NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

Relevant Technical 

Requirements

Physiological

Effects of Touch

Temperature

OCHMO-TB-009

Rev A

NASA-STD-3001 Volume 1, Rev C

[V1 3004] In-Mission Medical Care

[V1 3009] Palliative Comfort Care 

[V1 3015] Certification of Training Plans for 

Launch/Landing Medical Team

NASA-STD-3001 Volume 2, Rev D

[V2 9102] Skin/Tissue Damage Temperature 

Limits 

[V2 9103] Pain/Non-Disabling Injury Skin 

Temperature Limits

Executive Summary

Exposure to either extreme heat or extreme 

cold, form whole-body exposure or contact 

with hot or cold surfaces, can be dangerous to 

crewmembers. Hot or cold surfaces are safety 

hazards due to the risk of touch exposure 

causing performance decrements and an 

inability to handle an object and/or numbness, 

ultimately leading to damage and illness 

(infection) of the skin/tissue. The sensation of 

the temperature of an object depends on the 

type of material that is touched and in some 

cases on the perception of injury by the 

human. An analysis utilizing test data can be 

preformed to determine the lag between the 

object temperature and skin temperature, 

which is one of the controls for both critical 

and catastrophic hazards related to touch 

temperature.

NASA Crewmember Serena Auñón-Chancellor conducting 

research inside the Microgravity Science Glovebox
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Background

For spaceflight applications, it is important to protect humans from unintended extreme temperatures 

that may cause performance decrements and/or injury. NASA utilizes the following terminology:

2

Pain/Non-Disabling Injury Skin Temperature Limits 

Defined as any condition which may cause pain and performance decrements. For these ranges (hot 

and cold) incidental contact (1 second) is allowed. For prolonged duration contact, testing and/or 

analysis is required to determine tolerance & performance.

Range for Pain/Non-Disabling Injury/Possibly Resulting in Illness

Pain/Performance Decrements Temperature 

Threshold Limit

High Temperature Range 43°C ≤ Tskin < 49°C

Low Temperature Range 0°C < Tskin ≤ 15°C

Skin Temperature Injury Limits

Defined as any condition that may cause a permanent or temporary disabling injury/illness or fatal 

injury/illness. For touch temperature, this condition is considered when tissue damage may be 

experienced.

Skin Temperature Injury Limits

Tissue Damage Temperature Threshold 

Limit

High Temperature Limit ≥ 49°C 

Low Temperature Limit ≤ 0°C 

Summary Table of Bare Skin Exposure Temperature Ranges/Limits Standards

Nominal

Thresholds

No Controls Required

Unlimited Contact

Sensation/Pain

(Pain/Non-Disabling Injury/Possibly 

Resulting in Illness) 

[V2 9103]

Skin/Tissue Damage

Controls required

[V2 9102]

15°C < Tskin < 43°C

43°C ≤ Tskin< 49°C

or

0°C < Tskin ≤ 15°C

Tskin ≥ 49°C

or

Tskin ≤ 0°C

Note: There is a time lag between the object temperature and the skin temperature. An analysis can 

be performed to determine the time allowed before the skin temperature will exceed 

the acceptable, non-hazardous temperature range of 15°C to 43°C. This can be used as a control. See 

page 9 for calculation methods.

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Degrees of Skin Burns

Background

3

A first-degree burn is 

one that affects only 

the epidermis, the top 

layer of the skin. This is 

the least serious type 

of burn.

A second-degree burn 

is one that involves the 

epidermis and part of 

the dermis layer of 

skin.

A third-degree burn is one that 

destroy the epidermis and the 

dermis. Third-degree burns may 

extend deeper than the dermis 

into the subcutis – the deepest 

layer of skin; consists of collagen 

and fat cells.

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Background

Summary of Bare Skin Exposure Standards Temperature Ranges

4

See reference data on page 5 for details 

on the origin of these values.

[V2 9102] & [V2 9103]

NASA-STD-3001 Volume 2

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Reference Data

Data/evidence to determine the physiological thresholds for touch temperature are derived from the 

following: 

5

Hot temperatures references/research data:

Greene, L.C., et al. (1958) on human tolerance to 

heat pain showed that the pain threshold is 

reached at 43.7°C skin temperature.

Lloyd-Smith, D.L., and Mendelssohn, K. (1948) 

found the pain threshold to be 44.6°C.

Defrin & Peretz (2006) found the pain threshold 

to be between 43-46°C (see graph in 

reference data).

Moritz & Henriques (1946) found damage to 

porcine skin at 49°C.

Cold temperatures references/research data:

Hand dysfunction and the associated safety risk 

during occupational practices in the cold 

increases with decreasing skin temperature. 

Onset of cold pain has been reported to occur 

between 23°C and 14°C during cold contact 

(Havenith et al., 1992).

A marked deterioration in tactile discrimination 

occurs at finger skin temperatures <8°C with 

numbness found in one-third of subjects at 

7°C (Provins & Morton, 1960).

Risk of frostbite occurs at 0°C (Havenith et al. 

1992).

Based on testing, it takes approximately 8 

minutes to achieve 3rd degree burns at 

49°C. One minute was chosen for contact 

time to minimize injury but allow flexibility 

for design applications. From Havenith et al., 

1992

“Overall, the reduction in sensitivity and/or 

manual performance seems to have occurred 

most clearly between 15°C and 20°C, which 

coincided with the sensations of slightly 

painful and uncomfortably cool in the present 

experiment.” From Havenith et al., 1992

Summary of levels chosen for cold touch 

temperatures:

Onset of cold pain (T skin = 15°C)

Onset of numbness (T skin = 7°C)

Onset of skin freezing (T skin = 0°C)

Summary of levels chosen for hot touch 

temperatures:

Onset of hot pain (T skin = 43°C) Reference 

Defrin & Peretz (2006)

Onset of tissue damage (T skin = 49°C) 

Reference Moritz & Henriques (1946)

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Reference Data

Hot Touch Temperatures – Pain Thresholds

6

Time-Surface Temperature Thresholds 

for Thermal Injury of Porcine Skin (left) 

Human testing shows that the 

threshold for pain the hand between 

41°C to 43°C depending on the method 

utilized. 43°C was chosen based on the 

MLI method/data for women and low 

risk of tissue damage based on porcine 

testing. From Moritz & Henriques 

(1946)

Heat-pain threshold (HPT) and warm 

sensation threshold (WST) of males and 

females measured with the method of 

Levels (MLE) (A, C, respectively) and 

method of Limits (MLI) (B, D, 

respectively). The overall effect of sex 

on HPT and WST was not significant, 

although the thresholds of males were 

borderline higher than those of 

females; HPT, in the forearm and hand 

(+P = 0.0829 and +P = 0.0566) (A, B) 

and WST, in the chest, hand, and foot 

(^P = 0.087, ^P = 0.0798, ^P = 0.0793) 

(C, D). Bars denote group mean 6 SE. 

From Defrin & Peretz(2006) 

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Reference Data

Hot Touch Temperatures – Pain & Tissue Damage Thresholds

7

Time-Surface Temperature Thresholds for Thermal Injury of Porcine Skin

Based on porcine testing, onset of significant tissue damage (complete 

epidermal necrosis) occurs at 49°C. From Moritz & Henriques (1946)

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Application

• For items with exposed surface temperature that are outside the standard limit due to item 

functionality, bare skin contact shall be prevented through the use of controls.

• This applies to items that are intentionally designed to be outside of the acceptable, nonhazardous temperature range of 15°C to 43°C due to the purpose of the item. This includes 

items that are specifically designed to function as freezers or heaters.

• Incidental and intentional contact with exposed surfaces should be prevented through failure 

tolerance or design for minimal risk (DFMR).

• DFMR is a hazard reduction process where if an identified hazard cannot be eliminated, the 

design is modified to reduce the risk to an acceptable level. High reliability vs. redundancy is 

considered as part of this process.

• Controls that may be utilized to protect crew.

• Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) – High reliability/quality barriers

• Hands and fingers are the most likely body parts of the body to be used for grasping 

and manipulation of objects.

• When utilizing gloves, not only the hands but the arms should be considered for 

protection, especially when accessing hardware in “deep” freezer and ovens.

• Limit contact time (with margin) – with an item of specific material to ensure that the skin 

will not exceed a temperature limit. See the following pages for techniques/data to determine 

appropriate contact time to ensure that skin temperatures do not exceed the limits in these 

standards.

• Delayed crew access to the object – analysis to determine the time required for the 

object/material to reach non-hazardous Touch Temperature range.

• Another factor to be considered for ease of implementation is to institute a max permissible material 

temperature to be used across the vehicle, as opposed to allowing different control/contact times for 

each hardware that is accessible by the crew.

8

Bare skin Touch Temperature limits depend on contact thermal conductance, which is a function of 

an end item’s material properties, initial temperature, and skin contact time.

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Application

Hot Temperature Calculations

The following information is provided to aid designers in determining the duration of contact allowed 

for different materials before the skin exceeds the temperature limits.

In order to calculate the material thermal inertia, use documented thermophysical property resources. 

The Inverse Thermal Inertia for Commonly Used Materials table provides Inverse thermal Inertia for 

Commonly Used Materials. 

For high (43°C, 49°C) or low (0°C, 15°C) temperatures, use the subsequent figures and tables to 

determine the permissible material temperature (TPM) for the expected time of contact.

9

Inverse Thermal Inertia for Commonly Used Materials

Material

Inverse Thermal Inertia

X = 1

kkρcc (m2 s0.5 K/J)

Aluminum 6061 T-6 5.24x10-5

316 Stainless Steel 1.420x10-4

Glass 6.61x10-4

Teflon(R) 1.430x10-3

Nylon Hook Velcro 1.400x10-2

*The unit of measure for thermal inertia is (m2 s0.5 K/J)*

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Application

Hot Temperature Calculations

Determining Material Temperature and Duration of Contact for 49°C

To determine the maximum permissible material temperature (Tcat) and the allowable time of contact to

ensure the skin temperature does not exceed the limits:

• Use either the equation TTcccccc = kkρcc+ bb and constants from 9.3-7—High Temperature 

Constants: 49°C, and perform the appropriate calculations.

or

• Utilize the calculated and graphed values in Figure 9.3-2—High Tcat for Incidental and Intentional

(Planned) Contact for 49°C.

10

Table 9.3-7—High Temperature Constants: 49°C

High Tcat for Incidental and Intentional (Planned) Contact (49°C)

11/30/2023

Rev A

time (s) a b

1 23,600 68.2

10 24,400 54.3

30 24,400 51.9

60 24,400 51.0

∞ 24,400 49.6

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

110

120

130

140

Permissible Material Temperature 

0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025

Tcat (°C)

1/√ (k ρ c) (m2 s0.5 K/J)

1 sec

10 sec

30 sec

60 sec

infinite

6061-T6 Al

316 SS

glass

Teflon
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Application

Hot Temperature Calculations

Determining Material Temperature and Duration of Contact for 43°C

To determine the maximum permissible material temperature (TPM) and the allowable time of contact

to ensure the skin temperature does not exceed the limits:

• Use either the equation TTPPPP = kkρcc+ bb and constants from Table 9.3-8—High Temperature 

Constants: 43°C, and perform the appropriate calculations. 

or

• Utilize the calculated and graphed values in Figure 9.3-3—High TPM for Incidental and Intentional

(Planned) Contact for 43°C.

11

Table 9.3-8—High Temperature Constants: 43°C

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025

Permissible Material Temperature TPM

(°C)

1/√ (k ρ c) (m2 s0.5 K/J)

1 sec

10 sec

30 sec

60 sec

infinite

6061-T6 Al

316 SS

glass

Teflon

Figure 9.3-3—High TPM for Incidental and Intentional (Planned) Contact (43°C)

11/30/2023

Rev A

time (s) a b

1 15,500 55.2

10 15,500 46.4

30 15,500 44.8

60 15,500 44.3

∞ 15,500 43.4
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Application

Cold Temperature Calculations

Determining Material Temperature and Duration of Contact for 15°C

To determine the maximum permissible material temperature (TPM) and the allowable time of contact

to ensure the skin temperature does not exceed the limits:

• Use either the equation TTPPPP = kkρcc+ bb and constants from Table 9.3-9—Low Temperature 

Constants: 15°C, and perform the appropriate calculations. 

or

• Utilize the calculated and graphed values in Figure 9.3-4—Low TPM for Incidental and Intentional

(Planned) Contact (15°C).

12

Table 9.3-9—Low Temperature Constants: 15°C

Figure 9.3-4—Low TPM for Incidental and Intentional (Planned) Contact (15°C)

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

10

20

-0.0005 0.0005 0.0015 0.0025

Permissible Material Temperature 

TPM (°C)

1/√ (k ρ c) (m2 s0.5 K/J)

1 second

10 seconds

30 seconds

InfiniteTime

6061-T6 Al

316 SS

glass

Teflon

11/30/2023

Rev A

time (s) a b

1s for (kρc)0.5 < 2.324 x 10-4 -48,600 0

1s for (kρc)0.5 ≥ 2.324 x 10-4 -23,800 -5.77

10 -22,700 15

30 -16,400 15

∞ -11,700 15
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Application

Cold Temperature Calculations

Determining Material Temperature and Duration of Contact for 0°C

To determine the maximum permissible material temperature (Tcat) and the allowable time of contact to

ensure the skin temperature does not exceed the limits:

• Use either the equation TTcccccc = kkρcc+ bb and constants from Table 9.3-10—Low Temperature 

Constants: 0°C and perform the appropriate calculations. 

or

• Utilize the calculated and graphed values in Figure 9.3-5—Low Tcat for Incidental and Intentional

(Planned) Contact for 0°C.

13

Table 9.3-10—Low Temperature Constants: 0°C

Figure 9.3-5—Low Tcat for Incidental and Intentional (Planned) Contact (0°C)

11/30/2023

Rev A

time (s) a b

1 -48,600 0

∞ -19,400 0

-120

-110

-100

-90

-80

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

0

0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025

Permissible Material Temperature Tcat 

(°C)

1/(k r c) (m2 s0.5 K/J)

1 second

InfiniteTime

6061-T6 Al

316 SS

glass

Teflon
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Back-Up

14

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

Original  Rev A

• Updated information to be consistent with NASA-STD-3001 

Volume 1 Rev C and Volume 2 Rev D.

Major Changes Between Revisions

15

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

NASA-STD-3001 Volume 1 Revision C

[V1 3004] In-Mission Medical Care All programs shall provide training, in-mission medical capabilities, 

and resources to diagnose and treat potential medical conditions based on epidemiological evidencebased PRA, individual crewmember needs, clinical practice guidelines, flight surgeon expertise, historical 

review, mission parameters, and vehicle-derived limitations. These analyses consider the needs and 

limitations of each specific vehicle and design reference mission (DRM) with particular attention to 

parameters such as mission duration, expected return time to Earth, mission route and destination, 

expected radiation profile, concept of operations, and more. In-mission capabilities (including hardware 

and software), resources (including consumables), and training to enable in-mission medical care, and 

behavioral care, are to include, but are not limited to: (see NASA-STD-3001, Volume 1 Rev C for full 

technical requirement).

[V1 3009] Palliative Comfort Care The program shall provide in-mission palliative comfort care capabilities 

for medical scenarios where onboard medical resources have been exhausted, or a timely return to Earth 

(or another location of higher medical capability) is not feasible, and survival of the crewmember has 

been determined to be impossible. 

[V1 3015] Certification of Training Plans for Launch/Landing Medical Team The organization responsible 

for crewmember health shall certify training plans for internal NASA medical support personnel who work 

launch/landing and concur on training plans for external organizations that have a specific medical 

support training plan in support of a NASA spaceflight program. Training includes, but is not limited to: 

(see NASA-STD-3001, Volume 1 Rev C for full technical requirement).

NASA-STD-3001 Volume 2 Revision D

[V2 9102] Skin/Tissue Damage Temperature Limits Any surface to which the bare skin of the crew is 

exposed shall not cause skin temperature to exceed the injury limits in Table 9.3-4—Skin Temperature 

Injury Limits.

[V2 9103] Pain/Non-Disabling Injury Skin Temperature Limits Any surface to which the bare skin of the 

crew is exposed shall not cause skin temperature to enter the range for pain/injury in Table 9.3-5—Range 

for Pain/Non-Disabling Injury/Possibly Resulting in Illness.

All referenced tables and figures are available in NASA-STD-3001 Volume 2 Revision D.

Referenced Technical Requirements

16

11/30/2023

Rev A
NASA-STD-3001 Technical Brief

OCHMO-TB-009 Physiological Effects of Touch Temperature

NASA Office of the Chief Health & Medical Officer (OCHMO)

This Technical Brief is derived from NASA-STD-3001 and is for reference only.

It does not supersede or waive existing Agency, Program, or Contract requirements.

Reference List

1. NASA Touch Temperature Calculation Tool, May 2020.

2. Human Integration Design Handbook (HIDH), NASA/SP-2010-3407/rev1, 06-05-2014.

3. Eugene Ungar & Kenneth Stroud. New Approach to Defining Human Touch Temperature Standards.

NASA/Johnson Space Center. Available at: 

https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100020960/downloads/20100020960.pdf

4. Defrin, R., Shachal-Shiffer, M., Hadgadg, M., Peretz, C. (2006). Quantitative Somatosensory Testing of 

Warm and Heat-Pain Thresholds: The Effect of Body Region and Testing Method. Clinical Journal of 

Pain, 22(2), pp. 130-136.

5. Greene, L.C., Alden, J.C., and Hardy, J.D. (1958). Adaptation to Pain. Federation Proc. 17: 60.

6. Havenith, G., van de Linde, E.J.G., Heus, R. (1992). Pain, thermal sensation and cooling rates of hands 

while touching cold materials. European Journal of Applied Physiology; 65: 43–51.

7. Moritz, A.R., and Henriques, F.C. (1947). Studies in Thermal Injury II. The Relative Importance of 

Time and Air Surface Temperatures in the Causation of Cutaneous Burns. American Journal of 

Pathology, 23: 695-720.

8. Lloyd-Smith, D.L., and Mendelssohn, K. (1948). Tolerance limits to radiant heat. British Medical 

Journal, p. 975.

9. Provins, K.A., and Morton, R. (1960). Tactile discrimination and skin temperature. Journal of Applied 

Physiology; 15: 155–60.

17

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