

use on a continuous, worldwide basis, free of direct user fees.

LI It is our intention to discontinue the use of GPS Selective Availability (SA) within a decade in a manner that

allows adequate time and resources for our military fi_rces to prepare fully fi_r operations without SA. To support

such a decision, affected departments and agencies will submit recommendations m accordance with the reportmg requirements outlined in this policy.

The GPS and U.S. Govermnent augmentations will remain responsive to the National C_mmand Amhorities.

:..i We will cooperate with other governments and internati_mal organizations to ensure an appropriate balance between

the requirements of international civil, commercial, and scientific users and international security interests.

We will advocate the acceptance of GPS and U.S. Government augmentations as standards for international use.

To the fullest extent feasible, we will purchase commercially available GPS products and services that meet U.S.

Government requirements and will not conduct activities that preclude or deter commercial GPS activities,

except for national security or public safety reasons.

A permanent interagency GPS Executive Board, jointly chaired by the Departments of Defense and

Transportation, will manage the GPS and U.S. Government augmentations. Other departments and agencies will

participate as appropriate. The GPS Executive Board will consult with U.S. Government agencies, U.S. industries, and fi_reign governments inw_lved in navigation and positioning system research, development, operation,

and t.lse.

This policy will be implemented within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President.

Agency Roles and Responsibilities

The Department of Defense will:

[..i Continue to acquire, operate, and maintain the basic GPS.

J Maintain a Standard Positioning Service (as defined in the Federal Radionavigation Plan and the GPS Standard

Positioning Service Signal Specification) that will be available on a continuous, worldwide basis.

_1 Maintain a Precise Positioning Service for use by the U.S. military and other authorized users.

r..i Cooperate with the Director of Central [ntelligence, the Department of State, and other appropriate departments

and agencies to assess the national security implications of the use of GPS, its augmentations, and ahernative

satellite-based positioning and navigation systems.

t..i Develop measures to prevent the hostile use of GPS and its augmentations to ensure that the United States retains

a military advantage without unduly disrupting c_rdegrading civilian uses.

The Department of Transportation will:

J Serve as the lead agency within the U.S. Government fi_r all Federal civil GPS matters.

Develop and implement U.S. Government augmentations to the basic GPS fi_rtransportation applications.

[_ In c_peration with the Departments of Commerce, Defense, and State, take the lead in promoting c_mmercial

applications of GPS technologies and the acceptance of GPS and U.S. Government augmentations as standards

in domestic and international transportation systems.

J In cooperati_m with other departments and agencies, coordinate U.S. Government-provided GPS civil augmenmti_n systems to minimize cost and duplication of eftoft.
The Department of State will:

73 In cooperation with appropriate departments and agencies, consult with foreign governments and other international organizations to assess the feasibility of developing bilateral or muhilateral guidelines on the prmqsion and

use of GPS services.

73 Coordinate the interagency review of instructions to U.S. delegations to bilateral consultations and multilateral

conferences related to the planning, operation, management, and use of GPS and related augmentation systems.

73 Coordinate the interagency review of international agreements with foreign governments and international organizations concerning international use of GPS and related augmentation systems.

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Reporting Requirements

Beginning in 2000, the President will make an annual determination on continued use of GPS Selective Availability.

To support this determination, the Secretary of Defense, in cooperation with the Secretary of Transportation, the

Director of Central Intelligence, and heads of other appropriate departments and agencies, shall provide an assessment and recommendation on continued SA use. This recommendation shall be provided to the President through

the Assistant to the President fi3r National Security Affairs and the Assistant to the President for Science and

Technology.

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114 APPENDIX F-2

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THE WHITE HOUSE

National Science and Technology Council

September 19, 1996

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FACT SHEET

NATIONAL SPACE POLICY

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Introduction

(1) For over three decades, the United States has led the world in the exploration and use of outer space. Our

achievements in space have inspired a generation of Americans and people throughout the world. We will maintain this leadership role by supporting a strong, stable, and balanced national space program that serves our goals

in national security, foreign policy, economic growth, environmental stewardship, and scientific and technical

excellence. Access to and use of space are central for preserving peace and protecting U.S. national security as

well as civil and commercial interests. The United States will pursue greater levels of partnership and cooperation in national and international space activities and work with other nations to ensure the continued

exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes.

(2) The goals of the U.S. space program are to:

(a) Enhance knowledge of the Earth, the solar system, and the universe through human and robotic exploration;

(b) Strengthen and maintain the national security of the United States;

(c) Enhance the economic competitiveness and scientific and technical capabilities of the United States;

(d) Encourage State, local, and private sector investment in, and use of, space technologies;

(e) Promote international cooperation to further U.S. domestic, national security, and foreign policies.

(3) The United States is committed to the exploration and use of outer space by all nations for peaceful purposes

and for the benefit of all humanity. "Peaceful purposes" allow defense and intelligence-related activities in pursuit of national security and other goals. The United States rejects any claims to sovereignty by any nation over

outer space or celestial bodies, or any portion thereof, and rejects any limitations on the fundamental right of

sovereign nations to acquire data from space. The United States considers the space systems of any nation to be

national property with the right of passage through and operations in space without interference. Purposeful

interference with space systems shall be viewed as an infringement on sovereign rights.

(4) The U.S. Government will maintain and coordinate separate national security and civil space systems where differing needs dictate. All actions undertaken by agencies and departments in implementing the national space

policy shall be consistent with U.S. law, regulations, national security requirements, fi_reign policy, international

obligations, and nonproliferation policy.
(5) The Natkmal Science and Technology Council (NSTC) is the principal forum for resolving issues related to

national space policy. As appropriate, the NSTC and NSC will co-chair policy processes. This polio/will be

implemented within the overall resource and policy guidance provided by the President.

Civil Space Guidelines

(1) The National Aeronautics and Space Administration is the lead ageno/fi_r research and development m civil

space activities.

(2) NASA, in coordination with other departments and agencies as appropriate, will focus its research and development efforts in: space science to enhance knowledge of the solar system, the universe, and fundamental natural

and physical sciences; Earth observation to better understand global change and the effect of natural and human

influences on the envmmment; human space fight to conduct scientific, commercial, and exploration activities;

and space technologies and applications to develop new technologies m support of U.S. Government needs and

our economic colnpetitiveness.

(3) To enable these activities, NASA will:

(a) Develop and operate the International Space Station to support activities requiring the unique attributes of

humans in space and establish a permanent human presence in Earth orbit. The International Space Station

will support future decisions on the feasibility and desirability of conducting further human exploration

activities.

(b) Work with the private sector to develop flight demonstrators that will support a decision by the end of the

decade on development of a next-generation reusable launch system.

(c) Continue a strong commitment to space science and Earth science programs. NASA will undertake:

(i) a sustained program to support a robotic presence on the surface of Mars by the year 2000 fl_r the purposes of scientific research, exploration, and technology development;

(ii) a long-term program, using innovative new technologies, to obtain in-situ measurements and sample

returns from the celestial bodies in the solar system;.

(iii) a long-term program to identify and characterize planetary bodies in orbit around other stars;

(iv) a program of long-term observation, research, and analysis of the Earth's land, oceans, atmosphere, and

their interactions, including continual measurements from the Earth Observing System by 1998.

(d) In carrying out these activities, NASA will develop new and innovative space technologies and smaller,

more capable spacecraft to improve the performance and lower the cost of future space missions.

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(4) In the conduct of these research and development programs, NASA will:

(a) Ensure safety on all space flight missions involving the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station.

(b) Emphasize flight programs that reduce mission costs and development times by implementing innovative

procurement practices, validating new technologies and promoting partnerships between government,

industry, and academia.

(c) Acquire spacecraft from the private sector unless, as determined by the NASA Administrator, development

requires the unique technical capabilities of a NASA center.

(d) Make use of relevant private sector remote sensing capabilities, data, and infi_rmation products and establish a demonstration program to purchase data products from the U.S. private sector.

(e) Use competition and peer review to select scientific investigators.

(f) Seek to privatize or commercialize its space communications operations no later than 2005.
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(g) Examine, with DoD, NOAA, and other appropriate Federal agencies, the feasibility of consolidating ground

facilities and data communications systems that cannot otherwise be provided by the private sector.

(5) The Department of Commerce (DoC), through the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

(NOAA), has the lead responsibility for managing Federal space-based civil operational Earth observations necessary to meet civil requirements. In this role, Doe, in coordination with other appropriate agencies, will:

(a) acquire data, conduct research and analyses, and make required predictions about the Earth's environment;

(b) consolidate operational U.S. Government civil requirements for data products, and define and operate Earth

observation systems in support of operational monitoring needs; and

(c) in accordance with current policy and Public Law 102-555, provide for the regulation and licensing of the

operation of private sector remote sensing systems.

(6) The Department of the Interior, through the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), will maintain a national archive

of land remote sensing data and other surface data as appropriate, making such data available to the U.S.

Government and other users.

(7) The Department of Energy will maintain the necessary capability to support civil space missions, including

research on space energy technologies and space radiation effects and safety.

National Security Space Guidelines

(1) The United States will conduct those space activities necessary for national security. These activities will be

overseen by the Secretary of Defense and the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) consistent with their respective responsibilities as set forth in the National Security Act of 1947, as amended, other applicable law, and

Executive Order 12333. Other departments and agencies will assist as appropriate.

(2) Improving our ability to support military operations worldwide, monitor and respond to strategic military threats,

and monitor arms control and nonproliferation agreements and activities are key priorities for national security

space activities. The Secretary of Defense and the DCI shall ensure that defense and intelligence space activities

are closely coordinated and that space architectures are integrated to the maximum extent feasible, and will continue to modernize and improve their respective activities to collect against, and respond to, changing threats,

envmmments, and adversaries.

(3) National security space activities shall contribute to U.S. national security by:

(a) providing support for the United States' inherent right of self-defense and our defense commitments to allies

and friends;

(b) deterring, warning, and, if necessary, defending against enemy attack;

(c) assuring that hostile forces cannot prevent our own use of space;

(d) countering, if necessary, space systems and services used for hostile purposes;

(e) enhancing operations of U.S. and allied forces;

(f) ensuring our ability to conduct military and intelligence space-related activities;

(g) satisfying military and intelligence requirements during peace and crisis as well as through all levels of conflict;

(h) supporting the activities of national policy makers, the intelligence community, the National Command

Authorities, combatant commanders and the military services, other Federal officials, and continuity of

Government operations.
(4) Criticalcapabilities necessary forexecutingspacemissionsmustbeassured. Thisrequirement willbeconsidered and

implemented atallstagesofarchitecture andsystemplanning, development, acquisition, operation, andsupport.

(5) TheDepartment ofEnergy, incoordinationwithDoD,ACDA,andtheIX2Iwillcarryoutresearchonanddevelopment oftechnologies neededtoeffectivelyverifyinternational agreements tocontrolspecial nuclearmaterials

andnuclearweapons.

(6) DefenseSpaceSectorGuidelines:

(a) DoDshallmaintainthecapabilityoexecutethemissionareasofspacesupport, forceenhancement, space

control,andforceapplication.

(b) In accordancewithExecutiveOrdersandapplicabledirectives, DoDshallprotectcriticalspace-related

technologies andmissionaspects.

(c) DoD,aslaunchagentforboththedefenseandintelligencesctors, willmaintainthecapabilityoevolve

andsupportthosespacetransportation systems, infrastructure, andsupportactivitiesnecessary to meet

national securityrequirements. DoDwillbe the lead agency for improvement and evolution of the current

expendable launch vehicle fleet, including appropriate technology development.

(d) DoD will pursue integrated satellite control and continue to enhance the robustness of its satellite control

capability. DoD will coordinate with other departments and agencies, as appropriate, to foster the integration and interoperability of satellite control for all governmental space activities.

(e) The Secretary of Defense will establish DoD's specific requirements for military and national-level intelligence information.

(f) The Secretary of Defense, in concert with the DCI, and for the purpose of supporting operational military

forces, may propose modificatkms or augmentations to intelligence space systems as necessary. DoD may

develop and operate space systems to support military operations in the event that intelligence space systems cannot provide the necessary intelligence support to DoD.

(g) Consistent with treaty obligations, the United States will develop, operate, and maintain space control

capabilities to ensure freedom of action in space and, if directed, deny such freedom of action to adversaries.

These capabilities may also be enhanced by diplomatic, legal, or military measures to preclude an adversary's

hostile use of space systems and services. The United States will maintain and modernize space surveillance

and associated battle management command, control, communications, computers, and intelligence to

effectively detect, track, categorize, monitor, and characterize threats to U.S. and friendly space systems and

contribute to the protection of U.S. military activities.

(h) The United States will pursue a ballistic missile defense program to provide for: enhanced theater missile

defense capability later this decade; a national missile defense deployment readiness program as a hedge

against the emergence of a long-range ballistic missile threat to the United States; and an advanced technology program to provide options for improvements to planned and deployed defenses.

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(7) Intelligence Space Sector Guidelines:

(a) The [)(21 shall ensure that the intelligence space sector provides timely information and data to support foreign, defense, and economic policies, military operations, diplomatic activities, indications and warning,

crisis management, and treaty verification, and that the sector performs research and development related

to these functions.

(b} The DCI shall continue to develop and apply advanced technologies that respond to changes in the threat

environment and support national intelligence priorities.

(c) The DCI shall work closely with the Secretary of Defense to improve the intelligence space sector's ability

to support military operations worldwide.
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(d)

(e)

(f)

{g)

(h)

The nature, the attributable collected information, and the operational details of intelligence space activities will be classified. The DC1 shall establish and implement policies to provide appropriate protection for

such data, including provisions fi_r the &classification and release of such information when the DCI deems

that protection is no longer required.

Collected information that cannot be attributed to space systems will be classified according to its content.

These guidelines do not apply to imagery, products, the protection of which is governed by Executive Order

12951.

Strict security procedures will be maintained to ensure that punic discussion of satellite reconnaissance by

Executive Branch personnel and contractors is consistent with DCI guidance. Executive Branch personnel

and contractors should refrain from acknowledging or releasing information regarding satellite reconnaissance until a security review has been made.

The fi_llowing facts are UNCLASSIFIED:

(i) That the United States conducts satellite photoreconnaissance for peacefill purposes, including intelligence collection and monitoring arms control agreements.

(ii) That satellite photoreconnaissance includes a near real-time capability and is used to provide defenserelated information for indications and warning, and the planning and conduct of military operations.

(iii) That satellite photoreconnaissance is used in the collection of mapping, charting, and geodetic data

and such data is provided to authorized Federal agencies.

(iv) That satellite photoreconnaissance is used to collect mapping, charting, and geodetic data to develop

global geodetic and cartographic materials to support defense and other mapping-related activities.

(v) That satellite photoreconnaissance can be used to collect scientific and environmental data and data

on natural or human-made disasters, and such data can be disseminated to authorized Federal agencies.

(vi) That photoreconnaissance assets can be used to image the United States and its territories and possessions.

(vii) That the United States conducts overhead signals intelligence collection.

(viii) That the United States conducts overhead measurement and signature intelligence collection.

(ix) The existence of the National Reconnaissance Office and the identification and official titles of its

senior officials. All other details, facts, and products of intelligence space activities are subject to

appropriate classification and security controls as determined by the DCI.

(x) Changes to the space intelligence security policy set forth in the national space policy can be authorized only by the President.

Commercial Space Guidelines

(1) The fundamental goal of U.S. commercial space policy is to support and enhance U.S. economic competitiveness in space activities while protecting U.S. national security and foreign policy interests. Expanding U.S.

commercial space actMties will generate economic benefits for the Nation and provide the U.S. Government

with an increasing range of space goods and services.

(2) U.S. Government agencies shall purchase commercially available space goods and services to the fullest extent

feasible and shall not conduct activities with commercial applications that preclude or deter commercial space

activities except for reasons of national security or public safety. A space good or service is "commercially available" if it is currently offered commercially, or if it could be supplied commercially in response to a Government

service procurement request. "Feasible" means that such goods or services meet mission requirements in a costeffective manner.
(3) TheUnitedStateswill pursueitscommercial spaceobjectiveswithoutheuseofdirectFederal subsidies.

Commercial sectorspaceactivitiesshallbesupervised orregulatedonlytotheextentrequiredbylaw,national

security, international obligations, andpublicsafety'.

(4) To stimulate private sector investment, ownership, and operation of space assets, the U.S. Government will facilitate stable and predictable U.S. commercial sector access to appropriate U.S. Government space-related

hardware, facilities, and data. The U.S. Government reserves the right to use such hardware, facilities, and data

on a priority basis to meet national security and critical cM1 sector requirements. Government space sectors shall:

(a) Enter into appropriate cooperative agreements to encot, rage and advance private sectc_r basic research,

development, and operations while protecting the commercial value of the intellectual property developed.

(b) Identify, and propose appropriate amendments to or the elimination of, applicable portions of U.S. laws and

regulations that unnecessarily impede commercial space sector actMties.

(c) Consistent with national security, provide fi}r the timely transfer of Government-developed space technology to the private sector in such a manner as to protect its commercial value, including retention of

technical data rights by the private sector.

(d) To the extent feasible, pursue innovative methods for procurement of space products and services.

(5) Free and fair trade in commercial space launch services is a goal of the United States. In support of this goal, the

United States will implement, at the expiration of current space launch agreements, a strategy for transitioning

from negotiated trade in launch services toward a trade environment characterized by the free and open interaction of market economies. The U.S. Trade Representative, in coordination with the Office of Science and

Technology Policy and the National Economic Council, will develop a strategy to guide this implementation.

(6) Consistent with Executive Order 12046 and applicable statutes, U.S. Government agencies and departments will

ensure that U.S. Government telecommunications policies support a competitive international environment fi}r

space-based telecommunications.

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Intersector Guidelines

The following paragraphs identify priority intersector guidance to support major U.S. space policy objectives.

(1) International Cooperation

The United States will pursue and conduct international cooperative space-related activities that achieve scientific, foreign policy, economic, or national security benefits for the Nation. International agreements related

to space activities shall be subject to normal interagency coordination procedures, consistent with applicable

laws and regulations. U.S. cooperation in international civil space activities will:

(a) Promote equitable cost-sharing and yield benefits to the United States by increasing access to foreign scientific and technological data and expertise and foreign research and development facilities;

(b) Enhance relations with U.S. allies and Russia while supporting initiatives with other states of the fi}rmer

Soviet Union and emerging spacefaring nations;

(c) Support U.S. technology transfer and nonproliferation objectives;

(d) Create new opportunities for U.S. commercial space activities; and

(e) Protect the commercial value of intellectual property developed with Federal support and ensure that technology transfers resulting from cooperation do not under,nine U.S. competitiveness and national security.
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(f) In support of these objectives:

(i) NASA and the Department of State will negotiate changes in the existing legal framework for

International Space Station cooperation to include Russia in the program along with the United States,

Europe, Japan, and Canada; and

(ii) NASA, in coordination with concerned U.S. Government agencies, will explore with foreign space

agencies and international organizations the possible adoption of international standards for the interoperability of civil research spacecraft communication and control facilities.

Space Transportation

(a) Assuring reliable and affordable access to space through U.S. space transportation capabilities is fundamental to achieving national space policy goals. Therefi)re, the United States will:

(i) Balance efforts to modernize existing space transportation capabilities with the need to invest in the

development of improved future capabilities;

{ii) Maintain a strong transportation capability and technology base to meet national needs for space transport of personnel and payloads;

(iii) Promote reduction in the cost of current space transportation systems while improving their reliability,

operability, responsiveness, and safety;

(iv) Foster technology development and demonstration to support a future decision on the development of

next-generation reusable space transportation systems that greatly reduce the cost of access to space;

(v) Encourage, to the fullest extent feasible, the cost-effective use of commercially provided U.S. products

and services that meet mission requirements; and

(vi) Foster the international competitiveness of the U.S. commercial space transportation industry, actively

considering commercial needs and factoring them into decisions on improvements to launch facilities

and vehicles.

(b) The Department of Transportation (DOT) is the lead agency within the Federal Government fi_r regulatory

guidance pertaining to commercial space transportation activities, as set forth in 49 U.S.C. 701, et seq., and

Executive Order 12465. The U.S. Government encourages and will facilitate U.S. private sector and State

and local government space launch and recovery activities.

(c) All activities related to space transportation undertaken by U.S. agencies and departments will be consistent with PDD/NSTC-4.

Space-Based Earth Observation

(a) The United States requires a continuing capability fl_r space-based Earth observation to provide infnrmation usefi,l fi_r protecting public health, safety, and national security. Such a capability contributes to

economic growth and stimulates educational, scientific, and technological advancement. The U.S.

Government will:

(i) Continue to develop and operate space-based Earth observing systems, including satellites, instruments,

data management, and dissemination activities;

(ii) C_mtinue research and development of advanced space-based Earth observation technologies to

imprm'e the quality and reduce the costs of Earth observations;

(iii) Support the development of U.S. commercial Earth observation capabilities by:

-- pursuing techm_logy development programs, including partnerships with industry;

-- licensing the operation and, as appropriate, the export of private Earth observation systelns and

teclmologies, consistent with existing policy;

-- providing U.S. Government civil data to commercial firms on a nondiscriminatory basis to fi)ster

the growth of the "value-added" data enhancement industry; and
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-- making use, as appropriate, of relevant private sector capabilities, data, and infi_rmation products

in implementing this policy.

(ix,) Produce and archive ltmg-term enviromnental data sets.

The U.S. Government will continue to use Earth observation systems to collect environmental data and

pwvide all U.S. Government civil envinmmental data and data pr_)ducts consistent with OMB Circular A1_0, applicable statutes and guidelines contained in this directive.

The U. S. Government will seek mutually beneficial cooperation with U,S. commercial and other national

and international Earth observation system developers and operators, to:

(i) define an integrated global observing strategy fi_r civil applications;

(ii) develop U.S. Government civil Earth-observing systems in coordination with other national and international systems to ensure the efficient collection and dissemination of the widest possible set of

environmental measurements;

(iii) obtain Earth observation data from non-U.S, sources, and seek to make such data available to users consistent with OMB Circular A-130, national security requirements, and commercial sector guidance

contained in the national space policy; and

(ix,) support, as appropriate, the public, nondiscriminatory direct readout of data from Federal civil systems.

The U.S. Government space sectors will coordinate and, where feasible, seek to consolidate Earth observation activities to reduce overlaps in development, measurements, infi_rmation processing, and archiving

where cost-effective and consistent with U.S. space goals.

(i) In accordance with PDI')/NSTC-2, DoC/NOAA, Do[), and NASA shall establish a single, converged National Polar-Orbiting Environmental Satellite System to satisfy civil and national security

requirements.

(ii) NASA, DoC/NOAA, DoD, the intelligence community, and DoE shall work together to identify,

develop, demonstrate, and transition advanced technologies to U.S. Earth obserw_tion satellite systems.

(iii) In accordance with PDD/NSTC-_, NASA, DoC/NOAA, and DoI/USGS shall develop and operate an

ong{oin_ program ro measure the Earth_ land surface tCrom space and ensure the continuity of the

Landsat-type data set.

(ix,) Consistent with national security, the U.S. Government space sectors shall continue to identify

national security products and services that can contribute to global change research and civil environmental monitoring, and seek to make technology, products, and services available to civil agencies

for such uses. Both unclassified and, as appropriate, classified data from national security programs will

be provided through escablished mechanisms.

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(4) Nonproliferation, Export Controls, and Technology Transfer

(a) The iVlTCR Guidelines are not designed to impede national space programs or international cooperation in

such programs as long as such programs could not contribute to delivery systems fi_r weapons of mass destruction. Consistent with U.S. nonproJif_.'ration poJicy, the United States wiJ{ continue to oppose missiJe

programs of proliferation concern, and will exercise particular restraint in inissile-related cooperation. The

United States will continue to retain a strong presumption of denial against exports of complete space

launch vehicles or other MTCR Category I components.

(b) The United States will maintain its general policy of not supporting the development or acquisition of

space launch vehicle systems m non-MTCR states.

(c) For MTCR countries, we will not encourage new space launch vehicle programs which raise questions from

a proliferation and economic standpoint. The United States witl, however, consider exports of MTCRcontrolled items to MTCR countries. Additional safeguard measures could also be considered fi_r such

exports, where appropriate. Any exports would remain subject to the nontransfi.'r provisions of the INF and

START treaties.
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(d) The United States will work to stem the flow of advanced space technology to unauthorized destinations.

Executive departments and agencies will be fully responsible for protecting against adverse technology transfer in the conduct of their programs.

(e) In entering into space-related technology development and transfer agreements with other countries,

Executive departments and agencies will take into consideration whether such countries practice and

encourage free and fair trade in commercial space activities.

(5)

(6)

(7}

Arms Control

The United States will consider and, as appropriate, formulate policy positions on arms control and related measures governing activities in space, and will conclude agreements on such measures only if they are equitable and

effectively verifiable and enhance the security of the United States and our allies. The Arms Control and

Disarmament Agency (ACDA) is the principal agency within the Federal Government for arms control matters.

ACDA, in coordination with DoD, the DC1, State, DoE, and other appropriate Federal agencies, will identify

arms control issues and opportunities related to space activities and examine concepts for measures that support

national security objectives.

Space Nuclear Power

The Department of Energy will maintain the necessary capability to support space missions which may require

the use of space nuclear power systems. U.S. Government agency proposals for international cooperation involving space nuclear power systems are subject to normal interagency review procedures. Space nuclear reactors will

not be used in Earth orbit without specific approval by the President or his designee. Such requests for approval

will take into account public safety, econotnic considerations, international treaty obligations, and U.S. national

security and foreign policy interests. The Office of Science and Technology Policy, in coordination with the NSC

staff, will examine the existing approval process, including measures to address possible commercial use of space

nuclear systems.

Space Debris

(a) The United States will seek to minimize the creation of space debris. NASA, the intelligence community,

and DoD, in cooperation with the private sector, will develop design guidelines for future Government procurements of spacecraft, launch vehicles, and services. The design and operation of space tests, experiments,

and systems will minimize or reduce accumulation of space debris consistent with mission requirements and

cost-effectiveness.

(b) It is in the interest of the U.S. Government to ensure that space debris minimization practices are applied

by other spacefi_ring nations and international organizations. The U.S. Government will take a leadership

role in international fi_rums to adopt policies and practices aimed at debris minimization and will cooperate

internationally in the exchange of information on debris research and the identification of debris mitigation

options.

(8) Government Pricin_

The price charged fi_r the use of U.S. Government facilities, equipment, and services will be based on the following principles:

(a) Prices charged to U.S. private sector and State and local government space activities for the use of U.S.

Government facilities, equipment, and services will be based on costs consistent with Federal guidelines,

applicable statutes, and the commercial guidelines contained within the policy. The U.S. Government will

not seek to recover design and development costs or investments associated with any existing facilities or

new facilities required to meet U.S. Government needs and to which the U.S. Government retains title.
(b) Consistent withmissionrequirements, NASAandDoDwillseektouseconsistent pricingpracticesforfacilities,equipment, andservices.

(c) Tooling,equipment, andresidual hardwareonhandatthecompletionofU.S.Government programswill

bepricedanddisposedofonabasisthatisinthebestoverallinterest oftheUnitedStateswhilenotprecludingordeterringthecontinuingdevelopment oftheU.S.commercial spacesector.

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GLOSSARY

AAS Advanced Automated System (program) (FAA)

ACDA Arms Control and Disarmament Agency

ACE ASOS Controller Equipment

ACO Advanced Concepts Office (NASA)

ACTS Advanced Communications Technology Satellite

ADEOS (Japanese) Advanced Earth Observing Satellite

ADS-B Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast

AGATE Advanced General Aviation Transport Experiment

AGO Automatic Geophysical Observatory

AMOS Air Force Maul Optical Site

anechoic Neither having nor producing an echo angle of

attack. The acute angle of attack between the chord of

an airfoil and its direction of motion relative to the air,

often referred to as "alpha"; when an airfoil's exceeds the

one that provides maximum lift, it goes into a stall,

losing air speed and, potentially, the capability of the

pilot to control the airplane.

ARC Ames Research ('.enter (NASA)

ARTS Automated Radar Terminal System

ASOS Automated Surface Observing System

ASR-WSP Airport Surveillance Radar-Weather Systems

Processor

AST Associate Administrator for Commercial Space

Transportation (FAA)

ASTP Apollo-Soyuz Test Project

AST/RO Antarctic Submillimeter Telescope and Remote

Observatory (CARA)

astronomical unit A measure for distances in space, equal

to the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun--that is,

93,000,000 miles (149,599,000 kilometers)

ATLAS Atmospheric Laboratory fi_r Applications and

Science

ATM Asynchnmous transfer mode (network)

AT&T American Telephone and Telegraph

ATV Automated Transfer Vehicle

AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer

AVIRIS Airborne Visible and Infrared Imaging Spectrometer

AXAF Advanced X-ray Astrophysics Facility

bioreactor An advanced tissue culturing apparatus

black hole A completely collapsed, massive dead star

whose gravitational field is so powerful that no radiation

can escape from it; because of this property, its existence

must be inferred rather than recorded from radiation

emissions

BMDO Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (fi3rmerly

SD10)

boreal Northern

BOREAS Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study

boundary layer A layer of fluid, close to the surfi_ce of a

body placed in a moving stream, that is distinguishable

from the main airflow by distinctive flow characteristics

of its own caused by friction

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CAMI Civil Aeromedical Institute (FAA)

CAN Cooperative Agreement Notice

canard An aircraft or aircraft configuration having its hori:onta[ stabilizing and control surfi/ces ill front of the

wing or wings

CARA Center fi_r Astrophysical Research in Antarctica

(NSF)

carbon-carbon In one application, an improved form of

disk brakes featuring carbon rotors and carbon stators in

place of the beryllium fimnerly used

Cassini A Saturn orbiter/Titan probe

Category 1 An aircraft approach procedure that provides

for approach to a height above touchdown of no less

than 200 fi:et and with runway visual range of no less

than 1,800 feet

Category II An aircraft approach procedure with a height

no less than 100 feet and visual range no less than 1,200

Dot

Category III An aircraft approach procedure inw_lving no

minimal decision height and three different minimal

visual ranges--at least 700 tcet t_r IliA, 150 feet fi_r lllB,

and no minimum visual range fl}r IIIC

CD-ROM Compact Disk-Read Only Memory

CdZnTe Cadmium zinc telluride

CGRO Cotnpton Gamtna Ray Observatory

ClS Commonwealth of Independent States, a grouping of

independent states fi_rmerLy part of the Soviet Union

cm centimeter

CMB Cosn/ic Microwave Backgrot,nd (Anistrophy)

CMC Centerfi_r Macromolecular Crystallography (NASA)

CNES (.'entre National d'Etudes Spatiales--the French

space agency

COBRA Cosmic Background Radiation Anistrophy

(CARA experiment)

Comsat (_ot1/Inulaications Satellite Corporation

CONAE Acronym fl_r Argentina's space agency

COPUOS Committee on the Peacefid Uses of Outer

Space (United Nations)

corona The outer atmosphere of the Sun, extending about

a milli.n milcs above the sur[_lcc

cosmic rays Not forms of energy, such as x-rays or gamma

rays, but particles of matter

COSPAR Committee on Space Research

Cospas Russian acronym meaning Space System fi_r

Search of Vessels m Distress

CRISTA-SPAS Cryogenic Infrared Spectrometers and

Telescopes for the Annosphere-Shuttle Pallet Satellite

CRRES Combined Release and Radiation Effects Satellite

CSA Canadian Space Agency

cryogenic Very low in temperature

CTAS C'enter-TRACON Automation System

DARA Acronym fi_r the German space agency

DARS Digital Audio Radio Services

dB Decibel

DBS Direct Broadcast Satellite

DCCR Display Channel Complex Rehost (FAA system)

DCI Director of Central Intelligence

DC-X Delta Clipper-Experimental

DC-XA Delta Clipper-Experimental Advanced

DFRC Dryden Flight Research Center (NASA)

DMSP Defi'nse Mete<)rol<)gical Satellite Program--DoD's

polar orbiting weather satellite system

DoC Department of Commerce

DoD Depamnent of Defense

DoE Department of Energy

Dol Department of the Interior

DOLILU Day-of-Launch l-Load Update (system)

Doppler Shift The apparent change in wavelength of the

radiation from a source due to its relative motion in the

line of sight

DoS Depamnent of State

DoT Depamnent of Tmnsp(_rtation

drag The fisrce, produced by friction, that impedes a body's

moti_m through a fluid

DSCS Defense Satellite Communication Syst<'m

DSN Deep Space Network

DSP Defense Support Program

DSR Display System Replacement

EA Environmental assessment

EELV Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle

EHF Extremely High Frequency; between _J0,000 and

_00,000 megacycles per second

electromagnetic spectrum A collective term fi)r all

known radiation, from the shortest-waved gamma rays

through x-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, and infrared

waves, to radio waves at the long-waved end of the spectrum

El Nifio A warm inshore current annually flowing south

ahmg the coast of Ecuador around the end of December

and extending about every 7 to 10 years down the coast

of Peru

ELV Expendable Launch Vehicle

enthalpy The heat content of a system underg, fing change

envelope The operational parameters within which an

aircraft can fly

EOS Earth Observing System--a series of satellites, part of

NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, being designed for

launch at the end of the 1990's to gather data on global

change

EOSAT Earth Observation Satellite Company

EOSDIS LOS Data and Information System

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPCO Earth Polar Cap Observatory (NSF)

EPIC Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center

(EPA)

EROS Earth Resources Observation System (USGS)
ERS European Remote Sensing (satellite)

ERrs Earth Resources Technology Satellite (known as

Landsat)

ESA European Space Agency

ET External Tank

EUMETSAT European Organisation for the Exploitation

of Meteorological Satellites

EVA Extravehicular activity

F Fahrenheit

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FAR Federal Acquisition Regulations

FAST Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer

FBL Fly-by-light (avionics system)

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FGB Functional Cargo Block (for the International Space

Station; acronym is from the Russian term)

fly-by-light The use of Hight signals to connect the pilot's

control devices with the aircraft control surfaces; or the

use of light (fiber optic) control connections with no

mechanical backup linkages and providing the pilot

direct control of aircraft motion rather than control surface position

fly.by-wire The use of electrical signals to connect the

pilot's control devices with the aircraft control surfaces;

or the use of electrical control connections with no

mechanical backup linkages and providing the pilot

direct control of aircraft motion rather than control surface position

FY Fiscal year

G or g A symbol used to denote gravity or its effects, in

particular the acceleration due to gravity; used as a unit

of stress measurement for bodies undergoing acceleration

galactic cosmic rays Cosmic rays with energy levels as

high as tens of billions of electron volts and velocities

approaching the speed of light

Galactic Halo An enigmatic distribution of older stars that

appears key to understanding the formation of our galaxy

gamma rays The shortest of electromagnetic radiations,

emitted by some radioactive substances

GATT General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

GBS Global Broadcast Service

GEO Geosynchronous Earth orbit

Geosat Geodetic and Geophysical Satellite

geostationary Traveling about the Earth's equator at an

altitude of at least 35,000 kilometers and at a speed

matching that of the Earth's rotation, thereby maintaining a constant relation to points on the Earth

geosynchronous geostationary

GII Global Information Infrastructure

GIS Geographic Information System

GLOBE Global Learning and Observations to Benefit the

Environment (program)

GMT Greenwich Mean Time

GOES Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite

GPHS General purpose heat source

GPS Global Positioning System

GPS-MET GPS-Meteorological (experiment)

ground effect The temporary gain in lift during flight at

very low altitudes caused by the compression of the air

between the wings of an airplane and the ground

GSFC Goddard Space Flight Center (NASA)

Hall effect The development of a transverse electric field

in a solid material when it carries an electric current and

is placed in a magnetic field perpendicular to the current

HEDS Human Exploration and Development of Space

heliosphere The region of the Sun's influence, including

the Sun anti the interplanetary medium

high-alpha High angle of attack

high.bypass engine A turbo-engine having a bypass ratio

of more than fnur to one, the bypass ratio being the proportion of air that flows through the engine outside the

inner case to that which flows inside that case

H1V Human immunodeficiency virus

HPCC High Performance Computing and Communications (program)

HSCT High-speed civil transport

HSR High Speed Research (program)

HST Hubble Space Telescope

HT/MT Heavy Terminal/Medium Terminal (program)

hypersonic Faster than Mach 5; filster than "high speed"

hyper-spectral An instrument capability using many very

narrow spectral frequency bands (300 or more), enabling

a satellite-based passive sensor to discriminate specific

features or phenomena on the body being observed (e.g.,

the Earth)

IAE Inflatable Antenna Experiment

IAIPT Interagency Integrated Product Team

ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization

IEOS International Earth Observing System

IITA Information Infrastructure Technology and Applications (component of HPCC)

INMARSAT International Mobile (formerly Maritime)

Satellite Organization

Integrated modular avionics Aircraft-unique avionics

cabinet that replaces multiple black boxes with shared

common equipment and generic software

INSAT Indian Satellite (series)

INTELSAT International Telecommunications Satellite

(Organization)

interferometry The production and measurement of

interference from two or more coherent wave trains

emitted from the same source

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lnternet An international computer network that began

about 1970 as the NSF Net; very slowly it became a collccti_m of more than 40,000 independentb,' managed

computer networks worldwide that have adopted

commtm protocols to permit exchange of electronic

il_|ormation

ionosphere That region of the Earth's atmosphere so

named becausc of the presence of ionized atoms in layers

that reflect radio waves and short-wave transmissions

IORD Integrated Operational Requirements Document

1PT Integrated Product Team

IRS-IB Indian Remote Sensing-lB (satellite)

ISO International Organization fi_r Standardization

lSS International Space Station

ISTP International Solar Terrestrial Physics Program

ITCOP lnteragency tracking, communications, and t_perations panel

ITU International Telecommunications Union; an intergm, erntncntal t,rganization founded in 1865 that bccamc

a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1947

IUS Inertial Upper StaKe

IV&V Independent validation and verification

JACEE Japanese American Cosmic-ray Emulsion Chamber Experiment

JAST J_,int Adwmced Strike Technology (program)

(DoD)

JCIC Joint (..'ompliance al'td [nspectinn (2OnllllissioI't

(START)

JPL Jet Pr,,pulsion Laboratory (NASA)

JSC Johnson Space Center (NASA)

JSMB Joint Space management Board (1)oD-CIA)

K-band Radio frequencies in the 20-gigahcrtz range

Ka-band A radio frequency m the _,0-gigahert" range

KAO Kuiper Airborne Observatory

Kelvin Temperature scale in which absolute zero is 0 ° and

water freezes at 27 _. 16 °

km Kilometer

KSC Kennedy Space Center (NASA)

Ku-band Radio frequencies in the 1 l-12 gigahertz range

Kuiper Airborne Observatory A NASA ('-141 aircraft

equipped with a 0.97-meter telescope

LACE Lmv-powercd Atmosphere Compensation Experitnent (13o13)

laminar Of fluid flow, smooth, as contrasted with tt,rbulent; not characterized by crosstlow of fluid particles

Landsat Land [rem_tc sensing] Satellite; also known as

ERTS, a series of satellites designed to collect information about the Earth's natural resources

l..aRC Langley Research (.'enter (NASA)

laser Light amplified by simulated emission of radiation--

a device that produces an intense beam of light that may

be str.ng enough to vaporize the hardest and most heatresistant materials, first constructed in 1960

LDEF Long-l)urati_m Exposure Facility

LEO L.w-Earth orbit (100 to _,50 nautical miles above the

Earth)

LeRC Lewis Research Center (NASA)

Lidar 1.i,2ht radar

LIDAR Light lntersectitm Direction and Ranging

lift The fi,rcc exerted on an airfifil, such as a wing by a flow

of air over and around it, causing it to rise perpendicularly to the direction of |light

LISS IJnear Imaging Self-Scanning Sensor

LLWAS-NE l._w l.evel Wind Shear Alert System-Network Expansion

LMS Life and Microgravity Spacelab

low-Earth orbit An orbit of the Earth appr.ximately 100

to 350 nautical miles ab_we its surface

LOX Liquid oxygen

LWIR Ltmg-Wavelength Infrared

LWRHU Lightweight radioisotope heater uni_

m Meter

M Math number--a relative number named after Austrian physicist Ernst Math ( 1838-1916) and indicating

speed with respect to that of sound in a given mediuln;

in dry air at 32 degrees Fahrenheit and at sea level, fi_r

example, Math I=approxmultcly 741 mph _r 1,192

kilometers per hour

Mach See M

Magellanic Clouds (Large and Small) Two small, irregular galaxies, the closest neighbors to the Milky Way, that

are visible from the Southern Hemisphere.

Mageilanic Stream A large filament of neutral hydrogen

gas from the Milk,,' Way's radio emission th_t originates

at the Small Magelhmic Cloud and extends dmost onethird of the way around the sky

magnetosphere The region of the Earth's atmosphere

where ionized gas plays an imp_rtant nde in the atmospheric dynamics and where consequently, the

getmmgnetic field also exerts an ilnportant intluence;

_thcr magnetic planets, such as Jupiter, have magnetosphcres that are silnilar m tnany respects to tl_e Earth's

maser Micrmvave Amplification by Simulated Emission of

Radiation--a device introduced in 1953 w_th multiple

applications in physics, chemistry, m_d radio and television ct',mlllUl'_ic at ion

mesopause The layer of the Earth's atmc_sphere with the

lowest temperature, from 50 to 55 miles (80 to 85 kilometers) tip

mesosphere That portion of the Earth's atmosphere

located 34 to 50 miles (55 to 80 kilometers) up, where

temperature decreases with increasing altitude
METEOR Multiple Experiment to Earth Orbit and Return

Mode C transponder A radar beacon receiver/transponder capable of reporting the attitude of the aircraft

aboard which it is installed

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

MSS Multispectral Scanner

MSTI Miniature Sensor Technology Integration (Air

Force program)

MSX Midcourse Space Experiment (BMDO)

MTCR Missile Technology Control Regime

MTPE Mission to Planet Earth--a program developed by

NASA and the world scientific community to provide

scientists with data that will allow them to understand

the planet as a total system and to measure the effects of

the human population on it

NAS National Academy of Sciences

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NASCOM NASA Communications (network)

NASDA National Space Development Agency (of Japan)

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NBS National Biological Service (Dol)

NCAR National Center for Atmospheric Research

NCI National Cancer Institute (NIH)

NEAR Near Earth Asteroid Rendezwms

NEO Near-Earth Object

NESDIS National Environmental Satellite, Data, and

Information Service (NOAA)

neutron star Any of a class of extremely dense, compact

stars thought to be composed primarily of neutrons; set

pulsar

NIH National Institutes of Health

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (DoC); also the designation of that administration's

Sun-synchronous satellites in polar orbit

nominal Functioning as designed

NPSS Numerical Propulsion System Simulation

NRA NASA Research Announcement

NRL Naval Research Laboratory

NSF National Science Foundation

NSORS NOAA Satellite Ocean Remote Sensing (program)

NSPD National Space Policy Directive

NSTC National Science and Technology Council

NTIA National Telecommunications and Infilrmation

Administration (DoC); the Federal Government's radio

spectrum manager, which coordinates the use of LEO

satellite networks, such as those f_r Landsat, Navstar

GPS, the Space Shuttle, and TIROS, with other countries of the world

NTM National Technical Means

NWTC National Wind Tunnel Complex

OA Office of Aerospace (DoC)

OASC Office of Air and Space Commercialization ([')oC)

OAST Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology

(NASA)

ODC Ozone-depleting chemical

ODERACS Orbital l)ebris Radar Calibration Spheres

(payload)

OMB Office of Management and Budget

OMS Operations Management System

on-orbit In orbit

order of magnitude An amount equal to ten times a

given value; thus if some quantity was ten times as great

as another quantity, it would be an order of magnitude

greater; if one hundred times as great, it would be larger

by two _,rders of magnitude

ORFEUS Orbiting and Retrievable Far and Extremc

Ultravi_let Spectrograph

OSS Office of Space Science (NASA)

OSTA Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications

(NASA)

OSTP Office of Science and Technology Policy (White

[louse)

OTD Optical Transient Detector

PAMS-STU Passive Aerodynamically Stabilized Magnetically Damped Satellite/Satellite Test Unit

PAS PanAmSat (acronym for satellites)

Pathfinder A program that fi)cuses on the processing,

reprocessing, maintenance, archiving, and distributitm of

existing Earth science data sets to make them more

useful to researchers; NASA, NOAA, and USGS are

involved m specific Pathfinder efforts

PBW Power-by-wire (avionics system)

PCA Pr_pt,lsion Controlled Aircraft

petrology The science that deals with the origin, history,,

occurrence, structure, and chemical classification of rocks

photogrammetry The science or art of obtaining reliable

measurements by means of photography

piezoelectricity The property exhibited by some asymmetrical crystalline materials that, when subjected to

strain in suitable directions, develop polarization proportional to the strain

pixels Short for "picture elements," which provide image

resolution in vidicon-type detectors display; bright, granular areas in the chromosphere of the Sun

plasma A gas fi)rmed when one or more negatively

charged electrons escape from an atom's positively

charged nucleus, creating an electrically neutral gas composed of positive and negative particles; because it is

ionized, plasma interacts with electric and magnetic

fields; approximately 99 percent of matter in the universe

is thought to be in the plasma state

plasma sheet An extensive area of low-energy, ionized

gases in the tail region of the magnetosphere that undergoes considerable change during magnetospheric storms

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POAM Polar Ozone and Aerosol Measurement

POES Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite

(program)

polar orbit The path of an Earth satellite that passes near

or over the North and South Poles

power-by-wire The use of electrical power, in place of

hydraulics, to move the control surfaces of an aircraft via

electromechanica[ actuators

PPS [_rccise Positioning Service

pulsar A pulsating radio star, which is thought to be a

rapidly spinning neutnm star; the latter is formed when

the core of a violently exploding star called a st, pernova

collapses inward and becomes compressed together; pulsars emit extremely regular pulses of radio waves

quasar A class of rare cosmic objects of extreme luminosity and strong radio emission; many investigators

attribute their high-energy generation to gas spiraling at

high velocity into a massive black hole

RADARSAT Canadian radar satellite

ramjet A jet engine with no mechanical compressor, consistin_ of specially shaped tubes or ducts open at both

ends, the air necessary for combustion being shoved into

the duct and ct_mpressed by the fi)rward motion of the

engine

real.tlme hnmediate, as an event is occurring

red shift Shift of spectral lines toward the red end of the

spectrum, indicating motion away from the observer in

the lines of sight

resolution With reference to satellites, a term meaning

the ability to sense an object; thus, an 80-meter resolution indicates the ability to detect an object of at least 80

meters in diameter

REX Radiation Experiment

Reynolds number A nondimensional parameter representing the ratio of the momentum forces to the viscous

fi,rces about a body in fluid flow, named fi_r English scientist Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912); among other

applications, the ratio is vital to the use of wind tunnels

R_r scale-model testing, as it provides a basis for extrapolating the test data to full-sized test vehicles

RFP Request fi_r Proposals

RLV Reusable Launch Vehicle

RME Relay Mirror Experiment (satellite) (DoD)

RMS Remote Manipulator System--a remotely controlled

arm, developed by Canada and controlled from the

orbiter crew cabin, used for deployment and/or retrieval

of payloads from the orbiter payload bay

ROSAT Roentgen Satellite

RSA Russian Space Agency

RTCA (filrmerly the Radio Technical Commission fi_r

Aeronautics)

RTG Radioisotope thermoelectric generator

RXTE Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer

s second

SA Selective Availability

SABER Situational Awareness Beacon with Reply

(system) (Navy)

SAMPEX Solar, Anomalous, and Magnetospheric Particle Explorer

SAO Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory

SAR Synthetic aperture radar

SAX Satellite per Astronomia a raggi X (Italian/Dutch

celestial X-ray monitoring telescope)

SBS Satellite Business Systems

scramjet Supersonic-combustion ramjet

SDIO Strategic Defense Initiative Organization; see

BMtYO

SIR Shuttle Imaging Radar

SLS Spacelab Life Sciences (payload)

S&MA Safety and Mission Assurance

SMA Surfi_ce Movement Advisor

SOHO Solar and He[iospheric Observatory

solar flare A sudden, intense brightening of a portion of

the Sun's surface, often near a sunspot group; these flares,

enormous eruptions of energy that leap millions of miles

from the Sun's surface, pose a potential radiation hazard

to humans in space

solar maximum The period in the roughly 11-year cycle

of solar activity when the maximum number of sunspots

is present

solar wind A stream of particles accelerated by the heat of

the solar corona (outer region of the Sun) to velocities

great enough to permit them to escape from the Sun's

gravitational field

SPACEHAB Commercial module for housing Shuttle

experiments

SPARTAN Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool

for Astronomy

SPAS Shuttle Pallet Satellite

SPIREX South Pole Infrared Explorer

SPOT Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre (French

satellite for the observation of the Earth)

SPS Standard Positioning Service

squirter Transmitter for aircraft navigation and traffic

control signals

SR&QA Safety, reliability, and quality assurance

SRB Solid Rocket Booster

SRL Space Radar Laboratory

SRM Solid Rocket Motor

SRM Solid Rocket Motor Upgrade

SSBUV Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (spectrometer)

SSCE Solid Surface Combustion Experiment

SSME Space Shuttle Main Engine

SSTO Single-stage-to-orbit

stall A loss of lift by an aircraft or airfoil resulting from

insufficient air speed or excessive angle of attack
STARS Standard Terminal Automation Replacement

System

START Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty

STEP Space Test Experiments Platfimn

Stirllng engine or generator One in which work is performed by the expansion of gas at high temperature to

which heat is supplied through a wall

STOL Short Takeoff and Landing

STOVL Short Eikeoff and Vertical Landing (aircraft)

stratosphere The atmospheric zone 12 to 31 miles (20 to

50 kilometers) up, exhibiting increased temperature with

increased altitude

STS Space Transportation System

STSC Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (_f

COPUOS)

sunspot A vortex of gas on the surface of the Sun associated with stray local magnetic activity

super high frequency Any frequency between 3,000 and

30,000 megacycles per second

supernova An exceptionally bright nova (a variable star

whose brightness changes suddenly) that exhibits a luminosity ranging from 10 million to 100 million times that

of our Sun

SURFSAT Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship

Satellite

TCE TrichloroethyIene

TDRS Tracking and Data Relay Satellite

TDRSS TDRS System

Telstar AT&T satellite series

teraFLOPS 1012 floating point operations per second

TFE Thermionic Fuel Element

thermionics A field of electronics that uses electrical current passing through a gaseous medium (vacuum tube)

instead of a solid state (semi-conductor), permitting use

in high-temperature and radiation environments in

which other electronic devices fail

thermosphere The atmospheric zone beginning about 5

miles (85 kilometers) up and characterized by a significant rise in temperature with increased altitude

thrust-vectoring system A system on a jet engine to vary

the direction of its exhaust nozzles to change the direction of the thrust

"liPS Tether Physics and Survivability (experiment)

TIROS Television and Infrared Operational Satellite

TM (Landsat) Thematic Mapper (instrument)

TOMS Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer

TOPEX/Poseidon Ocean Topography Experiment

torus A doughnut-shaped figure

TOS Transfer Orbit Stage

TOVS TIROS Operational Vertical Sounder

TRACON Terminal radar control

troposphere That portion of the atmosphere about 7 to 10

miles (11 to 16 kilometers) up where clouds form and

convection is active

TRMM Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission

TSS Tetherd Satellite System

TWA Trans World Airline

UARS Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite

UFO UHF Follow-On

UHF Ultra High Frequency; any frequency between 300

and 3,000 megacycles per second

U.S. United States

USAF

U.S.C.

USDA

USGS

USIA

USML

USMP

USSR

USTR

U.S. Air Force

U.S. Code

U.S. Department of Agriculture

U.S. Geological Survey (Dol)

U.S. Information Agency

U.S. Microgravity Laboratory

U.S. Microgravity Payload

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

U.S. Trade Representative

VAFB Vandenberg Air Force Base

VHF Very High Frequency; any radio frequency between

30 and 300 megacycles per second

viscosity Resistance to flow or change of shape under pressure

VLBA Very Long Baseline Array; a set of 10 radio telescopes in the continental United States, Hawaii, and St.

Croix

VNTSC Vo[pe National Transportation Systems Center

(DoT)

VOA Voice of America

vortices Circular patterns of air created from lift generated

by the wings (or rotor) of an aircraft or helicopter; the

vortices from one aircraft may pose a hazard to fullowing

aircraft

VSCS Voice Switching and Control System

VSRA V/STOL System Research Aircraft

V/STOL Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing

WAAS Wide Area Augmentation System

WCL Water Conservation Laboratory (USDA)

white dwarf Any of a class of faint stars, characterized not

,nly by low luminosity but by masses and radii comparable to that of our Sun

wind shear Variation of wind speed and wind direction

with respect to a horizontal or vertical plane; powerful

but invisible downdrafts called microbursts fi_cus intense

amounts of vertical energy in a narrow funnel that can

force an aircraft to the ground nose first if the aircraft is

caught underneath

WSF Wake Shield Facility

x rays Radiations of very short wavelengths, beyond the

ultraviolet in the spectrum

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